\i

1
/ ".\
\.-

1* Desct.ibc sonrc r)f t!lc basic pill:rrs cf I.sierrli-'

of resignation to cod. lslam

A's: ,,rsr/rM,, is rn Arabic wor-,r. ii ,-rcr.i,s the act
has irvc Pillars. Thc first one is lirrarr'

(l) lman : I:nan (flaith) which provides the central piliar that restrains the whole
,r,lu.rr,'., thc lour olher pillaLs in tile four corners are:
(I) Praycr (Salat) ,'
(2) i:astirrg (Sawm)
(3) Charity (ZakaL)
(4) Pilgrirrrage (FIajj)

r""li'T lias tn play

lrec to tinres a duy'
nrav five tinret.? sunrise' beiwggn mid
daY' before sunrit
(2)l'}raycr: A Muslirn
day and altcritoon, in tftc oit.,roon, imtnediately after
sunset arrd betrveen the
tirrrc vrIcn l[c.tr,,,iligltt is ovcl' ailrljt.rst tleiore dawn.

(3) Fasting (sarvm), A lvluslirn l'ias to observe fasiing on:e

for a v;hole month
month of R-ahac13n"'\*
during rhc lu,ar ycar., evcryday fi'oni darvn tiil sunset, the
irhysilally hc does not eat, dr.i'k or srnol<e or have sexual intereourse'
sayi6gs'
Splritualty ire abstains ft'orn ali cvil rhcughls, actions and

(4)Charity (Zri:iat): Charity irrrplies ihat everything that he secms to pcs;ess

a share in it and hs sliouid
,hclongs to Allah and therelore anyone in need has
rvilling!7 anci glaclly help inciivicjuais ancl sciciei.y \'u'l:t'il ihey
iti* !:'i i:i:(li" '4:s
an aniitlai a'"rount iS
;napl<ipd has nevci' bcen free lrotn Sollle kinC Of need,
arld saviitg'
1;r'cscribcd out of ones in-1-orne
.-,
"r"

in Islam'
Tlrvlrid? Dcscribe its inrport:lncc
"* Dcfinc one and
word' to declare somethine as
Tawhiti: Tawlrrd is an Arabic ll l]t:: to none and iicomparable'
;: ;r;;"r of the universe is one'.second ru*hid is oneness' Allah
uniquc. Allah,
This bclier i, .oii.a
.Tawhid' #;;;;itg orir"it*'uilrgiance' To accept and
oriuaaat-unJ
is the only crearor, preserrer,'^;;;h the Greatest declared in
the
ir.;ii;Jrawhid. A;h the heavens
bclicvc in trris-ringi"'entiry
..ri,#: *or. t',"n on. cod berween
holy euran.
*"".ia i.,#^u".n
go'h *o'ld have been destroyed
and thc carth'
berief in Tawhid: Faith in Allah is the most
of the
Irnportancc and i*fluerrce
,.,i"n""T1-11,':;,';ilJili!:;.;:*ia*ll;':"41;,iliIfl l;;:ffi::!?
of proptrets
first asPcct tn
,ir. belief. in'iu*',id. r',. i*rmerable numbers
Islarn or. bor.J-on ial'j tfe l-ast prophet Hazrat
irr. propr-,*i HraztaLAdam 'p'o propagareo
bcginning rigr,t-r"r,r., ibr th. guiiunce of mankinci,
Mu,harnrnad (SM)
who cam.."?t;;;; ,rr.^.rouiirnment of rawhid'
,n.r".rr-r,rrggr.a ?5,
tlic Lcachings o.faw[,a. f;; to this struggle' I{azrat
;;'
r-tazrar tbrairirn (Am)
*?, ;I"il t;;"th:.
ruthless to:'tures
"';"Y* :"^T:::':ifi#:*:'iilil:
Muharnrnad (srn)' cniurcd riu".ry of innu:nerable creattons c
Libcratio, n"ir'if.,.'tr""i, "f
is accePted'
,r',or*rY o!' :nc Allah
man
do not bo'r down before any ot'her
i:elie.ve^in Tawhid and sel{'-
i_iurna, bcings who .n.o*rlg*s serf-consc'ior'isne**s
,aturc o, po,J*r. Tire belief
i, Tawhio
rcs p c c t''" o'' i ii"
i* n' on o'' " ii'1' ;111' 1
*' :[lH ;]"ff H:3 ;?::ll'- filliil
:::fi #:T]i:;'ft ;;G'
''.i:f; are i n s p i red'l o
T^ llTrl:i;; n 3#
: ':"'o;;;
good dccds'

I
 l

3* Definc lhsan and

describc its importancc in Islamic Ethics.
Ilcalization of rnan's rclation to Aii;lr-;;;rprri,r.r'.r;;k;"*n in Arabic as
j.!:on' yh i prophet Muhammao lpeac;i;
:l
"You should worship AIrah as if
; ;ilt;;;i.*.ffi;ililrfi ;;;.;
.19u
do not scc hitn. Itthit is not posibl.
u1. seeing r,im, di i;;;,
you though you
y6utt.
at*aysyJ,
'J" J vE *urt realizeih;i;ll;ir'l;"#;;
rvgrl4'v
"reuLLll

This rcalizatioh.i: t"gufadd h'f'tiie basis of true devotioii.

It signifies thar man has
identificd his wirr *iA rh; *iri C";;;j';;
"r the divin;
brought it; at #;;;;;ffi;
conccrncd, cornpletety in rune with
which'God doesrot like to be sp..ua o, irr. earrh,
;lI'M;; ;il,;;&;j;jj;
::t urt ,*J all his energf to
wipe them off thc surfacerof the earth. Man
comes neaiesci" b-ra ty ;;;;ilift h
this proccss oIidcntification of rnan's wiil with
trr. piJn" *irr.""
Thc rnost cornplete exarnple of the realization is that
of the prophet (peace bi on
lrirn)' Through constant remembruq.r oiattut, it
rougl, rrrun'! roie of God and the
prophct through obedience to the commandments
ori,rrur, ;";'Hi;;#;?;#;
bc on hirn), a'd rhrough consrant struggr; ;;;;;"r;;il';nj
roruia evl man

is the basis of.piety. Ti is piety is the source of righteousness

'l:,rcalization
which is rcgarded by,"rslam, as th" oriustlu.ti"r, p.rr* *rr"
I . ..
alnal and ihsan become living symbols "lr" of iruih represents;the.*ro* ,ir?ffiil;;,
cstablishcd by the prophet
,r"ou***n:
6"I.. rpon i-,i*j-ro'r.ronrtruct
it in accord with Dlvine Guidance
u.
' human life and bring

And a to:i9ly whictr realises these values in its collective

Iife would be the
L'tr ruscr
ideal
socicty wlriih Islam wanrs to estabtish f;;; rrrr*.i. *;if#";ffi.t.,s

.1 ,a:r')
 ,',/
, /,r'

human life?
A* Whflt is tlrc Islilmic point of vicw rcgarding thc
He has created everything in the world'
Ans: Wc iravc to bcli.cvc that Allah is one' rife of Jhis earth'
Isram is thc onry trurhful
-in and -.r"i"gzul rerigion for human
trr. assertion that man can reach perfection in the earthly
Isram is cnrphati.
making full u* of utt worldly possibilities of his life'
individual life by
't.'t
.liberarism, in Islam, is to'be found in the conception that mans
Thc basis of trris that man is born
original naturc i, good.'cont'u'y to the christian idea
"rr.ntiolly low and impure and must painfully
sinful, or thc Hinduisrn, that he is originally towards the ultimate goal of
staggcr through a long chain oi"trunln'igtotions
pcrfcction. It is said in Qur'an:
afterwards we reduced him to the
'surcly wc crcatcd rnan in the best structure' and
gf with thc exceptioroi tl,os' who have faith and do good works''
lorvcst low,
rv.e regard it as incongruent
with idea of
In Islarn, wc know nothing of original sin,
Justicc. Cod cioes not *It. the child responsible for the doings of his
Gocl,s
lathcr.
all possibilities of spiritual suecess
E,r,eU Muslirn is his *'rvn redeetnet';.he .bears
the Qura of tl"'t human personality'
and iailur" *ithl"n rri, i,"ur,- it it ;;;; in
v-'1";ich he has striven f,or'"
"Nothirrg sha!! be i"cckcned tc rran i:ui that l
;: S Dcscribc somc of thc charactcristics of Is!arn

Ans: Islaln is a hcavenly religion of truth, peace and happiness. It has wonderful
vitality. It is suitable for all stages of life from birth to death. It h* many
wondcrful Characteristics, In the following some of them are discussed in brief.

(l) Simpticity, Rationalism and practicalism:

Islam is a rcligion without any mythology. its teaching is simple and intelligible. It
is frce froln superstitions and irrational beliefs. The unity of God, the prophethood
of Muharntnad (SM) and the concept of life-after-death are the basic articles of its
Sitn All thc teachings of Islarn and basic beliefs are simple and straightforward.
Thcrc is no hierarchy of priests, no far-fetched abstractionr, no complicated rites
and rituals. Evcrybody may approach the Book of God directly und trunrlate its
dictatcs into practice.

(2) A comptctc way of tife:

Islam is not a relilion that confines its scope to the privatl life of man. It is a
complcte way of life, catering for all the fields of human existence. Islam provicles
guidancc lor all walks of life, individual and social, material and moral, elonomie
and political legal and cultural, national and international. The Ho,.,. qur,an
cnjoins tnan o cnter thc fold of Is lam without any reservation and to foll : w Cod's
guidancc in .,ll flelds of lifc. When we need suggestion \4/e can easily furlow the
ruies and rcgulation of Islam, because Islam is a complete way of life.

(3) Cornplctc Record of Tcaching preserved: .

Thc teachings of Islam have been .presen,ed in their original fcrm and Godls
Guidancc is available without adulteration of arry kind. The
Qur'an:s the revealed
book of God which has been in existence for the Iast fourteen hundred years anci
thc word of Cod is availa-hle in its original fbna. Detailecj accounts of the life of
the prophet of Islarn and his tea.chings are available in their pristine purity. There.
has not been an iota of change in ihis unique historic recard. The sayings and the'
cntirc rccord of the life of the Holy prophet have been handed down to us witi:
unprccedented precision and authenticity, in rvorks of the'I{a..iitir'and the'iSir..:hi.
Even a nutnber of non-Muslim critics admit this eloquent fact.

At iasl. wc can say, Islani is a beautiful rvay of life and it iras marly other different
types of charactcristics like Unity of Matter and Sprit, Universaiity and
I-lutnanisiit, Pct'n'rancncc and Changc ctc. Wc should follor.v Islarn to maintain a
pcrfe ct li fb.

r*
'> 1A)
a:.i!'
 I

6* Discuss thc social responsibilities in Islam'

vaiue system plainly concerninq oY necessity to t'hink clearly

Islam sets up its
worship ij;^;1,,;;;:lv gnjy after we accomplish this' and
about the Deity, and ro
d" *;;;;iJ;' ir.,L sins or crimes which might be
esrablish His pure worship, "ther
men, such as murder' theft' lying'
slander'
fellow
committed against society or our
adultery etc.
are likewise considered to
be
private and.public
In Islarr Good manners in both
wt'ut one might call our Major
u"*"r.i
important. no duty is iverwhelming:
command*.n,. ;;;'; it'ponsibilities are well set forth:

SAY:.Comeclose,Iwilllistwhatyour.Lordhasforbiddenyou:
I. Do not ur,*iutt anything with Himj . - -,^-.+^
II.And(show)kindnesstowardsboth(you0parents.
orpo"tty; v/e shall provide for your
as
lll. Do not kill vour ohildrenbecause
well as for them' ,.._ acts' you may practtct : openly or keep
.,,hir_h
^alo which
IV. Do not *O'i*t tn shocking
secret' (due
kill rvhom God has forbidden except through
v. Do not any person
you with this so that you rnay use
your
proCeSS of) iarv. FIe lras instrul,,ed
to
estate before he comes of age except
vr. [ltll; approach an orphan's

v,. ff;;J;;J speak, be just even though. it concerns

a close relative. ,.
.
,ou
has he in'trutt"a you so that you may bear it
VIII. ItrulfillGod's agreement''itru'
in nrind. .,
especially
care of in an ethical fashion'
Economic life must likewise be taken which has arways red to abuse' The
matters rike usury, hoarding and adulteration,
lawandthestate,mustthusu.uut.tofunctiononabasisofjusticeforeveryone.
prefers
not preach the idealistic doctrine of the other cheek, but instead
Isiarn does we
with ro*pu*lon and an altempi at reconciliation' as
self-delense ternpereci
Ieam in the following Passage:
repa>l (evil) with sonrething
that is
er,il cieed are not alike:
A good decd anc] an
separaied'frlrn you by e,mity will become
horv someone vrho is
finer, and notice
a bosottr friend!

Cnanindivicluallevel,responsibleactionisencouraged:.llsitivebehavii:uris
prefei-rerlOVel'negativeorri*u"t''tivec;oridUCtir'a'sarepromised:)Anyoilewho i'iith
,ritr i ur. ten more iike it, ivhile anyone rvlio ccr:;tes
conles witi: ir fir'ie deeci

{;
an cvil dccd will only be rewarded with its like; they will not be harmed.' (al-
Qur'an, ii: Lo i Thus wc are encouraged to be constructive in our ."rJr"i; riitf,
I
our close relativcs first of a{1, with women, chitdren and especially orphani, and
witlr thc compassion. Thus Islam steps forward with clear values-to iuide ur to
rcncwcd social responsibility. :

:
rl

,''i

'.1

,,,

a.--:t
-t .-4,
 -l

?oDiscussthelslamicwayoftreatinganger'loveandhate?
appreciate the manner in rvhich the
Ans. A few iliustrations might heip one into moral qualities' The
converted
eur,an reac6es il; natural
instincts may be
of tf',i, inriin.,, by placing it under the control of reason and judgement'
regulation
coiuer-ts, it into a moral qualitY'
may itseif have several gradations' With
Anger: Regulation of natural instinct
the first gradation is: A person who has
regard to the instinct just meniiontO,
of a penalty upon the wrong doer'
suflfered *ron*'"*.y i..r. th.;;;'ition wrong suffered (2:195)'
However the penalty mustlH. not b;;;t of proportion to the
The next graci"a;;; ;; : *l,o forgives a trespass committed against him'
in the offender, achieves a higher
irrtending thereby to effect. a reform-ation
standard of *"r.f action than
one who insists upon the imposition of a
stiu higher gradation is: The person oppressed
proportionut. p.nuity in all.cases. A fr:rgive the wrongdoer' but he
to take
should not onti;;;il;;hir.drri." '*'*ng''
shouldgofurthe.unaexercisebenevolencetowardthelater.
of love is that preference must be given to a duty
Love: As for the natural instinct
in respect of benefits receive{ in the past or would be received in the future'
owed
I,-,thiscontext,ioveoiparentsaneithedutyorvedtothemstandshigherthanthe
lc ve of children and the duty
owed to them

jrixtaposition to the duty owed

owed to parents in.close
'l-he
Quran has put the duty
of humility out r-iiterrcierness, &ird pi"ay, 'h{y
ro cod. ana tJ*"r.to thein tt * *ini tenderly in *'
tn'iff,tto1;rl
lord, lrave *.;;, ;; tirr*, .r*n urtth".y nourished me
i-{atc: The iraturai instinct opposed
to love is hate' repugnance' or e,rnity' If not
Under proper regulation' it promotes
regulated, it may cause gr.u, damage' i

di[nity, sel f-respect, and righteousness'

,.Ailarr iras endeared faith to you, and rras made it
For instance, the Qur'an says:
in your he.a{s toward disbelief'
attractive to you, and he has pr'rt repugnance wise" (a9:8-9)
disobedience and transgression. attut", it uit knowing'

should not incite one to injustiee, however

For instance, the hostiiity of a people
tkre rrostile peopre. "Let not the irostility
sirong rrigrrr be the resentrnent ieltio*urd justiy alwa-ys: that is llearer to
of a people incite you tc injustice. .Act to iet the heart incline toward
righteousness,, ti,gl while, it'iu forbidden
to tl're
und equ.itably even ivith those opposed
transgresslon, one must o.ut rinaiy
eq''ritable" ({:0:9)
faith, for Allah "Loves those rvho are

:r?
,' bWritc in dctails the social rnoralities of Islam

Ans: In the widcr sense every aspect of hurnan relationship is governed by social
valucs. In his Farewell Address the prophet said: "You are all brothers.and are all
cqual". So Islarn has established a universal brotherhood.

Crcar strcss is laid on thc proper upbringing and training of children. While
strcssing kindness and affection toward children and treating all children tenderly,
Islam does not approve of undue indulgence. The prophet (Pbh) said to his dearest
daughter "Fatima, continue to be dilfuent in righteous acts, for on the Day of
Jud[crrrcnt you will not be asked whose daughter you are, You will only be asked
how you cr:rploycd yourself.'

In the sarnc way thc needy, wayfarer and the orphans must be looked after. There
musl. bc lair cooperation between the neighbours.

Wirh rcgard to servants the prophet had said "They are your brothers and you
should trcat thcrn as such, provide them with kind of food that you eat and the kind
of clothcs that you wear and if you set thern a hard task, join them in it to help
them cornpletc it". The wages of a Iaborer rnust be paid to him 'obefore ihe srveat
dric; upon his body".

--l'hc obligation is laid upon everyone to urge others toward goodness and to seek to
resrra!n ii,.,r, ft'orn evil but with kindness arrd aifection. Spying, backbiting a-ncl
unduc suspicion must be avoided to establish an ideal Islamic society.
 1riii.:11

Self-Criticism It generated among it:

ft,is lait5 was a wonderful source of'moral .training'
qa ju{ce towards oneself'
followcrs an amazing streng*r of'witt, s.tf-criticism
of the self so successfully as a
For, nothing can help to overcome the i4ducements
irri"gHiinln tr',. omniprese.nce 9f God fell into eror' even though
If anyonc cver succumbed to beastly uryes a1dsrraightway before. the prophet
unobservcd hc would make . ,""i.rrr!1ir;1.of
to escape the divine displeasure'
and undc, go tt,. JJ;r;;;rritil;;i;illinglv

deveroped in the ,.:l{rr4us,ms

-:11.
$lJfffl,?it HH,yilf;ffiofthiness the omnipresence of the Absolute God.
narural rruits ;;;';ciirirg belief in
"f other situation wherein-th1r- c9.uld
Evcn whcn alone and unnori6i or-in unv
the fear of God kept the Musli-ms
casily transgrcss thc bonds of ,.lig;"-lo'iu"t'
undcr rigid control.
of Madain' when the
It is relatcd in Tarikh-i-Tabari, that, afte1 the. victorysomething he had come
i"r"rfi*, *;o;"ll;;;ing e? u""ty, "". ,h**trought
?.f valuable that those
upon and dcposiicd it wltn the_tfeaiurer. It was
so
"notmously
sucl' a valuable treasure in their
who saw it **r* *iounded. They had not seen
you you have not held a part of it?"
livcs. Thcy bcgarr to questian , iim, "Are lure,
..By cod" r.r* ,*pti;";;;;-i ,'itr*a I could have-misappropriated the whole lot
withour any of you being the This straight forward reply made a deep
{r;;; they v;er* f*ring an e>riraordinary ryfi.n.
irrrprcssion on ,'rr-* a,nd"they felt that
hl;';;I[t# LJ r"*" uu1 r'.e- declined' "I can't tell vou my
Thcy bcggcd
nan.rc,,, he said, "because you will then start
praising *t, y]l:- all praise is for
with;it*; as.a rewardl When he
Allah. I arn vycll content le'testoqs.
dcparrc.d, *r.y l*ri-u ,run after t,i, to f11d. out who he was. Then it was
discovcrcd that;;;r; A'''ir of the tribe of 'Abd-i-Qais''
 -%

Tlrc Cencalogy of Westcrn Civilization

Wcstcrn Civilization is not of recenl origin. Its roots go back to thousands of
ycars, to arrcicnt Grcccc and Romc. Whatever is real to-day in the Western
tutlook on lilc and ethics can he traced directly to the old Greek and Roman
Civilizations. :

'fhc Wcstcrn nations kept cultivating the spirit, the philosophy, the science, the
litcraturcs and the ideas of the Greek and the Roman Cultures till the igth century
wSen 16cy put on a new garb. It is possible to be deceived by the splendor of the
ncw attir.,trt t[c lact rernains that itswarp and woof was made up of theGreek
and thc Rorrtan tnatcrials

Thc Grcck Civilization was the frrst clear manifestation of the.Western mind. It
was rhc nrrt .iriiiruiian t.a U. built exclusively on the Western intellectual and
cl.hical idcals ancl aspirations.

Greck Civilization
Thc rcal intcllcctual fundamentals of the Creek civilization may be summed up as
fbllows:-
i. Disrcgard of transcendentll truths;
ii. Want of rcligious feeling ,,nd spirituality;
iii. Worship of rnateriol g6m-irils; and
iv. Exaggcrated p6tiiotism.
'

In a word, the Creek civilization was purely materialistic. rThe Greek could not
cvcn conccive of Cod without giving Him physical forms anC shapes, and making
irnages for his Attributes and installing thein in their temples so as to lend a
visi[lc aspcct to their devotions. They had a Bod of sustenance, a god .of
bcncvotcncc, a god of fury, and so on. All the attributes of physical existence
wcrc ascribcd to tltosc gods. , .

Marry Wcstcrn writers liave sirnilarly clrawn attention to the spirituai

incflcctivcncss of the religion and tiie lack oflmoral enthusiasm and dignity in the
rciigious practiccs and leitivals of the Greeks, Lackey, for instance, says, "The
Cr.rk spirit was essentially rationalistic and eclectic; the Egyptian spirit rvas
csscirtiaily rnystical and devotional--- The Egyptian deities', it vras observed.by
pur.licus,' wcr.c chiefly honored by Laraentations, while the Greeks hoirored ti:eir
gods t'ry singirrg and dancing.

Anothcr rlajor characteristic of' the u,esteru spirit is its i-]an'ov/ nationalisn:.
Nationalism is rnuch nlorc intense in Er:rope tha.n in Asia. l'his is due, parlly to
gcograplrical r.casons. in A.sia, tl-ie na.lural regions are exlensivr:, rvit.h r-r vlide
*,,rg" ciplrysical, clinratic and ethnologieal rii.rersities. They are Lii)re f'enik: and'

l,
ll
 -l

been
here' has, thereforc, always
1.
{
witil
cill.l SupPort lil.e greatcr casc. Tlre tcndcncy. extensive Empires were I
I

states.r ir-,. worli's.

most I

towards largc, rnultiiaciar hand segregated from each

E";;t;-:"
I

cstablishcA in U''i' continent ln't'oth"' *a attprivers' The

uuri"*lt',r.L1s^1**n[*theavy and the means oI
i

orhcr by forrnid.ir- rrrr.,rut, on land is

I

0,.u, is dense, the pressure

I

population in tt.,.,. oi a strong national i

io the creatio"-,r"rr
subsistencc factors have
contributed the idea of a
in central and western-'europr.where even
scntirncnt, parlicurarry the boundaries of a city-state
poritical community could no,
,*i"i^il.yona
in thc olden daYs'
says
' ^"- rund their city-states' Lecky
*ina and virtue *u:
il:: "[,;'";*"ffi;:'ry::ff*:r::'i',1ii"e,*
The ."rJopoiitunism of
socrates and
indissolubly connected
with pu,'rio,ir*. Aristotle's svstem of
Anaxagoras r,ad'moa.
,,,r, fi;;ion.rg"n 4"il;fi;;;s' the non-Greeks'
upon differentiation between ti.- ci.rrr and
ethics was bascd (meantng'
;;;";h. had no mofe duties to barbarians that his
According to .Greeks r- fact, *rr.n-l-pr'ilgsgnlrer
declared
wird beas,r. whole people of
forcignerr; tr-,un io'rrr. Statt it[r'ato'the
his own 1niown people'
sympathi., .*,"ni"J1;y"rd u*ong his
Crcccc, hc causcd great astonishil*t

\
l'!
 rt

Iloman Civilization
T5c Crcek had dcveloped a brilliant literature, philosophy and civilization, while
thc Rornans had only just come out of a military stage. In these circumstances, it
was but natural for tle Rornans, when they conquered Greece, to get imbued with
the intcllcct and manners of the Greeks.

..lt is also'cvidcnt that thij'Gtecks'having'had for several.centuries a splendid

litcraturc, at a tinre when the Romans had none, and when the Latin language was
still roo crude for literary purposes, the period in which the Romans first emerged
iio,rl,a pure ly military iondition would bring .with ll un asc.endancy 9f C.*.I
idcas. Irabius pictar ond Cin.ious Alimentus, the earliest native historians'both
wrotc in Crcck. I

'fhc Ropran religion had never been a source of moral enthusiasm. Being wholly
paganism and superstitious, it was altoge-tlyr incapable of checking the progress
oflkcpricism and unbelief among its followers, Consequently.".t t:.Roman
advanccd culturally, they grew openly contemptuous of their faith' This much
rhey had dccided aireudy ttrat their gods had nothing te do with the management
ol'tjrc practicat affairs oithis world.

rd materialism of the Romans was Imperialism and

ililffi1i""':lrl13""1^l5ollkl.,u,ion, ror,"rn,n' *;,;;. rhis, too, has been
inhcritcd in to by modern Europe. According to Muhammad Asadj
*'Durirrg. its closing years the Rornan fmpir.: was transformed into a sea of
corruprron and .Jif. The original military discipline of the Romans a1$ the
,i,r-,pii.ity of thcir ethical code were swept away'by the avalanche of wealth and
luxury. ''

.r
iI .i
 Is 1 2A7 (Nltrltiplc Choice Qucstions)

I ) What is thc basic o[ islarn? r/

a) Sharib b) ktrfi' c) 1'awhid
2) What is tlic attLotryl:'t of oll'awhid?
u{ shrik' b) krrti c' oncncss
3) 'l-ltc tow tttaitr soltt'cs of Islanric teaching are:
,-{qrr,'art & Sitrrtralt b) Sunnair & Wajib c) wajib & Farz
4) Ilorv tttittly 1>illars arc tltct'c in I-slarn?
a)4 b)z *{s
5) Who rvas tltc lbtrnclcr of'Kabah? '
a) Aclarn b) Jcsu t '{Abraltartr
6) What is thc attcictrl lltrrnflc oIMckkah?
a) I3atrct \-6f tlckkah c) Edcn
7) What is tftc arrtor.rpt of lnoncy tftat lllakes zakat obligatory?
t' rtO r5o,sarrcl tk. b) i rnillion tk. c) 10 thousand
tk.

ff What is thc pcrccnjagc of Zakat?

rr) 5% u-VfZ.S"l" c) 10%
9) Whcrr was tltc flrst versc of,Qurgl revcalcd?
a) 570 A.D. b) 6ir0 A.D \4610 A'D'
l0) $rat is thc cxact tt';tttbct'of Surahs?
u.4 ttq b)2lo c)ll5
I l) Who u,us [hc llrstplrsottto collcct tlrc Qulan oftlcially?
rr) Osrrran (lt) V*{Abr't-Bakar (R ) t) Ali(R ) .
- n
l2) Irr rvhich .ou*,y rvas thc Quran pyd for thc first time?
a) Saucii Aratria b) Ttrrkcy t'f Gci'rnany
l3) Wlrcn \vns thc Qtrran p.r'intcd fiYP-
ir) l90l b) I S0l Wttot
l-l) \\/lrlt is tlic ycorld tcacltirtg soIIl'se olQuran?
a7 Qurlrtr|z/1 Iadith c) 1'aliir
l5) \\/hll. isilrc sytlonyrrr of I-Fdith?
a) z\sirr b) Saying '1-izfjLrrrrtah
l6) \\i lrat is thc rttcltttitig o1'Wairi /-"'-
a) Nlcssrgc b) Spccch Lrfindicatiort
l7) Is it possiUlcJo-rrndcrstancl Quran without Fladith?
a) \'cs u-Ufro c) Sonictinles
lEl itcgartling tltc u'caltlt tnan i.s!;t its-
a) Scrvant b) custodiai', foto'ltt
l9) Itt lslartt thc rcal oyner of tl:c wcalth is-
a)'l'hc RasLrl udatlah c) Marr
?.A'; in thc IslarlricEconollly I'iloilolloif is"
a) Ltlricat .p//Thi'bircd c) ''\ilorved
/
2l) wl]at' is thc llalne ol'tltc llrst writt cn layN
of the worlcj civrjization?
a) suiss codc b) Israrnic codc (fiodeof Flammurabi
cocic of Flauirnurabi Usuary was_
72)Y,
W Allorvcd \ b) I:or.bidden c) Discouraged
23) what is thc ,rain conditio, tbr the
acceptance of Ibadat?
a) Wolslrip b) i)r.eservcncc y:.ll_egal
income.
2+) f)c Esscncc of Taqwa is_
L-'afl;ca. of Ailarr b) M.r.y of Ailah c) Lovc
25)'l'lrc csscr.lcc ol.lhsan is_
- -/ -- of -7"-"
Ailah
a) Ircar of Ailarr b) Mcr.cy of
Ailah t{|^or"of AIlah
36) Wlrlr is Lhc nanrc of lait calioh? .
ir) Abclul l-lanrid
-/
b) Ali L{n1aut Majid
27) WIic, was t'c titlc.,Ciip',,abolislied?
a) ie20 b) 1922
$tn+
28) w,at was tirc crrristia, ,arnc
of name of rrlrJrarnmad Asad?
ir) car srcvc'so,s b) Ncir
Tenant t_{l"i"i6;i;:'
29) I'r .cspcct of riationarity Moharyrnad
Asad was a - -
a) Ccr.rrran b) Russian L<fro,lirh
.30)
U<dozz }lbr,
ui b:,i
"
our'r'oprrct ,rigratc to rneciinah?
dicl
c) 625
3l) Wlurt is tlrc ancicnr ir rntc of rlcdinalr?-_

32) v,'l:r> rrir.r'iitccr trrc IrigircsL,ur:rbg:t

of Ariaciitrr?
ir) AIu-uakar. lr) All
33) Wrro rvas trrc adoprcd so,. 4,rr,_l_fr,"li_
of gy'proprret
AIi -r---- (s.r,)
\
a) 6) Osrnan ,{Zuia
34) WIrat ,"vas
a) Uhocl Wr.st holy war in Islartr?
k)-uadr. .; t<ilon.tuq
tt2,:rcr.c rlrc fir.st r,igrr,i".-"f lslar, took
,\_-/a) z\by'.ssy.nia b) yatlrrcb placc?
c) ivladina

Ir
 IS-1207

l. 'flrc r.oots ol"thc \tr'cslern civiiization go back to ancient-

a) Clrina b) E'gYPt c) Grecce

2. Crcck civiiizatioll was purcly-

a)
-llrcocratic b) Materialislic c) Ethical
its narrow-
3. Orrc of'tIc tlajor cIaracLet'istics oltire rvestern spirit is
a) Patriotisrl b) Nationalism c) Liberalism

4. Aristollc's systcrn ol-ctfuics was bas':d on- a)

Differentiation b) Unificatio!

c)arnalqarrrationbetwcentheGreeksandthenon-Crceks.
nlore du"ies to forciggers than to-
5. Accolding Lo Aristollc t[c Creeks had no
e) Ctrcsts b) f icnds c) Wild beasts
wcrc f'arnotrs for tl-rcir Militarf I'itefary Cu'ltiiral
supl'clllacy
(r. J'hc l{on-)iirrs
a ' i) c

7. in thc Itornan l3rnpirc thc crnpcror v/as a symbol

ol':

a) Pcacc b) Jtrstice c) Foi'cc

8. Crlilco rvas Punisircd bY thc

a) King b) Cour"i c) Church

church a) puniqlud b) rewarded c) gb&d the
9. Irr tlic vlccjicval agc the
thirrkcrs and thc scicntists
l0"Ac-cor.clingtoManimankirrc.lslioulclvoluntarilybringitsclf,toalla)
crliqhtrrlcrrt.b) i/r:l-fv c) qrrcl to ovet'cor:rc cvil'
.l-'c a) ArJars b) Tl-ic Inclians c) Tl:glgyldtarrl !'/cle the first to intrloducc
li.
I'acial bars irt Irldia.

lt
 By virtue of inteiligence one is capable to know the truth and discern
betr'veen good and evil. It is by virtue of intelligence human being is distir-rct
fi'om any other animal. So if anyone could make the best use of
it is called a
wise one ancl tht.rs could be pelfect as human being. So there are
rnuf'fassirs
who i,terpreted the word alive in the verse- (36:70) ,,That it may give
admonition to any (who are alive)" as any who are intelligent.

One could increase his intelligence by its proper utilization otherwise

ir
becomes stagnant and useless. Butthe use of intellect
should be devoid of ail
kincls of ill desires. It also increases by virtue of experience and dealiirgs
with real world. That is why the older people of the society are
l-especlecl in
spite of the loss of their intelligence. By this age th:,y become
the source of
man)r eye witnesses and hearing of incidents.

