Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Rheological property measurement of drilling ¯uids used in

geothermal wells
E. Santoyo a,*, S. Santoyo-GutieÂrrez b, A. GarcõÂ a b, G. Espinosa c, S.L. Moya b
a
Dept. de Sistemas EnergeÂticos, Centro de InvestigacioÂn en EnergõÂa, Universidad Nacional AutoÂnoma de MeÂxico,
Apdo. Postal 34, Temixco, Mor. 62580, Mexico
b
Instituto de Investigaciones EleÂctricas, Unidad Geotermia, Av. Reforma 113, Col. Palmira, Temixco, Mor. 62490,
Mexico
c
Universidad AutoÂnoma Metropolitana, Av. MichoacaÂn y La Purisima S/N, Col. Vicentina 09340, Mexico DF
Received 27 August 1999; accepted 10 December 1999

Abstract

With the goal of increasing understanding of drilling ¯uid temperature behaviour during geothermal
well drilling operations, and for providing a database for a better development of numerical wellbore
simulators, an experimental work based on a rheological evaluation of drilling ¯uids was carried out.
High-temperature drilling ¯uid systems (HTDFS) which are most commonly used in the Mexican
geothermal well drilling industry were selected and evaluated. Eleven water-based drilling ¯uids were
formulated and chemically characterised in order to carry out the rheological evaluation. Dynamic
experimental tests considering the non-Newtonian behaviour of such HTDFS were performed using a
coaxial cylinder-type viscometer (Fann 50C). Drilling ¯uid viscosities in a programmed temperature
range of 25±1808C (at a constant reservoir pressure and a shear rate of 3448.2 kPa and 170 sÿ1,
respectively) were measured. These dynamic viscosity measurements were then ®tted to derive
correlating equations for determining the drilling ¯uid viscosity as a function of temperature. Details of
the experimental rheological tests including a complete description of the equipment and all the HTDFS
used as well as the derived viscosity±temperature equations are presented. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved.

Keywords: Dynamic viscosity; Viscometer; Non-Newtonian ¯uid; Bentonite; Geothermal energy; Well drilling

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +52-562-297-74; fax: +52-562-297-42.

E-mail address: esg@mazatl.cie.unam.mx (E. Santoyo).

1359-4311/01/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 4 3 1 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 3 - X
284 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

1. Introduction

The exploitation of the geothermal resources in Mexico for electric power generation has
experimented a signi®cant increase since 1973, according to the national energy programme
predicted by the Mexican government [1,2]. Today, 743 MWe of electric energy have been
installed which represent approximately 3.4% of the total energy production in Mexico [3]. An
additional growth in these production indexes will require the solution of many adverse
problems which typically a€ect the exploration and exploitation of these resources. From a
technical and economical point of view, the ecient drilling and completion of the geothermal
wells has been identi®ed as one of the main problems to be solved [4±6]. Within this context,
high-temperature geothermal well drilling usually faces to various technical and scienti®c
problems during its execution [6]. A simpli®ed sketch of a typical geothermal well drilling
system is shown in Fig. 1. During the drilling process of a geothermal well, circulation of
drilling ¯uid serves for cooling the bit, transporting formation cuttings to the surface,
controlling subsurface pressures, among other applications [7,8]. This circulating process
produces an undesirable cooling e€ect on the formation temperature surrounding the wellbore.
Thus, the drilling ¯uid or mud becomes an important tool for predicting the circulating and
the surrounding formation temperatures during the geothermal well drilling process (GWDP)
[9,10].
The accurate knowledge of the drilling ¯uid and formation transient temperatures during
and after well drilling operations (circulation and shut-in processes) has been identi®ed as an
important variable that the geothermal well drilling industry (GWDI) requires to determine [9±
12]. These downhole temperatures can be determined either by direct measurement using
downhole temperature recording devices [13] or by numerical simulation of the cooling e€ects
due to drilling mud circulation using steady-state or transient heat transfer computer
simulators [9±12].
In analysing the e€ects of heat transfer on such downhole temperatures, it has been
found that the transport and thermophysical properties of drilling mud strongly a€ect the
magnitude and the shape of these temperature pro®les [10±12, 14±17]. In fact, the
unsuccessful prediction of these temperatures (by numerical simulation) is due in part to a
very poor knowledge of the actual behaviour of the drilling mud properties with varying
temperature [10].
Within this context, the measurement of rheological properties (such as viscosity) in
drilling ¯uids under dynamic and high temperature/pressure conditions has constituted a
serious problem for the GWDI because these ¯uids have a very complex physicochemical
structure which enables a non-Newtonian behaviour to be exhibited [17,18]. The drilling
¯uids used in geothermal well drilling are typically characterised by water-based muds
consisting of a dispersion of colloidal clay (bentonite) in water and some additives [6].
At present in the GWDI literature, information on reliable correlations for calculating actual
drilling ¯uid viscosities as function of temperature are either unavailable or seldom available.
The lack of this information has been mainly attributed to the high complexity that implies to
carrying out an experimental rheological property measurement programme at high
temperature/pressure conditions with ¯uids that exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour. This fact
has motivated some authors to use water viscosities to represent the variation of drilling mud
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 285