Source of tlie good charactcr:

Erzerything has its source fi'om where it is originated, so the source of good
morality is ones intellect. Allah has made it the. basis of religious activities. It
is also the irirpetr-ts of tlie rvorldly activities. We can see tliere are mally
issues demandeci by the human intellect and hence approveci
by the Shar.ia
too' In this rcgard Prophet Mr-rhamrrracl (sm.) said "There are pillars
tbr
everything ancl pillars of the leligious activities are the
mans inteliect.
Worship of Allah depencls on his intellect. Didn't you hear the wicl<ed
people saying- "Fiad r';e brtt listeneci or usecl or-lr iptelligepce
we shcLrlrJ nor
be alr.rojre the con-ipanicns of the blazing 1trc,,(67:10) By rnar,r,it
t-tor'r'
is
regarded as the best fiieud of a man'uvirereas ignorance as his enemy.
lt is
indeecl the best oi'the gil'ts z\1lah bestora,s on r) pel-sor-].

| *'t
 --t

appreciated a man to the messenger of

Allah'
Anas b. lvlalek reported: "we
said "We are appreciating the way he
he asked us about his intelligence; we

prays and his other innumerable virtues

while you are insisting to know

about his intelligence?" The prophet (sm.) replied "A foolish religious
r'vicked person and a man attains the
person is more harmfui to Islam than a

neamess of Allah according to his

intellectual efficiency"'
the best one"
Prophet (sm') said "'ihe wisest one is

Demerits of the lorYer desire:

The opposite of intelligence is desire. It is the cardinal obstacle towards
is reported to have said "Human
achieving the perfection. Abdullah b. Abbas
then he recited "Did you see the one
desire is a kind of god other than Allah"

ivho took his own vain desire as his god?" (25:23)

regari-l or.rr prophet (siir.) saici "Allegiance

to the desire is a disea:e
In this
while its defiance is the cure." So, rren can attain perfection only after
"And those wrto had
winning over his desire by vifiue of his inteiligence:
status and had restrained
ei]tefiained the fear of standing before their Lords
paradise'" (19140'41)
their soul from lower desires, their abode willbe'rhe

ail the r'vi:ongdoiugs and undergo

One has to suppress his desire to overcorne
rvorld and in the life lter':-
all the harclships to reach the perfection in this
surrounclecl by hardships and the
after as Prophet (r*.) saicl "The paradise is
hell is surrounded bY desires"'

propi-rei (sil.) sairi "Ailatr iras selected Islam as

As t-or tire moral viriues our
r"eligior-t, so honoi' it l'r'itir iloral
vifiues and genelosity because rvithout
1,oi-rr

thesetwothingsyolll.reiigiont.etnainsincotnplete,,.

thc hclrse livel1'end

1ie also saicl "Goocl iaolalitl'attci Gocd neiglfs":ra!'es
ittci'cltsrs rilc 1c;irgci'it!'"
i (
 Wisdom behind the religious obligations and
prohibitions.
As a practical religion no duty is overwhelming in lslam. ln this regard it is said in al-
Quran:
"Allah does not charge a soul except with that within its capacity (2:286). He also
said "And has not placed on you in the religion any diificully" (22'.78). He classified
the obligations into three categories. The first one related to the belief, the second
one related to the practical action and the third one to the abstention. This variation
indeed made them easy and attractive to the human nature.

As for belief it is also classified into two. First one is affirmative and the seconC one
is negative. Human being has to affirm the oneness of Allah, the life hereafter,
prophet hood of all the messengers and the last prophet. He has to negate shirk or
association, need and all the negative attributes. Whenever a person attains the
intellectual maturity he or she must practice this belief.

As for action it is aiso divided into three. The first related to the physical action, such
as prayer and fasting. The second one relaied to their fortune, such as Zakat and
i(affara or expiation. The ihird one related to both: body and wealth, such as Hajj and
struggle to esiablish the justice ad truih.

Abstention is dirride'i inio thr"ee categories as weli. The first one is introduced to
pi'eserve ihe human r,,oul and body. Such as the prohibition of murder and abstaining
from prohibited foor items like the pork and wine. Wine is harmful for the mental
lvellbeing too. \tVhile the seconC one to uphold the social and family integrity. Such
as. anger, injustice and exaggeration. These negative aiiributes indeed cause social
and family hatred. The third one is clevoieci to the preservatlon of the human race
and its dignity. Such as illegal relation of man and wonran and rnarrying own siblings.
lf we think well about the abstention we will find them equally benefiting as the
obligatiotts. Hence we can concludc that all the obiigations and prohibitions are
introduced for ihe very welfare of the human being.
I'low we will try to understand the individual, sociai and international impacis of the
basic four obligations of lslam.

Prayer (Salat)

Prayer is the second of the five foundations of practical religion in lslam. Ali has
placed this physical obligation before fasting and Zakat as this one is easiei' than
fasting lvhole the day and human being has naturai greed to the wealth and ii is
harder to dispense with. Purity should be followed by Salat to stand in front of Allah
lvith the purity Fle do.serves. -[hen it ie folloived by recitations from the holy Quran to
contemplate his instruciions and exhortations,
The lvoi'd prayel has appeared in arl-Quran, on more than hundred occasions, in
ciifferent forms such as salat ,d'ua, and dhikr etc. "And establish regular prayer, foi it
restrains frorn indeceni and unjust deeds"(29:45) The preferable v/ay of its
perfcrniance is in congregation, B,hei"e there is no dis'rinction of ranl< and position.

,1 G
-)- "/
 This is to remind the believers of the fact that all are equal in the sight of Allah; a
classless society.

Fasting (Sawm)

Fasting extends over the whole month of Ramadan. "O ye who believe! Fasting is
prescribe.d for you as it was prescribed for those before you, that ye may ad-opt
taqwa(self restraint)" (2: 1 33)

pue-to this taqwa the one who observes fasting should abandon everything unlavyful.
As Prophet (S.M.) said "Fasting is a shield against sins" (Bukhari and Mirslim) and
m?l i: taught to control his passions and beaiwith fortitude that hardest trial if ii fatts
to his lot.

ln fact,' it is sympathy and help for Allah's creatures. The believer himself
experie.nces the pain of'hunger and thirst, hence begins to realize suffer.ings that
befall the poor. lt.is said that prophet yusuf (A.M,) was asked why he uled to
observe fasting while he held the treasury of the state. He replied "l am, afraid that if
I remain satisfied to the full of my stomach tfren I will forget the hungry ritirunu"

Sawm will also remind the weakness of the self as human being. lndeed he
becomes too weak if refrains from taking food few times consequeniiy. fnu sarne
was argued to those who take lsa (A.M.) as their god: "The Messiah, bon of Mary,
was not but a messenger; other messengers have passed on before him. And his
mother was a supporter of truth. They both used to eat food."(5:75) lt meant that
since they were weak enough like any other human b-ing to be d'ependent on food it
is absurd top take them as gods.
with all its spiritual vatues, fasting
is not devoid of benefits. lt contributes to
the health and vitality prorred by medical scienee.

Zakat (Paor-dwe)
ln its literal sense the word Zal<at means purifica'iicn, whence it is aiso used to
express a portion of property bestowed in alms, as a sanctification of the remainder
to the proprietor. lt is an institution of lslam and founded upon an express comrnand
in the Qur'an (2:77) being one of the five fundamentals of practical religion.

It is a religious duty incumbent upon any person who is free, sane, adult and a
Muslim, provided he be possessed in firll property of such estate or effecis as are
termed iii the language of the law nrsab, and tirat he has been in possession of the
seme fcr the pericd cf one con..:plete year,

"Of their goods take alms (saclaqa), that so thou mighiest purify anci sanctify thenr"(9:

103) are the viords of the Qur'an rryhich point to the significance of Zakat or poor-due.

-l (1
While the other pillars of lslam are meant for the purification
of soul, Zakat stands for

the purification of wealth or earnings of the believer. lt is so important a tax that Abu
"By God I shall fight those
Bakr, the flrst Caliph of lslam, is reported to have said:
who differentiate between prayer and Zakat"'
.. / - ?

The importance of Zakat is such that it should not be treated merely as one of the
five foundations of lslam but must be examined in its relation to its social and
evident from the instructions
economic effects. lt aims at the abolition of poverty as is
"Announce ye to the
of ihe prophet to Mu'adh b. Jabal, the then Governor of Yaman,
people", said the Prophet (peace be upon him) "that God has laid upon thern the
duty to pay sadaqa or obligatory tax to be exacied from the rich to be paid to ihe
poor."(Bukhari and Muslim)

It has to be borne in mind that the word sadaqa is used for Zakat (an obligatory tax)
and also for that which is not obligatory but given voluntarily to help such as the poor
and win the pleasure of God.

/iccordi.r,; to Shah Waliullah, a great ihinker of lslanr, Zakat has been 6i(3i1,'d to
serve twi-r purposes: self-discipline and provision against social destitution, lt r, the
nrost effective insurance rneasure against social misery because a social structirre
cannot be sound unless it rests on a sound economic basis.

Here it may be added that by paying Zakal, a Muslim is not absotrved of his
. responsibility to society. There may be further claims on his possessions and
property to meet the requirements of society and the defense of the State. lslam
Coes not content itself merely v'rith ar,takening the social conscience of man but
empolvers the State to impose taxes upon the well-tcr-do, in case the State is shorl of
funcJs, so that ihe life of all beconres happier and more orderly.

Accordipg to Marghinani, the au'thor of greater book sf sharia:HidaYa, "tax may be

irnposed upon the people by the head of an lslamic state if its sources are not
sufficierrt." Abu Yusuf supports the right io increase or deerease taxes in accordance
with the ability of the people to bear the burden'
 Haji {Pilgrimage)

Hajj literally means 'setting out', 'tending towards'. According to lslam it is the
pilgrimage to Mecca performed in the month of Dhul Hijjah. lt is the fifth foundation of
lslam and an incumbent duty founded upon express injunction in the Qur'an, lt is
indeed an obligation with a global message of brotherhood,

Here is the Qur'anic verse relating to Pilgrimage or Hajj: "For Hajj are the months
well known. lf any one undertakes that duly therein, let there be no obscenity, nor
wickedness, nor wrangling in the Hajj And whatever good ye do, (be sure) God
Knoweth it. And take a provision (with you), but the best of provisions is taqwa or
->z 19
right conduct." C.
D
Here it may be pointed out that taqwa appears again and is used, by the
commentators, in the sense of righteousness and right conduct as well. Hajj, being a
meeting place of Muslims in a large number, is undoubtedly, a trial and test of the
conduet of the believer towarcjs others on an international level.

The social aspect of l-lajj cannot be exaggerated as it affords an opportunity for the
believers to meet together at one place (lr,4ecca, ihe sacred sanctuary of ftiluslims)
and confer with regard to the social welfare of the community. What is notable in
such concourse is the likeness of garments prescritred for pilgrims which gives a
lesscn ci quality of social status among the believers and of an lslamic world or-der.

The most striking feature of Hajj is the spectacle it presents of'social life on a world-
lvide scale, as the Muslims, from all over the world, gather to perform the rites
prescribed by God, for this great occasion. The rites are to be perlorrnecj in all
sincerity and vvith perfect ciiscipline. No indecency is alloured, nor is vrrangling
permitted. Pilgrims musi behave well anci be kind to one another. While Zal<at is to
preach self-sacrifice and provide foi' social security, Hajj teaehes the etiquette of
social life aitd world brotherirood.

&.-t -
 t
,{ -/:;/

Akhlaq
,Akhiaq' is the plural form of Khuluqun. It means behaviour' nature or
The word
both good character and bad character'
character of a person i" grr.tur. Akhlaq means
und thut of bad character is called
The good character is cltl.d Akhlaq-e-Hameedah
guiltless and polished as a lvhole'
Aklaq-e-Zar..*uh. If the nature oi u *un is nice,
good character...The nature or behaviow
then it is called er.rrruo-.-llarneedah or
as rvell as tiked by Ailah and Allah's
which is praised and accepted in eve*o.Lty
piaise-worthy character' As for example'
Rasul (sm.) is called Aklaq-e-Hamegdah or
and--other attributes originated from
Akhlaq-e-Ha*e.dah is characte tized by Taiwa
Keeping decency' Adl (fustice)'
Taqrva like honesty, faithfulness as- a custodian,
refinement etc' In the terminology
helping the helpless'and the distressecl, cleanliness,
proper, decent, beneficial and just
of Islam una ,..orJing io trtu*i. Slariat, the
mutual iigi'tt and duties of men is calied
practice of behavio6 un"a *unners relating to
nature and good character are called
Aklaq-e-Hameedah. A simple a.d beauliful
Akhlaq-e- Harneedah.

Al<irlaq-e- Elarneedah'
force of good character and some other
Here r,ve wiil discuss about Taqr.va, the vital
yily'ues originated from Taqrva'

Ta.q"*va
activilies' self-rectification'
The rvord means feal of Ailah, pert"r"lning religious to Islam'
avoiding wrong d"i;; una f..p onescli', ,rrffio* danger. According

set one can be termed as a person of

Irrespective of one's nation, religion, caste and
uniess orre has I'aqwa in one'S
ggori characier. IJut one caimof poSSeSS reai virtues
as set of gooci qualities based on
islarnic Aklahq or real good char:acter is actually
prophet Muhammacl (sml; icleal and Isla*ric education based on Taqwa'

Irnportancc
all virtues' It is a noble feature of a
In the Islamic way of life, Taqwa is the ori;1in of
person's character. The significance of toqruu
in moulding a good cliaracter is
a everything' see everything and
unlimited, Almighty Allah knou,s every4hing, hears
knorn,s rvhat is goi; on i, on. min<]. a
p.rroi'*ho believes all these and believes that
camot think about or cannot commit
he have to be accountable to hinr for his actions,
any sin. Because he klovrs that he catr cheat
all others but he cannot cheat Allah' The
Ir4r.unin (believer) who cherishes Taqrva
in him, carulot be allured and cannot indulge
the solid forliiications of good
in sins eveu rvhen he is in a solitary place' Taqrva.is
omr.,ipreseuce. Fie cannot comntit any
character. He li,ho cherishes Taqwa feels FIis
sin. T1rereforr. fuq"*1, the basic priiiciples
of leading an ironest life'

canirot be a siiroere and honest person'

On the other hand, a pelson clevoid of Taqu'a
A person can indulge in any
Aii his/her activities ate sllot1' and deceiiful in itattrre'
FIe values l-aqiva tllost' He tu)]t'.,
sin at any \i,eali momeut if he has uo Taqiva.
,ltmougst you r,vho haYe Taq$,* rrrori aie hononred bt'Allhah ntost'' (Sura Ai
ilujLrrai)
,.2.,4

\'-t :.

\;:,I
From this lesson we have iearnt about:
a. The outiine-importance and kinds of Akhlaq'
b. The outiine-importance and the influence of Taqwa'
of Islam and rvill observe
We wiil build our'character according to the teachings
Taqwa in all our activities'

Truthfulness
Truthfulness is one of the virtues originated from Taqwa'
It is one of the greatest
Truthfulness is Sidq' Sidq
virtues that we find in a Muttaqi. The Arabic r.vord for
means exposing unJ .*pr"rsing facts in their realify.
And the person who speaks the
has no existence in reality
truth is called Sadiq. ;JJ r. et;re and tell something which
is called Kazib' The
is cailed lying. The Arabic rvord for lying is Kizb and a liar
Prophet (sm.) said:

virtues and virtues lend

'Be truthful, because Truthfulness leads towards the path of
towards the path of heaven''

Once a man came to the Prophet (sm.) and said steal

'I things'' I lle and indulge in
many other bad activities. It ii not possible on my part
to give up only one bad thing'
replied that it was an essay
The prophet (sm.) ioid him to give up lying and the man
he could not do-any other
task. Afterr,vards it was found that as tre stofpea teiling lies,
to tell lies when asked about
bad things. Because he thought that he woulrr ;iot be able
his activities. And he confessed his 1,: d activities, he rvould begot rid of all
subject to
if
lies, he
punishment and he woulC be ashamed. Thus ry stopping telling
other sins.

Arna'nat.
Ama'nat. means to receive something as a deposit and to keep
it safe'_ Generally, it
one's.life' propefiy'
means keeping valuable things with someon" fot safety. Actually
the things deposited
dignity, honour etc. are all Ama'nat to others' He/she rvho retums
ivith himAer without causing any harm, is known as Amin (or Ama'natdar)'
misappropriation of or
The opposite word for Amalnai i, Khiyunat. Khiyanat lneans
causing harm to the deposited things o-y breaching the trust.
A person who comntits
Khiyanat, is known or misappropriator'
one loves a Khain, and
Xmportancc: An Amin is tiustei and loved by everybody- No
maintianing Ama'tiat
nobody lilies hirn or tnrsts him. Emphasizing the needs for
Allah says.
ti'reir owner ploperly'
-Ancl surely Allah orclains you to retum the deposited things to
(Sura Nisa).

The scope of Aura'ttat is very ivide. Every individual has more

or less sonre
and in tlie international alfairs'
r-esponsibilities in iris ferronai, social ancl national life
are Ama'nats to their
all tirese responsibilities fali iii the category Ama'nat' Children
up their children's.life' The
parents. It is a ru"oJr.^polsibility of tf,e parents to build
students' It is tlieii duty to
furniture ancl oiher assets of the school are Ama'ilats to the
use and lr:ir]taii; these things propeily The v;ealth and riglrts
of the people are
is ihe duty and Aiiia'tt:ri:r
Ama'nais to i5e adi,inistration a*d.,r',pioy.., of the state' it

.i.l
/ -? rj"
 -l

of the head of the state to protect ihe independence of the state to protect the life and
property of its subjects and to fulfill their basic needs.

Ahd or keeping Promise

The word Ahd or keeping promise, an undertaking, a contract, a commitment giving
word to sorneone etc. In Shariat, Ahd means the act of keeping one's words given
eariier,

Importance: Keeping a promise is one of the characteristics of a person r'vho leads

his/her life with Taqwa or with good character. We live in society. In our social life,
we make rvada, make contracts and promises with others. It is our sacred duty to
comply with all these promises. One who keeps his rvord, fuIfills wada is loved by all.
alnighty Ailah also ioves those rvho are true to their i.vords. in this regard A1lah Says:

'O Believers! You keep your promises' (Sura Al Mayida-1). As it is compulsory to

repay our debts, it is aiso compulsory to fulfill our promises or contracts made with
others. For the Mumins or true believers it is a compulsory duty to keep promises; it is
a demand of Iman. About Iman, Hanallv{uhammad (sm') says'

"To a Mumin a promise is like a debt." It must be honoured'

In the courl of Allah it will be enquired u,hether a person has kept his,&er promises.
About the fulfillment of promises. A1lah says:
t our will always keep -your promise, because you rvill be asked aboril these (Sula
: ani Israil-34).
Hllah says about those rvho do noi keep their lvords or rvho breach their promise:

"O Believersl Why do you say such r,vord that you do not keep" (Sura Saff-2)
Breaching of promises is the most heinous offence. About this offence, Prophet
Muharrmad (sm.) says:
"One rvho does not keep hisflier viord has no cieen "Prophet Muharnmad (sm.) and his
close associates or Sahabis (R) used to keep their promises at all costs. Once the
Prophet (srn.) promised to meet a man at place. And had been waiting for three days at
that place to meet hirn in order to keep his prornise.

Adt
'Adf is an Arabic word. It literally means maintaining balance, doing lnsaf or justice
properly, It is like dividing a thing between tu,o claimants in such a way as each gets
fqual siiare. In the islamic-terminology, Adl means giving a person his/her share. The
opposite worclforAdlis Zulm.Zvlmistheactof deprivingapersonof his,&erdue
rhir.. A courl house is cailecl Adalat. because it is the piace where verdicts are
delivered in favour of the real or the reail.v deservirrg lielsons.

Xpportance: Adl is a great virtue. In the scciai life of human beings, the importance
of Aat is unliniited. Ac11 is the basis of mutual relationship, Social ordel aud good
go\/erna-nce. In a society, lvhet'e these is no Adl, there carurot be any pece oI security'
11 a society or a state i,i,hele justice is a.bsent no pea.ce and seculiil'
prevail ihere. fti a
sociely u,heLe justice prevails, no one dai'es to coiutnit aily \Ylol]g' As a result peace
anC oicler pr-evail i1 society. Everyone i,:rii iit,e r",ith his/her rights aud status.
TJ:e;'efcie, Adl is the basis olestabiishing i,-:,ce ill sosietl''
 Characteristics of Islarnic Adl: r, Therr ts no
eflr*l. There
alr are equal'
r,^r^ system ali
irr. qrrun and Sunah. In this -.,oiam
Adl should be based"o| relatives and non-relatives'
father and mother, ,* una daughter'
difference betr.veen
pt"':;;; ;J *t-tk Adl' one should not be
low, wicked and gtttl"; rich and
'in respect Allah says'
,ri.. doing u furourloit l others' In this
suppressed lor the
"f
.YougivejudgmentaccordingtothatwhatAllahhasrevealedtoyouanddonot
(sura Al mayidah-48)'
illwills avoiding the truth that has come to you'
follow their

ladv from the Quraish tribe

Prophet(sm')wasthetrueembodimentofjustice.Tohimtherewasnodifference
,tJ;#;;;l-ill.
between relative .J^;;;;.1rtiu., her hand be cut' Some people
.a

was caught for. srealing. The proph.t (#;J;.r.^J,ir* (sm')

punishment as J.,u*, of a respectable family' Prophet
pleaded to reduce her hand
r.rir* *.r..uug5t for stealing today' her
got angry una ,uio,ii #;;t daughter were destroyed
to Ue .rrtj H" a'iso said "Listen, your previous nations
would also have
for lacking in this Adl'"

Akhlaq-e- Zameemah

Cheating
otfrt"' to breach promises' to adulterate
Introduction: Cheating means l..g*.il to circulate false r^otes of
itl qialities thi;;; ;;i;;odities'
things, to conceai "f ," ;:11;ir;;';i l"l"tt quality as things oi higher
curreri(.y, to give i.rr'i, weight
sharetv. giving ialse promiser
:tc' all
quatirr mixing *J;;l;, to s'poil
"il;';;;
people .h;;th;;not ontyi,ibusiress purpose but also
in
l
these tiots include cheating.
other socio-economic activities'

Importarrceofgivingup.cheating:Inlslamicpoint-ofview,cheatingisthemost
i" fy"g' Cheating is as denounceable
as
heinous act against humanity. tt i, .quirui.*
doing lron3st business
3f ?r:';lH#: :H":"TtT:; this satisraction or Arlah bv (sm') says'
can be .;i.;6 tnis. Abort it the prophet
Honourable place i, r,.ur.,,
in the day of the final
truthful Muslim traders rvill be with the marlyrs
Trustworthy,
judgment.

Geebat lve do scandal

io discuss the far'rlis of others' In absence of one'
we have a tendency o,r." abseuce is ca1led geebat' That
is' to
ling and geebat .r Jr.. r" speak ill ;;;;1n
as he rnay be hurt if he
hears if'
speak such ill other in his absence

Bu-tspeakirrgillofothers,spreadingslatrcler,jealous.vandmaliceetc.arebad
erwironnent of our society'
qualities. rrr.y at'i'y ;;; ;;tt;ful

DonotSpyolbackbiteeaclroilrer.Doesanyolloofyouliketoeatthefleslrofyour
dead brother? No you do not
(Al-I{ujurat-1'2)'

i:i. ':.-!-
 -.t

An envious person cannot tolerate any good

to other peopie. This type of behavior
quite ccntradictory to Islam. The greaiPiophet is
Gm.) says: Good wishes and good
among one another is Deen. A malignani u,ill
p..ro, ul*uy, behaves uguirrt this great
preaching and destroys the main splrliof
tstanr-

Giving warning against the fatal effect of

malice and envy the prophet (sm.) says.
'Beware of envy, Because envy devours
your good deeds as fire devours dry
(Abu Dawood)' From this Haiith timber,
harmful envy and malice is for De.en
of the"Propi.t (r;j
it can be reaiized how much
an_d society.'rne nrophet (sm.)
destructive diseases of your forefathers, also says: The
hatred una .rruy are crawling tou,ards you.
am not talking about shaving hair,
I am talking I
-'- -^--" uuoitt ihe clestrucri"'" yo* D..n
(Ahamad and Tiriirizy). "r
Islam is a peaceful, ciisciplined system
of life. in Isiam, there are unity, fiaternify,
equality, friendship, generosity und
-in tolrrunce. There is no room fo, "iirrurbun.",
disorder and dispute or quanel Islam.
disord..tv ,itrution in tnis disciplined wortd' (Shura
;il: #J.:tea'te At A,raf -52) He

'Do not create disorder in the world,

surely Allah does not r*\v the
vL like Lrrv people
disorder' (Sirura AI PruPrtr who
\ create
Qasas-77).
t/e can realize *om the iollonrrg..smari
(Ayat) of the Hory qui.an
disgracefui quarrer, disp,te and inr,i,iilir.
ur..'erse
amig'rrry'art*h ruyr.
'' t- how
r)isputes and quanels are nr3re disgracefui
than rnui'cler. (shr-ira Al Baqara:-191)

Pride
Definition: Pride means vanity, unjustifiable
high opiniorr of oneself, anogance, and
egotisra' It is such a trait or o'n
un;. characteias iies hidden in his heart which
reflecied in activities. A proud man is
holds himself in a vely high estimation.

Three stages of this trait

i' -ro
nourislt in the ileart a seuse of pride. Such
a man considers himseif
superior to others.
ii. Pride as reflected in a man's attitucres and
activities.
iii. Arrogant behavior in speeches.

Man exhibits his sense of pride in various

l\/ays. For instance, h.e boasts cf his liigii
birth to look do,,r,n upo, orirer.s bom
of ior,v #ilt;;;; s),mbor of pride. A man
also shou's his pride ln firarters ^
like his wealth,
.-*-'^^' beauty, strength
urrvrl5,r ancl rul'll
.lrLt such ulIlUI
other thi,gs.
The HOly QUfan SayS: '

'verii)'He loveth not the an-ogant, (sur.a 16 Nahl; 23). -thehoi;,prophet (srn.) says:
'He in ri'h-ose heart exist a grain of p.ide sha11 not e,ter paradis*, (r4,srirl)^

L.

tL) -!_ (..

 Everyone is subject to some wants or imperfections. Only Allah is omnipotent. So he
alone can justifiabiy take pride.
The Holy prophet (sm.) says. "Allah declared: pride is my omament." (Muslim). we
shall shun pride. The reason is man has no scope to take pride in anything.

Hatred
The origin of hatred is pride, miserliness, enmity, greed for power, etc. It is highly
improper to bear haffed for any man of equal status if the latter attains high position in
respect of wealth or position. None should envy the brilliant result of the class-mate.
In the same way, no one should hate persons who may come of low families, or the
persons who could not get the iight of education because of his own high status in the
society.

Bad effects: The dark sides of hatred are unlimited. It creates a gap between a man
and his friends. It creates a block in the way of peace in the society. It is to be
regarded as a human disease. A man bearing hatred for others never gets mental
peach' Hatred begets hatred and this causes a loss to a man in this world and also in
the life hereafter. Our great Prophet (sm.) says.

'You have inherited two contagious diseases from your previous generation: one is
envy and the other is hatred' (Tinnizi). The prophet (sm.) also says:

Bribe
Definition: Bribe is a thing given, fered or promised to somebody to influence or
s_,

perstiade him to do something for f1.r giver. It is a way rvhich a man r,vants to gain his
orvn interest, sometimes at the cost of orders. Thus bribe signifies an illegal
graiificaliorL.

Accepting soinething as gift in return to making recommendations is also a kind of

bribe- The prophet (sm.) says: If a man recommends the cause of a man for something
and then accepts any'thing as gift fol such recornmendation is also regarded as a bribe.
Gratification of this will mean worse than taking interest. (Kitabul raUaig.

Bad effect: Giving and taking bribe is a social clime. he who gives bribe and he who
accepts it are equally guilty. Their crirne is of the same measure. Allah's curse falls on
those who give and take bribe. The prophet (sm.) says:

Meaning: Allah's curse firlis on both tire giver and receiver of bribe (Ibn Majah).
If an employee accepts anything fi'om the people other than his due share as wages is
also coirsideled illegal. Tire prophet (snr.) says:

\trihen \1re eilgage a man for any work and pay hirn accoicling to tlie terms of
eilpioyment, his acceptance of an1,1fui1g moie than ltis due u,ili be regarded as a
breach of trust (Abu Darvood).

)_) 'l!l 7.€rl,=,.

 M!-9l.11f .!Alv-

l'he close linl<. betr'','ccn iarv arld iciigion

ancl states exactly rvhat a Muslinl

lslaur inclutles llrst ol'al1 a theology which establishes dogrna
,.rust beli*,e. i-urci ii also inclucies tl-re shar (or sharia)
which lays dorvn rules of behaviour for
Lre licvers.
'l'he shar or sharia liter a111' the wair to follow constitutes what can be called Muslinl
larv. It specifies h.rv the Muslirn slrouto conduct himself
in accordance with his religion,
tow'ards others (civil obligatior-rs.
rvithout rnaking ary distinction in principre betrve^en.duties
the law is only applicable tq
ahrs giving) and ih,rr. towards CnO iptoyers, fasting, etc')
deaiings betweeir Muslirns. The religioris principl., upon
which it is based gives way when non
It4uslinis are involvtd.

theocratic society, in which the state

l-he tunclameiital principle of Islam is that of an essentially
sirnply proclairning moral
is onry of varue as the servant of revealed rerigion, Instead of
would have to make their laws
principres or arlicles of dogma to which Musrim comiriunities
and detailed law on the basis
confbnn. Muslim iurists ani theologians have b,irt up a comprete
o1. di'ine rer,erario^. r-he raiv of an ideal socicty
which one day rvill be established in tr u'orld
understood by sorrreone r'vith
entircly sub.iect ro lsramic rcligioLi. Musrim iar,v can onry be really
to u'hich it is so ciosely
a gencr.al i<norvlcclge of Islamic religion ancl the civilization
'riniururn At the ,sarne titne, no stuclent o] Irlu* can at-torcl to ignore Muslini laiv' like
connected.
.lu<liiism, Isiam is c:;sentially a religiolt of the lalv. Islamic
law Writes H'A'R Gibb'."waS the
orclel anrl the community lil'e of the
most far reachi,g a,c1 effectiv. ,rgeit in moulding the social
Muslirn peoples ... thc- nrortil authority of the larv... helcl the soci
r fabiic ot'lslairi compact and
secure through ar fluctuatioi-rs of piiticat f('rrtune". rts
influcn; r has been felt in alntost al
aspects of social ancl ecouomic li1'e as r.vell as in al bianches of litei'atut'e'

The lalvs structttre

.fhe into two major pa'ts' one is the
science o1. Musrim larv, fikh (or fiqh), is generarly divided
methodology or procedure aDcl
roots tite c{octrine ot the sources (usal)^r,vhicliexplains by rvhat
law was established' Tlte other is
on u,hat basis the bocl,, e1 ruies nraking up the sharia or Divine
.,branches" cor-itaining the systematic elaboration of thp basic categories and
t6e cjoctrine of the
ideas lvluslim larv is altogethei'
rules of'Musli, larv. In its organization, classificatiens and
differences in organization
original cornlrared to the systenis of |aw stuclipcl. :9 iu, These
to presenting a brief sLlrvey
.ho,le'eL, rvill ,or tre omphasized irere and rve shall limit ourselves
or. thc- tl-reory o1. the sources of Muslinl 1a\4,, lt r^,,i11 then
be seen.iust horv adaptable to the
con,Jitions of the uro<Jelr worlcl, Finally a general clescription
of the laws ol' various
contemporary Mirsliu tlations rvill be given'
 -.!

e!ai{qt--l
IMMUTABLE BASiS OT.'MI"JSLTM LAW
Various sources of Law
'l''here
are four sources of Muslirn law the Koran (Quran), the sacred book of Islarn: the
Sunna.
the traditional or model behviour of the prophet, Gods Messenger, the ijma or consensus
of
scholars of the Muslirn cornrnunity and the kiyas (or qiyas) juristic reasoning by analogy.

l'he Koran and the Sunna

Muslim civilization, and theretbre its law, are basecl on the Koran, the sacred book of Islam,
tvhich is the collection of Allah's revelations to the last of his prophets and lnessengers,
Muharnmad (srr.) 570-632. 'fhe Koran is unquestionably the primary source of Muslirn law. It
is clear however that its juridical provisior-rs are adequate as a staterirent ol lr4uslim personal
relations and only basic institution of Islam is mentioned in it.

The Sunna contains the r.vay of life and conduct ol'the prophet, whose example seryes as a
guide for believers. It is made up of the collected traditions or hadith, or the acts and
statemenrs
of Muharnmad (srn.) handed dolvn through an uninterrupted chain of transmission. I, the ninth
centurY A.I), two great doctors of Islarn, Al-Bukhari (810-870) and the Muslim (820-875),
undertook detailed research and verification of the traditions in order to establish the authentic
hadith of the prophet. Their tvork and that of others in the sarne period laid the solicl foundation
of the Muslim faith, even though it is now adrnitted that some of the hadith coilectecl are of
questionable autherrticity in so far as their connection rviih Muharnmad is concernecl.

Th: third sourLre of Muslirn la'uv is the [jnla, the unanintoLrs agreement r;''legal schqlais, Neirher
the iioran nor the Sultna- and in spite of the lattels extended forur-cot,,,l answer
all'questions.
Io reilredy this and to explain sorne apparent discrepancies in their teachilg, the cioctrine ol the
intallibility of the Mtrslirr cott-lmunity, when it is in unanimous agleement, was deveiopeci. ,,My
cotntnunity", says one hadith, "will never agree upon an error". And according to
another
"What Mrislims tlnd to be .iust is just in God also". Ijma is based on these two inaxims, has
pernritted recognition of the aLrthority of solutions rvhich are not derivecl a;r..tiy
fr-o* tt*
Koran or the Sunna.

In order that a rLrle of lar,v adrnitted by ii*a, it is not necessary that the mass oi. the faithful
support it, nor need it represent the unanimous fecling of a1l rnembers of the cornqiunity.
i.irtra
has nothing to do rvith the custou of our rvestern larvs. The unanimity required is
ihat o{
co.ntpetent person tltose whose speciai role is to discover and reveal the law.
that is the legal
scitolars of Islarl (fLrl<aha). "The scholars are the heirs of the prophets" Bl,arnalgarnating
traclition. custortr aircl practice to lorrn either a rule of ialv, a principle oi institLirio,.
the
agreetnent of lslarnic doctors and legal scholars gives tire iegai soiution, thus
u,animo.sly
accepted, the real fbrce ofjui'idical truth.

Mrrslini i'ites (l\{nzlrab):

It should be notecl that the ttrtanirrity lequired of the exponents of fikh in order tlrat a solution be
accepted as part oi'Musliur lau, is uot an uirbleurishr:d unanimity. "The cliff-erences
of opiniop
existing iil rny cotntlunity", accorclrng to clne haclith. "are a manifesl.ation olthe grace of Goii".
in lslarn the rule oluttanitnitl,nrakes allor,vanccs fbl certain difference. although thesc are realil,
of seconda.ry intltoltance cornparecl to \:.,rhat is univer.saliy, acceptecl. \Vithin the lvlusiint
comrnLrnity diflereni schools (rnadhhab) r;rc achriitted.'1-he1, are rnost co:rruronly callecl riies ancl
eaclt rtraintains a pitrticrilar interltreta;ilit.:i'l,ri;l.ljil.t l:1r,,,.

L.riv
 '{:l {f. ' '} lr

'[heseritescameintoexis'renceinthesecondcenturyofthe I

orthcdoxandothersheretical,justaswithintheChristianworld
by Rome'
accepted and others condetnned
teachings they are
rites or Sunnites named after those on rvhose
There are tour .rthodox of Kufa (696-'767); the Maliki rite
toundered: rhe t-ta,atl rite fbund.d ;;';;;^m fUlirlnif Shafii (161-
sharri rite fbunded by Imarn Al
louncled by r;^irr.rMedina liii-rssl;the has the greatesr
Hanblr (7g0-g55), The Hanafi
I;;il
g20), and the Franbare ,it. founded by
'narn Afghanistan' Jordan' Syria'
number of foiiowers and hu, ,pr.Jd-ilTurkey,_ttre'u.s's'R
orxortt, urJw.rt Africa' The Shaf
i
pakistan and India. The Maliki rite isinai of the Muslims
and has also spread to
Indonesia, and on the eastern tout' of Africa'
rite prevails in Malaysia.
rite is dominant'
South lndia' hi Arabia the Hanbal
in Iran and lrak' The
rites, the principar rite is the shiite predominatir-rg
Apart from the orrhoclox law or the caliphate' in which
Su,nites in ttreir concept or ronriiirtional
Shiites differ frorn rhe fhe Abadi (lbadi)
to perpetu-ri. pte'iou' monarchicuit'aditions of Persia'
rhey would seern and in zanzibar'
on the eastertl coast of Africa
l1-,.
or Harigite rite in rraruu-in Dierba

on nrany.point: d''u', on matters of principle, however

Different betrveen tlrese rites exist :l
ontlie occasion-oiro*. specitic
act it is permitted to
trreir resernbrance is rnost striking..rhus adhered to one rnay also
the autirority oi u rite other trrun^ir-t.t usually
place o*eself under or i, respect of a
can to acljudicate' eithe' in gtnt'ul
char-rge rites ai-rri a sovereign "'at':']ges norir-,ui orihe rnajority of the populatiorr' The
specitic questio* according,, o u puni.uiu,,-rit. though
in lo,. .*un',pl., i, .orri.J-o,, ,nori the Hanafi rite even
admi.istratio' of .justice Bypt,
tlost of thc population aciheres to the Shafite rite'

not
the regal casuistry may nii:u".,*]:lt^:,:*.,1'.Jii','];il.Tld
-since
ft:ii",ii::ffiff:ff1erur or .r.ryauy
to be
M'slirn larv is intended
provicle 1br ail the p.ssibte sit*ation, -ail tire'
to questions - Some means had to be found
conrplete-a S),Sletrr iupplying *,". ^n,*.rs book of tilcha offer no ready n-iade
,rvith, ,trort; tr',e
uny rut..,r. ,r,r^rir, .o.,to u.
dealt
'rhereby
ans\vet"

reasoning (kiyas) should

be.atlmittecl' and althoLrgh
analogical ar.gurnent or
It was agi.eed that it a source of law' some
sirnpiy rogical pro.r* the M*slirn .o,r*rnity nrade to it
r'is represe,tecr a
Inetho;' ;;' L'"";ever velrement opposition
g'nuna', this
sect's re.iect, on lttnclirnentalist fact' It ,re'eiy
rejection had almost no practicalry i,rportant results in
'ray
be in theory, sucl-r
that ,"irri*, ,.nraiired in the interpreted texts are "i,plicitly
reads to the concrursion by anaiogy'
iook upon them as being deduced
r"urderstood" by sotlle. rvhile others
applying the larv'
o.ly be consitlered as a meails of i,terpreti'g and
A'alr>gicar Leasoi-ri.g can II-by admitting a,alogical arg'ntent'
roottr
N4,slir.ii ia* is basccr .n thc pri".i;;.";i outrrnritl,. be
of inLerpretatiori, iii, non.ti.,.1t". ob,ious that it canttot
has bee, uracie for a i.ational ,rea,s rules
valLre u,rrich r*.tr,iu.
comparable to the traditional
rLrles orausotLrte
riserl to create basic
c*r,*r,-iu* iuri,tr the.refore clifi.er' in that the
estal:,lishec1 in the tenth ce,tury.
Musli* anil
techniqr-re distinctions"i'he N4uslim 'jrirists
latter. r:a, deveroi*e\\r LLrles thro*irr-rlr. "i'il.1.irg ii'o'rirnist 'iurist' I-le is
oritloo[ difrei .-,,.n or.ll];;; tlir,r. .1 rhc
posi*c;i-r and psl,chorogical ;i;'iiji to particLrlar
",n ti,inU tl-iir"i iir.v" it *o4t; 'iritt'i1 lciutiritrs
i)Lr(:ririojriici. *,r.itcs ,v,lilliot.
I' ;-) r'i'i;
 cases. handed clori,ir li'orn day to day in relation to the special needs of the t.nontent, i'aiher tiran
of general principles set folth a priori frorn whioh the appropriate ini'erence ra,ill be drawn fbr
cach fl'esh situation".'fhe Muslirn.iurist resists abstraction. systematizaticn and codification, He
r,rill avoid generaliz"ation and even deflnition.

With the help of analogical reasoning, it is usually possible to discover frorn the rules of the fikh
the required solution in any particular case.

Rejection of other sources

For this reason Islarn regards with suspicion, and generally condetnns, forms of reasoning
which enable the law to evolve. In particular Muslim lalv has retused to admit that a legai
solr-rtion might be based on a believer's personal opinion or individual reasoning (rai's) Because
Muslim law is based on religious tenets. is divinely inspired and essentially non rational, the
support which derives fiorn reason or equity r.vould be insufficient to make such individual
reasoning authoritative.

Nor has the possihility' of departing in special cases from a general rule of the Fikh in the name
o{'public order or iustice, ever been aclrnittecl. There is, too, no agrecrrent about recognizing
that certain solutions in the fikh shuld be linked to the continued existence of the circutnstances
in r,vhich they r,vere originally established, although the Shaf i and Hanafi have sometimes
tbllowed this line of reasoning.

Charactcristics of Muslim [-aiv

A fel additional observatiolt llirrst be made abor"rt the theory of sources of Muslim.law
ciescribed above. l

C--enain chalacteristics o1'Muslim law are explained bi, the fact that as a science it was formecl
and stabilized dLrring the Middle Ages. The essential point is the complete originality of Musiirn
lar,v. by its vary nature. in the light of the other legal systerns in general and of cailon lar,v in
particurlar.

Its originality derives generally frorn the fact that the Muslirn legal system is based on the
Koran, a book o1' revelation, and as ? syslem it rnust therefore be considered entirely
independenl of all others r,vhich do not harre the same sources. Any particular resemblance to
solutions in othel systems can be no rrore than pure coincidence according to the orthodox
Muslinr t,iew. because there can never be any question of Muslirn larv having bilrrou,ed tbrm a
fbreign systern of thoLrght, On the other hand, the influence of Muslim larv on the laws of
Iiurope appears visiirle.

Conrparisan with Ciinon larv

Muslirn larv is iilso original r,r,hen compared rvitl-r the Canon laiv of Christianity. Like Canot-t
Iarv. it is the larv of a church in the original sense (ecclesia): that o1'a community of laithftrl. But
apart fi'orn this siruilarity there are very fundailental diflferences, Muslim 1211,, dorvn to its finest
detail, is an integral part of Islarnic religion and of the revelation that it represents.
Consequently. no authority iir the rvorld is qualified to change it. I'iot to obey Muslirr lar','is a
sin leading to pLrnisl'imeirt in another u,orld; he ivho disputes a sciution ol I'"4tislirn la-iv is a
heretio and therebl, uxclLrdes Itiinsell from the corr-rrrrunity of lslanr. Irinalll'. a It4uslint's iii-e irr
socit't', is,rnl1, qor,crr.iecl by rules of his religion of u,iricir Muslim lar,v i:; rin itrlegral 1tart. ln all
ihesi,'ivrrt,s j\,lLrslinr lan.l, diflers lrom f--lhiistianitl,. -l-he s1;r'ead of rlhririiartit,r,origirr:rll1'took.

...s'Shrir'il -i-j.- '->''^'- fi,'

I _ . .. t.,;
_: r,,1::.
place in a higirIl, ciVilizecl societl, r,vilere larv enjoyecl great prestige.
It proclaifired nerv dognr'
ancr morar principies. but is r,vas not interested in actuar
organization of society. "My kingdom is
nor of this worid,.. said christ. And tlie Gospels confinned
the validity of secuiar principles
..Render upto Caesar rhe things r,vhich are calsar's" (Matt' xx1i,21). Not oniy did the catholic
the place of Roman law: it did not
Church feel ir,nnecessary to-develop a Christian lar.v to take
(d.67 A'D') nor saint Augustine (354-
consider itself, authorizeri to do so, Neither saint Paul
the decline of lar,v through the
430) atte'rpted to J.r.rop a christina iaw; in fact they advocated
law was not a complete legal
use t.il. arbitration a'd the observance of brotherly love. canon
Rornan law or other private laws'
systern designed to replace Roman larv. It coinplen-rented
these laws suclt as Church
never anything utore. and regulated subjects not covered by
or.ganization, the sacramentr, un,l canonical procedure. In
addition, Canon law is in no sense a
revealed principles of Christian faith
revealed law. Although it is most certainly tased on the
The christian who violates its
and morality, it is the r.vork of man and not the world of God.
rules is not necessary subject to punishnient in the next \vorld'
As long as the irnrnutable
principles of dogrna ur. ,.rp..ted, ecclesiastical authorities are allowed
to uake changes to
The Church of Rome itself
improve or adapt it to particular circumstances of time and place'
has clifi'erent ca,on larv codes for aclherents to tlre I-atin or
Eastern rites. christian Canon laws
have cleveloped enormously over the centttries and continue
to do so at the present time'

the West without conflicting

Uncler these co,dilious, Roman larv was able to spread throughout
universities approved by papal
rvith the Christian rcligion. Roman iar.v was taughi in most of the
situation qiiite obviously, is totally tiff.r.nt in Muslirn countries
.fl.re rvhere the lar'v is
bulls.
part of the revcalcr-l lslamic religion. The establishir-rent of a purely secular law in these
which does not strictll'
corintries is inconce ivable. Ifere the orthodox vieu' exclu'i 's any lar'v
conform to the rules of the sharia.

1,'f
 .t

CFiAPTER-I1
ADAPI-ATiON OF iVlI]SLiM LAW TO THE, MODERN WORLI)

Permanent authority of iVluslim Larv

What iras just been said may give the impression that Muslim law belongs to a distant past. This
is not so, however, Muslirn larv remains one of the great legal systerns of the rnodern world,
dealing i.vith hurnan affairs of a total Muslim population in various countries of over 500 million
people.

Many states of Musiim population continue to affinn in their laws, and often in their
constitutions, their adherence to the ,principles of Islam. The states subtnission to these
principles is explicitly stated in the constitution of Morocco. Tunisia, Syria, the Islamic
Republic of Mauritania, Iran, Afghanistan, Yemen, and Pakistan. The civii codes of Egypt
(1948), Syria (1949) and Iraq (1951) instruct judges to filI any gaps in the law according to the
principles of Muslirn law; the constitution of lran and the larvs of Indonesia provide for a
procedure intended to assure the contbrmity of Institutions to the principles of Muslim lar,v And
rnost of these countries rvish to modernize, and are rapidly doing so. I{orv can the apparent
passivity of Muslim law be reconciled with the development rvhich includcs the establishment
of nerv types of political systems and prbgressive refbnns in the field of private law.

Pcssibilities of adapting to the rnodern rvorld.

The irnnir-rtable nature of Muslirn lau, cannot be denied, but it must also be realized that it is a
very resourceful systenl, Its flexibility should be emphasized jrrs. as much as its immutability.
l-he trvo characteristics are in no way colxparable. It is too e',sily forgotten that in rvestern
countries the lau, lbr a long time rvas considered unchange;ole, even though it was not
sacrosanct. Civil authorities, such as. for example, the kings of France even at the height of their
power, had no legal right to alter its content. In rvestern countries, hou,ever, rneans were fbund
for incorporating nerv solutions r.vlien the need was felt without underrnining the lar,v. The
interventions of the Rornan plactor and the Engiish chancellor are the rnost obvious examples,
Lettres de rescission and the exercise of prerogative were also employed lvithout altering the
theoretical basis of fundarnental legal principles.

The sarne is iruc of Musliin iaw. It is irnmutable,.but jt leaves sufficient roollt for the operation
o1'custom, the right o1'parties to contract and adrninistrative regulation, such that it is possible
to arrive at arrangerrent rvhich rvill enable a modern society to be developed rvithout prejudice
to the law. Only in exceptional cases lvill the alchaic nature of certain institntions or rules in
Muslint lalv constitr-rte obstacles.

Recourse to custom
Fot'cetrlur-ies many I\4Lrslim societies have been and still are. living rnainiy accorcling to custonr
rvhile recogirizing the merit and ar-rtirority of Vlusiirl lalv as an article o1'faith. Ilut lr,hile cusiorn
is not part of the fililia, tiris does not mean thai the lar,v condernns it in any rvay. It looks upon
custotl ver1, rnLrch as solne rvestern lau,s i'egard the clause of araiable conrposition in an
arbitration agreeilrent or rlpon the porvers of conciliaiion or equitl, sonretinres exercisecl b1' a
iudge. Parties are often allorved to arrange their dealings and serlle their dift'erences wilhout
iecourse to slrict lau,. The spread of, Islanr coiilC not have takcn place u,ithoul this liberal
attitucle r.,,hicir did not require beli';',els io give Llil a wa)/ of lif'e embodied ir-i ct;stom. Il goes
r,.'ithout.seviiro of course that:.:.lrle cLrsto;ns can be irlesular fi'om the viervpoint oiMuslim lar,,'.
's5
1a,,,,'Shehlii i',, '<-=,
 r.vhich simply completnent Musliu lalv '
ii,ra grear lnan,v are,ot and such is the case of those
the amount and fonris of payment
lnatt.rs not covete cl by it ior example, customs dealing with
o1' clowries. thost- on the use of running rvater shared
by landowners' and a number of
divides all of ntans actions
c.'rrrercial irsages. It should also be ,.,r,,b.r.cl that Muslim law
and forbidden'
into live categories: obligatory, recolrimencled, indiiferent, blame-rvorthy
custorns cannor orcler behaviour which is lorbidden by law
or prohibit that which the larv
makes obligatory; but it can deal with conduct which
is merely recomrnended or permitted by
or simply permitted by larv.
larv. and it rnay also ibrbid something which is blarre-worthy

Legal stratagems and fictions .1 r ^r avoiding^archaic

-,-.- of onr,rrinn<
^.,^:.r:.^- ^-^r.^:^ solutions;
custotn and contract, there is another'possible means
Aside frorn
The sharia, highly formalist' requires
the use of legal device or stratagems (hiyal) and fictions.
formal rulesof Muslim law can thus
tliat the letter of the law and its-spirit'be respected. Many
Thus polygamy and the
be renclered ineflfectr:al provid.i th.y are not ciirectly violated..
can, holvever, rvithout changing such rules'
husbands repudiation of his r,vife are p.imitted. One
damages if she is unjustly
discourage such practices- by ar,varciing the rvife stlbstantial
repLtcliateci by her hLrsband o1. ,rh., the laiter, having
entered into a polygarnous union' does not
rreat her eqr-rally r.vith his other wives. Loans bearing
inteqst fgrlila:l by Muslim law; but
1e
by glYlii,ll: as security
rhis protribirion can be evacied by means of a cloubie tu19)1' "i:ditor
possible to hold that the ban on
tire enjoyment of solne revenue producing properly' It iialso
societies and companies r'vill
interest loans applies only to physical p".*o', banks, savings
trrerefore be exernpt fiom this iule. Renting rand is
also prohibited, but this problern is
circumvented by substituting a concepi of association to
that of lease' Again contracts
clepenclent on uncertail conti-ngencies and insurance contracts
in particuiar are forbidder; but
rnay' therelore take out insurince
only fhe person r,'ho crtllects the premium commits a sin' One
prohibition on insu" 'nce
with ar inruron.. c::txpsn) oi rvith.a non-Muslim' Tire actual
is laid on the pledge of solidarity
disappears in the .^r. of ,rriual insurance; here the emphasis
i'rpricit i* this opcrrrtio,, r,aking the contract ciiarituibre iir natu.e a qualiti' which fai frorr
being forbidden is recommended.

Intervention of atrthoritY
A techniquc continually usecl to adapt Muslinr larv to modern conditions is the intervetrtion
o1'

wor-rld seern excluded by Muslirn

.trre ruii,g person or body. At trrst ilor.. such inte.vention
a parliamentary body is not the
legal theory. The sovereigtl po*..-*hether it be'a tnonarch or
He therefore can n6t iegislate'
master but the servant of law according to the Islarnic concept.
can shape state policy (siyasa)
Lloivever, *,hile he rnay have no legislaiive power, the sovereign
Muslim adfitits the
a,cj has the special responsibility of r,r,atching over jLiclicial administration'
respect and wide use has
legitirnacy o1'regulatory measut'es tallen Uylne aLrthorities in this
alu,ays been r-nade of it.
have tirus been able to exert an
EVen operaling rviLhin the stricter ofiirodoxy, at;solLrte rulers
influence. Tirey have orcierecl ir4gslirn iuclgei (kadis) to apply,
for example' the rules of ol.le or
it has been possible for wol11en
arrother rite in So11e sub.iect trlatter s,,.i', that, in maly countries.
allo\r'ed for in a range of
to oLitain juclicial divorces lvithin the frameu'orli of the various cases
conditions and thus, in'furl"cy, for
rites. Thi:;- liave rnacle access to the courts subject to certain
unknor'vn to Muslim larv' has beep
exampie,. a concept of extinctiye prescription. otherruiise
$'hcle the titlc to properil' has
irlroclr:cecl fy rva1, oi'prohibiting judges frour hcaring cases
cleclareci that the coLtrts shoLrld
cxisteil [ir- fll,tce, \,1]ars. More reccntlyl the 11g1'ptian legislatitrc
r-ior ci*ii r,,,ith rnatr.irronial litigation rnill.r. the nrirrriage
hird !lrt b'-:cil cit''i1ly recordt:d ot'r'l'ltei'e
il:re ol'the sl.lottst:s hacl not at'raitleci tla-riiageable age'
 -]

1n other cases.strict orthodoxy is horvever abandoned. In addition, therefbre, to rneasures which

are irreproachable fi'orn the point of view of religious precepts (nizam), sovereigns have
prescribed otlrers. Which have exceeded the competence allor,ved thern by these same principles.
Although theologians are traditionally vehetnent about the irnpiety of civil society. their
vehenrence is mitigated as long there is continued theoretical admission of Muslim la,.vs
superiority and excellence.

Modernist tendency
'fhe developurent o1'Vlusliin larv was an'ested in the tenth century with the closing of the door
ol Endeavour or ljtihad. This was the result o1'fortuitous circumstances, and came about in an
eftbrt to overcome a crisis which threatened the Muslim r,vorld r,vith a schisrn. The eclipse of the
Abbasid caliphate r-rpon the Mogul capture of Bagdad in 1258 reinforced this conservative
tendency. There are those in Islarn today rvho doubt r,vhether the restrictions placed on the
developrnent of thc fikh at that tirne shorild be fully maintained. T'hey contend that Islamic
orlhodoxy does not require it. They point out that in fact very fer.v rules of Muslim law are
based on divine revelation which moreover, is only indicative of orthodox social behaviour of
the seventh centun, and not that of todal'. For the most paft, Mtislinr law is the rvork of
tnedieval .jurisls rvhose reasoning processes are now out of date referring to the practice of the
f irst few centuries of Islarn. They point out that those who founded the rites always took special

circunrstances into account, and made a place in their system lor such notions as the purpose of
the lavr,. the puhlic good and necessity. They see no risl< involved in returning to these principles
toda1,. on cor-rdition that strict rules and methods of interpretation are imposed fbr developing
solutior-r necessary to the p-rblic good and rvhich r,vrll be suitable from the ofthodox point o'
view. They consider the <l.arrger now threatening Musiim lalv is not so much the spiitting of thr'
Islamic r,vorld, as in the pasi, but the risk that the fikah because of its inflexibility rnight becorne
a completely irlealistic theory of duties. its signiticance would then be merely theological and
oniy sf use to a feu, pious scholars, rvhile everyday life rvor"rld be governed by lalvs lvhich
would h" lncreasil.ts'i), removed frotn truly Muslim concepts.
'ees in fact ccns'
The presetrt oay tendency to reopen the door of,Endeavor:r has occurred in several countries.
I'his tlend is quite obviousiy attractive'to those who are accustomed to rationalist thought and
whcl find it ditTlcult to accept the traditional agreement of authority. Most Muslirn, however, do
not appear to be ready to come over to such a way of tiiinking. The centuries old approach
cannot, in their eyes. be abandoned: departures from orlhodoxy rrust be rninimized and only
ttndertal<en rvith sreat caLrtion. T'hcre is a visible danger in any atternpt to rationalize antl
rnodernize Muslim law b1, reopening the door of Endeavour. If'this trend gains gror"urd, il is
difllcult to see hoiry N4uslim unity can be preservecl in a rvorld rvhere the comnrunity of believers
is s:pread throughout a variety of iridependent nations, For this reason it r,r,ill probably be
considered prei'erable to make use of the n-rany other"possibilities fol adapting Mr-rsiim societies
to trodern iit'e. 'fhese methods are perhaps outsidc lr4uslim larv in the strict sense (sLrclL as
cttstom, cotrtractors, regulations). But they do nol contradict it. They offer the aclvantage of not
putting into qLrestion the traclitionally accepted principies in li,hich thc unity of the community
of the faithlul is roored.

"'a
\/ -*t_
l,i,rr :l uri,:rl r'l <.--=ir--t\
i .--
i:.1-
 i' -i'j -.\

y)/
. _1.
,t.. :.f
-
.:'. .f l-1.nf 'Y't''coP; -\r .

1n,-^>
SOME OBJECTION AND TIIEIR ANSWERS

Objection 1:
The widow receives very inadequate treatment, for
her maximum share
one of eight by the survival of
is1/4 of her husband's estate, that too is reduced to
any child of the deceased.
on the Quran' The
Ansryer: The principals of Islamic law are primarily based
much depend upon
Quran sometimes lays down general rules rvhich observance
in the Quran' it has
interpretation; but if there is some specific and clear injunction
lays dorvn the foilor'ving
to be followed literally without any question. The Quran
rrtle..
,'And unlo them belottg one by fourth port of what u'hich ye leaves' tf le
one by eight part of wltat
Itave no issue, but if ye have isstrc, then they shsll hsve

ye leave."(I{oran, 4, l1)
The above verse of the Koran is cJear enough to need any
explanation. The
factors:
position of rvidovr \)uoulci look better afl;er rve conliler the follor'ving
r The arnount of cliffered dorver r.r'hich slte g'r's on her husband's
death'

* Obligation of childlen to rnaintain her'

, Her feu'er obligations.

which is
1. After the death of her husband, tlie r','idolv gets the atnount of dower'
apart from her share of inheritance. Generaliy the amount
of dower is quite a

fat sum.
2. The presence of children, r,'hich makes hel to get only one by eight part of the
estate, also provides her u'ith an alternatiye to compensate
tlie loss' It is one of
circumstance is bound
carclinal prilciples of Muslim le.rv that apelson in easy
for example' froti';
to rnaintain his poor parents, Thetefo;e, wliat hsr son gets,
has to spencl it graduall)' on het' tnairitains' Seen in
the
the inheritance, he
harsh'
context, the reduction of her shares to 1/8 cloes not 100k

3. The social anrl family obligations oi felnales, pafiicularly in s'ub coiitinent'

aie

*l .*
'/ \l
 not very serious as that of a maie. Her orvn maintenance is the oniy serious
problem before her, and it is amply guaranteed by the provisions described
above in (1) and (2).

Objection 2:
The most controversial problem in the Muslim lar.v of inheritance is posed by the
fact tirat the Islamic law of interstate succession gives a son tlvice the share of a

daughter, and brother of the full or consanguine blood twice that a corresponding
sister.

Ansrver: To change all this rvould be to upset the rvhole structure of the Islamic
law of inheritance, rvhich is as complex, finely balanced and mathematically
precise as any system in the r,vorld, and which rests more directly on the explicit

injunctions of the I(oran than an1,' other part of the shariah. The agreement most
frequently heard in favor of such change is based on the Fundamental Rights
enshrined. The staie shall not deny to any person equality before the lar.v and that

'the state shall not discriminate against any ciiizen o.r grounds only of religion,
raca, caste, sex" place of birth or an),of thern". But.t is vital to note that these
injuctions are addressed to action, not to existing personal lar,vs. Even so, the
question rnay rvell be debated rvhether the principle of "double share to the male"

does in fact constitute a discrimination against daughter, sister, ete. "On grounds
only of sex". At first sight this might certaiiily appear to be the case; it is
distinctly arguable that this is not so, I.t must be rernembered that celibacy is
extremely rare among the Muslims, rvhere the ovenvireliling majority of Muslirn
Yr'omell are tnanied.That is a fundanrental p,rinciple cf Islarnic larv that a husband

must provide his rvife niainienance and irousiflg, hourever poor he may be and
howet'er affluent rnay be her rvon circuurstairces; ancl that the duty of suilporting
the cirildren of a tnaniage is invnriably placed, ilf imar1,, at least, on the iallier.. In
vier'r' of these mairifbld obligatioi-rs it is distinctly alguable that the greater shear
uormeily given to tnales in the Islarnic of inlieritatce cloes lot in fact,
1ar,r,

constituie a cliscrirninaticn u,hich can 'be saicl to be basecl on sex alorre -

-,_a ')
 i;g
.:a

w'hatever of the exclusion

particularly in vier,v of the fact that there is no question
from inheritance of a daughter, sister, mother or lvife in
the shariah' coromon

that olten is in the customary law of different part

of the subcontinent'
though
 !: ., n,;,:.. .i. l-_:lt. .: :- r j.
|.' r

,1:-,1 t- , i'f /;i -,

/1
The Economic Life rj

Thc econornic lil'e of Islam is also based upon solid ibundations and divine
instructions. i.lrrning one's Iivins through decent labor is not only a duty br-rt a great virtue as
vrell. Depencierrce of any able effortless person on somebodr- else lor a livelihood is a
religious sin a social stigma and disgraceful humility.

Whatever the individual makes or earns through larvful means is his private
possession. *hich neither the State nor any'bod)'else can.justifiably clainr. In retum for this
right of pri','ate possession he has only to lulfill certain obligations to the societl, apd pa1,
certain taxes to the State. When this is done, he has ful1 rights to protection
by the State, and
his freedom of enterprise is secure and guaranteed. Under the Islamic system the menace
of
greedy capitalisrlr and destructive cornmunism never arises, The enterprising
individual is
I'esponsible li;r'tllc pl'osperitr ol-the State. and the State in turn is responsible for the secLrrity
o1' the indii'iCLral. Class conllicts are replaced by co-operation antl harnronl: ttar ald
suspiciorr are renredied bv mutual secLrrity and conlldence.

The ecot.,''nlic svstenr ot'Islam is not drarvn iu the iight of arithmelical calcula,..rrs
antl capacit!e-; ,.:l'production alone. Rather. it is drarvn ancl corrceiveci in the ligltr
rf a
trolllprehensitc' srstelr ol ntorais ancl principles. The person rvhc is rvorhing
fbr anothc'r.
person or lbr a tlrnl or an institittion is ordained by God to do his *,ork ,.r,ith
elficiencl. and
honestl''. Thr- Proprhet saici that if anv of yoLi Lrndertakes to cio any.uvork: gocl
loves to see him
clo it \cli anti tt ith el'tlciencr'. Once the *'ork is done. ihe ,,r,,orker is
entitlecl to a fair rvage lor
his sen'ices. I-ailLrre bv the enrplol'er to pay the jLrst wage or attenrpts to cut it clorvp
and
\\A\cr orr ir is u pLrnishable act. according to the lalv of God.

Busincss tt'aitsactions cnjr)) a sreat dcal ol'attention fiont Islant. lJr:nest trarcie is
pernlittcd allt'1 blcssed b1' god. 'fhis nray be carrieci or-rt through ipciiyiclLial's conrpa.ies.
agencies and the like. But all bLrsiness cleals shoulC be concluded wit!"r fl'ankness
and honestr,.
Chcating. iriciillg Llcfi:cts olnrerchandise froin the rlealers, cxploiting the needs
of custonrers.
tllonopoly of'stocks to tbi'ce one s on,n prices are all sinfui acls ancl
1;unishable b1,the Islanric
Iau'.

L{ |

l: Lr,rrr t l),n.xi( l.jt. j].,,,

 Those ,,vlto devour usury i.vill not stand except as stands one whom the Evil one by his
touch has driven to madness. That is because they say: 'trade is like usury'. But god has

permitted trade and forbidden usuly. Those who, aller receiving direction tiom their Lord.

desist. shall he pardoned tbr the past; their case is tbr God (to judge). But those rvho repeat
(the oftence) are Companions of the Fire; they wili abide therein (for eve). God rvill deprive

Lrsur)'of all blessing, but wili give increase tbr deeds of charity: lor He loves not creatures
ungratelul and u,icked . (2:275-276)

Proprietors are constantly reminded of the fact that they are in reality mere agents
appointed by God to administer their holding. There is noting in Islam to stop the Muslim
f,orm attaining r.,'ealth and endeavoring for material improvements through lar.vful means and

decetlt channels. Yet the lact rentains that lran comes to this tvorld entpil:-fi3p6led anci

departs fbrrl it iikewise. The actr-ral and real o\\,ner of things is God alone of Whoni artv
proprietoi- is siniph'an appointed agent. a nlere trustee. This is not or-rly'a facr of lite bLrt also

has a sisnificant bearirrg on hunran behavior. It rnakes the proprietor ah.vays readv to spend in

thu- \rar oi'Goti ancl to contribLrre to \\orthv calr!."s. It makes hirl responsire to the needs of
his socictr un.i gircs liinr an inrportanl. role Lo pr":\.0 sacred nrission to fultlll. Ii sares hirl
fbrnr the pit tlf scllrshr-ress. grecd antl irr.]Lisiice.

Unlike conrurunisnr. Islarn replaces the totalitarian artiilcial sLrprenracv ol- the
Cottritrutrist State b1' lhc beneircial slrprenrac\, ol Gccl; and the Conrnrurrist theory of class
uarthre b','soitntl ntorals. nrutual rcsponsibilitics ant'l cooperatiorr. On the othcr had, it gives
tltnlost assllrallces againsf greedy capitalisnr and rLrthless exploitation by,proprietors. l-he
econonric sl'stent oI islanr grants full lecognition of the "independent'' entitv of rhe
indir.idual artcl his natLrral aspirations to n,ork aird possession. Yet it does not conceive of hinr
as absolLriclr in.ic1t.:ircieut ol'Gtlcl or thc Lrnivei'se. lt cloes not deif'r, nran trr his capital. nor
cloc:, it ilcif\,ihc pr.olctariat aird aboiish liee enter.prise. It acccg;ts man the uar,,he is createcl
ancl tleals lvitlt hirtr acr-ordingly, maliing allovvances for this irrstinctive aspiratioirs anc.i

linrited power.

])..: i.:c'a:,,r; I r':,i,:

 :1 i'

. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A VALID CONTRACT

For a valid contract to take piace in islamic lalv, certain conditions are to be met.
From foregoing discussion, it appears that a valid contract bases itself on six
elements, namely:

" The offer

o Acceptance

" The offeror

o The offeree
o The subject matter
e The consideration

THE FROMS (THE OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE)

With reference to an expression of both offer and acceptance, Islamic law of
contract recognize all the following kinds of contract:

* Ex'tl' ess contract

o Implied contract
n Colrti'act of inixcd character

Express contract: an express contact is a contract that is concluded orally or in

rvriting, declaring the intention ancl the legal commitment of the parties.

Implied contract: an implied contract is that type of contract that is a legal

commitment created by the acts or conducts of the parties.

Coutract oi nlixed eharacter: this is a tl,pe of contract in r,vhich the offer is

exl,ressecl and aeceptance is irnpliecl o't accentai:.ce is expresseci and offer is
implied.
I{orvever, Islailic larv is distinct froil other legal system in this way that is insist

lii
.i'
the offer and
the session of contract (majlis al-aqd) in the sense that both
session rvithout any gap in
acceptance are to be jointly connected in one single
place lvhere the parties
time or place. Therefore, the session occurs in any natural
meet to frorn their agreement and creates the essential
unit of the time and place
consent.
necessary for the dual declaration of intention and

immediate' However' before

Under this principle of iaw, the acceptance should be
his offer. Again the principle
the offeree accepts the offer he or she may withdraw
acceptance is available
of khiyar al-majlis i.e. rightto revoke concluded offer and
to both tire pafties in the session of the contract'

lar'v insists the condition that

Pertaining to offer and acceptance, classical Islamic
the contraots
the contracting parties should hear other's declaration, accordingly,
as the
by means of representatives or modem comtnltnicatiOn systems such
pro'rided they
telephole, telex, fax, e-mail and letter are equally valid
are

perforrned in one single session of r t ntract'

Ttre Farties (The offeror & the oiferee)

enter tinto a contract
As for parties to a contlact, they must be iegally competent to
the competence to transact is Islamic law is measured largely
by fn'o aspects,

namely.

1. Prudence

2. Puberty.

As reriealerl in tile Qilrnn:

"Proye orplto.ns titt tttey recLclt tlte inarriageoble age: then if yot't Jind them
of

sotmcl jttclgt;lerit, cleliver ot:er t#tio tlteffi their fortrme", 5:4

tl:e'ra-liaity of the coiiiract'
Tlle capability of the parties io contracts is cssential for

(-'t-r,."
 In Islainic law, no person can validly conclude a legal transaction without physicai
and intellectual maturity. A person, lvhether male of female should attain physical

puberty (bulugh) and sound judgment i.e. prudence ( rushd) in his or her judgment.

Horvever, between infancy and majority a rninor i,vill normaily reach the age of

discernment or age of reason (sinn al-tamyiz) admittedly being six or seven years

of old. School of lmam Abu Hanifa gives value to some transcaction performed by
a discerning minor. They authorized the discerning minor to conclude beneficial
contracts, such as acceptance of gifts r,vithout his guardian's authorization. He is
forbidden to conclude fully detrimental contracts r,vhich creates obligation such as

granting loans.

The Subject matter

As for the subject tnatter of contract, both the item and consideration, Isiamic iar,v

stresses the following matters.