viscosity with temperature in numerical modelling studies of the heat transfer processes that
occur in the GWDP [9±12]. Evidently, this assumption could lead to signi®cant errors in the
calculation of the actual convective heat transfer coecients (CHTC) of drilling ¯uids since it
is well known that water behaves as a Newtonian ¯uid [17].
Other authors have directed their e€orts to ®nd out rheological models for estimating the
viscosity of drilling muds and to be subsequently used for calculating the drilling mud CHTCs
[14,15,19]. Within context, Santoyo et al. (1996) demonstrated that the majority of these

Fig. 1. A simpli®ed sketch of a typical geothermal well drilling system (modi®ed after Kelsey and Carson, 1987) [2].
286 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

models tend to underestimate the actual viscosity of a drilling ¯uid [20]. This fact leads to an
overestimation of the drilling mud CHTCs since both the viscosity and the CHTC vary
inversely according to the de®nition of the Nusselt number [21]. Santoyo et al. (1996) also
pointed out that these rheological models are usually restricted to a limited range of
temperature which disables them to be widely used under geothermal well temperature
conditions [20].
On the basis of this problem, an experimental rheological property measurement programme
based on the study of the non-Newtonian behaviour of drilling ¯uids for obtaining reliable
correlations of drilling ¯uid viscosity with temperature has been carried out.
The objectives of the present experimental work were to develop a laboratory methodology
both for measuring drilling ¯uid viscosities under high temperature dynamic conditions and for
examining the variation of the drilling ¯uid viscosity with temperature. An immediate
application of this experimental methodology was conducted for evaluating the rheological
behaviour of eleven water-based high-temperature drilling ¯uid systems (HTDFS) which were
formulated from Mexican commercial materials. Details of the experimental rheological
measurements are also presented and discussed.

2. Non-Netwonian behaviour of drilling ¯uids

Drilling ¯uids have progressed, over the years, from simple clay suspensions to highly
complex substances both rheologically and chemically. Such a composition enables the drilling
¯uids to be generalised as non-Newtonian ¯uids because there is no single constitutive equation
to describe exactly their relationship between the shear stress …trz † and the shear rate …_g ˆ
dvz =dr† over all ranges of shear rates. Three major categories of non-Newtonian ¯uids are
basically recognised, namely, time independent, time dependent and viscoelastic [22]. The time
independent category has received a substantial degree of attention in comparison with the
other two categories. The large majority of drilling ¯uids falls into this category [23]. Hence it
is generally accepted that drilling ¯uids can be typi®ed either by the Bingham plastic model
[24]:
trz ˆ ty ‡ Z_g …1†

the Ostwald-deWaele or Power Law model [24]:

0
trz ˆ Ci g_ n …2†
or the Robertson-Sti€ or Yield Pseudoplastic model [25]:
trz ˆ A…_g ‡ C†B …3†
where ty and Z of Eq. (1) are the yield point and the plastic viscosity, respectively; Ci and n of
Eq. (2) are the consistency index and the dimensionless ¯ow behaviour index, respectively; and
A, B and C of Eq. (3) are parameters that depend on the shear rate according to the
rheological theory proposed by Robertson and Sti€ (1976) [25]. The e€ective viscosity of
drilling ¯uids may be estimated either by an application of any of the above described
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 287

rheological models to the shear stress and the shear rate experimental data collected from
simple rotational coaxial viscometers (e.g., Fann 35 or 39) or by a dynamic and direct
measurement of the ¯uid viscosity with more sophisticated viscometers (e.g., Fann 50C). In the
®rst case, the shear stress data can be measured from Fann V-G viscometer readings at shear
rates that normally range from 1021 sÿ1 (600 rpm) to 1.76 sÿ1 (3 rpm) at isothermal
conditions. In the second case, the drilling ¯uid viscosity is directly measured through the use
of dynamic coaxial viscometers under transient thermal conditions.

3. Available commercial instrumentation for evaluating the rheological properties of drilling muds

Viscosity measurements can be performed by means of several instruments which are in

general use within commercial drilling ¯uid technology. Viscometers such as Fann 35,
Fann 39 and Fann 50C are generally used in laboratory and ®eld practice. The Fann 35
and 39 viscometers are of the rotational coaxial-cylinder type. These devices allow to
calculate the plastic viscosity and yield point of drilling ¯uids from shear stress readings
at 300 and 600 rpm. Although, they can use up to six rotation speeds (600, 300, 200,
100, 6 and 3 rpm) when their rotor is driven by an electric motor [26]. The shear stress
or scale reading is determined as a function of the shear rate (from the speed of
rotation). Even though, these viscometers provide a good approximation of the drilling
mud rheological properties, the applicability of their measurements is some limited because
they are carried out at one given temperature (usually at ambient temperature) which
constitutes a serious disadvantage. This technical limitation seems to be very important for
actual well drilling applications, when the drilling ¯uid transport properties are assumed
to be dependent on temperature [18, 27]. In this sense, a more accurate knowledge of the
variability of drilling mud viscosity with temperature is highly desirable since these
properties have a strong in¯uence on heat transfer studies oriented to estimate the
circulating and thermal recovery temperature pro®les of a well drilled.
On the other hand, the Fann 50C viscometer is of the same rotational coaxial-cylinder type.
The instrument is commonly used to measure ¯ow properties of drilling ¯uids at elevated
temperatures and pressures. The Fann 50C has been designed in the same fashion as the
unpressured viscometer. The upper temperature and pressure operating limits are 2608C and
6896 kPa, respectively. The Fann 50C has in®nitely variable rotor speeds from 1 to 625 rpm
with a viscosity range of 0.001±300 Pa s …1±300  103 mPa s or centipoises). The main
advantage that this equipment o€ers over other viscometers is that e€ective viscosity
measurements can be carried out directly at dynamic temperature conditions. Such a capability
enables the drilling mud viscosity variability at geothermal well drilling conditions to be
simulated.

4. Experimental work

An experimental measurement programme for determining the rheological behaviour of the

drilling mud viscosity under transient temperature conditions was developed. The experimental
288 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

tests were carried out at the drilling ¯uid laboratory (DFLAB) of the Instituto de
Investigaciones Electricas (IIE), Cuernavaca, Mexico. Dynamic measurements of the drilling
mud viscosity were obtained in a Fann 50C viscometer. Such rheological experimental data
were used for deriving correlating viscosity equations for various Mexican HTDFS.