1. Lawfulness.
:!. Existcucc
3. Delverability
4. Precise deterrnination

Lar,n'fulness: Lar.vfulness requirss that the object must be iar,vful, that is something

r'vhich is permissible to trade. It must be of legal value that is, subject matter
(mahali) and the underll,ing cause (sabab) rnust be iawful: ancl it rnust not be
forbidden by Islarnic lar,v, or a nuisance to public order of morality. Also inhereirt
in the lar.r,fulness of tiie object is the conrlition tliat ti:e object inust be iegalil,
o\r,,ned (or autigTrized) by the par tics to a contract.
.V4
-Exist*lce: ADelirei'y, on tire other hand, in<iicates that the su.biject matter of a

contract tnust be capable of eertain dctri",,ery. The classical jr:risis therefore,

prohibit the sale of a birrj in ihe air cr fish rn lvatei.
';'- j

The Consideration
As for the consideration of price, Islamic lar,v does not restrict it to a monetary
price, bu.i it may be in the form of another commodity. The Islamic prohibition

against uncertainty requires that the price must be in existence and determined at

the time of the contract and cannot be fixed at a later date lvith reference to the

market price, nor can it be ieft subject to determination by a third party. In contract

of money-exchange (sari), the rule of riba must be adhered to render the contract
valid, on tLte spot or in the fuitrt'e.

Ciass ifiga tig ngfl c oUlra q]L

Contract, from an Islamic iegal perspective it is conceptually divided into

mai.r: categories, nameiy;

i. Unilateral
Z. Bilateral contract
Unilateral
Unilateral is graluitous in character and does noi require the consent of the

recipient. IJnilateral contract comprises of iransactious in favor of the recipient

such as:

i. Off-set of the debt (ibra)

Z. rvill (*'assiyyat)
3. En<iorvment(r.vaqf)

4. Loan (qard)

ETL,ATf,RAL CS}{TRACT
mcre bound to strict nrliirgs aird guidelite sitree it requires t1.re
BiLe:ter-al conti.act is
'tolera-ted' in
conseli of both the pa-rties to a coniract. ,/rlso rt'hat is Irot'inally
gnilateial coirtraei, rr,,ouki nct necessaiily 'be the oase in trilateral coflllaet'
Therefore, the ( strict) conditions required for both the offeree and the subject
matter of the bilateral contract will not be applied to a unilateral contract.
The biiateral contract covers the remaining transactions in Islamic iar,v r,vhich can
be further divided into different classification according to the very puryose and
reason, In this regard, we can classifu these contracts to six classifications which

are as follows:

SHARIKAT AL-O'AQD (PARTNER SHIP)

t

A partnership of contract is contract betn,een tr.vo or more people to have

partnership in capital and profit. Sucli parlnership is subdivided into fore kinds:
e Sharikat -al mudaraba

e Sharikai- al rnufawadha
,, Sharikat- al anan
e Sharikat- al sunnah
n Sharikat- al wr:-iuh

MUZARABA
The rvorld Mudharabah comes frorn the Arabic root (dharaha fi al ard) which
illeans going and rvorking to obtain livelihood. it is a partnership in profit not
capital. It is on one side providing vrolk in trade and on the oiher side providing
capital. T'he tvvo sides are partners in profit arrd loss. The point behind snch a

parlnership is that there are people rvho have money but are not skilled in trade.
And there are others lvho have good experience in trade but not have ihe neccssaq'
capital. So by.joining forces that is by br"inging togethei the capitai from the first
side and the rvork fiom the other ihere should be great benefit foi'botir parlies ancl

fol'the community.

!
.i.

the other labor, and: both share

In-muzaraba one man or party provides capital and
agreement made betlveen
profrt. The profit is divided according to the terms of the

the parties. The difference between a laborer (working

for as employer) and

in muzaraba is that, in the former the capitalist

(or empioyer) is responsible
partner
to the laborer rvhether he gains or losses in his
business
for the payment of r,vages
receives his share
while in the latter, the laborer (who is also a partner in business)
are gualanteed to the laborer'
oniy if there is profit from the business. Thus wages
no matter lvhat happens to the business; profit or loss,
in the former but' in the

latter, his share of the profit is guaranteed only if there

is any profit. He gets

nothing if the business in-running on loss'

PROFFS OF'MUZARABA

Pre-Islarnic Period-: This form of business was-prevalent in

Arabia even
1.
r'vho was a
before the ad,ent of l,'e Holy Proper, Khadija-bint-ts'harvailid,
to trade with and then
rich woman, used to g i ren her money to other people
impressed by honesty
to share the profits with them. Then ifiradija, being

and righteousness of the Holy Prophet requested him to take het

this bargain' out of
cofirmsrcial goods to Syria. There lvas huge profit from
which- the Holy Prophet received ample shale'
Aclvent of trslam: When the Muslims conquered Khaiber' the
Hoiy Prophet
1.

gr.anted the lands to the jews (on their request) on

the oonclition that they
with the Muslims"'
would cultivate the lands ancl share the ploduce equaily
do otheL
a
Fractice oi eornpanion: Ths FIcl y Prophet used to trade and
from his father that
lrusiness on the same pi:itlciple. Zaidbin Aslam reports
,.Abr1ulla_h and Ubaiduilah, trvo sons of tiie ca-liph umai:. u'ent to Iraq for

i'vent to Abu-l'v4usa' rvho was

Jehad r'vith Muslim at'm}'' On their reiurn, they
said " I wish I couid do
the adrninistrator of Basra. FIe u,elcomed them and
u'irich I lr'ant to
you a favcl, I liave solllo lxoiley of Bait-a1-nra1 (treasury)

t() !)
i_i-
I

send to Umar. Nor.v I give this money to you as loan, you purchase some
goods with it from Iraq and sell them in lv{adina, pay the capital to Umar
and keep the profit for yourselves". They agreed to this proposal and got
the money from Abu Musa rvho wrote to Umar to receive the money. After

making good profits in Madinah they rvent to their father to return the
capital. He asked them, "Did he give such a loan to every man in the
Army?" They replied in the negative. Then Umar said. This money has

been given to you for being sons of the Caliph. Give me the capital as rvell

as the profit". Abdullah kept quiet but Ubaidullah said." O Amir-ul-

Muminin. You should not do this (to us). Had the money been lost or had
we suffeled a loss, u,e r,vould have paid tlie capitai." Ijmar said. "No! You
must pay it". Ubaidullah again requested. Then Abdur Rehman bin Auf
suggested that it would be better if it rvas counted as muzaraba. Umar
agreed and took the capital rvith half the profit and the other half,r,vas gi',,en

to them".
4. Ijnna: Ail the Muslim jurir,r I agree that muzaraba is a very useful form of
business organization, They regard it as a contract betrveen tivo parties, one

oir.vhich provides the capital and the other labour. Both share in the profit;
one iu retum for his eapital, the other iii retuin for his lal:or. Thus in
tnuzaraba, the capitalist benefits from his capital and laborer from his labor.

5. Public interest: Tliis form of business organization is of great iinpofiance

in the econotnic system of Islam. Every community has different grades of
people; rich as rveil as poor, intelligent as u,ell as dull. with cooperation of
all these people, every mernber of the comrnunity coulcl eam his living. The
rich can iirvest their mouel, and the poor can put in tireir labor. Tlius by
cooperation both can earn profit.
6. Necessi.ly: According to the Musliin .fLtrists, Islam has rnade muzaraba
1arvfi-rl becaLise the people need it; since it often happens that peopie r.r,ho

hat,e moncy and propedy, lack the ability to use it for productive pliiposes

i C-t
/L
*'l /
/
.j

while others who have the necessary abiliry to utiiize such financial
resources, are pool and penniiess. A contract of muzaraba
betlveen such

parties enables them to utiiize the lvealth of the rich and the labor of
the

poor for the benefit of both.

7. Motivations: Moreover, this fonn of business organization has a very

healthy effect of the position of the laborers. They feel happy and satisfied
for their share in the profit. They even lvork harder because every increase
in the gross profits increases tireir share of it. It is, therefore, a very
successful and popular foim of business organization'
 Hadith

As the subject of Fladith is a very large one about which much has been rvritten,
it is unnecessary here to go into detail in discussing it, this introduction must
confine itself to material which ivill help the students of technical subject in
understanding the sayings of the prophet (s.m.).
Hadith and Sunna are the two words, either of rvhich might with some
jusiificati on bgutranslated "tradition", are commonly used but differ in their
.fi'/
significanrr.fyuaith really means a story, or a report, and so represents an
,.1"r",
"
,'ff
i^)no.r.o, -nereas suma means a practice o, .urtffiTvithin the
community of Islam it is only natural that these rvords come to be applied rnore
particulirly to matters relating to the Prophet and to the customs follorved by him
and his iminediate followers. R.ecorcis r.rere collected telling what the Prophet
said and did, and his reaction io things said or done in his prepnce. \\hen the
studv'de,,eloped it came to be krou'n under.ihe title al-l-.'iCithr,4'he rvord hadith,
rvhich coulci be applied to any kind of, story'. urs thits ,iren a ne!\' technical
meaning lvhen r-rseci in connection r.l'ith infomration about the Prophet. Sunna is
more general, referring merely to the practice of the Prophei or his communitl',
anci therg could be eramples of sunna in con-nection ri'ith r.i,'hich there was llo
--a/'
hadith./Briefl),, ttre srrnna is rvhat r,vas practiced and the hadith is the record of
, ,tl" <'/{'
vi'hai lvas practiced./$'hen at a later date w'orks containing collections of
' J
traditions t rrr- ,ofiled, rrefaced by
each tradition.r,vas prefaced uu a .t ri]r of authorities
u cha
(isncrl) throLrgh whom it w'as transmitted. In this way the authors of these r','orks
provided not merely' the information they had compiled about the Prophet. but
also its documentation. Even' tradition must have an isnad as rvell as the text
(matn). :

r-z?
Ertoblishing ol uphclCing authoriti' cf the sunna. There rvere different schccls of
- lvhicir upheld the importance
thoLrght in early Islam, one of lvhich
u,as ti'ie ilai-ly
ol traclition tracecl back to the Piophet, and it r,ras only aiter a period of
ec::tention and dispute'#e,t the radirionists wcn the ei*y, Tire one who dese:v*s
tnost credil for estabiishing Tracij
iurispi-udeiice. L-atgely as a result of his ti'ci'i<
of tl,.r
A,l-1.), the great expcneitt
o]tpoi-lenis of irrtliiion io:,, the ,.,ai1..-, i,i-1,.i iitt tri:rlitiL r it'acer-j b;:ck tc t 'Pr'-'r:h;i
l-'ri
calrre to be recognized as a basis of Islam second in importance only to the
of Tradition was to quote
Qur'an. One of shaf i's arguments for the high siatus
the Qur'anic phrase "the Book and the Wisdom" (Qur'an, ii, 151; iii, 164; iv,
113; lxii, 2).By this means he argued that.rhe prophetie tradition is a type of
divine inspiration; for while the Book refers to the Qur'an, the Wisdom is

explained as being the Tradition, The Qur'an says thal God taught the
:r:eh:t
\ryas argued that the trqdition is
the Book and the Wisdom, and in consequence it
his lvords
not merely a record of what Muhammad said and did, but is a record of
that while
and deeds r.vhich \\'eie subject to divine guidancc. The doctrine holds
the Qur'an is the elernal, uncreated wcrd of God which is not subjeci to
any

human adaptation of rvording, th'e Tiadition also contains an element of

inspiration. in the Qur'an Muhan-rmacl r,vas given the actual words of God; in
the

Tradition the rvorcis used were his own, but they were ultered under divine
guidance, As the comrnunity developed and circumstances arose for lvhich
no

specific coulci be found in the Qur'an, it lvas essential that some satisfactory
lar,,,,

principle should be follorved. Matters should noi be dealt with according to

the

thel'
discretioir of ruiers rr magistrates; there must be.some aulhority on lvhich
shor-rld base thelr jr-rdgnents. It is therefore not surprising that the communitl'

eventually" came to accept Tradition as its second basis, for lvhen a secondarl'
aLrthority was sought, no higher one could be found than the record ol the "vords
anci deeds u'hich \\'ere traced back to the Prophet'

It may safely.be assumed that frorn the very begiming Muslims rvere
'',r'hen Islam
i,teiested in what the Prophet said and c1id, and that after his death,
lvho had
spread r,viclely, ne\,\ convefis lvoulcl.be anxious to hear about hinl' Those
and in
associated r.v.iih him r.r.ouid be listened to eagerly as they told about him,
course of time a great amount of n-raterial became current. \\&ile tl-ris was largely
snrall
conveyed by' ,,r'ord of mouih, tltere is reason to believe thal some rnen made
l';ooks, but nevertheless the
collecrion for the own use. These can irarclii,be called
,-,.,aterial ihey contained rvas incorporarecl in laler ivorks.
It was a considerable
tirr-rebefoie any reai collection of traditioils 1,',/&S macle, giving materia-l suppofied
irr eacl-i ii:staiici: b3, a .-:he.in tf ar-riir+:'ities trsring it back
tc thr: Prcphr,i, li nclr:bl*

l,,,ork, iii.rt norma.,lly ccnsiderecl to be a. I{adiih viorl<, rt'as the sii'a oi

itrn Ishaq
(d' 2.18 or
(151 A ir,) .irlich has bet,n pre:;.*rvecl in the t'tcessiott c.,i lbrl Hisiraii'r
,,,:
 2i3 A.l-{), Another r,vas the Mlaghazi waqidi (130-207 A.H.) These books
of
make use of the principle of isnad, but they do not use it in such a
thoroughgoing
'works, for it is sometimes partial,
manner as we find in the later Hadith
purpose is to give
sometimes complele, but sometimes omitted altogether' Their
a record of the Prophei's carebr, which also is different
fonn the plan of Hadith

works, in rvhich the traditions ali stand by themselves and do not present a
connected narrative. The first book to be compiied on a principle
approaching

rvhat we frnd later was the Muwatta' of Malik (c, 93-1.19 A.H.)
the great Mediqa
of hadith
doctor of law. He gives isnads, but not alway's in the complete.mannel
,,vorks, and he arranges his material according to subject rnatter. Although the
one of the
Ivlurvatta' is really a handbook on lalv, it has been held by some to be
basic Hadith works. Nlalik sometimes traces traditions':back to the
Prophet,

solrretimes is content to .trace thep back to a contpanion of the Propl-rei, and

sogetrmes gives his olv-n opinion about matters'

lrt

t--/g*ong the earliest collections of F{adith rvhich are still extant and in print are the
-.-'

Musnad of Abu Daud Tal,alis (d. 203 or 2A4 A F{ ) and the Flusnad oiAhmad
b.

(attribuled) u'as
F{anbal (164-24l A.t{) ccmpiled by his son. The term musnad
used because such bookr grouped together the traditions coming from
the same
then gcirlg
Companion, giving all the traditions attributed to one Companion and
on to another. While this method had its interesl, it lvas not very practical,
as

u'ould
people rvould be anxious to find information on parlicular subjects and
require to do a great amount of readin-e belore finding the point which interested
Lhery---
r,,as aftenvards adopted. called musonnaf(classified), by
rvhich
{{"rr"rmethod
it
the material was arranged, not according to the Companion through rvhonr
came, but according to the subject matter. Thls method, which ll{alik had
earlier

used in the Muvi,'atta', Ivlade possible flor people to find guidance on an]'
it
pariicular subject more easily, and this type of book gainecl popularity' While
,,,,rsnad uvorks continued to be quoted, the books rvhich were later recognized
as

mosr authoritative lvere ail of the musannaf type. 1. course of iime

six of these

book-s came to be recognizeci by Sunnis as the mosl auihoritali'ie

of all. These
.;:.rie r}:e Sahih of Eukhari $ga-256 A.l-i.), tl:e Sa-hiir of i'di-isli,rt ic, 2C2-261
(d'
A.i{.), and t}ie iour sgnnan wcrles of ALrtr Dauv'ud {202-275 A.}J'), Tirrnidhi
,li
 \l

-
L,'
A.H) and Ibn Majah (209-273 4.H) They wsre noi
219 A.Fi,), Nasai (215-303
all recognised immediately, but the two Sahihs fairly quickly commended
themselves, The collection rvhich took longest to gain acceplance r,vas the work
of Ibn Majah which was accepted in the East before it commended itself in the

West. But as late as the seventh century ibn as Salah (577-643 A.H), a great
authority who taught in Damascus, made no reference to Ibn Majah in his 'Ulum
al- hadith. ibn Khaidun (732-808 A.H.), who belonged to Tunis, still spoke of the
five books, Ibn Majah being omitted by him. While Tirmidhi's work was earlier
than Ibn Majah's in receiving recognition, it'also had to wait quite a considerable
time. In view of the importance of his notes this may seem surprising, for his
work was a valuable contribution to the study of hadith. Perhaps the reason for
the <lelay r,vas the fact that he includes -some traditions which suggest Shi'i
tendencies.
The subject-matter of Hadith is verl' comprehensive, covering almost every topic
. on which guidance might be sought. This may be illustrated from a consideration
of the subjects covered by Bukhari in his Sahih r,,'hich is divided into 97 books,
I{e stafis ,,vith three books on the beginni, g of the revelation, faith and
knor.vledge. Next come 3 0 books connecteil lvith ablution, praver, zakat.
pilglimage ancl fasring, rnosr of thtm dealine r',ilh diflerent ma[ters ccncci-ning
prayer. This is followed by 22 books dealing rvith matters of business,
trusteeship, and in general rvith conditions of employment and various legai
matters. Then come three books on fighting for tl,e faith and dealing with subject
peoples, folloried by' one on the beginning of creation. The next four deal r.vith
prophets and ,,r'ith the fine qualities of various contemporaries of the
Prophet(s.m ), including some account of the Prophet's life up to the Hijra. The
next book deals r.i,'itir the Prophet's career'in Medina. Then lollow' trvo books
giving commentary on passages from the Quran. The next three deal with
marriage, divorce and the maiirtenarrce dr-re to one 's family. From here to book 9.5

various subjecls are treated, among which are such matters as food, drink,
clorhing, se einly behaviour, nredicine, invitations, \'ows, the expiation of broken
vows) blood-rev en?ae, persecution, ii:e inteqpretation of visions, civil strife anri
the trials before the r:nci of the r,,,orld. Bock 95 stresses the irnporlanct of

,l
i
i -{ . -l-t
1
1
.)\
 i

,t

adhering to the Qur'an and the Sunna, and the last book, w'hich is fairly
lengthy,

deals with God's trniiy".

This surnmary account of the contents of Bukhari's Sahih gives some idea of
the

materiar dealt with in Hadith. Musiim's Sahih covers very much the
same

ground. The four Sunan works conftne themselves to matters of religious

observance, law, personal relationships, and eschatology, but Tirmidhi

includes

some comnentaly on the.Qur'an,,and dev9tes to the fine qualities of

various

people, a book in which he includes material about'the prophet, his family, and
his companions. Tin:ridhi's work is somelimes cailed a sahih'
One reason for compiling large collections of traditions rvas to supply the
community r,vith information which r.vas considered by their authors to be lvorthy
of being preserved. It was early. recognized that a considerable amount of
spurious material r.vas being fabricated, and so efforls 'were made to counteract
tiir. ny the second century the criticism of traditions w'as u'ell developed, and
i,varnings were given against unreliable transmitters. Indeed the principle of
the

criticism 1,vas rather lo discuss the men who trarr,mitted traditions than to
investigate the material itself. One result of this )vas the production of
biographical works in w'hich informalion \!'as provided regarding the men rvhose
lvat
names appear ip isnad. A very important r.vork of this nature is Kitab al-jarh
ta'dil by Ibn Hatirn ar-Razi (d.327 A.H.) in rvhich details are provided about a
large number of traditionists and quotations are made from earlier authorities
r:garding their reliabilitli'. Ai times., horvei'e.r, this material is confusing, for 1e
ma), find that rvhiie one authority considered a cerlain man reliable another
considered irim unreliable, Apart form such statements aboul the qualitl' of
lransmitters, it rr.as also important to knor,v. rvhen traditionists w'ere born and
ri,l-ien they diec1, u,,here they iived and rvhere they travellecl in the course of their
studies, vi,ho the auihoritles were,,vith rvhont.they'studied and lvho came to
ltudf
,,vith them ancl tra.nsmitted traclrtions from thern. The date r.vhen a IIlan iived r'vas
to
intporlant, for a lotowledge of this would show whether those vrho were said
have transnrittecl from him cor-rld har,'.: rnet him, and vlhelher he could have met
'{nrretr; are mafiy
r.hose fi-onr ri,ircrn he ciaimed tc lrr,v+ received tra.ej-iiiaiis.
biographical riiotionaries which are :ioiiuria.rely available in print' Aniong ihese
irerrro. uray be nrarJe of ;,-)iraliaL;i's'l'acLhkirat iil-hut{az (4 \'ols., l-la'iclarabad,
 1315 A.H) anci his Mizan ai-itrdal (3 r,ois., Cairo, i325 A.H,); ibn Hajai'at-
'Asqalani's Tahadhib at-tahdhib (12 vols., F{aidarabad, 1325-28 A.H.) and his
Lisan al-mizan (6 vols., Haidaraba d, t32g-31 A.H.); Ibn a1-'Imad's Shadharat
adh-dhahab (8 vols., Cairo, 1350-51 A.H.). There are also works on the men of
particular legal schools, and of people of par-ticular centuries, as well as more
general rvorks containing biographies of inen of ail types, not confined to
traditionists. Shadharat adh-dhahab really belongs to this class, but. it is
partibularly valuable for information about traditionists, as it covers the long
period up to the year 1000 A.H
The vast developrnent of traditions reputed to con-ie from the Prophet (s.rn,) made
it necessary tg adopt certain principleb reghrding their criticism. For example,
Bukhari, in compiling his work, said he had collected 600,000 traditions, and yet
he inclr.rcled only 7,275 altogether in his Sahih, a tr:al which is saicl to be'reciuced
to 4,000, or even 2762, r,vhen repetitions are eliminated. Abu dat'vud out of
500,000 traditions inciuded only 4,800 in his sunan, and of these he said that
sonte lr,ere not sound. it shoulci be understooci, Itorl'el'er, that li{ren one speaks of

600,000 tradiiL.rns, for example. this does not mean that number of separate it: ns

of infot'matioi, E,ach tradition has trvo parts, the isnad (the c.hain of aLrthori' es

through rvhom it is transmittecl) aird the matn (text). If therefore \,\'e found the
same text with , SBy, three different isnads, that would be considered to represent
three traditions. Bul even when one makes allowance for such a consideration, it
is still cbvious that a vast number of traditions rvere discarded b1' reputable

Origin and Developnient of the Science of Hadith

What was kno,,v,n as "llrn al-haclith (th. science of, Tradition) gradually
developed. The first w'riter to compile a comprehensive r.^,'ork of this type rvas
Abu lr4uhamrnad ar-Ramahunnuzi (d.c,370 A.FI.). Fiis rvork, entitled I{itab al'
mttltnrlrlilk at-yosit bnin ar-rnw,i xtcri tv{t'i, is preservecl in a number of MSS, but
has nol yet been published, He lr,as soon followed by al-l{akirn Abu 'Abdallah
Mul-rammad b. 'Abdaliah an-Nais.aburi (32i-405 A,H.) whc compiled !;itrt.b
;t';n'i"i1"it!'i:!t!?;i a!-!tar!tt!t, in ir:rltich he deals';'ithth'ru'hole subject, aividing his'
rrraterial into 52 categoi'ies. An eciition of this ia'ori hai been published b,v Dr.
,.. {i
 Mu'azzam Husain (Cairo, 1g37), Cne
other work of importance which may be
maentioned is by Abu 'Amr 'Uthman
b. 'abd ar-Rahman ash-Shahrazuri, knoryn
Ibn as-Salah (d. 64j A.H.) In his introciuccion
as
he calls it Kirub ma,rifat onwq,
'ilm ttl-hadith. A lithographed edition was published 'ulum al-hadith,
and an
edition entitled'Ulum al-hadith was published
in Aieppo in 1350/1931 along
rvith the commentary on it by zain ad-Din 'Abu
ar-Rahim b. al-Husain al-,Iraqi
(d'806 A'H) cailed at-Taqyid wal idah
lima uttiqa wa ughliqa min muqa6dimat
Ibn as-Salah' This work which divides the materiai
into 655 categories has been
greatly valued, as is shoivn from the commentaries
wrilten on it, and the
selections made from it' It may r.vith;justice
be called the classical work on the
subject' Such rvorks were a natural and necessary
cevelopment to systematize the
various studies rvhich had been developed
since tradltionirt, U.gun'* i;;;;;;
the crede,tials of rransmitters and the value
of their traditions.
Classifi cation of Hacl i fh
Traditions have comrnoniy been 'divided into three
main groups; (l) sahih
(sound), (2) hasan (good), and (3) catf (rveak),
or saqim (infLnn). Alr rhe
traditions given by Bttkhari anct L[uslim are recko:
t:d sahih, as are those not
given by them rvhich fulfiti the condjtions
iaid do.rvr by either or boih olrhese
men' and also others which are thoroughly reliable
in the opinio, of other
au thorities,
There is more difficulry in cletermining the hosan
traditions, because different
explanations hav-e been given of this rerrn.
ibn as Salah in,Ulum al-hadith, pp.
30 ft', discusses the matter at length. He tells
thar AbLr Sulaiman al-Khattabi (d.
386 or 388 A'H') said hasan traditions are those ri'hose
source is knorvn and
rvhose men are rv'ell-knor.r'n, are the Iargest'class
rvhich is recognized, and aie
accepted b1' rnost of the learned and macle use
of by the dociors of the larv.
l-lrmidhi expiained hasan as the t)'pe 'ul'hose isnad contains
no one suspecteci of
f,alsehood, w.hich does not clisagree w'ith ivhat
is generally reporled, ancl ,,vhich
has soiilething sirrtilal ir'aiisrniite..i 1,1'another
Iine. ibn as,salah aiso quoies a iarer
scholar lvhoni he cloes noI narre, but ri,Jro is'said to
be Abul Far.al b. ai_JaLrzi (d.
597 A' H'), to ihe effect that hasan tradiiicns conlain
;qofire slig5t weak-*ess
anci at'e so vei'y nearly rigiit and edmissible that "ery
ihey are fii to i:e useel ais a basis
ior Iegai decisions.
t,. "'.if
.)t
 Muslim which he renders are
All the traditions other ihan those of Bukhari an<1

come up to the
called hasan, whereas this group contains a number which do not
standarC required to merit that title.

Whiie hasan traditions have been recognised as valid bases for legal
decisions

this connot apply to daif traditions; but all traditions called da'if
are not rejected
incidents ma]
out of hand. those rvhich exhort people to do.good, or which tell le,
quoted. Abu Dawud quite often uses da'if traditions when he can find nolhing
are various grades of
better to illustrate the point ,'vith r.vhich he is dealing, There
rveak traditions with different types of de'fects descending
from those which may
on occasion be quoted, through those r,vith links missing or h'ith
other defects in

the chain of transmission, traclitions which disaSrle *t:n is commonly

llntt
reported, or rvhich conceal defects, io traditions rvhich are fictitious'

In the course of the Mishkat it ,.vill be noted that a number of technical

terms are

usecl by Tirmicthi in refening to the nat,,ie of traditions

rvhich come from his
are often
collection, in the,urorks of Abu Darvud, .\asai and lbn lvlajah remarks
'a
made aboui the quality traditrons, bui none have done this in such
of
rhoroughgoing manner as l'irmidhi. He nor-maily adds a noie at ihe
end of, his
a book in
traditions to indicaie their nature. At the end of his collection he has
r.rhich he begins lo explain the technicai terms he uses, bul unlor-tunately'he
has

not done it as fully as one might desire

:.
be convenient here to explain some of the technical terms used
in
it n-ray
conneciion vvith tradilions.

It may refer
Gltarib is sometimes applied to the marn and sometimes to the isnad.
the same
to the only' tradition known by a cdrtain lind of transmission, aithough
gharib regarding Lhe isrtad'
rradition may be l<norvn by other iines, this type being
It may refer to a tradition whose matn has only one transmiter, this type being
gtrarib r*garding both isnari and matn. trt r':iay refer
to a tradition'ihich ccmes
some atldition to lvllat is
only from a man rvho is considered reiiable, or iii vrhich
;' tl
 ic)und in otirer lines of the saine iradition is made by' a man of this
quality, such a
tradition beign called gharib shaih.

Mauquf refers to an isnad which stops at one of the Companions and does not
rrace the tradition to the prophet.

Muallal is used of a tradition whigh may,ostensibly be sound but has some not
readily apparent u'eakness. This may consist of preteniling that a mursal
tradition
has a full isnad, or that a mauquf tradition goes back to the prophet;
or two
traditions may be jumbled together, or there may be some misconception
' introduced by a transmitter.
. :..

Munkar is used of a tradition from a weak transmitter which disagr:ees rvirh w.hat
is generally reported.

fuIunqoti'is an isnad rvith a link missing at the beginning, middle, or enci.

Murssi 's used of a tradition ri'here a man in the generation follow:ing ,,rar of the
Prophet's companions quotes the prophet directrv
I

Shadh is used of a tradition coming from a single transmitter and c.-rntr-adicting

another. Ii the transmitter is a recognized authority, it deserves e:ramination, bur
if he is not, the tradition is to be rejected.

There are a number of other teciurical terms relating to traditions, but

I hare
confined myself to tl-rese terms as they s'eem to rne quite enough for tlie
interciisciplinary students as basics.of the science of hadith.
:
r$7r!r/u:l- -r -'1

An Eleme ntary Studv of lsiamic Hisiory

it,,'],i. Sir:ii're: Haru n

intrcductiot'i

V;e reeC iristory for insiruciion and delrghi, and irt doing sc, vle build up our 3wn
uatterls f6r an unoerstanciing oi tire pasi. Histoi'iography i.r important for the
siudent nf hlstoilr {nr i^nany reesorrs, wniie aciding to his knowieCge a student can
develop his style ai-id deiine his aiiiiude towarcls the meaning and purpose of
history. ,"\ genei'al comparison ,:f l.ire works of the gr-eai histoiians, togeiiier with a
,Jeiarilecl siudy of ar,.v one oi them can be a very useful exercise foi- a young
historian.

Accoi"ding tc' l,r iv't Sttrr"i;r iristcr':r, in ci^cer to ire a systenratic recotrj anC
inierpretalicn oi the pasi, rlenei-iC upoil sorne corrditions: il) the cievelopmeni of
lhe art cf viriiirrg and the aecLin'r.:jlation oi written recorcjs, i2) The C':','elopment cf
a selrse of hisiory i,e, an awereli;ss of change and developnrent i;];'cugh lime,
(3) *re llevelopmerrt of a criiicai aitiiucie toin'ards sources ancj uncheci<stj
aiiihoi-ities i,e. tiie evc;iu1:icln of hi:;io'^ical meihod.
Be,ore the a,jveni i,.i'Ai':;ri; historian,s i:r' Cthr:r' histciiilnS wh,f, \,vii:te in AlaLril lr: the
-!-hu','didtts
i,,'lr-islri;t ul:iiri G.Ji1']+j Grr-lek histr-,riaiis. viz, Herodoiirs and l':ilf.i:nei
iarne il v,rriiirig his'rcry l"ne 1'crr,r;r (4?.,1-425 B.C) ir:snite irf l':is lri;duiiit'ani
;oi'r'ie inlcriirac[".s,,;(eri i? la]rTr;;Lrs nisi:o,"ian becautse of his'"vide ancl 'taried
ir,ierests. l-le l.;rici'1;,;ic. tl'Jl-s tC ,rr.ii',1,' c;unii-ies Iike Egypi, Syri:1. Bae)'ir:lia,
Pei^sig, Gi'eece an'i liniit;i,*r^r; ilai.v to r:c;liect data fcl'ilis history. Tne Fi'ab
ristci^ii;i: ivle:;urii reseiilblc,;i iriil in ihese iespects, end that is :ruhy he is caii:':d
,irrii; FiercC+l.lis. 'rhiicyciid*s (33i,-399 Ll.C.) is r-epr,lied as a !reai ltisicii:ar;,
:'ili.i.-rrali*.1 in r:ll1:lr,:'r.. i'iis merhoi r','as objective and cri,ticai. i-ls sii',:',lr ic :rt:
impartlai i;nC itied nlrs t;l,ricsi lc asceiiain hls facts.

i-i i s t,; ii ca l'-l r: I i s c io u $ n e5 s in i s; i a n-'t

Itoie of iire 'ifur'a:'l ai-:C ,i",9 i"'i3(iii,

'islanr i:; e rcligicn v,;;iri a strrrrg -q€irsi; cf histcry, rightly observes Bernalci Leti'iis.
'The
tv;c greai 'iclr.iices cf frLrir;iir 1,,;1g,r,rig1jgg and experiettce, as cie-qciibed in tlre
Hol'i fturcin, at'e natli's ai^icl irisi,;ry tne third source being inir-rition. llegarditig
hisioi';r Bei-nai-ij i-t-.'*,i5 sa;ts in'Hisioi-,arrs cf the Micjcile East'inet God i-liniseiiiold
*i<;ries aboui ine neoples cf tire pasi, ancl indeed ihe Qura:r ls fr;li i:f ',r'ai'nings
'Ihe Qur-arr si)!s : 'We iell you stcries of tne Apostles,
fi-oir the lessoi'is oi hisicrri,.
whicn wiii strr:ngih*n rioul-s heans, ?ni.l il-rus bring vou ihe Truth an exhcriatiorr
anC a rei;iindei'fcr ti;e believeis i'lluian, )(i 12C). The Qur-an cies,:ribes tiie stcries
,:f ine people caileri 'A,J arrd Th:irnucl, ihe israelites, ihe peopie of l'tclah, iira
pecple of Soiar;'r anC Gomar;-eh an,i rnany others io enlighien us aboui lneli'
acii,rities u,,hich bror-lght them tc gn,ef so that i,ve 613r1 De ,::;'-liilus abor-rl ihe
piifalls iii our oarrr. l-he ti;ran rjia'"t,s cii, Eti;:iticit U thr, nat:oil* ot thil pasi trrhc,
su,'iered fo;-iheii- misdecds and vioiati,lr: r;f Gotj's contmands. 1t say'i. '.ia', iOii.
iyl;-rhan'i:::aci) ti-a,,,ei 'tlr thc,eanh ic fjnij out surely the r:oltse,lLlelceS of li:;st','.'i'tc
Clenieii ihe iiUtn'. ilir, jiiS;rr,t. i,i-;O(,1'iitq il ihe ff,,rran: i:; :ici ile l;lele na,'ialii:n Cf
gcoi olrl Cays. lt is a,r;e:njrrg againsi ihe piiialls in olii'patir. 1-ho r'ril,tcricai i''.:lrC
.
is 6L ii11;i, i1i)rirjr'r i;i;i ;l;i'i ii"ii:;lt;:r ;iti: ii'i,\i,' -'' '":l ui i.h'.r ii;;: ai:or-ii 'ri;; r,ai ii'-;L:l:i i'' rlli '
.i-r

tliat i;rai,[t l',iirj,cn i:*rre;:ih tlre sirrfa,":e of lh;: bc.ritoriiless ccearr of fiti:,li;n
existeii,:L." tiiese ai'e i.nn ii;ll;airor: rvffiil'r ocill lc ihe faci ih:ri tne r-'1,:.,1y i.:l.r,'air
provides us with incentive to the study of history. The spirit of the Quran itself is
thus conducive to historical research and the development of history of
universal
teaching and they
history was received by the Muslims in the shape of religious
proved themselves worthy students of the subject'
grov*th of
Role of Pre-lslamlc poems and genealogical tables in the
historical consciousness.
poems and
The Pre-lslamic description of the 'Battle-days f the Arabs' in Arabic
the genealogical tables at best indicate a line of interest and a technique of
'History
narration but provide us no idea of history (Lewis). Franz Rosenthal says;
loomed very large in Muhammad's thinking"
prof. Gibb iryslf,rt it is fhe Quran vyhich made the Muslims 'History-Conscious''
Nevertheless, "The Arabs had a kind of historical tradition, says Lewis, even
days of the
before the beginning of lslam, the so called Ayyam al-Arab or battle
Arabs, which descri[ed in real detail campaigns between two or more tribes and
the heroic deeds of their, leaders". though this kind of historiography was to a
very high degree mythological, yet, in the opinion of Lewis, their proximity to
life'
possible
tneir inieresiin the feelin! of the masses and their sense of real and
detail made ihem suitable as the nucleus of real historiography reports''
The
description of the heroic deeds of the tribes and clans in Arabic
poems of Pre-
preserve the
lslamic times provided ihe Muslims with a stimulus to record and
heroic exploits and the noble deeds of their prophet and his companions and of
the early heroes of lslam.
ln the words of Franz Rasenthal 'the cirltural and economic level of the nomad
population was, as it has always been too low to support any literary effort'' "The
Arabs," writes L.H. Qurieshi, "db not seem to have a word for history. Some of the
earlier writers used the term khabar for history. But in khablar forms of history the
continuity of a historical process is difficult to convey. Any deep interpretation of
facts alsb is ruled out, because the tendency is to look upon life as a series of
separate incidents without much anxiety to discover their interaction." Khabar
was narration pure and simple, lt was iold like a vivid short story, Sometimes
containing a few verses to drlve a point home or to give a dramaiic quality; it was
very much like a dramatic dialogue.