4.1. Selection of high temperature drilling ¯uid systems (HTDFS)

Drilling muds are composed of liquids and solids. Typically, the liquid fraction used is
water. The solid fraction is usually a mixture of commercial clays, barite, polymers, thinners
and other chemical additives along with drilled solids. Most drilling muds are classi®ed as
water-based drilling muds. In some areas very few problems are encountered and the drilling
mud consists of only water and native solids. In other areas it is necessary to add clays to the
mud to increase the viscosity and gelling character of the mud. The most commonly used clays
are montmorillonites, often referred to as bentonites. Commercial bentonite is not a pure
material. It has been estimated that the best material available is about 60±70% sodium
montmorillonite [23]. The remaining portion might be calcium montmorillonite or other low
yield clays such as kaolinite, illinite or chlorite.
Considering the nature of these materials, the best high temperature drilling muds made
from commercial materials available in the Mexican well drilling industry were selected. Eleven
water-based drilling ¯uids were formulated to carry out the dynamic rheological tests. The
composition of the tested drilling ¯uids is characterised by di€erent bentonite formulations.
These formulations were prepared using four di€erent types of bentonitic materials along with
water and some additives and polymers to avoid an early thermal degradation of the mud
during the experimental tests (see Table 1). Bentonite formulations were prepared using
homogeneous mixing techniques according to the American Petroleum Institute (API)
speci®cations [28]. The densities of each drilling ¯uid samples were measured immediately after
mixing using a certi®ed measurement technique also proposed by the API [28]. A summary of
the HTDFS physical measurements are also given in Table 1.

4.2. Chemical analyses

The qualitative mineralogical composition of each bentonite was determined by X-ray

di€raction (XRD) technique. The quantitative chemical composition of these bentonite samples
was determined by ion chromatography and standard wet chemical techniques [29]. The results
obtained from both qualitative and quantitative measurements are summarised in Table 2.
Four bentonite groups were used as base formulation for preparing the HTDFS. The ®rst
group consisted of processed mineral clays (Montmorillonite + Plagioclasses + Quartz +
Cristobalite) whose concentration was mainly dominated by silica (70.9 wt%) and a cationic
fraction (13.6 wt%). The second group was a baramin type bentonite (Montmorillonite +
Plagioclasses + Quartz + Calcite) characterised by a silica concentration of 70.1 wt% and a
cationic fraction (18.1 wt%). The third group consisted of a Bentosund AUS bentonite
(Montmorillonite + Albite Plagioclasses + Quartz + Anortite) with a smaller concentration
of silica (63.2 wt%) and a cationic fraction of 19.4 wt%. Finally, the fourth group was de®ned
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 289

Table 1
Physical composition of the high-temperature drilling ¯uid systems (HTDFS) tested in the experimental rheological
work

HTDFS no. Bentonite type (%) Supercaltex Resinex Polymer Polymer Density
additive additive type (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3)

1 Processed clays 6.2 6.0 10.0 ± 0.0 1040

2 Processed clays 6.2 6.0 10.0 Poly Rx 10.0 1040
3 Processed clays 6.2 6.0 10.0 Lamsperce 10.0 1040
4 Processed clays 6.2 6.0 10.0 Miltemp 10.0 1040
5 Baramin (9%) 9.0 6.0 10.0 Poly Rx 10.0 1060
6 Bentosund AUS 6.2 6.0 10.0 ± 0.0 1050
7 Bentosund AUS 6.2 6.0 10.0 Poly Rx 10.0 1050
8 Bentosund AUS 6.2 6.0 10.0 Lamsperce 10.0 1050
9 Bentosund AUS 6.2 6.0 10.0 Miltemp 10.0 1050
10 Perfobent 7.5 15.0 10.0 Poly Rx 10.0 1050
11 Bentosund AUS Sepiolitea 1.4±4.3 0.0 10.0 Cypan 5.4 1020
a
HTDFS-11 uses XP-20 cromolignite as an additional additive (10.0 kg/m3).

by a Perfobent bentonite (Montmorillonite + Plagioclasses + Quartz + Calcite) having a

silica concentration of 64.8 wt% and a high cationic fraction of 21.8 wt%.