Fr g-
 Evolution of Muslim Historiography

Muslim historiography began after the rise g,.of lslam But, as already-said' the study
description of their'Battle- Days'
of genealogy of tn,i'pi* itirmic Arabs *no
about the technique of narration through
had their share in i*puttt! a knowledfe
ini nation of pride among Pre-lslamic tribes
not very definite iOea anoui history.
was operative even
exhibited in their i"..1pii", through the vehic.le .poetry
of
tribal feeling persisted in all its strengh
among the ummayyads, Underlhel tne Muawiyah'
among Arabians, 6i" them, Abid bin shariyya, were summoned by
"t retaie the history of the Xilqt of Yaman'
the founder of the Umayyad Caliphai, to
and of past history which was very
Abid bin shariyya ci'*ptt"o a book of kings
*rtn in demand in the first century of lslam'
The Maghazi
attention hls n1e-1paid by
An important group of materials to which very scanty
is io be taken to mean such
western scholars is called Maghazi material' This
each and the actual results' the
information as the list of expeditions, the aim of
participants, etc' This information is
leader and the number, and the n"*". of the
a,nd alwaqidi.
ur*riv giren witno* any lsnad both by lbn lshaq Quran' where some of the
Litle of the Magnari mrieriat can be olnvea from the
be the result of the work of the
expeditions only fiave Oeen mentioned' lt must
of persons and.sifting and
students of the *rn|,rii, questioning tutg" number$
process continued after lbn lshaq' He
arranging the infoiiration is obtainei . rnis
to be unable to date or place
knows of severai"*p"Jitions which he seems
al-waqidi, who had access to
chronologically unO it'ti. has been improved by
has improved unon l!1 lshaq in
more information tt'.,un lbn lshaq. lbn Hisham ioo
some respects. ton Histram has often added to
lbn lshaq's account of the name
;iih; ;;; l"ft in;ha;a; ot ruuoin, when the prophet used to be absent
lbn lshaq
Maghazi as.wellas on sira'
Muhammad lbn lshaq is the most famous writer on
be matched by waqidi' the
and he is regaroeo ut tr'. highest authority, only to
lbn Ishaq even excels
famous Maghaziwriter. But in r"rr"it, ,nd trurt*orthiness
of the Prophet and
Waqidi. He had seen Anas bin lrllalek one of the companions
lmam Malik has questioned
had been a great favourite of his teacher lmam Zuhri'
he heard from the Jews' He
the veracity of lbn lsaq since ne repor,ed-facts yl,igh
book sirat-i-Rasulullah' the
depended on ant-i-ritab for his sources for part f his
also some other charges
part of which oeats witn pre-tslamic Arabia. There are
fabricated poems in his
against him, according to Prof. nuri. lbn tshaq inserted
Fourthly, hefr.a.9 g.iven some
Sira. Thirdfy ne commltted rnistakes in genealogy.
"has
false refer"n."u in his work. Fifthly, rre been-charged with shite tendencies
truth' He was a Qadarite in
and leanings, and Prof, Duri .ry*inuf it is not without
he is anti Umayyad' Prof'
his belief anO conviction. But against the charge that
iiffi;. *iniri il;; (pr;; D;ri' Cnti.ii, n"m-i-rarixh lndal-Arab) the rirst
of the Prophet was written by
book, against lb"n lshah however, on the biography
f nn ftnr-q for al Mansur, the Abbasid Caliph
Sirat-i-Rasulullah
available in its original form'
The sirat-i-Rasulullah of lbn lshaq (d. 767 A.D) is not
edition' known as Sirat-i-
lbn l{isham brought out a very elaboiate and enlarge'J
work' The first boiok on the
lbn Hisham rvhich 1^.*uint ai a relic of its original
who died in 758 A'D' About
campaigns was however, written by Musa bin uq'ba or Ali'
the controversy io *r.o was the iirst Muslim, Abu Bakr, Zaid b' Harith
"u
lbn lshaq mentions that it was Ali'

lbn Hisham
and died at Fustat in Egypt (213 or
Abdur Marek bin Hisham was born in Basra
handling of his materials lbn Hisham
218 A.H) Accordlng to Khuda Bakhsh, in the
He reveals greater critical insight'
shows a distinct advance upon lbn lshaq.
the information comes and
shows an inclination to test the sources irom which (Khuda Bukhsh)'
expresses nis opinion on iheir authenticity or otherwise'
false riwayet (reporls) in the
According to Prof. Duri, lbn Hisham corrected the poems' He also brought'
first part of lbn r=naq;i book and dropped the fabricated
accordingtothe,nou"authorityhis'bookcloserinstylewiththeMuhaddithin
synate though highly
(Traditionists)., tnn Hi.r,un'' *as Philologist of same repute
"
of him.

lbn Sad
r'vho was secretary of al-
the great woi'k on biography was written by lbn sad
lbn Sad's Tabaqat-i-
Waqidi, the renownui niit.ian of the Muslim conquests'
regarded as more reliable and
Kabir, Tabaqari-sughit and Tarikh-l-lslam are
who was patronised by Yahya
authentic ihan the w:orks of his master al-Waqidi,
lbn Sad, the writer of another
Barmaki, the Waiir of the Caliph Harun-ar-Rashid
and elaborate
work Tahclhib at-Tahdhib is also praised for his comprehensive Hashimite born
lbn Sad, a
rvork on the lives o] the prophet and his companions'
the famous historian
in the town of easia, ,rb.*qr.ntly settled in Baghdad'
Baladhuri was nii disciple. He paised away in aqA
A'A' His Tabaqat in eight
of his companions' lbn
volumes deals *itt, tn" life of the Prophet and the lives
praised his authenticity'As
Hajar, lbn Khallikan, lmam Malik and others have
information'
afrl"Ov said lbn Sad's biographies are a rnine of useful

Al-Waqidi
al-Sirah and Kitab al-
Al-Waqidi, the master of lbn Sad wrote two works, Kitab
thoroughly unreliable;
Tarikh, al-lr/agnaii. According to lmam Shafei, Waqidi is
while writing his work'
since he OepenJ*J upon Jeuish sources of information
and historical output 'ln
According to Khuda Bakhsh, siupendous was his literary
says' "he shows a
the history or tne companions of the Prophet, Khr-rda Bakhsh
in the handling of his
notable advance ,pon t'',i, criticisnr of his works forerunners
cohereni historical
materials. t-tis wort<s give us the impression of a connected'
lively Style,,,
work, replying with sunni hui^nour, resplendent with a
respect of lsnad than lbn
According to Prof. Duri, waqicii is more pai-ticular in
hls invesiiga'tion r:f facts ano cja'ies
!slraq. l-le was moi-e ci"itical anci scie ntific iil
Duri says
lnclal-Arab PP, 30-31)" Waqicii also supplied' Prof'
iirm-ilfarit<h,
)iopogrrphical ani geographica! details;Y1th t"Otrd to the battlefields ofihe
4
link be tween lbn Sad's tabaqat-i-Kabir and tabari's history. the early historians in
fact prepared the way for the great historians like Tabari and Masudi,

Criticism

the Ansab al-Ashraf, the genealogies of the nobles, is written on a biographical

pattern. Two volumes only of this work are extant. (Hitti). "ln spite of all al-
Baladhuri's merits", writes Encyclopedia of lslam. His value as a historical source
has been occasionally over estimated. lt's not correct to say that he always gives
the original texts which later writers embellished and expanded. lt may be with
much more truth presumed that from the agreement of essential portions of his
works with later more detailed works that he abridged the material at his disposal
in a number of cases though he often remind faithful to his sources. His style
aims at conciseness at the expense, at times of the artistic effect. We seldom
meet with long stories, though they do orcur. Baladhuri wrote a history of the
Muslim conquests which, in the words of Khuda Bakhsh, conspicuous by an
absence of pedantry not only exhibits excellence of method, but shows
throughout, tact and taste of a cultivated mind accustomed to the best society
and freedom from the bondage of the traditionists.
According to Philip Hitti, certain passages of futuh al-Buldan are mutilated and
ambiguorJs. But it is free from exaggerition and the flames of imagination. And
through cut the work the sincere attempt of the author to get to the fact as it
happened and to record it as it reached him is noticeable."
Baladhuri has been quoted freely not only by historians but also geographers.
Yaqut in his Mujam al-Buladan, and Maqdisi Hamadani and Masudi have
extensively used him as a source.

lbn Qutaiba

lbn Qutaiba (276A.Hi89 A.D) wrote Kitab al-Maarif (Book of knowledge), a short
and compact work. Tl're book begins with the creation and the author cites
Biblical passages referring to it and the creation of man and his fall, Then follows
the history of the patriarchs according to biblical and Arab legends. The author
then deals with those old Arabs who had renounced Pre-lslamic heathenism.
This is followed by a section n the genealogy of the Arab tribes supplemented by
the biographies of the Prophet, his kinsmen his followers adn companions, and
finally the caliphs up to the time of ihe author. The next section contains and
account of the famous men of the Muslim world. The book concludes with a
history of the south Arabian dynastties of Pre lslamic times and of the Persian
kings, This shows that the old traditional view is, to a great extent, discarded and
replaced by a wide intellectual vision. The history of the Prophet forms now only a
part of the whole work and non Muslim nations claim attention. From a different
angle of vision history is now studied. Even the tendency to look at the events of
the past not merely from a religious point of view, gains ground.
the passion for history increased more and mr:re. Moreover, history brought in its
train archaeology, geography and ethnography.
Historical vision was widened because of muslim contact with other races
following the couquest of many non Muslim countries.
Lr
 The Age of Tabari and Masudi
Tabari-His merits

After Baiadhuri and other historians mentioned above the next great historians
were Tabari and Masudi with whom the golden age of Muslim historiography was
ushered in. To Mhamrnad Jarir Abu Jafar al-Tabari we owe two of the most
important works. His exhaustive commentary on the Quran and his chronology of
Aposles and Kings, entitled Kitab al Muluk-wa-Rasul, brought dovrn to 298 A.H
Tabari acquired eminence in Tradition, Law, reading of the Quran and history.
According io Margoliouth, Tabari is the first great Muslim historian who dealt with
the subject in tne comprehensive and annalistic method and formed a
chronological sense of events. His book on history is the most informative and
reliable work. As Margoliouth says, the sequence of events is very important in
the art of history writing and Tabari has mentioned it upto the last. The Universal
history mentioned above was ten times bigger in its original form than in its
present shape. Tabari has dealt with the history of pre lslamic priod in two
volumes and he has dwelt upon the life of the Prophet, the pious Caliphs, the
Umayyad and the Abbaisd dynasty up to 302 A.H/915 A.D'

Criticisrn

Some historians based their work on Tabari's history like lbn Maskawaih and
lbnul Athir. lbul Athir's history Al-Kamil fit-Tarikh which comes up to i123 A.H' is
an abbreviaiion of the woi'k of Tabari with additional developments. Prof, Gibb
observes: "The excellence of Tabari is his authority and comprehensiveness
which marked the close of an epoch. No later compiier ever set himself to collect
and investigate afresh the materials for the early history of lslam, but either
abstracted itrem from al-Tabari (sometirnes supplemented by al-Baladhuri), cr
else began where al-Tabari left off. At the same time, the poverty of the latier parl
of al-Tabari's work gave warning that ihe purely traditionist approach to history
was no longer sufiicient. The bureaucratic organization of government brought
the class of officials and courtiers to the fore as authorities for political history and
relegated the men of religion to the second place. For this reason also, the third
century marks the end of a stage in Arabic historiography. But Prof. Gibb draws
our attention to the fact that Tabari described the conquest of Spain by the
Muslims, such an important affair, within six lines only. this betrays his want of
sense of proportion.

The cause of Tabari's weakness as pointed out by Gibb :

the weakness or insufiiciency in Tabari's traditionist approach to history hinted

above may be explained by the fact that Tabari relied on the reports of Saif b,
Umar, an Akhabari, at best a pseudo-historian more than the reports of al-Waqidi,
a reputed historian, simply because the latter sometimes took reports from
Jelvish sources.

But his merits as a historian are considerable. Besides his authority and
comprehensiveness Tabari possessed like other great Muslim historians the
sense of time and accuracy in dating the events which became the hall mark of
'i'aOari
iVir-rslirn historii:graplry'. has ai"rarrgecl all tlre ever-,ts accr:i'dirrg to tlre year
of happening and has collected as many versions of an event as he was able to
find oui. Tabari was a true historian in the sense that he wrote history without any
6b 8
motives and did not try to shape it according to particular interests and objects'
A;;;rdiil t,o fn.y.lopedia of lslam, he refused so many otficial positions and
A life
devoted irnote frelrte'Oty and independently to history reading and writing.
sketch of Tabari may not be without interest'

Tabari was born at Anmul in Tabaristan from where he proceeded to Rayy.

Here
one of his teachers Muhammad bin Humaid Razi, communicated to him more
than one tack traditions. From Rayy Tabari went to Baghdad to. attend the
for a
lectures of the learned for some time-ind then left for Basra, having stopped
time at wasit. From Basra he went to Kufa, where he learnt another one lakh
traditions from one sheikh Abbu Kuraib. From Kufa he came back to Baghdad
where he took to the studies of law and the Holy Quran. Thence he traveled
(253
westward and having halted at some Syrian cities he proceeded.to Fustat
A.hil fn-Fustat the most hospitable Savant was Ali bin Sarraj who admired
iabiri's knowledge in the religious sciences as well as in poe!U'. Froln Fustat he
returned to Baghdad and from there to Tabristan which he visited again 290
A.H'
oqing to
On his return to Baghdad he incurred the displeasure of the Hambalities
Tabari
r"*rr[ of f,it abjut their founder which was regarded as objectionable.
"had also to quit Tabaristan after his last visit. because he did not support the
of the three catiphs from the pulpit of the mosque, a practice then rife in
""*i"g
tt ri pilrince even though he had Shiite proclivities. So, he was broad-minded
and iolerant in his vies, Jgreat quatity for a historian. Tabari had lqarl! the
Quran
6t d26 ui g.r* age of serLn and had led the prayer at the age of eight and had
923 A.D.
tat<en down traditlon at the age of nine. He breathed his last in 310 A.H.

Masudi

After Tabari the most important figure in historiography_is lvt3syo.i.a.renowned

historian, geographer and philosopher, who was born in Baghdad' He traveled in
Spain, nuisia, C'hina, lndia, Syria and Egypt. Thus he ubdertook extensive tours
to gaiher first hand informatibn for his works on history and geography. His
friuioty, a most extensive work Kitab Akhbar-uz-Zama1, wfttel in 30 volumes
with a supplement of Kitab-al-Awsat, a chronoglogical sketch of general history.
The substance of the two parts was gathered by him in Muruj-us-Dhahabwa
Maadin-al-Jawahir )Meadows of gold and Mines of Precious stones) which is a
history of the universe from creation to 947 A.D. lt embraces social and literary
history and discussions as well as geographic descriptions Unlike Tabari's
niiiow Masudi has arranged events aiound dynasties and empires. He did not
totto#'tne path of Tabari but created his own style of history. writing. His
encyclopedic and historio geographical work includes his researches on-lndo-
persian'Roman and Jewish history and religion as also history of lslam. Muslim
historiography was fully developed at the hands of Tabari and Masudi JheV ygre
foltoweJ Uy a OanO of historians like miskawih lbn Khallikan, Abul Fida and lbn
Khaldun. His famous works are Muruj-uz-Zahab. Kitabul Tanbih and .Risa.lat-
zaman. Throughout Masudi shows the very same lively interest in non Muslims
as in muslim pioples. He has been called muslim Herodotus for his wide interest
,nO f'r*rnistic aititud". "Certainly his book" saVs K!ryla Baksh, stands u.nri.valled
in itr of instruction and amusement.' H.E. Barnes says that Masudi
the same avid curiosity and zeal for information as did the father of
"o*bination
pogs*$"0
history. Ci
.+
 lbn Khaldun (1 332-1406)

lbn Khaldun as Historian :

lBn Khaldun, De Boer observes. "comes forward with a claim to establish new
pf-,ii"r"pniiri Oir.ipline, of which.Aristotle_had.no conception". The historical
works of his foreiunners, particularly of Tabari and Masudi, have had most
influence on the development of his thoughts.

According to Walter J. fischel the historian Tabari is regarded by lbn Khaldun as

one of ttie few good historians,' and counted among those historians of whom
there are "not more than the fingers on one hand". lbn Khaldun leans heavily on
i.nrrii nistorical works and drlws material from him for his history of the non
Arabic peoples and for the illustration of his own socio-philosophical views.
MasuOi discarded ine ofd school of hisioriography which followed closely on the
traditionist method and conceived of a new styte and technique of history writing
which took cognizance of society and social aspects of human tife. This particular
standpoint wa! fully developed by lbn Khaldun and he made a scientific a.n!
analyiic study of hiitory, which established history as a science a subject yvttic!
teac-her us that it is not a mere catalogue of facts, nor a mere narrative of past
happenings, but a science to be studied for understanding the causes.of the rise
and'fall of States and nations. lt is lbn Khaldun's Maqaddima (prolegomena)
which forms his social and political philosophy'

Kitab al-lbar & Muqaddima :

ln the context of the above finding and views let us now discuss lbn Khaldun's
philosophy of history as it has been presented in his Muqaddima. The
iVluqaOiima (Prolegomena) is the long preface or introduction to a larger book
Kitab-al lbar of which ii constitutes the first volume. ln this volume, viz., the
Muqaddima the phenomena of society and State are discussed at length, and in
which the author expounds his sociological and philosophical vigws. The second
book ogf four volumes begins wiih an account of the history of ancient nations
such as those of the pre lslarnic Arabs. Babylonians and Nebateans, Copts,
lsraelites and Jews, early Christians, Persians, Greeks, Romans. Goth' Turks &
Franks upto 8th/14th century and then deals with .the history.of lslam, the
Umayyads, the Abbasides and other dynasties until the author's time. The third
booX Oeating with the history of the Berbers up to the days.gf tl9. a.uthor, fills the
sbrlth and the seventh volumes, lbn Khatdun concluded his Kitab al-lbar with
$ome chapters about his life and activities. This part, usually catled
Autobiography, consists of several long chapters in which he describes his origin
*nJ g";""iojy, his early education, liis teachers and the books he read, h is
activities in the political sphere of North Africa and Spain , the varioy: p9:ts 319
positions he held under aimost all the leading rulers and dynasties of the Maghrib
of his iime, his visit to Granada, his mission to the Christian King Pedro the Cruel
and then his retirement into the fortress of Qatat lbn Salama in order to write his
History, his return to Tunis, and his subsequent departure from Tunis to Egypt in
the year TB4 A.H.|1382A.D. ln writing about his life in Egypt lbn Khatdun dwelt at
gruat length on his retations with the Mamluk Sultan *TY.q,, his various
acaclemic-appointmeirts to the al-Ashar, his appointment as Malekite chief judge,
the intrigues'against him, his resignation from the post of Qazi, his pilgrimage to
Mecca, and his return there from to Egypt
f:,ff
L i_)
13
 lbn Khaldun, in his lbar, Volume V, has given an account of the Tarters, of
Chengiz Khan and his sons, and of the early campaigns and expeditions of Timur
upto the year 1395 A.D. ln these last chapters on his Autobiography he continues
Timur's biography and activities upto the year 1401 A.D. anLccount of which is
so valuable for being based on a direct contact with the conqueror and on
intimate knowledge of his personality.
As regards the Muqaddama in which lbn Khalidun's some remarkable historical
philosophy has been expounded comments of ihe world famous historians have
held high opinion. Some observations of those the Muqaddima. scholars will be
of great interest and will serve the purpose of giving us a clear idea of the genius
of lbn Khaldun. lbn Khaldun's fame as one of the greatest historians of lslim, as
the forerunner of modern sociology, has been acknowledged by modern scholars
in glowing terms. A. J. Toynbee declared it to be 'the grealest work of its kind that
has been created by any mind in any time or place. G. Sarton regards it as "one
of the noblest and most impressive mognuments of medieval thought". Nicholson
thus evaluates the Muqaddima: "No Muslim had attempted to trJce the deeply
hidden forces of events, to expose the moral and physical forces at work beneath
the surface or to divide the immutable laws of national progress and decay . He
stood far above his age, and his own countrymen had -admired rather than
followed him. His intellectual descendants are ihe great medieval and rnodern
historians of Europe Machiavelli and Vico and Gibbobn. He (lbn Khaldun) , M.A.
Enan says, is distinguished from his predecessors for excellent arrangement and
presentation, as well as for clearness, precision in the division of subjects and in
making tables of contents of one fundarnental and sound insight, nameiy, by
considering every thing as a function of man and human social or[anization.

lbn Khaldun's Philosophy of History

History, as conceived by IUbn Khaldun, is the record of human society, of world

civilization, of the changes that take place in the nature of that society, such as
savagery, sociability, and group solidarity, of revolutions and uprisings by ogne
set.of people against another with the resulting kingdonrs and Statei with their
various ranks of the different activities and olcupitions of men, weather for
gaining their livelihood or in the various sciences and crafts, in general of allo the
transformations that society undergoes in its very nature (Muqiodima, vol. 1, p.
?0)
n! a Philosopher of history lbn Khaldun in his Muqaddimai'prescri6ed for the
first time -a theory of historical development which takes due cognizance of the
Physical facts of climate and geography as well as the moral and spiritual forces
at work' As one who endeavors to find and formulate laws of natural progress
and decay lbn Khaldun may be considered the discoverer of the true scope and
nature of history. History was so long mere record of events and chronicle of
Kings and dynasties , but lbn Khaldun for the first time saw through these
phenomena the stages of the growth of the social and political lives
oi nations.
He studies the effects of geographical features, ciimate, air, food etc. upon the
growth and evolution of civitizition and culturre: in other-words, itt* unor" things
influence and determine the nature and pattern of human character and
civilzation, thought and culture, society and state. Dr. Inayetullah says ihat lbn
Khaldun dealt with the subject of geographical influence moie fuily, and based his
survey of human civilization on a careful geographical analysis.

J
( \- ,JI
)

14
lnfluence of climate

lbn Khaldun, has clearly examined the influence of climate upon the character
temperament taste and culture of individuals and nation H9 h9s expounded his
thedry by citing examples from history. He has illustrated his theory that people
living in ,ery cotO climatic regions such as Siberia or Lapland or people near the
Equitor, exposed to excessive heat, cannot make much progress and contribute
to'human thought. According to him. Nations living in temperate zones such as
Romans, GreJks, Persians and Arabs, more that any other .nltion' have
contributed to civilization. ln our days we find that Englisman and French and
such other nations living in not very cold climatic regions made progress in
subsequeht times. This example has only confirmed the theory of lb.n,Khaldun.
On theeontrary, he says that countries with extreme climates are.much inferior in
civilization andculture. Even, he says man's common sense and wisdom, habits
and wisdom are also affected by longitude and latitude'

Group Mind and Other Factors in the Formation of State.

- the sense of
ln the formation of State, lbn Khaldun says, one of the factors is the
oneness or group mind, which he termed as 'Asabiyah'. This group mind and
religion are two of tne most important factors at the root of the evolution_of states'
At the same time he does noi assign to religion, according to Khuda Bakhsh, a
place of importance as a formative element in civilization. ln this respect, the
historian observes, lbn Khaldun is the first representative of an intellectual
tendency which manifested itself in the West only five hundred years later . ln the
words af Franz Rosenthal: "Religions fervor and the appearance of Prophets,
who incidentally cannot succeed in this world without concrete political support,
can intensify and accelerate political movements. History offers instances, of
these the most prominent one being the phenomenal, superhuman success of
lslam.

ln Modern Times

But in modern times Group Mind or Unity o9f purpose has played more than
religion or any other factor in the formation of such -heterogeneous states as
Switzerland Belgium, Canada and the United states of America^

Different Stages of Civilization

further lbn Khaldun has maintained human civilization advances from pastoral
and nomadic to urban and city life and ultimately to vast imperial dominion. The
nomadic simple rude and natural life is replaced by a life of opulence and luxury
which leads to indotence in place of previous activity which again produces
effeminate nature in men. rendering them unfit for proteclion from foreign
aggression. ln that stage the ruler is obliged to appoint mercenaries. in order to
sive the state. ln this stage the state does not last long and ceases to exist and
dies a natural death. Th? other process may also begin to work when the
autocracy or absolutism of the ruler, because of people's inertia or indolence,
may be ultimately challenged by popular movement and the state in that case
*uy gro* strong and virile and the'cycle begins to lvork again.
ft
Further more, Ibn Khaldun says that the state has an organic growth. Like a
human being it has its bir1h, youth, old age decay and death. This organic
conception of society and biological interpretation of history places lbn Khaldun in
the category of modern exponents of this important school of sociological
thought. We feel as if Oswald Spengler was merely re-capitulating the theories
and concepts of lbn Khaldun.

lbn Khaldun's Criticism of other historians:

Before finally closing the evaluation of Ibn Khaldun's genius and his many sided
talents it will not be out of place to mention the points of criticism leveled by the
great historian against some general errors committed by some historians.

Writing of history requireses numerous sources of information and varied

knowledge. The historian , lbn Khaldun says, should try to grasp the truth and be
careful of slips and errors. lf he trusts his information or data and does not try to
ascertain the truth or authenticity thereof by means of laws governing historical
development and by comparing with nearer and contemporary events, he is often
Iiable to deviate from the truth.

Historians should never be credulous and should not accept what is transmitted
to them without re-evaluating them. For instance, Masudi and other historians
(obviously quoting from Jewish source) wrote that Bani lsrail (lsraelites)
numbered 600.000 after their flight from Egypt. Now Moses was the son of lmran,
Who was the son of Kohath, who was the son of Levi, who was the son of Yaqub
called lsrael, And when Yaqub, his children and their children entered Eygpt their
number was only 50. How could the descendants of lsrael multiply into 600.000
in three generation. lt is obviously a physicat impossibility: and so the figure is not
a historical fact but the result of fancy and imagination.

'T- |
 o@
The Jews of Madinah

The Jews of Madinah were on a different footing. They joined with the Madinah in
a welcome to Muhammad (Sm). The Prophet, at the beginning, acknowledged
the divine authority of their religion, and had even rested his claim upon the
evidence of their Scriptures. ln order to maintain friendly relation with the Jews,
the Prophet even adopted some of their customs and ceremonies. The Jews at
first thought that they would be able to win over Muhammad (Sm) to their party.
But when they found that their hopes were not to be fulfilled, they gradually
withdrew their support and became the arch enemies of Islam.

Political state of affairs qt Madinah :

Political lnstitutions : On his coming to Madinah the Prophet devoted himself to

the organisation of the State. The old inhabitants of Madinah, the Aws and the
Khasraj fell out among themselves. Taking advantage of their self-interest, they
were playing one against the other. As a result of their diplomatic hostility, there
was no peaace and order in the land the citizens of Madinah lived in constant
anxiety and suspense. When such was the political condition of Madinah,
Muhammad (Sm) appeared before them.

Establishment of brotherhood betureen Ansar and Muhajirun, The Charter :

The Prophet at first abolished the tribal distinction and grouped the inhabitants of
Madina under one general name Ansar or Helper. ln order to unite the Ansar and
the Muhajirun or Emigrants in closer bonds, he established a brotherhood
between them. lt was a brotherhood based not on kingship or blood but the faith,
which linked them together in sorrow and happiness'. He also realized the truth
that the foundation of the lslamic empire would be very weak unless it was based
upon the goodwill and co-operation of all sections of people. Toleration of the
others' religion is essentially necessary where different races live together. ln this
respect his policy was "Live and let live others.". He wanted to organize the State
or the basis of co-operation between the Muslims (Ansar and Muhajirun) and the
Jews. With this end in veiw he had granted a Charter which is commonly
obiligations of the Muslims and the Jews in Madinah were clearly defined. Tjhe
main provisions of the Charter: are the followings.
:,

Provisions of the Charter :

(1) All the communities signing the Charter would form the common nationally.
(2) lf any of the signatories was attacked by an enemy, others would defend him
with their combined forces; but (3) None of the Nationality should come into terms
D by any sort of secret treaty with the Qurayshite or should give shelter to any of
the Qurayshite or should help them in any of their designs against th.e Medinites,
(4) Muslims, Jews and other: communities of this Republic should be free to
profess their own respective religions and perform their religious ceremonies.
Nobody could interfere in it, (5) 'lndividual and personal offence of a trival nature
of anv non-Muslim would be treated as such and no general liability would fall on
the comrnunity to which the offen,:ier belonged' (6) The oppresseo shouid be
pi-otecteci. (f) i^leiiceferith bllodshecj, nrurcJer and violence shoirlu be iiai'ant
(forbidcien) in Madinah. (B) l/luhamad (Snr the Prophet of Allah, would be the
presicient of the Republic and by virtue of it would be the highest Court of Appeal
iir the land.

Irnportance of the Chader :

The importance of the charter lies in the fact that it may be regarded. as the
First
Written Constitution in the annals of the world. Before the Prophei of lslam,
many
Charter
rulers rule but none gave such a Written Constitution to his people. The
may atso be called the Magna Charta early lslam. lt announced the
great
religious tolerance. lt was
frinciptes of civic equality, freedom of worship and
ivtrnrr*ud (Sm.) who, for the first tirne, realised the importance of the people's
co-operation'and goodwill in the administration of the country. The Charter
pioub. that Muham-mad (Sm.) was not only a religio.us preacher, but also one of
ihe greatest statesmen the world has ever produced. ln this connection, W. Muir
.rvr-, "lt reveals the Man in his real greatness-a master-mind, not only of his own
not only
,4., but of all ages." The provisions of this Charter show thathisheparamount
sirengthened his tiands against the Quarysh but also established
position in the citY of Madinah.

Treaty of Hudaybiah : Circumstances leading to the treaty of Hudaybiah :

It was long six years that, the Muslims had left Mahkkah for the sake of their
religion and sincl then they had not the chance to perform the pilgrimage and
evJn visit their own country. After the battte of the Ditch, the Muslims became
very eager to visit their hearths and homes. The Prophet realised the strong
desire of their hearts and announced his decision to visit Makkah. ln the sixth
year of the Hijrah (628 A.D) he started for Makkah with 1,400 companions to
perform the pilgrimage. tt was the month of Dhul Qa'da when war was unlawful
ihroughout Ara-Uia. dut the Quraysh did not want the Muhammad (Sm.) would
enter-into the Makkah and perform the pilgrimage. So when they were informed
of the approach of the Prophet, they came hurriedly to oppose his advancement.
Thus being opposed the Prophet took a different route and halted at a place
named Hulay'biah, nine miles off Makkah, and called a council of leading men to
let them know his real intention. But the Quraysh were determined not to allow
the prophet and his follower to enter Makkah. They informed the Prophet that he
should go back that year and in the following years he might come when they
would leave the city to him for three days. He then dispatched Uthman as
messenger to inform the Qurayshite leaders that he had no other intention
except [he performance of pilgrimage. But they were still adamant in their
deteimination. At that time a rumour spread that Uthman was murdered by the
euraysh. This caused a great commotion in the Muslim camp. The Prophet sat
undei a tree and asked his followers to ofier the oath of allegiance called Bay'at
ar-Ridwan to him. They submitted to it, declaring their resolves to fight to the
bitter end for the cause of lslam. Fortunately Uthman came back after a ferv days.

Terms of the treatY

The Quraysh became afraid anci ai iasi agreed io come to terms with ihe
i.fiuslii-,ll;. A ireaiy vvas conclrideci kncv,/n as ihe treaty af i-lucayhiah neiweeir ihe
Guraysh and the Prophet. li was decided in the treaty that war would be
surspencle6 for ten years. Whoever wished to join Muhammad (Sm.) or enter into
'at
a.-
27
treaty with him, should have the liberty to do so and, likewise, those who wished
*.hem wei"e quite at liberty to do so. lf
to joiri ihe Quraysh or eiiier inio ii-eaty wliii
anynoOy went over to Muhammad (Sm.) without the permission of his. guardian
he- should be sent back to his guardian but should any of the followers of
Muhammad (Sm.) return to the Quraysh he should not be sent back. Muhammad
(Sm.) should reiire that year without entering the city. ln the coming year
Muhammad (sm.) might visit Makkah with his followers only for three days during
which the Quraysh should retire and leave the city to him and his followers. But
they might not enter it with any weapons, save those of the travelers.