4.3. Measurement instrumentation

A concentric cylinder, rotational type viscometer, Fann 50C was used (Fig. 2A). The main
operating characteristics of this device were previously described. The viscometer is equipped
with a standard rotor cup with a volumetric capacity of 50 ml. The drilling mud sample must
be contained in the annular space between two cylinders with the outer sleeve being driven at a
controlled rotational velocity. Torque is exerted on the inner cylinder by the rotation of the
outer sleeve in the drilling mud. This torque is then measured to determine the ¯ow properties.
Data are recorded either on an X±Y recorder or strip chart recorder. The instrument has
variable rotor speeds (1±625 rpm) with a viscosity measurement range of 0.001±300 Pa s. The
temperature range of 0±2608C is programmable. Drilling mud viscosity is measured by
shearing a thin ®lm of the liquid between the inner and the outer concentric cylinders. The
outer cylinder can be rotated at a constant rate and the shear stress measured in terms of the
de¯ection of the inner cylinder which is suspended by a torsion spring (Fig. 2B). The sample
can be heated up to 2608C by an oil bath which is also used for cooling the sample. Pressures
in the sample cup can reach up to 6896 kPa and are generated either by a nitrogen gas cylinder
or by a compressed air line which can be controlled with a pressure regulator. The viscosity
and temperature of the mud are automatically logged on a two pen strip recorder. The
viscosity and temperature variations with time are separately given in a rheological plot
(technically known as rheogram) for each ¯uid analysed (Fig. 3). A detailed description of the
operating speci®cations of the Fann 50C viscometer are given in the manufacturer manual [30].
290 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

4.4. Calibration of the Fann 50C viscometer

Before beginning the dynamic rheological tests of the HTDFS, a standard calibration test of
the equipment was conducted. The calibration required ®xing the operating conditions of the
Fann 50C instrument. These conditions are summarised in Table 3. Viscometer calibration was
carried out as a typical shear stress calibration test using a standard ¯uid of known viscosity
and temperature characteristics. For this purpose, silicone oil standards with a viscosity range
of 50±200 mPa s were used since they are usually recommended and provided by the
manufacturer.

4.5. Experimental

Once the calibration test concluded, the viscosity and temperature measurements of the
samples were performed. A 50 ml accurately measured volume of mud was placed in the
sample cup. This sample volume must be a precise measurement, because an excess or
insucient amount of mud can a€ect the ¯ow viscometer system. An excess of mud could
contaminate the bearings and seals of the system, while, an insucient mud volume could
cause mixing of the sample and pressurising oil at the interface. After introducing the sample,
the dynamic test was initiated using the operating conditions shown in Table 3.
The shear stress, shear rate and temperature of the drilling ¯uid were continuously and
automatically logged on a strip chart using a two channel potentiometric servo recorder. These

Table 2
Chemical and mineralogical composition of the HTDFS (bentonites) tested

Bentonite type (HTDFS) Qualitative analysis Quantitative analysis (%)

Na K Ca Mg ISa SiO2 Al Fe

Processed clays Montmorillonite 7.0 0.4 2.0 4.2 12.6 70.9 2.2 0.7
Plagioclasses
Quartz
Cristobalite
Baramin Montmorillonite 9.2 1.3 2.3 5.3 8.3 70.1 2.6 0.9
Plagioclasses
Quartz
Calcite
Bentosund AUS Montmorillonite 12.8 3.6 1.5 1.5 13.1 63.2 2.2 2.1
Albite Plagioclasses
Quartz
Anortite
Perfobent Montmorillonite 11.8 1.4 3.5 5.1 9.6 64.8 2.4 1.4
Plagioclasses
Quartz
Calcite

a
IS: insoluble material.
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 291

channels are used separately to record the temperature, shear stress and shear rate. Shear rate
measurement are logged by momentarily interrupting the shear stress signal each 4 min of
period time. Thus, viscosity and temperature variations with time are separately given in a
rheogram for each ¯uid analysed (Fig. 3). The dynamic rheological data were then transferred
to a personal computer to be subsequently analysed. Data reduction analysis and numerical
®tting procedures were conducted using a computer code called POLYREG which was
developed for generating numerical correlations of viscosity as a function of temperature.

5. Experimental results and discussion

The experimental rheological methodology described above was applied to the eleven
Mexican water-based HTDFS. This application enabled the variation of the mud rheological

Fig. 2. (A) Schematic view of the Fann 50C viscometer. (B) Cross sectional view of the Fann 50C viscometer head.
292 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

Fig. 3. The Fann 50C dynamic rheogram of the drilling ¯uid (HTDFS-1). The solid curve shows the variability of
the drilling ¯uid viscosity with time. The dashed curve represents the changing of the drilling ¯uid temperature with
time.

properties (viscosity and temperature) with time would be obtained. All the rheological data
logged during the dynamic experimental tests have been summarised in Table 4. For discussion
purposes, only three graphs of the total number of experimental tests have been selected (Fig. 3:
HTDFS-1; Fig. 4: HTDFS-4 and Fig. 5: HTDFS-6). They are quite representative for
describing the rheological behaviour exhibited by the remaining HTDFS.

Table 3
Fann 50C operating conditions for the dynamic rheological tests

Operating parameter Setting values

Initial temperature …Ti ) 25.58C

Final temperature …Tf ) 180.08C
Reservoir pressure 3448.2 kPa
Time to attain Tf 1.24 h
Chart speed 0.25 cm/min
Shear rate 170.0 sÿ1
Viscosity range 50% (50 mPa s)
Total time of the test 3.0 h
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302
Table 4
Viscosity and temperature data obtained from the dynamic rheological tests for the selected HTDFS

Temperature (8C) Viscosity (mPa s)

HTDFS 1 HTDFS 2 HTDFS 3 HTDFS 4 HTDFS 5 HTDFS 6 HTDFS 7 HTDFS 8 HTDFS 9 HTDFS 10 HTDFS 11

25.0 14.0 8.0 2.3 6.5 4.0 14.0 9.6 6.4 7.0 10.8 7.5
37.5 14.0 8.0 1.5 6.3 3.2 14.0 9.7 6.1 7.0 9.5 7.0
50.0 13.5 7.5 1.0 6.0 3.0 14.0 9.0 5.6 6.4 8.0 6.2
62.5 14.0 7.5 0.8 5.6 2.9 14.0 9.0 5.1 6.0 7.4 6.0
75.0 12.1 7.3 0.75 5.6 2.6 16.0 8.5 5.0 5.9 7.2 6.7
87.5 12.0 7.0 0.5 5.3 2.5 17.5 8.7 4.8 5.7 7.4 7.3
100.0 10.8 7.0 0.5 5.4 2.3 18.6 9.1 4.7 5.5 7.4 8.0
106.3 10.5 7.0 0.4 5.4 2.2 19.4 9.5 4.6 5.5 7.4 8.0
112.5 10.1 7.0 0.25 5.3 2.0 20.2 10.0 4.5 5.6 7.4 8.0
125.0 8.5 7.5 0.25 5.2 2.0 22.5 12.0 4.6 6.7 7.0 8.3
150.0 6.5 8.7 0.4 5.1 1.7 27.0 14.3 5.0 7.4 5.6 10.6
175.0 5.9 9.3 5.4 5.1 1.7 31.9 16.0 5.0 8.2 3.8 14.4
180.0 6.5 9.3 7.6 5.1 1.7 32.5 16.1 4.8 8.5 3.0 14.5

293
294 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

Fig. 3 presents a rheogram showing the experimental rheological results obtained during the
evaluation of HTDFS-1. This plot has been selected for explaining in general form the
rheological-thermal behaviour experimented for most of the HTDFS tested. In this composed
graph, the variability of the drilling ¯uid viscosity with time is represented by the solid bold
curve while the changing of the ¯uid temperature with time is illustrated by the dashed curve.
The rheological pro®le in Fig. 3 also shows that the heating process applied to the HTDFS-1
sample produced a quasi-exponential decrease in mud viscosity (from 14 to 6 mPa s) with
increase in temperature up to 1758C. Above this temperature, a gelation process due to the
thermal degradation of the drilling mud caused a new increase in its viscosity. The dynamic
rheological-thermal process exhibited by the HTDFS-1 sample allows the non-Newtonian
behaviour of this ¯uid to be demonstrated. A very similar rheological behaviour was obtained
when HTDFS-10 was evaluated.
Fig. 4 presents the experimental results derived from the rheological evaluation of HTDFS-4.
In this case, the HTDFS-4 mud viscosity exhibited a quasi-linear decrease while the
temperature was increased (Fig. 4). Similar rheological histories were experimented by
HTDFS-2, HTDFS-5 and HTDFS-9.
Finally, a slightly di€erent rheological behaviour was evidenced during the evaluation of
HTDFS-6. Fig. 5 shows the variation of mud viscosity with temperature. From this ®gure, it is
observed that drilling mud viscosity remains almost constant up to a temperature of 758C. In