Importance of the treaty : A grate victory for lslam :

The treaty of Hudaybiah was a great victory for Islam. At first the Muslims were
disappoinied. specially Umar, for unfavorable terms of the Treaty and in order to
Oispli the idea of the Mus,lims the following verse of the Quran1was raveled to the
Prophet : "Verily we have given unto thee a clear victory." The terms in the
treaty show the greatness of the Prophet and the superiority of the cause.
Through the treaty seemed outwardly humiliating on the part of the Muslims, it
gave lftuhammad (Sm.) great advantages, His political status as an independent
year's truce gave time
f,o*"1. was acknowledged by the treaty moreover, the ten
and opportunity for lslim to expand and force its claims upon the conviction of
the euiaysh, while conquest-political and spritual-might be followed on every
other side. as a result of this treaty, a great number of people joined the faith of
Muhammad (Sm.) Zuhri, the biographer of Muhammad (Sm') says, "There was
no rnan of sense.of judgment amongst the idolaters who was not led thereby to
join lslarn." great warriors like Khalid Bin Walid and Amr lbn- Al As embraced
islam after the treaty of Hudaybiah inthis connection lbn Hisham says that at
Hudaybiah the Prophet had fourteen hundred followers with him but two years
laier in the attack on Makkah he was followed by ten thousand Muslims'

The Prophet at Makkah

Makkah, the home of the Ka'bah and the birth-place of the Prophet had not been
brought under his away. But soon a chance came which gave him the opportunity
to extend his domination there.

The Conquest of Makkah : Treaty of Hudaybiah violated by the Quraysh :

The treaty of Hudaybiah allowed the Khuza tribe to declare4 their adhesion to
Muhammid (Sm.)'beenind Banu Bakr tribe to the Quraysh But when the truce of
Hudaybiah had nearly two years in force, the Banu Bakr tribe, in
collaboration wiih party of the Quraysh, attacked the Khuza by night abd slew
several of them. A deputation of forty men from the injured tribe approached the
prophet for help and Muhammad (Sm.) was compelled to take up their cause for
political and religious reasons.

Peace mission sent by the Prophet rejected :

The prophet first sent a peace mission to the Quraysh with alternative proposais
inat ihey wer.e ro pay pi'oper iriilernrrity to ti-ie injured l(lrujer tritie, oi (lll io cui of
all connections with the Banu Bakr tribe, or (c) to declare the treaty of Hudaybiah
null and void. The Quraysh accepted ihe last proposal. l-he nressenger came
28
7- -\
29
Muhamrnad (Sm.) all those who had no presents to offer sha,red iheii^ heads and
were iree from ihe restriction of lhi'am foi'the iime being.

The Sermon on the Mount Arafat :

On the Bth of Zil-Ha)j the Prophet left Makkah for Mina and passed the night there.
After morning prayers, he rode the camel, Caswa and proceeded to Arafat in the
company oi nis followers. Before completing all the rites of the pilgrimage, he
addiessbd the assembled multitude from the top of the Jabal-Ul-Arafat. The
speeches which he delivered on this occasion are still fresh in the memory of
every Muslim.

"O people! listen to my words; for I do not know whether I shall be in your midst
after this year. Remember that you shall have to appear before your Lord who
will demand from you an account of all your actions."

"O people! you have rights over your wives and your wives have rights over
you......... treat your wives with kindness. Verily, you have taken them on the
security of Allah and made thern lawful unto you by the words of Allah."" And feed
your siaves as you feed yourselves and clothes your slaves as you clothe
yourselves. lf they commit a fault, which you are unwilling to forgive, then part
irom them for they are the servants of Allah and are not be harshly treated."

"O peoplel listen to my words and remember that all Muslims are brothers unto
one another. As you are one another. As you are one brotherhood, you will not
take your brother's belongings which he will not give you out of goodwill. Guard
yourself from committing injustice."

"Let him that is present tell it unto him that is absent. Haply he that shall be told
may remember better than he who haih heard it."

With these words the Prophet finished his address when a revelation came to
him.
" This day, Have I perfected for you your faith,
And completed My blessing upon You,
And have accepted for you Al-lslam as Religion."
-Al-Quran :V.-3

Completion of Hajj, Ethical value of the Sermon :

The Prophet immediately recited this verse to all present he left Arafat aboui
evening and passed the night in prayers iogether. ln the morning he arrived at
Masha'ril Haram and went on to Mina and passed the Jamarat (stone-throwing
station) on his way. He then sacrificed sixty-three camels one for each year of his
life and sacrificed the rest of the hundred camels which the Prophet had brought
from Madinah. after this , he shaved his head and the Hajj was thus completed.
In this farewell Sermon he pointed out in brief the du'ries and responsibiliiies of
every Muslim towards each other. On the basis of these teachirlgs , the later
history of lslam has been moulded. Women get a unique position in ihe socieiy
ancJ status of siaves ivas ralsad to an unparalleleci cieglee. islarrt teaclies us no
disiinction between rnaster and servant, lt establishes the fact that a slave of to-
day may be a klng of tomorrow provided he had got the requisite
,that
qLralification. the history of so-cailed Slave Dynasty of lndia is a clear proof of this
teaching.

Expedition to Syrian frontier, Death of the Prophet :

Two months after his return from the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad (Sm.) gave
order for an expedition to the Syrian frontier. He appointed Usamah, son of Zayd,
as the commander for the expedition. But he could not see his Syrian conquest
complete he fell ill in the 1Oth year of the Hijrah and on the 5th day of his illness he
went to the house of A'ishah were he breathed his last and was burried on the 8th
June, 632 A. D. Thus ended the briliant and glorious career of the greatest man of
Arabia, nay of the whole world.

Evaluation of I*uhammad (Sm.) As a Reformer ;

The Prophet of lslam was the greatest reformer the world has ever produced.
Before his Advent, Arabia nay the whole of the known world, was steeped in vice,
superstition and barbarism. Social inequality, degraded womanhood, slavery,
drunkenness, debauchery, gambling, rapacity, blood thirsiiness and such other
heinous vices were prevalent among the Arabs never was the people so low as
the Arabs were, nowhere was idolatry so deep-rooted as in Arabia no Prophet
before Hazrai Muhammad (Sm.) seems to have thought of tackling these horrible
problems. He ruthlessly attacked thenr one after another till they were gone.

Political :

The ti'ibal feuds and raids made Arabia a land of constant unrest. Political
disunity prevailed all over the Peninsula the Prophet brought about the union of
all the warring tribes and thereby welded the ever-quarreling Arab tribes into a
mighty nation. This Arab nation forgot " the days of the Arabs" when they knew
nothing but mutual killing and internecine disputes and unending raids, plunder
and butchery. This was the political miracle of the Prophet he brought the Arabs
under a single government established in Madinah. The people were given equal
voice in the determination of ihe policy of the government. The Prophet framed a
systematic code and ensured peace and prosperity in the country.

Religious:

The Arabs were equally corrupt in the field of religious life they were idoi-
worshippers and were steeped in every kind of superstition they divideC their
gods into male and female, There were 360 idols in the Ka'bah. The Arabs used
to worship them till they were vanished by the Holy Prophet. Muhammad (Sm.)
inspired the idol worshlppers with the idea of one God. They began to forget
these deities and woi'ship in the name of one God within a brief span of about
tweniy{hree years he transformed the impious Arabs into a religious nation.

Econornic:
'f[ie
Pr-oplret was a gieai sociaiist he found thai ihc pscrpic weie being exptoitecj
economically by a section of pecple who practised usury. He made it
haram(forbidden) and introduced the system of Zakaf, Sadkah aird Fitr in ihe
e'1
* 31
-+-'i::
 society. The distribution of wealth in the society dealt a death blow to the
capitaiism. He aiso enuoliiaged the peopte to turn th;ir ;tt;;iio, to irrd;;;
agriculture. These contributed to the buirding of national economy.

Social; Removal of social inequality:

Of all the reforms initiated by The Prophet of Islam, the removal of social
inequality was the most important and far-reaching in consequences he could not
find any reason for any distinction between man ind man on account of a mere
accident of birth in a particular family or particular country. He broke down all
artificial barrier which society had sei up io fortify privileges of weann, work or
colour. "All human beings," he declared " were equat and the highest rank was
his who has the most obedient to Allah and most useful to mankind." he thus
established a world wide brotherhood, which welded high and tow, ricf antpoo,l
white and black in'|9 "Allah does not looli at your lineage or tace,,
919 flaternity
sgys tle Prophet, "but He looks into hearts. He among you that is mo-st favoured
of Allah is the one that is most pious." The aim of HazEiMuhammad (sm.) in tnii
respect was to bring the whoie of humanity no on" .o*r;; ;ilf"* as one
class, one community and one nation having the same ideals'anO snarNl tne

Abolition of slavery:

The Prophet took steps to abolish the slavery system which had been in vogue
among the Arabs sla.very was also prevalent-among the Greeks, the Romans,-the
Jews and the Christians who treated the slaves ,"oit inhu*rniy porsessing the
power of life and death over them. The Christian aJopteO slavery
as a reconised
institution and nothing was done for the welfare of the slaves. lt was Hazrat
Muhammad (sm.) wno oio ail that were po*.iot. fu irir. tn. .tri;r'.iil;;;;;
he emphatically declared that there was no service more ,.."pirOi. t,, GA;h;;
the emancipation of slaves. He purchased the staves to sei
and justice
ii;fi ;ifi
kindness

Administration under the prophet (Sm.)

The Provinces : Division of Arabia into provinces, wali, Amit, eazi :

ffter. unifying the.country, the Prophet Muhammad (Sm.) divided it into several
Provine,es on the past history and geographicar poiition. rir; Fr.ri;;;;
_b?gi. of
were Madinah, Makkah, Tayma, Janad, Virin, U;;;:lrill;;r, g;fr.yrr,";;;
Hadramawat. Madinah was the capitai of the '*nor" 'l.lamic 'si;i; ';;; ;h;
administration of these provinces wis unde, *," Jio.t .;;i;;i Filinii
There was one covernoi in eacn prorinr". ih; p;;ili;iit;J;o'r'ir.
";'th; caned
,Y4. !-lg was appointed by the Froph;i ;;; *;;,$;;;j;;;ff;;;,;i;#;'ff
!{e lad to perform the same functions within his area as the erofnel useo to Oo
]n
Madi1lh, except those.in connection with tne propneiic wori<s H.
lmam of the congressional prayer, the commander-in-chief, the judge and the
*6tn"
administrator. Besides the Governors, The Prophet appoinieO-AriS
i*Uectors)
over each tribal area to collect Zakat (poor-trrj ,nd badaqah(voirntrry"fill"*1"{
The prophet trimsetf acted uo inu orii [rog-) ;t-rr"jir"r,]ii,; l;;;; of other
Provinces lVere either appointed directly OV nlm or the Gorrernors were
directed
to appoint persons selected by Him.
32
 'evenue System : Sources ;'evenue :

There was no central authority in ihe pre * lslamic days. So, nobody knew
arrything about the inconre and expenditure of the Government. lt was the
Prophei who flrst established a Central Governmeni in Arabia. He was the first,
who instituted a public treasury in Madinah. during the days of the Prophet the
lslamic State had five $ources of revenue : namely, (1) Zakat (poor-tax) and
Sadaqah (Votuntary alms), (2) Jizya (Capitation -Iax), (3) Kharaj (land-tax), (4)
Ghanimah (spoils of war) and (5) Al-Fay(State lands)'

1" At-Tabariy, Zakat:

I order of imporiance Zakat has been given the second place in th9 Quran. lt is
compulsory (Farz) for all well-to-do Muslims. Zakat was leived on different form of
properties.-li was levied on (a) animals, i.e. camel, cattle and other domestic
quadrupeds, (b) grains, fruits, clates, etc..,' (c) gold and silver and (d)
merchandise.

Ushr

A certain minimum of property (an-nisab) was laid down which would make one
liable to'pay ZaqalAs for example, gold or silver below the value of 200 dirhams
was free from this tax. 'The Zakaton land produce was collected at 10%, if the
land was watered by streanr or r'ain.'" This tax on land was called Ushr, A person
had to pay Zakat on his land, when the yield from the land exeeded five ass-
loads. ln the case of merchandise and even gold and silver a Zakat of 2.5% was
levied.

Jizya

Jizya.was levied on the Non-Muslims in lieu of military services and for the
protection on their lives arrd proper^ties. The Muslirns used to return the Jizya in
case of their failure to protect the lives and properties of the non-Muslims. ln the
days of the Prophet every male rnernber capable of paying the Zakat was
required to pay only one dinar per year. This tax was not new. Before Hazrat
trliuhamrnad (Sm.) it v.ras prevalent in Persia under the name of gezit and in
Rome undei^ the name of triburtirem capitis.

Kharaj :

Non-Muslims had io pay Kharaj (land{ax) for possessing land. The institution of
Kharaj vrhich was prevaleni among the Perslans and the Romans, first came inio
being in Arabia after the conquest of Khaybar by the Muslims. The Prophet fixed
half of the prodr.rce of their land as Kharaj.

Ganimah :

Weapons,'horses.and othei' movable properties were incit.rded in the Khaums or

Gairiman. -i"ircsr; artir:les when ieil i:y the iini:elievers in the i"rattie'iielU i.i'ei'i'.
 -]

poriio of the booty was used 'according to the instructions of the Quran for the
support of the Prophet's relatives, the needy and way-farers and for the general
good of the Muslim community.'

Al-Fay :

The word Al-Fair' was generally applied to the lands in the conquered territories
which came under the possession of the State. There were certain crown lands
under the Prophei ancl the income of these lands was utilized for the general
good of the Muslim Community.

The ,Army, Commander.in-Chief of the Army, Discipline :

The Prophet was the Commander-in-Chief of the Muslim army. He took part in 26
or 27 battles and expeditions, But he himself led the [\4uslim forces in all
important battles and campaigns like the battles of Badr, Uhud and Hunayn and
the conquest of Makkah. The smaller expeditions were led by a military
commander appointed by him. There was no regular army. When there was
necessity of sending military expedition, summons were issued to the allied tribes
and the Muslims in generhl to assemble for the propose. At first the Muslim
forces were only an assemblage of small bands but during the later years of the
Prophet's life they were turned into a vast army. ln the first battle of lslam (i.e. the
battle of Badr) the Muslim army consisted of only 312 soldiers but in the Tabuk
expedition (last campaign undertaken by the Prophet) thirty thousand soldiers
had taken part, There was strict discipline among the soldiers and every one of
them had to maintain high standard of morality. Breach of discipline was subject
to rigorous punishment.

Educational System, Encouragement of education by the Prophet, Gentre of

education at Madinah : Schols in each 'mohalla' :

Though the Prophet had no institutional education, he'was an ardent advocate of

the pursuit of knowledge incumbent upon all his followers, irrespective of sex
and rank. He also says, " Seeking of knowledge is obligatory for all Muslims-
male and females" (Talabul llme Faridatun Ala Kulle Muslemin wa-Muslimatin).
He always encouraged the trluslims to acquire knowledge. After his migration to
Madinah, educationai institutions were established there under his initiative.
Some of the Qurayshites conversant with the art of reading and writing were
arrested by the Muslims in the battle of Badr, and they were released on
condition that each of them would teach writing and grammar to ten Muslim
children, Thereafter literacy and education began to spread rapidly among the
madinities. Madinah became the centre of religion and education. Nine mosque-
schools were established in Madinah and of these, the mosque-school of Quba,
suburb of Madinah v,ras the most important. The Prophet used to go there to talk
and discuss with the str-rdents, The \,vomen yyere also taught along with men. The
Prophet used to say that leven the slave-girls must be educated and then set
free'. ln each 'mohalla' oi the city primary schools weie established for the
education of little children, When lslam was gaining ground
-teach all over Arabia, the
Prophet arranged to send mu'allim or teaciers t,c the Holy Quran io
Bedouin tribes.
Abu Bakr the Apostasy Movernent : Meaning of tlie 'word' 'Riddah' :

The short caliphate of Abu Bakr was mostly spent in Riddah wars. "Riddah' is an
Arabic word wlrich means session or apostasy.As soon as the news of Prophei's
death was noise abroad, the Arabs throughout the Peninsula were relapsing into
their old faith. They raised the standard of revolt against the Prophet's successor,
Abu Bakr. The time was very critical for lslam. Hazrat A'is.hah., wife of the Prophet
said about it, 'When the Prophet died, the Arabs apostatised and the Christians
and Jews raised their heads and disaffection appeared. The Muslims became as
sheep exposed to rain on a winter's night through the loss of their Prophet until
God united them under Abu Bakr. " The leaders of rebellious tribes and the false
prophets organised a moyement against lslam. The movement led by them in
order to return to idolatry after renouncing lslam was $ow1 in history as
Apostasy Movement and the war waged against them by Abu Bakr was called
the wai of Apostasy or Riddah war. While the false prophets made their own
tribes to renounce lslam, some other Arab tribes apostatised it on other grounds.
There were causes which led the unruly tribes to rise in revolt against lslam.

Ascendancy of Madinah, R.esult of dernocracy, Reaction against thu

charEes, Fascination for the prophetic office, Lack of true faith, Strict rules
of rarorality enforced by lslam and Objection to Zakat:

Causes : The ascendancy of Madinah became an eye-sore to the Makkans who

did not want the supremacy of the sister city. So long as the strong personality
was the Prophet was there, they remained in sullen silence. But the demise of the
Frophet gave them an opportunity to over through the influence of the Medinites
and the national charaeteristics of the Arabs which had been held in check by the
Prophet, began to raise their heads. Secondly the tribes of Arabia obeyed the
order of their leaders and followed their auction blindty even at the advent of
lslam. so when their leaders became Muslims, they followed them in good faith.
But as time went on, the wave of democracy was running high throughout the
peninsula, As a result, all individuals of the tribe refused to follow the action of
their leaders. Thirdly a thr:ough change was brought by the Prophet of lslam over
the social, political and religious condiiions of Arabia. the tribes of Arabia were
not a accustomed to theseLnd hence they protested against these changes by
rising in open rebellion. Fourthly, Many of the Arab tribes thought the prophetic
otfice to be profitable and so they persuaded the Arabs to support them with a
view to fulfilling their object. These chiefs gave false promise to the people and
inspired them to standup against the Muslims. Fifthly the people had just joined
the fold of lslam when the Prophet had passed away. The people who could not
get much time and opportunity to go into the inner spirit of Islam were ignorant of
its true worth and spirit. And hence they relapsed into their tribal customs and
creeds and once more challenged the authority of lslam. Sixthly, the strict rules
of morality enforced by tslam were to hard for the Arabs of the desert who loved
license and indulgence of the old pagan ways which placed no restrictions upon
drinking and other pleasures. Lastly, the Arab's unwillingness to pay the poortax
(zakat) led people of different centres under difierent leaders to rise against
lslam.

-.F r
Abu Bakr and the Apostasy Movement :

Abu Bakr viewed the Apostasy Movement with great alarm, " The Arabs,
throughout the peninsula", SayS, W.Muir, " were relapsing inio apostasy". But he
did not lose heart. He faced ihe situation courageously. Without any delay he
launched a campaign against the movement. within a year the away of lslam was
re-establ ished throughout tlre peninsula.

Gormnnanders, sent in different directions, Battle of Buzaka :

Abu Bakr collected the troops of Madinah and divided them into eleven
battalions. He placed each of the battalion under the command of an experienced
commander and sent each into the eleven different parts of Arabia. He instructed
the commanders first to invite the revolting tribes to lslam but if they failed to
comply, they were to be attacked. Some of tribe submitted to lslam without
fighting, wfrile others remains adamant. So, wars were waged against them.
Khalid Bin Walid was sent to march first against Tulayha. He soon proved himself
worthy of the task entrusted to him. He defeated Tulahyha in the battle of
Buzaka. After the battle of Buzaka, many other rebellious tribes including Banu '
Asad submitted to lslam. ,

Sajah turned towards Mussaylimah :

The false prophetess Sajah entered Arabia with the intention to invade Madinah.
She secured the support of some of her tribes to a war against the caliph. Khalid
marched against her but she had not to the.courage to meet the Muslim Army in
the open field.Sha turned against her rival prophet, Musaylimah who ultimately
won her over through matrimonial alliance. After a stay of three days with
Musaylamah, Sajah went back to her original home in Mesopotamia.

Battte of Yamama :

Musaylimah was the most powerful of the pretenders to the prophetc office. Abu
Bakr sent lkrima and Shurahb il against him. But they failed to subdue
Musaylimah and the Caliph then sent Khalid bin Walid against the false prophet
of Yamama. Khalid met Musaylimah and defeated him in a battle near Yamama
in 633 A,D. The enemies, being defeated tdbk shelter in a walled garden but the
garden was turned into a shamble, for which it earned the name of the 'Garden of
Death'. People in thousands of Banu Hanifa including Musaylimah himself were
killed in ihe Garden of Death with the battle of Yamama, the campaign against
the apostates came to an end.
Of the four pretenders, Aswad Ansi and Musaylimah were defeated and killed
and the rest, Tulayha and Sajah ultimately embraced Islam. Thjus within a year
all the expeditions were crowned with success, Abu Bakr with the help of the
commanders crushed all the forces of disorder and apostasy, He showed
wonderful courage and ability in suppressing the revolt, Regarding his services
during this time W.Muir says, "But for Abu Baker, lslam would have melted away
in compromise with the Bedouin tribes or likelier still have perished in the throes
of birth".
 Resuit of the war of apostasy :

As a result of the suppression of the apostates, the solidarity of lslam was

preserved and the victories over the rebel tribes paved the way for the advance
of lslam. The success of the Muslims in these campaigns gave them new hope
and encouragement to fight against the Byzantines and the Sasanians. The
technique of warfare used and the forces collected in these campaigns were
powers.
P
< \v

Adrninistration of 'umar I : Democratic of spirit of ,umafs rule, the Shura:

"Umar I not. gnly conqr"i a vast empire during the ten years of his Caliphate
but he consloidated it by a great system of administration. As an administrator, he
rernained a model for all great Muslim rulers during the whole of lslamic History.
"Du.ring the thiry years that the Republic lasted"] says Ameer Ali, ,'ttre poiicy
derived its character chiefly from "Umar both during iris tite time and after hii
death". He framed the consittution of the State on the basis of democracy. the
seed of democracy planted by Abu Bakr bore fruit and reached its zenith during
his reign. He had two Coniultative Bodies Majlis-us-A'rn ,n frrfrifir-r.-Khas.
These bodies were called the Shura or Council of Advisers. ln the irnportant
affairs.lre sought the help of the Shura. Umar emphatically declared, "There can
be no Caliphate except by consultation." The position of tlre Callph was just the
position of a common subject. "Umar often used to say, "verily I am one amongst
you. I do not desire that you should follow anything whiln arises trom fiy
caprice."

Constitutional Reforms of ,Umar:

ln the interest of the nationtal integrity of the Arabs 'Umar I took steps to make
ih-e penisula a purely Muslim $tate- In view of the hostitity of the non-iuuriirr h;
o{fei9d option to the Jews of Khaybar and the Christians of Najran to decide
whether they would stay in Arabia without interfering in the affairs oi tn. State oi
migrate to other place on receiving due compeniation from the State. They
preferred to leave Arabia with the proposed compensation money and the
Calijh
gave them all sorts of facilities tor migiation.'The second caroinaipoint in ,Uma/s
policy was to maintain the military alristocracy of tne Araus ild i; ,;hl"r. tni.
end the did not allow them to hold land in tha conquered .oorniir"*, [..r*. o]
the fa.ct.that it would
.impair the mititary power dt in" Arrb .;il;;; ;,;;;
forbade them to live with the settled peopte in cities and ordered them to live in

Division of empire,'tound*t
Wali, amit :
"Umar I was ih* of the political administration of lslam. for the
convenience of adminisiration 'Umar OiviOed the empire into provin..i
province.-w|s. pljrced under an efficieht governor,'tvtarr<atr,'rvruolnrir,"nJ
;;h
Jazirah,
Basrah, Egypt an Palestine were tJre main provinces of tnu
provincialf{rh,
ine
Gorrernor was called the Wali or Amir. Waii was not only the",irpire.
ruler of the
province but also ihe rniritary anc.i religious head. t-le was ;;Jp;r=;;" t, irr-
Caliph for his administration. i'he provin-ces were again divicled into Oisrricfi ,;; (\ '-7
 the district officer was called the Amil. the Caliph watched the movement
of the
ofiicer through the help of the spiesT
Special car for agriculture, pension systern inti.oduced
;
'Umar took special care of the welfare of agriculture
agriculturists. He
ne nriiuer Ji n*'roir in the
conquered territories'. After a proper suruey of the lands the assessment
was
fixed. Cannals were dug and police force was organized. 'Umar I introduced
the
Muslim era of Hijrah, He also introduced the syitem of old-age penson. ,,ttre
pension system of 'Umar is a spectacle probably without pari'llel'i,
says, W.Muir. For the weak and the disabled, he granted allowance from
in. world,,
the
public treasury. He founded schools and mosques in lifferent parts
of the empire.

Reven ue adm!n istration:

'Umar established a department of finance under the name
of Diwan which was
in charge of the revenue administration oi fi; ;r;i;tas weil as the provinces,
The Diwan was to regulate the receipt and disburJement of the revenue
of the
empire. The sources of the revenue w.ere generally Oerived fior-tn" poll
tax
(Jizya), poor-tax (Zakai), lan-tax (Kharaj), spoit ot war and flre
Fay ii,icome ro,.
crown land). Besides these taxes, 'umai'insiituted new taxes, nr**ly,
al_ushr or
one-tenth of- lhe produce taken from big estates, a commercial tax
imfoseo on
foreign non-Muslim merchants and zaxit on horses exempted
the Prophet and Abu Bakr. , -.' '---
during td;ti*.;f
Distribution of surptus money among the,Musrims: \
i*:y::,i:s"1::",:lfitgll:r g:r:lut administration and warfare, the
money was distributed among the Musrims and ii was determined surprus
principles, namely, the relationship, with the Profhet, priority Ui#;
or conversion to
lslam and military service to lslam, on the basis oilr.,*r'Frir.'pr..
both male and female, was to receive tne amouni of ano close
;;;ry Muslim,
relations of the
Prophet who received 10,000 dirhams each per year, next
came the warriors who
fought the battles of lslam. The warriors oi aa'or received s,000
dirhams each
and those who took part in the batfle- ot unud +,000:-il";;;pre
soi
accepted lslam befoq the conquest of Makkah rece-ived 3,000 who
oirnams vear and
so on, till it come ordinary sordiers. The ordinary;;ilil';oloined
great conquests of.to..lne
'Umai got s00-600 dirhams. Even the slaves, the
women, new
bcrn children and dependents of the Muslims had share", t[r
Public Treasury.
brjt ,r-rr,1rl or the

Judicial department
Umar entrusted the Qazi with the judicial functions. The
eazi was completely
independent of the provincial governor and received a fixed pay
for this duties.
Arrny :

The Caliph maintained a well disciplined army. He himself was

the commander of
his army at Madinah. But generaily he delegateu nis authority
to his Generals.
His army was divided into two classes cavalry and infantry. He
was particularly
carefitl for the welfare of his soldiers, Bui incise of neglect of
duties he inflicted
severe punishirrent on lris soldiers. Thus in every splrere of
ecirrrinistration he
stands unparalleled in the whole history of lslam. ,! ,-,,
 by introducing other subiects. The caliphs v.rere patrons
organised education in different paris of the **pir.. of education. They
The secono Caripr..,, Uamar I
appointed a number of learned rnen to lecture in
mosques on lslamic teaching in
Kufah, Basrah and Damascus.

The Dhii-nmis: Conditlon of the Dhirnrnis under

the orthodox Caliphs:
The subject people who enjoyed the protection-of
the muslims were known as
Dhimmis' lslam had never been intolerant to*aros
fre followers or otn"i'iliil;. I
becomes crear from the treatment ilrat was m;;;ri
ov n--pi## ot Isram to
the non-Muslims who entered into treaties with the lvtustims.-"uJ,
treating them as vanquished people, took them instead of
as his equals ana granted them
'such generous terms accoiding io *r-.ri.n
tr-,.v could live horiourabty and
peacefully in the Muslim lands,.

Religious, judiciar and civir rights enjoyed

by the Dhimrrnis :
The orthodox caliphs follwed tle Liberaiano
iorerant policy of the prophet and
granted priviteges and rights to th,e Dhimmis
exempted from compursory miritary seruice"wtich rproturi l"r:ilr".r#-;. mey *ere
was oinJinj''rpor'.u*rv
Muslim, and in lieu.otmilitaiy serviceih.v irrJt"'prv
Jizya.lf the Muslims found
that thev courd ngt plotggt-the peopte irom wtrom
(Jizya), they refunded it. The dhimmis
they had coilec#;#U;
lived in perrect, peace and amity under the
Muslims' Thgy were entitted to enigy equal rifnislno
priviteges in the state. ln
this respect Mr. Wellhausen says, -,,Umar fraO"a
[een eye over the-Hi advantage of
the non-Muslims and spared no painr io pio*ir i
poor and the destitute amongst the ir',.ii welfare hetpea pre
non-Muslims by giving thA* pisions rrom
the Bayt al-Mar. The caliphs
frotected I..l.,urcrrls, cathedrals, synagogues and
other holy places of the no-Muslims. Besides
freedom of conscience, the non-
Muslims enjoyed the free of court and law. prof. p.
K. Hitti says, ,,Being outside
the pale of Muslim law, they were rlro**o
fl',. ;iiirii.tion of their own canon taws
as administered by the,respective heads orilreirieiigiorr.on,n,uniiiei. .side
side with rerisious and judiciar rr""oon.r, th; by
honour, life and ptopeiiy. From the above
;;;-#,;itirc enjoyed the security of
racts iils clear that the policy of the
Mtrslim state towards the Dhimmis in tne
oavr'to- ttre orthodox baliphs was
liberal and generous.

Social Life : Simplicity of the Caliphs:

The caliphs ied simple and honest rir". rt is quoted
from al-Bayn that monarchs of
a vast empire the caliphs led the life of a r',eimit.
No kingrv palaces were built for
their residence, no magnificent buirding.
took pride in the cottages they live i1",
*r"i*;;-;i; i;r'uiJrl"rr;f;rii."il;;
daily bread' Thev *erJ not ashame9 of doingyrnii" il.i'*orned and labored for their
hands'.They did not feel the necessity of posting
hir;.nold works with their own
for their personal safety, though many of any bodyguard at their doors
knives' Their doors were open fir the poor
theri feli victims to the assassins,
and they listen;;"'th" ;rilplaints of
the pubtic in person Thev drew thirty rupees p-;
maintenance of iheir family, Their hearts
il;i;l;; ll;'ir#;ry for the
night and their bodies to the service oi
weie oeoicateol;
n rn'ri'i.il"'"'
il; if* ,r God at

{*>
 .,.\
\'
- t ! -r
'V"-\ _4-\
-* l'r l \4)
.. ' ..
L ' !-
,...\ 1., -.''
,i ,

T'i:e {Jrnayyads and the Ahbasxds

But
-tt.,rfortim3lely. those v,'ho sr.lcceeded io ihe Caiiphate after the first four
Caiiphs were grearl.v iacking Ln^tr:eie quairJies. They did oot irur.
that moral spritual
calibre one should expect of Muslim leadersirip. Ttey *rr. :noi -^bl.
tJ;;;
{oyi the pagan anirudeJ and.habit of their race. None of rhe
Caliphs, with the solitary exceprion of .umar bin ,Abdu.l Aziz (died
IJ;;;;;;il*auurrta
tot ax,y, came
fully up to the standard of islam,

- trvins o{Bf,orean"chy
,

The result was that,there soon occurred a cleavage between

the Church an<i the
state in,the religio-poritica.i order of Isram, rtre c*ipns
#;;;;
pr"n*ri'";'iot"r.rt.a
glough in religion, addressed themselves solely to poiirical *a ua*ioir*utiu. *C"r,
disregarded their ecclesiastical duties. When a religious
*O
.'ulama for advice, but accepred only such
need arose, [w **J to the
of it aI was,suited to trrririurpor.. rirrr,
secular activity became independent of religion. The '(tiia,
excepting taor.'f.* *to
succumbed tci theworldY qd:plegg gained uy atignment
thern-selves againsttit and initiat'bd re-volts *lthir"tn.
courr,;;;;
r.vith the Imperial
r*pirc tom time to time, or they
quietly withdrew into reiigious establishnents
and devoied
improvement and rafcnfl. As the hold of retigion ru.uk.r.d,
tili-.;.rgr, il'icjrioour
the standardi of morality also
delerigiatgd, rapidly among flre Muslim, rh. perverse
attitude of the caliphs, who were far from being
i;fl.;;;;ru;.;;#;auzed
the rnodels of islamic *oruiryl *me of
them were positively.the reverse of it-_was.tevitably
to affect uar".r.tv-ilre-rnorat
structure of the society as a rvhole. Tlic
Qur'anic injunction regarCing ,,thd enjoirung of
Rieht and the forbidding of wrong" having cg1sed
tJhuu. *v i"*io"s i"
it djd not enjoy &e backing or thI sute, aad the vigiiance oi religion pu,itirirfi;
having ended; tle
tm-lslamic tendencies.got an^opport,nity of rvorkingT;
;", intJthe r.il.*L,
and ruining th-eruggetl sirnpliciry of thet faitir.
and pleasure- They grew siotnnrt aud self-ind"rg.rt.
The'i/urlir, ili;l;;';;'; i#;ffi; "ilslarn
r- rrd, cjicumstances jt was futile ro
expect that thev would ciire tq discharge their
car)' forward the iutiis:ur a-o.
-- -l;1ffi;;ii,,. ifrpn" *a
roesragJ he il; uequeatr,ea to &em.

The fine impression that Islam had made upon non-Muslims

-of during the earlier days'was
nullified to the moral degeneration its followers. The
atfibuted-oyog
n-on-Muslims out*uttv
the faihngs of the lvluslims of their alur. irrev lost confidence
in islam. A
European wrjterS has remarked'and most conectly,i
tr,.t:irr.t the decline of Islam began
when people srarted to lose faith in the sincerity
oiit, ..p..rlniatirer.
Fhitrosophical E{'air-splittin g
From the nanral sc;ences, be Muslim thinkers
drifted towards metaphysics and the
theology of the &..$, which was, in fa*, only a revised
version ortrreir m-ffitr"d rrr.
Greeks had ingeniously imparted a scholastic look
,o tirri, ,"vtfrology by dressrng Ii 1p i,
philosophical phraseolory, Ther philosophy
**p*Jv ,p.r,rrrtir.. The spirit of tire .

Qur'64, on the other hand, is anti-clissicat. rle rururi*r; u* i*n., of fact, had no need
 to enter into theoreticai
displtahons regarding the.
tlte concieie knowiedge beins and the Athihutes
uir q;;;'1-otulr.q ,
th.iri?;il of God i
i's 11'c,,h and. jnstead of eut tt ry did not appreciate
they fi:ttered away ,rr*- cooiert'a;il
"ffi il*l solid spir^iru.i*a"*r*nal welfare oi Islan-
in io;;i.;r*^-metaphysrcal discussions
Reiiglous nn raovatioms

Pagan beliefs and practices

thus infijtuted into the Muslim Socieilz.
Musrims had over.othor The supenorify the
no*.JrJi?ry_*, oril;;.'r,s# flgiecret
of theLr rerigion ries i, orli, grru*r*
"(such is) rhe
i,tu.ire #y""..r;;;;.'fl#
-"i.4r Td
i, the creation of God;
.yr^**g*,p
(Ar-eur'an,xxvrr88) i?Eoa *rro d,rp;;;, Fythings
*rrri niri,i. ,uru g-d p"il;;;*,g iruman in perfect order,,.
cease to be what it should
be_-a gru.unr.* of success irt.*.rtjoo, jt iy,r
the r*rman inteilect in thil worrd ald the next.
wiil submitt; ;;;, wil the Neithsr
mind ofman be won oyer.
R.evivaX and Restonatioga

so far' however' as the basic

values of religion were
r* from arj distorrion. Ttr/iiii;.0
mterpolation, miscoastruc,i.l. i'urorut.i;
conbemed, they renrained
;;;"fr.* intact and
arr krnds oi i*orutioq
followers. Ir ryas alrvays
on the"iirpp.ession.
lrr* Jj ,iver wink at &e lapses of .its
the sunnah continualiy,rr*.-;*..r'Jna
.f*ii"r*Gb, ffi**:*om1hing. The eur,an, and
doubt and diso,te. rhev ropolrt.a_to-goide and judge
ruline crasses and against
kepr;i;;';, ;,ii;;ffi#.:Xgu*rt
on occasions of
,f- Ji;; ,ilrrio*, the rrbertinisrn of the
history is lighred ,11r,,r, ;fi;;;;;; ine whore course of
,rr.
men who Iike the true,successotr ""r.4*I *a..r;;;f;;r*dus, determined, brave hearted isramic

restored, revived and

oi-tr,..p*pil;i.oiire chaxenge of the time
ftept oo,rorli,i. and
two principres, which emuooy y:,t:il'rrulrirg ar,a bsd andljz,ihad.These
iir. o'irlrir* orrJr,q ;orr? neyer
sr-uchre' Thev remain-a suffer a vacuum in its
rp.rriirJ'.?r.t.rrry iffi;-ffi;.of
I
hotding aroft tie torch orreil;;;;;rd..";iri,h;;iri#,1. Israrn as livrng factors,
was rhat darrmess wa.s. nlvel
similariry, at everv criticar
arl0wed to ,pr*J-irrJr
severest torp.Jr rhus
ure whore worid of Isram.
it t
tuni"Irrr rrr,& ,"*;;ightman "#
I
I
defender or the F::ri
threatened the existence
,,1 *;;;i;'lyrt upon tne-s.ene.
of acfion, some inqpired
ro beat of whatever that
produced by the deathress
iiiii,.
of the -"rirru* T;; ffit ilh ourstanding personarities
SalahuddfoAlyib. rp* ru ,otu"i.rh:
defend ttselt'were
oerell0 itserf , Nuruddin Zang ad

The Cralsades and

rnrll tE"o v -* ^z
tlee Zanngi

Europe had been rrarbouring

ey, designs against the.for,rowers
had anriexed the eastern ollrrrl every since they
places' BuL as the Muslims
wiig orrn. flo**c,,p;ir.rrars j ur. chrisrian Hory
nations of Euiope could
ti.; ;;;;g enough to defsiar rncur.sions, the christian
not bring;;#;rs
r rrr century, however, the sinrati-on il.;.
to chirenje Towards the crose of the
were organised all over the
*a--**1 chansg, and great armies of crusaders
European .ontin.ot 1to
and svria. The crusaders auaik trle liusrim countnes of parestine
r.g*Ja
ren die gre^?rerpart of parestl:e.
po#tl of Jerusarem i, i?rgg gg2 A.H.) and over_
D-:;;brg ,rr.ii rr"*i.r;;ri;, Lane-poore says:

{-i n
5 -f*
 Crusaders peneh"ated iike a'wedge benYeen the old rvood and the new,
and for a rvhile
seemed to cleave the tnurk of Muhammedan Empire into spiinters "

on
Of the g.nspeakable cruelties perpetrated upon thei helpless Muslims by the Christians
their ent-y into Jerusalem, a responsible Christian historian writes:

So ten-ible,it is said; was the camage which fol-iorved that the horses gf-th? Crusaders who
rode up to the mosque of Ornar tvere kneedeep in the streamof blood. Infants were
seized

by thei feet and Oastred against the walls ot *ilitl.d over the battlementS, wlile the Jews

The conquest of Jerusalem by the Christians was a momentous event. It exposedlhe rot
that had started in the lands of islam, Besides that it announced the awakening of Europe
after the Dark Ages which iiad followed the decline of Rome. It threw'the entke Muslim
world into jeopaidy The spirits of Christians ros€ so high after { thul R"ei49,Se master
of Krak, bJgan to iream oituyirg his hands on the holy.cities of Mecca and Medina. .
The most .ulu*itous hour in thehistory of Islam since the Tragedy of Apostasy3 was
struck. Right at that moment there arose, tom an unexpected quarter, a new star on the
firmamenlof islam. It was theZatgidynasty of Mosul, two members of which Imaduddin
Zangi and Nunrddin Zmgr;repeatedly defeated the Cfl,lsaders a:rd drove them out of
alrnost every torvn in Palistini eicept Jerusalem. Nuruddin holds a high place iol!.
history of lslam forbjs administrative merit, piety, humiliry, justice and zest foi Jihad A
chronicler lbn Athir al- lazan, all the former Sultans. I can say that but for
contemporary-Caliphs
tlre firsf five and 'Umar bin 'Abdul 'Aziz,none among them was more religious, .

just and clement than he.'4

Sfh", Nuruddin d-ied, Salahuddin took the field as the spearhead of Muslim resistance.
Fighting battle after battle, he inflicted a crushing defeat on Crusaders at Hittin on July 4,
11b7 AD The hopes of the Christians were dashed to the grotrnd. Their anrries were so ,

totally demoralized that:

4 5ingle Saracen was.s€en dragging some thirty Christians he had taken prisoners and tied
together with ropes. The dead lay in heaps, like stone upon
\

ston€s, among broken crosses, severed hands and feet, whilst mutilated heads strewed the
ground like a plentifiil crop of melons,"
'

Salahuddin then proceeded to retake Jerusalem. The fire that had been blazing in the
breasts of the Muslims since that city had fallen into the ha:rds of the Christians was at last.
quenched. K&Zl Ibn Shaddad, an intimate friend and counsellor of the Sultan, has set
forttr the stirring spebtacle of the victoiy of Jerusalem in these rvords:

-- "On all si{es priyers were being offered; from all sides the cries of 'A!.!sh u Akbar' could
be heard. After ninety year's'the-..I4 mta piayers were offered in Jerusalem the cross,
which the Christian soldiers had mounted on the Dome of the Rock, waspllled down. it
was a wonderfirl spectacle, ihe grace of the Alrnighty and the f iumph of islam were
visible every where"2

The genaosify, the magnanimity and the high sense of Isiardc moralify, which
Salahuddin displayed in that horu of his triumph, have been universally applauded by the
historians. Says Staniey Lane'Poole:

&&
 "If the taking of Jerusa.lem were the or:.ly fact klown about Saladin, it were enough to
prove him the tnost chi'ralrous and geat conqueror of his own and perhaps of
any age."3 -hearted

Europe was furious at tltese reverses. In desperation, the Crusades from every European
country made a great ra1ly towalds Syria and another series of bitter battles was fought
befween the Christians and the Muslims. Once again Satahuddin stood gallantly tlrJugh
the storm of concentrated Ckistian flry. After five years of reie.ntless fighting, fuce was
signed at Ramla n 1192 A.C. The Muslims I retained Jerusalem and all the other towns
and forffesses they had cap ed, while the Christians reigned oniy over the small state of
Acre. Tirus at last, the task which Salahuddin had set himself, or rather, the mission God
ha{ charged him with, was aceomplished. Laae-Pocie observes:

"The Holy '![ar was over; the five years' contest ended. Before the great victoiy at Hittin
in July, 1187, not an.inch of Palestine wesf of the Jbrdan was in the Muslims' hands. After
the peace in Ramla in September ,7792, whole land was theirs except a narrow strip of
coast from Tye to Jaffa. Saladin had no callse to be asharned of the heaty."

ran.of extraordinary ability and enerry, His capacity for organization

and lead'ership was astounding. After hundreds ofyears he had succeeded in uniting the
various nations arid tribes among Muslims under the bamer of Jihad,.by making them
forget their feuds and jealousies for the sake of Islam:

"AIl the sti'ength of Christendom concentrated in the Third Crusade had not sha"ken
Saladin's power. His soldiers may have munnured at their long months of hard and
perilous servjce year after year, but they never refused to cotrie to his summons and 1ay
4or* their lives in his cause
\ ' .'
-'
'iKurds, furtmen'i, fuabs and Egyprians, they were all lvloslems and his'servants when
he called. In spite of their differences of race, their national j ealousies and tribal pride, he
ha! kep! them-togethsr as one host-not without difficulty an-d, fwice or thrice, u .riti.ut
waver."

The Death of Salahuddin

This faithful son of Islam passed atnay on March 4,17g3A.C. (Safar 27, 5g8A.H.). His
selfless, crusading spirithad made the Muslirii Worid safe from the tyranny of the West
for a long time to come. But the Christians had derived an immense benefit frorn these
wars and they busied tlemselves at once in preparing for a new assault Their turn came in
tsn century. The Muslim's on their part, wavered again and allowed the ground to slip
frorn under their feet. They began to fight among themselves. To their miiforrune, they
were not blessed with another leader possessing the iron purpose, glowing enthusiasm and
unfl inching sin cerity of S aialiuddin.

Muslirn still an Obstacle in the patln of Igmonance

lVith all their failings, the Muslims were nearer to tJre path of the prophets than airy other
people. For this reasen, whatever of their forqer power and prestige was Ieft, continued to

fr/!\
{r'
!
l\D f

Opinion of the scholars regarding scientific m iracles

of al-Quran.

Several scholars have expressed their of views regarding

this topic Jawsheri is one of them. He why the scholars have
compiled thousands of books on Fiqh, there are no more
than 150 verses related to the Islamic L system as revealed in
al- Quran. On the other hand there are m than 750 verse related
to natural science. These are obviously ich are related directly
to these phenomenon, what about th which implies the
scientific facts rather than speaking d o doesn't it look harsh
that this nation remains involved in ted number of verses
ignoring the majority?

Our forefathers mastered the lega1 studi hich was prevalent at

that time. But if they \,vere alive today th ould have given their
lives for the study of modern science that the nation rlay
witness a faster pace of prosperity.

Opinion of Dr. Muhamrnad Abdullah Zi

Addressing this issue he wrote a book ed "Al Bina al-Azim"
in the year 1933 A.D. Here he added tha - Quran contains three
kinds of miracles:
One that is related to literature. The nd one is related to
science and the third one is related to law

Meaning of scientific miracles

AII the messengers are sent r.vith miracl uitable for his nation,
time and message. The prophets before It ammad (SM ) used to
emerge to a parlicular nation for a parlic nation for a parlicular
period. So Allah has sent them r,i ith m les that \\'ere mostly
material and ephemeral. Such as, the of Musa (A,M.) and
making the dead living again by the touc f Isa(A.M.) When the

€D
power of these miracles diminished by the tide of time ancl people
got astray by distorling the original message Allah used to send
another messenger with new miracles fit for his age but ephemeral
and short living.

But the case is quite different for the last Prophet Muhammad
(s.M.) Allah decided to bestow him with messages that should be
comprehensive and immortal in order to produce ever renewing
guidance fit for all the times all the nations to come.
In the beginning of the 19th century science has become very
much instrumental and more experimental. Scientists began to
explore the secrets of the universe in and outside of the worlcl. The
mo0re they revealed the secrets of the r,vorld the more they
confirmed the truth of al-Quran which was revealed foufieen
hundred years ago. To our great surprise this fact was confirmed
by al-Quran at the very beginning:
"'we will show them our signs in horizons and within themselves
until it becomes clear to them that is the truth" (41153)
The signs of Allah in this verse have three meanings:
First: The creations created by Allah in the sky and the earlh as
Allah said:
"And of his assigns in the creation of the heavens and the earth and
what he has dispersed throi-rgh out them of them of
creatures ."(42129)
Second: the verses of al-Quran that describes the variations of the
creation and they are so many.
Third: The evidence and miracles sent by Allah to suppoft his
prophet (S.M.) in various occasions and places reflected in the
secrets of the nature intermittently.
Explaining the verse Qurtubi said in his Tafsir:
Ata said the meaning of "Horizons" in the verse that they are signs
of Allah in the heaven such as the sun, the moon, the stars, the day
and the night, the wind and all the things on the earth such as the
cities, piants, mountains, thunders and oceans e.c.t"
Erplaining the later parl of the verse Jalalain said:

/q;) _/
;/
And the signs in themselves indicate the secrets of the harmonious
creation.

So these are the signs described in the book of Allah. Their

meanings are rcalized only now, centuries after the revelation by
virlue of the scientific findings to prove that ai-Quran is the truth
revealed by Allah.

Some examples of the verses related to scientific miracles:

1) Ertension of the Universe;
And the heaven we constructed with strength, and indeed we
are its expanders."(5 1 I 47)
Einstein has said the universe is extending with all its glittering
stars. Natural scientists have discovered that the universal
substances are separating from each other and the distance is
increasing day by day.
So we can realize that the universe is not a substance that lies
fixed but indeed it is extending day by day to the contrary of
many material contents u,hich never grow more than a ceftain
1imit.
In this regard Dr.Hubble said:
There is one common feature of the scattered stars. They move
faster backrvard than forward, and the speed increases with the
increase of the distance from each other.

Division of the atom:

It said in al-Quran:
"And not absent from yoLlr lord is any parl of an atoms weight
u'ithin the earlh or the heaven or anything smaller than that or
greater than that or greater br-rt that is in a clear register."(10/61)

Until the 19th century it r,vas believed that the atom could not be
divided any wa-)-. But they triecl hard to find some theory
contrary to that. At last only ferv decades ago they tvere abie to
' /\.;-
f.]r\
\ tl /
\=/z
 j:
,.: 1

Estineate o.f Al-Mamun : An-Marnu:a, the n:ost distiiigulshsd -'

figurs of the Abbasids, Civinization ai:d eulture, State
Council of B4silx::n:
figure of the House qf Abbas' nay
Ai-Mamun was unquestionably the most distinguished
wor1d. He was not only aLave soldiff blt also
a good administrator'
;;;;hd.6^*i'. judgpent,.his sagacily and liberalit3T
He is will to work, irl, p*J*".., his clemency
and

the chief featur., orrriJ.n*cter. His reign ioms tt_. ryutt glorious epoch in the.H. 'Pq
. of Is1am. ,ft e t rentflytu., of ftt reign hlve left enduring monuments of the intellectual
oithough,li1t inteliectu4 advancement
development of the Muslims in alldirections
was not reistrictions ," . pr"*far branches but it peiaped tle wtole-culture domain'
Mr:tJm,a]i*;;;y;medicineaadphilosophvmadeand'extr^adrdinaryprogress '-
people lay in
the ,',,:th tUut iUt actual happiness of his
during this period. H-;ii,ity;;lred
intg practice by opening.scho$ and
eduLatioa *a ,urt*b *aire translated his realization
;t#;;tl O*.,f"-t. gt distilition of creed or race and threw public offices
;.d;;;
opel1 to'a11. Liberty **ti."t
yaSUAt' **
g"t' t1a]f ' .He lesssned the religious
"i of advie the Caliph' It was composed ' of
autocracy by estaUf sting a Cormqil of Staie
Muslims, Jews'
.. representatives frori'ilifr!.o***ities under his rule, including
Christians and others.
.. \

do-mra,He had embraced the lvlu'tazlite

Mamin interested hiulself in question of religious
doct'ines about Aee wjli and predestioution6d
*asEparricular shocked at the opinion
;hl;;iilffird il"ti'* aott*t tr'ut tr'" awq Ya!, +9 ryqeIS Yord of
"*"iL?a a.u, ntrytlished an edict bv whichtheMu'tazlite
A:rdffiiif; iT;"Aii|srt '

doctrine was O.rf*.i to UJtfr. i*figloo tfra ttui" und the orttroOox Aith was condemned
"f
ime time he ordered ,1ffi;"ffif;tr to honorii
ali as ttre best ueature
' as heretical' At the st
lnz.,o g'iisis u new edict
of God after the Prophet and forbade the priaise of Muawi 'to'
joag*r^u1d doctori were sunmoned to renounce the error ofthe
appeared by which uil
agreement with the views of the
uncreated.word God. ntoi of them expressed their
caliph, but a few ,tooo in there .bnri.tion among whop rvas Abmad bin
t*
order?a to beput into prison''TY' of ,
Hanbal(founder of tne Uantali School),who was
Ivlamun,s so.cessor's *rirtuio.a the eoict and
Ahmad bin Barbal was flogged ultimately
at their hands.
': ' works of
Scienierand literature, AssembXy of trearned mt)n'
translation, Observetory established:
Marr]tur's reign rvas the most glorious and briiiiant
ofall in the intellectual history of
Islam. His reign ,ru, til.l*ar"a of leamine both 11the
t.rt T9 in the west. At this court
*rlert.i".O *., of scieice and letters, poets,
physicians and '
were munificently
and i collectors of uaditions' such as
philosopherq. BeriAJr-t.Guo.ug. of tlephilologst
i,o1.9r..t3 tl!]tre Christians. were
the great Bukhari anJ of iriitori* us a-Wiqial;.
welcomed at the court not only for &eir teuiling
rut fc;r being weli vbrsed both in Arabic
and the language *O tit.ruto.. of Crreece.
U. .o'*pl.ttd the works of t'anslation staried

/i q
"-\

5
 by his graadfather ivlagur,, Underfus guidance
sanskrit books, Greek jv{a&ematics
pfulosophy, science of Eucrid ara pior"ery and
,.r, Arabic. costa, of
Luke, was appointed for the nansrarion
Qreek
o,f "*Ju;ffi,;
*l;;;"ahya son
bin Hanm, ofpasian;
and Dubaq.the Eiralrman, of sanskii
*ort , *to arrr"l;r, ,]ras througr lhe,rabours
these ,eamed *.1.': says w)Mu*, "tnuitrr. of
darlness of the v{iddii1t.:,
na;r*ffi;;]men
snrouoed in the
u.r*r"lg"i"
acquainted witir tireir own proper
but
forgoften patrimony of Gr-ecian *r."".La
great impetus in his hand. An
phji;ch;,i m. p.*i*
language receiyed a
ouservatioo was established in the plain
of radmor
study of Ash"onomy and georaen'y.
att'loo*icai observationlmade great sh-ide for the
this reign. Abul Hasan invented ta.
t.r.r*pJ.r*;ilffi;J^bbas, durinq -
modem persian po9:yr anq ar-Kindi, emp_ioyed founder ofthe
bv Mamun in Baghdad, and trarulato.
.trh.;;;-,'nuy, ai-Hihnah estabrished
#cri.t
*i;k;, ;ffi;;d during this period.

Fleitrosophicatr s"e-un ion :

Mamrur \vas so rnterested rn phriosgnhlcal

discussions that he sat apart Tuesday
firily for
the san"repurpose. The
q.**tr *Jil"l""lr;;.d;;;#; *, .rr*u*regurartry and the
caliph satisfled *.T.:lll,:_nr,r$;pr".ur..oou*Jitr.ru, i*r,g arr thesepoints into
consideration, &e hi51e;uosari
of opinion tfat rn. r.rgr.r,u#ua
glonous epoch of saracenic constitutes the_most
history ild ;;,
beeu cared the .Augustan Age
of Isram.,

Intellectuatr awakening of fiae Musllmrs:

With the expansion of klarnic territories,
-
r i '
^i
the Muslims were brougfit to
heritage of rhe foreisn cgunr.ies the cultural
lrru, ,L.;,oi;;;f
;;rogi_rr.[..c cutrure that
hetped the Musrims!"-pgr* irr".#;.
this cotueaioli p.K,Hird irir ;iil'ffi'.irt;:
*.n;il#i[jdrl**, of the world. in
influence, parttv'tnoo-eenrpl
f
urJiyr*, u,i
;ilffiiil.t.ur*, to foreign :

S*rf",r, ry*,i.il;-.ir
translation into Arabic fiom persian, was marked by
Spiac and Greek,,.

.age of transiarion forro#pd

*;,:,lr;;H,r:fi"ll, by originar
\
The Musrims had transra'red
branch of kngwredge either
Sanskrit or from pahriavi -9y9pr from Greek or from
rrtarajil
establishment of the f4mour Buy,
rlilil;i.u;r*,r,&#;:iftrated it, before the
a n'G,uu u, u..*i. fi ilrt ..on.
work a s m o s r o f the_ tr*rr utoir-iu
# *q":;ri"*i, #;irr of translarion
fl ,. *ork, d
. period. ere hanslated into Aramai" g rhi s
n"iit ,*rrroi.?rino.a for a longurintirne.
ri:"i*)
Greek work soin began t. u"
translators of arlnationalities
or*iriJ i;-;R;stud
iry9 arauic appointed ibamed
The
aud.r""ar{"0_r;pil;;c#;;s,
- Books and extaqrt materia[were-gari".t.o
ha'e asked the Bvzantin. aprp..or.t
u.l Mam,n &om all countries.
Jews and Musrims.
He is said to
***t
,.ro,tn, r.o ,o iugrrora io
tons orGord. rhe Musrimr
Iiterature of Greece and the
br.*. ui;;e;e;,h;;;riffica1 exchange for fve
rore and the medic.r
scienun. ri"*r *ifriffihey
foreign works into alabic "rp..ri" transrated many
trr*.uvpilr"*.q
-o tne cut-ture oitn. *.r.nt worrd. .,The
researches of Aristotle, Galen
an-d n&J*y wouid have
been lost to the world, if the

( G? )
\/*t,

. tA
tt
J'
 Muslinis had not kept them presened by fi'ans1ation". The age of n'arislation was soon
succeeded by a period of original thin-kiag and research. The Muslims sent &eir transiation
together tvith their o1va cont"ibutions to Europe. Modem Europe owes much to them in
Chemistry, medicine and m athematics.

Arehitecture:
With t[-e131i of the Llmayyad iynasty, the seat of the Caliphate was t-ansferred from
Damascus to Baghdad and the Persian. lnfluence began to have a marked effect on the
manners and hirbits'of the Muslim World. The fuabs lost their pre-dminence not only in
the Arny and at court, but aiso in the sociery. Their cultural life was also affected. The
Hellenistic influences pf Syna were replaced by the influences of Sasanian Persia and Iraq
wrth profourdiV the art and architectr.re.
Sodiled

Variation oflDesign:
The Abbasid Caliphs, like the Umalyad patronized art and architeclure. During the reign
of more than flvehundred years many buildings and places were built in different parts of
the Empire. The second Abbasid Caliph, al-Mansur, fou:rded the city of Baghdad in the
yea476) 4.D. The city was noted for a good number of placbs,mosque and other
building built by successive Caliphs a:rd othsr reiping princes of lryn. It was round-shape
cily enclose dby adouble wall oifour gates, nam'ely the Kufa'Gate (S.W) the Basrah gate
(S.E), the Xirwasan'Gate [N.,E) and the Damascus Gato 0\.W.). The Caliph shifted his
residence to Baghdad when it was made the capital of the Abbasid empire. The main
feah.res.of the n-ewly founded city were the palaces of the Caliph, called the Golderi Gates,

"ro*"0 ui*i-J;;6;;;i;;;;..-I";rt; *
p.rr; a quire'or400 cubits and side
and lay i1'6s ilriJJr; oirna"]ty- a second place was called. ihe Khuld, was. coo'stto"t.o
' after a few vears and this becane a favouriG residence'of Harun ar Rashid. AI
-Mansur
built the royat mosque. It was built of sun fried bricks and clay. Harun-ar-Rashid iebuilt it
and MuEziO enlarged it. The mosque of Cordova (787 A.D.)The great mosque of 'Amrin
Egypt (827 A.D.) The mosque of Cairorvan. (836 A.D.), the great mosque of Susa
(85.0A.D.) The great mosque of Sarnara and mosque of Turns speak much ofthe

None of the architsctural monuments left to day:

a4{-ud-Dawlah, the greatest Buwayhid Ameer, built a fine hospital on the bank'ofthe
Tigris. Itwas *oi" u palace than a hospital. A new palace called the Taj rvas constructed
'by the Caliph There were many other
Mut azid.Itwas completeA ty Us flrcc€ssors.
magprficent palaces and buildings and many wealthy people, princes and even Emperors
of kan had their own palaces in Baghdad. But unforrunately no
trace of fte architectual monument which once adorned the city of Baghdad, is left to the
present day. ln this corurection Prof. Hiui says, "T'he C4liphal palace called the Golden
Gate or Gieen Dome cieated by the founder of Baghdad, as well as his palace of Eternity
al-Khuld) and the Rusafah palace, built for the crown prince alMahdi, the palace of the
Ptediadei on Samara, up.oi40,00,000 dinars. his adjoining palace styled the Crown (a1-
Tai), cs6pleted by his ion al-Mu{tadir, desiglated the Hall of Tree on account of ttre gold

:f=-.
l,-* \
i-1/,/
\*-:--/ \t

eG
 and silver tree th.al siootl ut_its p6nd;
the.Buwayhid lvlansion known
Nlubziyah after Mujzz uo_ourrral by,the name al-
,ir.i.f, all
them Iefi no remarrs tc g:ie theseaqd
desfuction was broughtiUoo,
*
u, *tlrg "oriio,OO,;fr";r*s others llke
rL,;;irh;,;tlnoo* rhar rvas the*s. ,,The
of Halagu md by other natural
a>,,4*.t;r;;'#**"ffi,,
"f
andMamun, by the i-,rvasior
.u,u.r.
1,

scientific and triterary aetivities

cJuring tla Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliph:
,rrr. griu, puro* of 1.u*;;#duJr.*.0. Ferio&
nurtured a galaxy of brilliani Theynourished and
scientistald scnotr.s"rofJril-oe
contnbutions ro the currure teir most varuabre
of the world
conti-ibutions to different. branclte$lof
t#;x;;rg,ro*u w*r speak of their
s"rence.

Science and Medieine:

The-umavvao a-*to: encouragedrh.

,[1I o.f,redicine but reai progress in
medicine beqan with tne comini-orta.gr*ra- tuabian
hospitarr .urLa *bimanstaal;Hr"i#i*as 3ffi";bbasids
' course of time "thifly four
oqe.ned by Harun arRasjud
caliphs estabrished
in Baghdad. In
hospital, *.r. ertirtirt .o io;;;,
world", other branches ofmed'icin., parrs of the Musiim
,;.rrrr-r*!.ry;on#;;
grearrv deveroped d.ring,r,;
d;;;l;;;,i.d. ff;#ffiffi;icarophrharrnorogy,
authors
etc. were
orthis period
il:'H:'ffi;,,ffi ::,ff ;j#f,xfr *ffi ttl;*#-l}";ua;;,?#f l,*o
.\
AI- R.azi, gneat physician of
the Isramic worrd:
The next outstanding
figure in the medicalfieid
al-Razi (European,cqu;En;rr"l*rr"Tit w1 Ab.r1 BakrMuhammad ibn- zak;aia
o"f ar Rayy aear Tehran.
unquesrion'abiv the
gearesr;t ;ffidfug tne dRazi *is
phvsicians orai tirie rraraaie ager^*d oo.
Il: yiJrili.*"1fr*-* #r#j;Lio of the gle4tesr
with Greek, persian and-rndianm;i;;. *u, we, acq.ainted
.- on the lute, in his vouth heprr.ri..a'., ryr.v rili,r., il",::;ir"sic and courd play rve,
reputatiorlattracted * a.i.*i ui,;;ffi;r*y*4rs
q,,prrs;;;;ffi;#r*
exciusiverv to meaicine. arrparts oiweol*ariu,
when his
' medicine. *ne of rhe.most
r*i *ir,
lr. . ., *"a; ,, t*o n*ifu,
he devoted
ndror*hich
himself .

Measles' (al-Judari
cerebratea worls
"rJ_
iriri iJunr., ,on Smallpox on
n# are

Ianguages incrudins lugJrra

*rri& ffi ,*t- *o;rrr;;il;;hn and rater into yarjous
Ensrd,
i 866' This treatise was i;ii;ffi*{iliffi;;
ioasidered ai-o*ur.or to
,,;es between r4e8 and
t:ry"g to esrabrisrr the medici .rierarure
a-nurit..juffi;; r.*r..iii** of the fuabs. It
crrnrcransnot onrv'rjf Isram :r. A;;:.
"rru. thinkers and greatest
al-Hawi (the comoreh*il;ilai;#;
uuf or'te rtriiar.
il;;r".*1, nrs medical works is
disease, he firsr.ii.r was.wrinen iri*rrr" ior,unes.
end he gives lus ow1
cr..r,"ffi,
,ri ur. *.ui", ir.rri*rrihoi* For each
aurhors
or,inign uoo ixp.n.nge;, and at the
the anspices of charresl Tfus *o.t *.rfiosrated
Aqi";;;in. into Latin under
"f i[,i* .lewish physician Faraj
lbn Satim rn
i,iil,**;H1T*:;Xn:r3;x#Hffii1ff om1484on,vards
. _J vvuJlugl _
i:H,,iltfr
i1U.lC.

--.^\
I\/:/q e+]
ff
i''
\
19

ll,l
 AI-F'azi, was alsc rnathematieian :

A-l-fuzr rvas the cnief physicians at Bagriadh hospital. He is hlso considered the Lnyenror
of the section in srirgery. Besides medici::e, al-Razi left writings on theology,
mathematics, natmal science and astronomy. The last but one deals with matter, spa€,
time, motion, nutrition, growih, putrefaction, meteorology, opiics and alchemy. One of the
principal 'woks on alchemy was the kitab al-Asrar (The Book of Secrets) which was
translated into Latin by the distinguished ffanslator, Geard of Cremonau. AI Razi had a
prominent contemporary known to the west as issac Judaeus whlame the Fatimid Caliph
of Qairowan in Tunisia.

Altr ibn an-Abbas i

'Au ibn Abbas (Haiy Abbas) was a Persian Muslim of Zoroasrian descent. He wrote
encyclopedia named "the whole medical Art", known to the Latin's as Liber Regius (AJ-
kitab a1-Malik.) The book deals with bo& the theory and practice of medicine. It begins
with a criticism of previous Greek and Arabic medical treatises. This book was dedicated
to the rligning Buwayhid mlei, Azad-up-Daw1ah. It was twice kanslated into Latin but at
last superseded by the Qanun of Ibn Sina.

'Ibn Sina's 4eputation as a physician, Ibn Sina's Canon of

PIedlcine was a'Medical tsible:
Abu Ali.Husayn ibn Sina, moie commonlyknown to ttre West as Avicenna, was the.
greatest intellEcrual gtant gfhis age whose irnmortal works on Medicine and Philosophy
have always rgained a never-failing source of guidance and inspirationnolto the
students of thciie subject only;:but tothe wider readi4g public as well. He achieved his,
Sreatest fame in the West as a renowned physician. While still inhis teens, the young
medical student earned such a higher reputation that he was summoned to treat the
Samanid sultan of Bukhara, Nuh-ibn-Mansu. The latter being pleased with his treatureilt
a owe io rea in 's library. The young scholar rapidly absorbed ihe immense contents of the
royal library and embarked upon a career of writing the.age of twenty-one. He wrbte a
good number of boo.ks on medicine, phi1o1ory;philosophy, thbblogy, geometryf
astronomy and arts. Ne+rly all his works are riitten in Arabic except a few verses. He has
-
composed one or two treaties in Persian..His.famous work on medicine knoryq as Canon
of Medigine was the most influential medical compendium to reach Europe from the Arab
'
World. The canon was mar[moth undertaking, a careful classification and systanatization
of all the medical.,knowledge knorvn to the Arabs in the eleventh century, This medical '
" encyclopedia deals with general medicine, deceases affecting all parts of the body, special
pathology and pharmacopoeia. As regards the importance of Ibn Sina's Canon, Prof Hitti
says, "The Arabic text of the ofthe Canon was published in Rome n 1593 and was
therefore, one of the earliest books t0 see print. "Translated ipto Latin by the Geard of
Crernona in the uo cenflrry, this Canon, with its encyclopedic contefis, its systematic
arangement and philosophic p1a4 soon worked its wayinto a posit{on of preeminance in
the medical literature ofthe age displacing the works offGalen, al Razi and al-Majusi and
becoming the text book or themediial education in the schools ofEinope. In the last thirty
years of the c€ntry, it passed though fifteen Latin editions and one Hebrerv. In recent

\-/))
/ Gr r-\

6
 years, parfjal a.aaslarjon
3 into.Enghsh was
l
*xxo,.*,r-il;#::;:i".lt jfi #h*:?:-,
made.
jl*xshesmediastrnitis
#,lii;,,13lT.131":+:l:.?:ffi ::,Tff :r j# jfi::T.:"&;::::,1?*1,.,
;triX*:Iffi ,'ff:;'i,:Hr:;f-'X*",11i=.r,.ig*t"H'i#HTy*1T.tfi
r;; ;,i,i,11,:.,
'.
r"' . r", g"1
rr B j br e
#ffi :T ffi :,*HJ;:g'
---- rrvr^' "
Aclvane en:ent
of rne dical science ?
Hgh fibute has
been paid to
Ibn Srna hv
o' rho r+^r:^-
th e Itari
I an, o u o
#:*:U;:f H.:tpii=-!SriE T^': -yro
p r ac ed hrra rn th e

1ens.es.sieh,,iiffitfl'trffi,r#l#j,r;:fr *;.':{:l'rsil;ffi:
*.;ilffi He taught tbat the extemal
"._-1._rmirtipoo
an rftmense st
,he brain arrd nor i *'l.r*.it
zeruth,*.Hil,"ilffi ;:dT:,T**;ffi ,:ld:tn::,,n#fl#Ir.:ne,:*
Astnom orny, Observatory l'*
enected by p{a
rn ilny Astrola ru.
_
ff ffim.ffifl:*#*j,t fitrTJ,"{1ilffiHi,tril#ri"X g#fi
the order orMamun-l ,* :

i.?.H;ff.H1:sd* "ul*'ffiTt

##ilx*trft tl.ffi*tri,+:iffi1qff Iffi'$H-#*Hf I

*f*=**fr*##*..U**,
consbucted astroli ,

I{ulatnaenaatics: ''a .

Thqymade ongnat

::'.*d?n"il.#affi[**H_al,ff;ffir'Jfr
:.#i;Tm.#T;f {.*,*:b*

ffii:#l*'ffi il?,*Lrttx*x,ffi*;:"1i""ffi #",1'**0"'I*1i'

n*m*#,**,i*F*;it-s*s**m;mf :,Xll,rye
i:ffi '#rT,ffix'ffi n1r?:ffi
ffi #illFfl hlHl}?*'*:H*#l*,

/ 'i ("*\
\-/
-\=_/ lri
:j;l

e1
i[
rlri
 century as the principal mathematical text-book of European Universides and served to
inr?oduce into Europe the sciance of aigebra. Ai !f,rwarizrni's ma&ematical works were
tite principal soi:rce of knolvledge on the subject to lvorlC for a considerable fime, George
Sarioa pays him a high tribute when he considers him as "r-rne! of rhe greatest scientist of
his race and the greatest of his tiroe." He qystemized the Greek and Hindu maflrematical
knowledge. The old.est Arithmetic compoied in Aiabic was.kriown as Kitab al-]ama a1-
Tariq which is not availabie now. Al4hwarizni was the fusi exponent ofthe use of
numerals, inch:ding zero, in preference to letters. It \Ys ttrough fum that Europe learnt the
use of zero or cipher, His work on the Indian method of calculations'was t'anslated Into
Latin by Adelard of Birth in the t:*r century. Al Khwarizmi has the destinction of being
one of the fourders of algebra and developed this branch of science to an exceptionally
high degree- His grqatest book, Hisab al-iabr al-Muqabalah contajns calculation of
integration and equations presented through over 800 examples. He also introduced
negative sign which were unknown to the Arabs. The tr-anSlation of Khwarizmi's algebra
by Chester marks an epochl of the. introduction and advancepsnt of this branch of science
into Europe. "The importanceofRebert's Latin translation of Khwarizmi's algebra, "says
a modern Orientalist" can hardly exaggerate, because it marked the be$nning of European
a1gebra".
:

Al ltlahaenl amd otliers

(850A.D) was the first writer on trigonometry, Ytkub ibn Ishaq alKindi (874 A.D.) was
'the
distinguished scholar of mathematics, astonomy and natiral philosophy. He is said to
have written more than two hundred books on asffonomy, optics, Enclid and meteorology.
Muhammad bin Isa al Mahani (884A.D.) is credited with the invention of modem algebra.
He wrole on trigonornetry, astonomy, solid geomefiy and cubic equations. He
deponqt'ated methods of using algebra to solve a whole field of.intermediate science
problems. He made observations on the solar and lunar eclipse and plaaetary conjunctions.

Abu Raihan Muhainmad al- Bemni (I73-I049A.D) was one bf the greatest scientist of all
. 'times. He was the most original ancl profound thinker that Islam has everproduced in the
domain of the physical and mathematical sciencas. He was not only a scientist but also a
historian, philosopher,'naturalist, geologist, .asffonomer and mathematician. He had a keen
geographical sense a:rd his conclusion in that connection deseryes hgh merit. He has
written on various subjects after ilose investigation. Of his l5ks (1) Chronology of aricient
nations, (2) History of India (Kitab al-Hind), (3) ,^nAstrrinomical Encyclopedia.entitled,
' 'Masudi Canon' and (4) A Summary of Mathematics. Asfonomy aad Astrolory. Born in
one of the suburbs of Khwarizm (Khiva), he was captured by Sultan Mahmud of Ghami
on the fali of Khiva. His Kitab al-Hind may be regarded as one of the most significant
productions in the fie1d of regional geography. He rrote his monument work, Qanun a1
Masudi under the pafionage of Sultan Masud. On the Mathematical and asEonomic4l
roundity of the, earth ,the determination of its movement and glves the latitudes and
longinrdes of numerous places. \. ,

6,
 --.
[Jgnai" al KX; nyya m, D'{as iructrclin Tusi :
'\
Amoog the later mathematicians who were influenced by al Khwarizmi was Ur:rar ibn
Ibrahim ai-Khyyam (1 123 A.D.) the greatest mathematician in the lllh cenhLy. He was not
only a distinguished mathenatician and ast'onomer but also a famous poet. Hehad written
several treaties on arithmetic,'algebra aad ash'onomy. His solution of the eulogy and
liquadratic equations with the help of conic section is the most advanced wo{of arabic
ma&ematics. Abul lVaheed Ibn Rushd (1198 A.D.), the greatest Arab Philosophei of
Spain, lyrote on eterniry of universe, planets and eclipses. He is said to haye wbrked on
spherical tigonometry and on the theory of aeronautics also Muhsimmad Nasiruddin Tusi
: 0247 . A.D.) an all round scholar with 4 syplhgtic brain, was another famous astonomer
and mathematician. He worked an arithmetic, geometry, plane and spherical h'igonometry
*d 9! astronomy. He gave proof of Pythagoras theorem, made observation at Maraghab
in which he set up huge rings for elliptical ,solstical, amiliary purposes. He edited ilost of.
the mattrematical 'works of antiquity to the number of sixteen which practically bonstituted
the whole scientific knowledge of tire period.

Chermistry, Moderm c*remaista'y is the inventiom of tire

ffiHI trL u *roiru, asrronomy and rnathemati.r,,r,, rurrrrirl, *uor ri,.i,

greateientific contribution in Chenistry. ihe-lsry grew out of alchenry whiih.the Islamic
scientist did much to improve and advance. Their greatest contibutibn to world's story of '
knowledge was the accumulation of scientific facti and the advancement of scientific "
theories and pethodolory. 'Modem chemistry," says IvIr, Humboli.. ,was ad:riittediy.the
iaventions-of Musiim, whose achievements in this sphere w€re of unique interest,'l-1iey
conclusivelyproved the worthlessness of ancient chemiSty, They out the chemical
alfinities ofmercuf]ad, coppe-r, silver and gold and knew the cheriical process of
oxidation and calculation. The Muslims were the fust to teach the world disfillation,
!]tralton and crystaliization. They'knew how to change a liquid into vapour. Ir was rii
Muslim Spain that chemistry was first established and had the Mustmjnot beendefeated
at Poitiers, it would have reached its zenith there.

Jabir ibn }layyan is the father of chernistry:

{abtr
itn Yuyy*, kaown as Geber in the western world, is the father ofmodern chemisx.y.
His name is the greatest in the field ofmedieval chemical science. He cteariy recognireJ"
and stated the importance of experimentation than any other early alchemist and oiuOe u
noteworthy advance in theory and practice of chemisiy. He wroie some five hundred
treatises on chemistr-y; His works-after &e r4ft csntury
scientifically the ffio principal operations of chemistry, calcutation and reduction. Jabir
improved on the rnethods fon evaporation, sublimation, melting and crystallization. He
discovered for the fust time nyqic acid, sulphuric acid, aqua rJgia silver nitate and
sevsral other compoulds and nerv how to produce aqua regia in which gold and silver
could be dissolved, He was the prophet and forerunner of positive and dynamic science,
from his studies, he was able to predict the yast part which gases would Le found to play to
the make-up and composition of elements and more complex substances, He broughi

t'\ uf)r\ 6'\

' -.-.:/,
I

6u
 sysiem-and ord.er to chemical science and made it aL:rost a sacred a:t. tie was followed
b_v
others whope originaliry and indusa-y, profoundness of knowledge and keen-ness of
observatiori evoke astonishrlent of the-readers,

Ai- Razi & Ibn

-- -- Sina:
, -----'
Ollr..t rryportant cheraist of that era lvere a1-Razi (Rhazes) who re-discovered sulphuric
acid and aqua-viiag and Ibn sina (Avicema).a renowned doctor, who helped to
systematize medical chemish'y. Later on, al-Razibecame'belebrritsd all over
' Europe and was considered the foremost authority and rnaster of chemical scienie by all
men of learning.
ln spite of ovegryhekning evidence to the conhary, Europ_ean historians have deliberateiy
exaggeratd the so-called inferiority of Arabian science, Ignorance and superstition
reigned sulreme in Europe while the Arab peoples were uirrn lg a iiterary and scientjfic
renaissance, When the Arabs rvere making epoih-ma,king discoieries in their world, the
Europeans were placing a prer-nium upon eyery cenceiyable kind of social and qotritical
evi1. Acaseinpointisthefield of chemishywhichwas considered oneof
theriost
signiflcant reaLirs of science of the Arabs. They cailed it "the science of key". As the
science of chemistry advanced, the other scienies progessed apace.
The Muslirns sayants not only kept themselves conflned to the advancement of science but
'also they made great
conkibutions in on othsr braches ofknowiedge.

FtreilosopEay;

The Muslims cultivated philosophy with as much zeal as the,exact sciences. Ai-Ghazali.
al-Kindi al.Farabi was cilted U/ttre Arabs a second fuistotle. He wrote varior,
--
nslchological political and,metaphysical, works. Ibn Sina was a philosopher, physician,
philologist and poet. He systematized the philosophies of his.predec'ess&s, Uotnivustrms
aud Greeks. ,He was the foremnner of compend-ium writers for the whole world" with him
ended the great age Arab philosophy.
-, ., .. ,.|
Geography:
The Arab Muslims invented t}te "mariners' compass" and.voyaged to all parts of theworld
in search of knowledge or in pursuit of commerce. They even penetrated is far as
America"..voyage and pilgnmage gayethem inspiration to the study of geography, Ibn
Khurdebeh Jaihani, a!- Masudi Allstaqri,Ibn,Hawkal, yakut, al:Bakri, al,Muqiddsi and
Idrisi are the most famous of Arabs geographers.

Thepmine4t scholars who sired lusti.e on Arabic and Persian literatures are Ispaham, ibn.
I(hahkan, Abu Nur.vas, A1- Buhtad, Mubannabi, Dakiki, Firdausi, Unsaury Jalaluddin, and
. Abul Firaj Muhammad Bin isaq. it rvas as ihis period ttrit tle Muilims "aiter the Roman
cultivated.the science pfjunspnrdence and evoived there from an independent system".
Theii system, fiqh, was fust based on the Quran and the Hadith. But when it could not
solved the complicated problems, private interpretation became essentiai. The permission
ofprivate interpretationbulmiilited i-n the establishment of foui orthodox schoois headed

@
 T'tae Advemt of the Cttonman T'urhs

Within a short time, in the rstucenhuy tsthc€ntury AR) the O-t.o3*

Twks made their debut
in A.C. (853 A'H')
;;til;;. orirtrto.y, They shot in io the notice of the world 1455
Constantinople'
*Urn tirtlitlventv four yearold Sultan, Muhammad the Conqueror, took
trre rntrrerto i*pr.gnuuir capital of the Eastem Roman
Emprle This victory which had
bfrrepeated attempts by them,
been eluding the }u{uilims for eight hundred years in spite
thrilled the entire ilrl**o*iana revived its spirits' Tfe M*sl$s felt thattheycotld
il;;1, l,.p.t o, ilr. .Ottoman Tru'ks as th-e potenti3J l1dl' of a Musli1 revival; thev
They had endulance '
could be trusted witirthei leadershlp of the Isiamic World. :Yffi:it$
their ideals' Baron Cana
;ffi;;;;Jro.rgth;a given ample proof of their ability in
Dp Vaux has rightlY observed: t

';Th. ui.tory of Muhaidmad the Corquero-r Y* lot.1srft of fo$11 :: qt^t:::l'

of the
time' He
f"rt.ro B*pfe fravfi gow,i weak. foe Sultan had been preparing for it.ahadlong just been
il;k*;u*tug. Jftlthe existing scientific tnowledge' The cannon
cannon in tire worid ad for this
inyented and he d..iJ.d t"arr.p himlefwith the biggest
ne acl roea the servicei of a fuungaria, engineer' *'o:oi:*:]ed
a camon that could f,re

a ball weighing loo r<ilo;;#;aisunJe of

-700 ryl::*:
ir is said thatthis cannon was
men and tlok twohours to be loaded. tvtulylaa
march upon
pulled by
His fleet, wlich besieged the city
Constantinople with 3,00,000 soldiers a stong artillery.
the Sultan resolved to send a
from the sea, consistea oi tZO **ships. By gigai ingenuliy
the direction of
part of{ris fleet by iaad. He launched s.rritfrnipsilto t1l ry1fi'om
(to
over wooden uoaras, upon w1-ich fat had been applied
' 6Jhio, i;.rha by carrying tr* in.the heart of Europe that
nake themrslippe.yj;iffi Sultu" huq struck so much iear
when he died, The
y'op. ora...a .ootlooo*ltt urt'#ring for threlriays throughout

,i
,]
Advantages gmj oyed by thp Ottornans
which degtined,tfem for
The ottomans enjoyed a numb$ of su-iking advantages
. leadership of theMuslim World:
crusading zeal'
(0 They wefe a vrg;r;i
large-hearted and enterpri$nSrlcq,.charged {th
&om the slothful and voluptuous habits
being given to anomadii.*iit.r.., they were free

loole{ upg: q .
6 r&;;;;;;G; ril*,v strensrh and could confidently be
l.iegr"idtl. rf"it-?r *atg*porot ittt!,ots of Islam and defendthe MuslimWorld
against its enemies. rirri, J""*tended over contiuglls-furopp, Asia and Africa The
th1,e9
Mus1imWor1dt.qaii;toMoroccowasintheirilossessiol.l\siaMinortheyhad
*?tt tlt
subjugated, and in ffiffiilt
rr.A
"Orrr..
uu i*'ut-*Als oJVienna' rnty
Great wrote to him from
mastexs of the Mediteranean Sea' A trusted fri*9 ?flt:iqt
oro** sgt"t;;;;;A'l';
Constantinpple thaittre
n1ry ya as their private lake in
was so powaful thlt the ggybin;d
which they allowed no fopipers. The Turtsh nalry
;ffi;;i;;sth;#*6e"cool.d it
not vie with it, 1547 (eJ1 A. H'), the combines fleet
badly beaten. During the reign of Suleima.n
the
.
of Rome, Venice, S;il f;*gul*.rp the Silver
Greai. the Ottomanii*iltt strJtched orri* area of 4,00,000 squire miles-from
in the East
Sava in the north t tfr.ir"rtn of tfr. Nile in the South and from the Caucasus
to Mt. Atlas in the West. Every importani .ity oftn. ancient world, with the solitary

( loc,)
\J___/
I
 exception of Rome, was included in it. The Ottoman fleet co2Qisie4,,f 3,000
ships., Many
a Christian monarch solicited the favors of the Oftoman Sultan;.
Ctrurcn-leti, ur'.a
to ,top
ringrng as a mark of respect to them.

(iii) The ouomans occupied a place of vital st'ategic importance on the

map of the world.
Their capital Istanbrl (constanhnople), was unrivanea o,
u.ro*t oa*6;rphrcal and
st'ategic situation. it stood at the meeting of Europe and Asia, to* iiri.. tfp
-point
ottomans coutd conti'br arr the three conind;;itdol;'wb;il.
at a later date that if a world-government
il;;;d';;"i,i;;.r,
r*rr io t. .rtuttirt .d, 6g;turijropr.
alone would be an ideal capital for it: "r*i

The Ottomans were established which was to acquire great importance in the
1n lurope
near fua[e and was.alrqady beginning 6 thob with a rl.* iif.. ri"y lua u
opportrurity of stealing I **.ioo cfrristial E*.pr
brfll#
i, h.ratOiog tle new age and Guidine
worl{ along thepath of.enlishtened prosress tilat tru* ha?;hrrk;;
$e
Europe shot forward to lead it to its doom. "
#i;;b.fbr.
..

' But to their misforrune, and to the misfortune orthe

whole Islamic World, the Turks gave
themselves up to the temptations of ease and luxury;
tnri.*"ia deteriorated and their
rulers grew tyrarurical. Intemecine feuds *a mri.'rioirt.,
govemors and gengraqof theArtuy turned
cornipt ana disriyar
A;;;;;;ffiilffiirl
The greatest error the ottomanr *ud" was that
In the sphere,ef warfare an{31rr!an
Jl"*rJifli*ioor to become static.
ti"v
*t;rfiigoor.A
the Divind injunctign, "rs",ir;ti;ih; tL* iofirffieir srength ready
f.p.dl.$.-*ri.i enjoining o,
the utnbst oftheir powei'to strik'e tenor o
I

into the tlats ortrr"ir 'allowed

euemies, and their
magnifigent fightins ma.hir. ;;;;; uoo'o..uv.
'l
Again, the advice prophet, that "wisdom
is the rost property of a Muslim; wherever
"lF:
he finds it, it is his," failed to iofiuer.e them
thehostile nations ofEurope, it
any more. pricea;r ,1,"r;il"t;ilJffi;;,
ylr. ry.fe.a tirat yy"Ja pennanentry.k-eep before
t ,sd;,
thern the wise advice 'amr bln al-'As had given ,.Doa't
to-tt i , forg* trrat you
in danger. standint at_an outpost ofliital importance. Thereforg
Tt "tt*|qY
always fou,ge be ,

vigilant and ready with your arm"s. you are surrounded

covetous eyes are on you and your conntry.,,But
;fi ;;;;;ffi:. ,

tue onomans
the European nations went on making rapld prot;;,;h;-i*k",,r*uioJ*{or
;;il;;;il;; while
were.
air.v

As they well-known Turkish scholar, Halide

and lFest in Tttrkey;
-' .--. klib, has put it in her book, ConJtigt of East
.
"ft lolq as the worldremained scholastic, Moslem Religious Body did its
duty
admirybly, and the suremanieh and the raitr laeore;d;;;.;.;r"t JrflJaming ano
of whatever science there was althatrime. But *h;;h;
#;;ioroL, the chains the chains
of schotasticism and ffeated a;e;r.-"*s *i ;;;,;.";#;;;ffiffi#;**' rv
clange the face of the worrd, rhe Mosrem ierieious
il;y f,h;;#;;,irr rril'
educational tunction. The 'tllama took it to.6rtro
*;ii;;
kngwledge had not gou/o
 beyond what it was in the thirteenth.,*W,
and this attitude of mind persisted
educarional system down ro
th.;ildt;;.t HrHil$: in their

"The complacence of the 'Uiama

in Turkey Partr'cularly ald in the
generaily had nothing to do Moslem world
phitosophv and theolos,y-
rvith tl.t r"v"ity;;r['J.,&s of Isram, for schorasdc
ckistian;
Aristotelian, the teaching ora
#r;il;"H;;fl, rt is more or ress
creet, a philosopher. And.for this reason
comparative review of the Cr,istran f?g.an a brief
The eurau does not set out
ana ri*rl,
il..frrrg, ,..*,
necessary here.
to e*ptuin tne c.eatoq oim"".ut.ri"f
detail' It emphasiz"es much *ot.i},.-oral universe in
,rfusn, and sociar ,ia,
md ,eubhi
concemed vith human life. It is
more than the good and the *ir,
tr"il; ;;;;#fl,fi;u,"
"rta.
_rAl, *tii ,r,l.g
i,
' H.o.. itslaw. N;; i;A;;graphysical
of Islam'at a, compricated. It and
of one Alrah'
t;;;n i; tn" ..rog;ti* #L*ry_a single
spiritrnal side
creative Force
"rr:*::hpr*i,v
'. accept the new interpretaticin orthematen'ar
"f
*;
rrr.i tr,T;;;;ative freedom ofMosrems ro
worrd, u* ffi, aaoi.rbre simpricity
open-mindbdness, which coulo and
among the theorogy was. definitetv
accommoaat, n.*t;il& ofmatter, aio noirast long
the Mu tuka i t i m mj-.the prrlor t*r.,
put into .igia or,?;. great Mosrem thinkers_
oprrv Jr arirtoffi; ffi#.llo, th e new Mos lem

"No.ry Christian doctrine, w$.1,

ir..e: teaching of st. paul and the church
than that of christ, contains Farhers ratha
ia.tuitJ"rptu,ruioo"irl. ra.rial universe.
accepted as a revelation and This had been
its truth hadio
not prove everytriing bv observation.
u.**to to. a, cr,rioian theologians
could
to thev,riedil;r;"'b; lupr,lgThey hid recourse
Aristotre, for the-reason t."ir^ urrnort ,-ir#r; in his logicar capacity.
,

"when the west began to srudy

nahre by ob1llti*.:; by anarysis
christian church was ihocked and experiment, the
church Thought rhat meanr *e
ivt*
tr," analyical *.tnrd, Ied to great
discoveries, the
enas oirr ,rrrri,rity. iilffi
;:iffiffii;:S.,*"o, io,,r,l,ii.,ti,t ilA;;;,ithe west we behord an age
u."r.. after rrurh about the

"After 4 bloody conflict between

science and aar-*1tigv, the christiaa
realistic attitude, and sgientific church took up a
grven in the coilese as ]*b*.I-.d; was grad,aily incorporated in the insrruction
weil theprimaff schoJrs. The univilities,
were uke the
.

1s
Madmsas of the viama, evoly'dirto
their
hold over Theorosl. *J rta"t.pffi,
.*t", of new rearning and science, without
losing
Church presen'ed its auiiro;ty.*;i;;;i.oioo,
rrr. consequencJ was that the christian

catholic and the protestantpriests u,-r,ir;;id;interligentsia;the

youth, had courd bereckoned
couta discr*
i.otr-*, ;;.;s,
kind wiri rhe new )1

g.oos trr. or*rif,u-rry"arr*.a.rir,

"The Polition of the ottoryn
or new ffuth about inatter. But
a;;;;;;"air...ot]iir.yl.-ri, pr.r..uted new rearning
in the n i ptur. trro" *ur..io;*;
thought to persecute. * fte way of new
As long ur o*y
nothing new courd, infirtr ut
*.rJrh; ,;;;;;1ffiff:
of the Mosrem nailon,
lthry ru* io'ilru,, *d a.ir reamin!-stagnated. Further,
the age of decline. they were during
so occupied with poriticr
thing to stick to Aristotle'to.turffioi t#il;;ed by far the easiest
l

Le basis ofknowledge, rather tlan venfure

observation and anarysis Therefori-,1-rie-u)a*ro*emained, on
century, what tlrqr were in rhe r:m up ro the end of the last
i*nnoy. fn- ,f,frrioriis-q:u. S.n*fs,
which were the
 \

s'le organizatr on for prirne;1' education, renained

sunilarly *nchanggd.,,

nmtetriectuan steniriff mot pecurxar to tiae T'urks

Intellectual steniity-and inefficiency
of the educaiion-alsystem were not feahres
'- to Turkish life alone, but were
,o.*oon to the entire rtaurri*
peculiar
srolyn ineir bothmsnralty?nd
sake of caution' trace this
di,i,r;it;. lli. o" r;;Hft.world. Muslims; universally,
sLpor back tothe l1r'1c-entury A.c., the rsrr;century was definitery
Iast to reveal arv real intelteciual the
life u-Jng tr,e rouo*".,
ibn Khald,n wrote his Froregomeno. ;ii;l; It rvas during this century thar
and blind imitaion became
rr,_:.hq,o* r**" ,rr" irJJ"nce of mind, sravish pedantry
JmpJere. tilao", not finj .;;, ;;;* a hundred among the
'ulama of the rast fouiyrir.rr"i*rr"
mJv,-with ju"i.;lJ;; a genius or who may have
produced anvthine to.ser beside
tle UotJ ana noble and ;"i;;; activities of the earlier.
centuries' oniv a lewbf them
they all belonged to'ina;u.
*"i.
"ur".}r" i;;ffiril;ir,ffi
ort!11 age, and, inciientarly,
oo.';ithi"r
Mujaddid Alf rhani (I utncentury)
rm;*t personalities was that of Shaikh Ahmad sirhindi
H. I-ft ;i;;il; ,;'#;:h. whore N{usrim worrd. His
retters make a,,aruabie- cor*oriil,,
i. i;;;;;i&ffiffi;iltotno
connection isthat or shah l4lait (titah pinit"iir?i"*ili.b; prominent name in this
HisHuljatuttah-ir,Baiigha,
a! Fauz-ul-Kib,ir, *a. ir*twere
!::r:r::.f*tr,
promment personality in unique on their own subjecrs. The
third
this field
c€artury, wrote Takmir-ur at [ffi uia;n niuuur, who in the rsrr
was that of his son,
Azhan Nra Asi'ar-uLMa;ri'i;;.-fi;;.;"r" was,shah rsr4a,
*vhoseMansab-i-lmanm-o,t shabid,
and 'Aba qatare to this duy
'IJiarna of Farangi Mahal *"J;;ioutstanding me.ii simitairy
'the and of some of th"
of
were worrhv of note for the
high degree of their "ou.iorui;;;.,
l;;;;:*il,*rn,*
thb eastern area$who
did a ror to improve the
educationar standards of ih.i.
il;. E;;ri;i. r"r*r. *.;";;-#;;;*sery to schorasticq the oniy
r'v'ri'rrJ -ho *'ote on eihics, poirio, economicq
;il"", -Hi:'ry:t*st"n mysticism,

Excessive conservatism and servility

to tradition also robbed poetry
Lang"ase becameheavv w;tn and literature ofits freshness.

;il';'.il. $i ffi;?:Jr,
emueifisir;;;:.
and roval edicts were not free officiar notes, rnemoranda
fr;;
were afflicted with an inferioritv
f
*i
rhe Maarasas oriro;n.titutions of Ieaming
co*plo *r,i"r, ;";#;ffir.to
graduallv expelled from thought. crassics were
the tvriuri*,i-ur"ir prr"";;;*iffi"
writers who lacked originalirv. compirations ofthe raner- day
masters' Texi-books wlre
oiil"rh;;trere just rh" ;6;;iro., o, interprerers
replaced by-cheaf of the oid
ann^otations u.,a
ooa-.ntaries, in the compilation
which the aurhors practiced ;.;;il;;i of
of prp". and reduced them ro more
notes.

Europe,s Scientific and Industrial progress

. . l

Europe, meanwhire, had been

making a corossar. scientific and
conquering hidden forces of industrial progress It was
rnatt*., ,lrutili"g new secrets of
lands' During the tottr and nature aad discovering .,nknown,
ii.
the fields of creaiive activity
y,l ;&i9','ii"r*ay"d ; il;;;il
of outstanding men in alr
Scientist lir.e cJpemicr., g*ir,'Guir*o,
revolutionized the world *.or"r, and Ne*on.
theNewWorld and many othei
.f ph)=j;;, ;[;i. d"li,rtrr, i;* ;;;;;andMagelran discovered
iana, *Ju*-rout.r.
The destiny of mankind wa:o-ti:g,::."st
in the lvest Th.e
pace He rvho lost a momei.t lrorrd was changing a a breatrr+aking
in-jdreness, iort u gr.d d.;"rh"'ilrriims,
arasr negrected not
f;$#::
but centuries, whereas ,1" rrl"pl-
nutio!. .;J; ;;;;rr. of rime and covered the
 The Turks lagged so much behind in the field of rndushy that ship-building
could not be started among them before the 16th century. The Printing i..rq th;
Health Services and the Defense Academic were. introduced in Turkey -only in the
17th century. Towards the end of the i8th century, a balloon was seen flying over ;

,l
Constaqtinople and the Turks thought that it was a magic h'ick. With imperial Turkey irgging *
far behind. what could have been the pligJrt of those Muslim Countries that weie under its
suzerainty?'f,hey did not posses even minor industries. A French fiaveier, Volney, who taveled in
Eglpt in the istt centurl and stayed for four'years in Syria, wrote thai 'lhis country (Sy-ia) is so
backward in the matter of industry that if your watch goes wrong here, you will have io go to a
foreigner to get il mended."

In their heyday the Turks were unmatched in the worid for military proficiency. But now in this
department, too, the'Europeans had pushed them into the rear.'In 1774,theGiorn* Empire
. suffered a crushing defeat at the hands ofEurope. The shock ofthis defeat somewhat helped to
open the eyes of the Turks to the ugly realities of their situation and some efforts were made by
them to set their house in order. Military ra-organisation was takan in hand with the help of foieign
experts. The real work of ndional reconstructiori was, however, undertaken by Sultan Salim I1l,
. lvho had, incidentaliy, been brought up outside the place. He opened new-fashioned schools
including an Engineering College in which he himself taught. He also laid the nucleus of a modem
aflny called the 'New Order' and introduced political reforms. But stagnation had got so firmly
entrenched in Turkey that before any substantial head.way could be rnade, the old army_rebelled
against the Sultan a:rd.he rvas slain. AJter him, Mahrnud II and his successor, 'Abdul Majid I, .-
devoted themselves to the task of nation-building and the country took some steps fbrward during

But this stray dtempts at reconstruction were nothing as compared with the mighty strides of
'' Europe.
The fae tha befell the Muslims in lvlorocco, Algiers, Egypt, lndi4 Turkistan and
elsewhere in the tsth and the 1qh centuries could have well been prophesieC in the rotrr and the 17"
centuries.

.ii
I

i
 trnCustrial and Military
Self=suffi crency;
The work of the regeneraiion
of Islam does not end
td tum irs wav uprvards
and make,sh;
here. If the Musiim worrd realry
lvants
";;;;g;;the inskun:.rt oir.ut,,irg
humaa
l,?',,TIr,:'"H;'fi lllJ3ffiiil: j,-tri,,f; j,
3;;]frr*e,.anymoreitseducationa
sn,r.**^.=,i*{a:l**iJI#".,*t*5t:ilxllll,HH;rm*nr
to iook ro others ro, ur.;rtu.J.l
r*-1;u11d*ilr;fl*lgX[.#,",ffi
itmav not have ro join
so Iong * tr: uu'ri*
this;;;
power urrr 6rr..u? X*Um5'
.o*Lrri3^rp1; g;q#1;:ol and protectioni
militarv aid, the w.o
*,r to suck irr.i. aiioa
rhg vrest for economic and
disorganized In the
the resr of the
p-riiiffi*T;;i;;fiffi;:
""il.ur. gd leep them weak and
*;;;;;.,ronor*n.jilil:u
yg_.r., unj "rtheir _dury
to themserves and to
rhe rure of rhe- w.,g
*;,J#*r::y period oir.*it
.;,,i,1,r4;;;; #,i
a. andmisery.
of the degeneracy of :;::
man i' *Iat"' times,
If theydo'noJ^pty immediate ;;e shrring point
inreriectuar and ..ono*ir;;-'"-r,
uuention to their
iraan*ril criJ ;;'orli iurrenng rvilj be exlnded and the
world rvilj be d.amned m,

rhe educat,"r"lr:.ll:f,of
the r:,."*i:^y,:rla r.urlhave
over-hauled in the r'gi" to be rhoroughry
countries w'hich are "rii.Trr?ii.
scientifi.uril
ra.a, uoJffis.
To learn from the wesrern
*a,.rrrr"r.;#,rxa._..d is one thing but the
$fifrl.Y;:ffii,:ffi *:ff:'#"':;;;;l:ffi ,*du..o*"##iii.*,camp-
readershipof theMusirrnffi ,',affi
,TifrT#;*+r:ffi :,Tii,';ffixlt,
rifi f,x!ffJ;t'tffi[H:*;T,ly:1,,ry ;i"J;fu" grobe For a rong time the
was rhe vehicle ,ir.rylr,ffififfiH';H,1*x"f,i1fl1?l|;[I,ffii

lii
['^r,. ,
,

**
#ffi'.::"i:il'*#:iltl:lSiyg,L,
Kimiva-i-saadairr,ougr,;;';##ff ",#, boe! was r;;,sht out i,
Greek and rranian
academic point of
iiiiffi 1T**it,,l:*f"ft
irir.lrr.r*,,r* lr,rri;-;;;;#liLo", #n.,
vie*j ;had ;ui*d,.*rncy of defecrs from the

ffitix*T'i;qfi,,i**,f;iffi
experiences and exrgenctes.
almost everywhere.

$ffi #l:Hr,ii#:i,
The rvorld
Mus I i m co unt'ier
too, o n -. ;i;ffiH.t', ::H, ? [[r[r}]
";; rj,'^,;
*i t#;;"#r *i, r,'r,uil; *':?
r
::x.ffi.ffi *"''
to th e we st and to i ts
$::',"I":Tt #r','#:
9'9*d was thus prepared for not merely intellectual
tmt&atton of the western adoration
civiti,aiionl, ;n. Mil;;ilrg*rsia.but also for actual
setfconcei! discontent
began steadilv to
il;il .rh;iodu*.*rrii;;;;h.-odem Retigious skepticism,,
replaceiir.-.J*rrr i;;ti-,-i;;,d;.;*rions wejern *oJ. of riving
sptntual civilization
of Islam;;il;il.maticar_y
-- -v4*^rr vvs*'r' .ystemallcally of the Musrims. The
Europe. t. be
to uE i.p-rrced
repJaced by the
*rtaaac*jture of
materiar
.:,_,_____-..
i ',,
':,- *7
 the Musliins should re-
It is vital for ihe regaining of world-leadership for islam norv thai
Ior this the islarnic cultuie ivrii have
sstablish their intellectualsuperio;ity ovel ihe trYest.
o{ iearaing'
to re-assed iiself. Cn,sading e;d.eavours will have to be
made in al1 bianchss
The Muslim states
ih,rs obviously, is not the lvoik of a few individuals associgiions
seriously in hand. High-powered
sirouia take the tasi< of intellectual regeneration
of evolving an
.";*tr-*r and institutions shouid irrrmeCiately be setup.fotlF ptl-rpose
of the Quran and the Sunnah
educational struci.ue that should fully confirm to the spirit
seientific research' Iduslim
withoirt over looking the requir.*.rir of modern iearning and
ol snecuiative reasoning to the l
educationists and scie-riti., ougrrt to apply.their o1m force
generations-of Musiims from
empirical sciences so thal thei'can sal'e flie coming
J*r.iopirg a feeling of contempt for their owr, past and-a despair for their future'
Glam tolands far awav and
ili;l;Th;;;y ir rilrt.i the Muslims can spread the light ofLgadership is not an eaqy job'
,uw mar"ti"d from tire stark *in that is starting in the face.
It calls for tremenious taith' labour and sacrifice'

4&
.82
t"

,-.,