Fig. 4. The Fann 50C dynamic rheogram of the drilling ¯uid (HTDFS-4). The solid curve shows the variability of
the drilling ¯uid viscosity with time. The dashed curve represents the changing of the drilling ¯uid temperature with
time.
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 295

theory, such a behaviour would allow to identify drilling muds with an acceptable thermal
stability which enables their rheological properties to be undisturbed. A similar rheological
behaviour was also evidenced by HTDFS-3, HTDFS-7, HTDFS-8 and HTDFS-11 samples
with thermal stabilities that ranged from 75 to 1258C. From a practical point of view, this kind
of drilling muds should be useful for geothermal well drilling, particularly, when the mud
circulating temperatures do not exceed 75, 125, 75, 75 and 1128C, respectively. Although, it is
important to note that some inconveniences due to the presence of the gelation point could
limit their practical application.

6. Viscosity and temperature correlations

The rheological data obtained from the experimental tests have been analysed for deriving
numerical correlations between the drilling mud viscosity and temperature. Such an analysis
was done by a grouping of the results according to the behaviour of mud viscosity exhibited
(Figs. 3±5). Figs. 6±8 show the variation of the drilling mud viscosity as function of
temperature for the sample groups HTDFS-1 and HTDFS-10; HTDFS-2, HTDFS-4, HTDFS-
5 and HTDFS-9; and HTDFS-3, HTDFS-6, HTDFS-7, HTDFS-8 and HTDFS-11,
respectively. In the majority of the examined cases, the drilling ¯uid viscosity exhibited a

Fig. 5. The Fann 50C dynamic rheogram of the drilling ¯uid (HTDFS-6). The solid curve shows the variability of
the drilling ¯uid viscosity with time. The dashed curve represents the changing of the drilling ¯uid temperature with
time.
296 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

decrease when both temperature and time were increased. However, this decrease did not take
place inde®nitely and viscosity reached (or approached) a constant value at a certain
temperature and time. At this point, a thermal degradation process in the physochemical
structure of the ¯uid occurred. Above this point, an increase in the drilling ¯uid viscosity was
observed due to a drilling ¯uid gelation process. For practical or application purposes, the
presence of this thermal degradation or gelation point could limit the working temperature
range of such ¯uids as well as the viscosity±temperature correlating equations which are
derived below. Viscosity and temperature data were numerically ®tted. For discussion
purposes, the viscosity and temperature data of the HTDFS-1 and HTDFS-10 samples were
selected and represented in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. However, it is important to note that
similar ®tting plots for the remaining HTDFS were drawn and submitted to an identical
statistical treatment.
The numerical regression analysis of all the experimental results (HTDFS-1 to HTDFS-11)
evidences that viscosity and temperature data can be appropriately correlated by means of a
polynomial equation. Thus, a suitable numerical ®tting method for a second-degree polynomial

Fig. 6. Variation of the drilling ¯uid viscosity with temperature for the HTDFS-1 and HTDFS-10 samples. The
arrow symbol represents the time where the gelation process appears. The dashed curve corresponds to the water
viscosity values.
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 297

was selected and applied [31]. Particularly, in the case of the HTDFS-10, the experimental data
population were divided in two temperature ranges before the ®tting procedure would be
applied (Fig. 10). These two data grouping enabled the calculation errors in the drilling ¯uid
viscosity would be reduced. The numerical regression analysis of all the HTDFS data led to
the derivation of correlating equations that describe the dynamic thermal behaviour of their
drilling ¯uid viscosities. Viscosity±temperature correlations from all the dynamic rheological
tests are summarised in Table 5. Values of constants, temperature ranges of application,
regression coecients (r ) and the maximum propagated errors due to each experimental
rheological test are included in this table. Errors associated with both the numerical ®tting
procedure and the calculation of mud viscosities have been estimated by error propagation
theory proposed by Bevington [31]. The maximum average errors associated with the twelve
viscosity±temperature correlating equations ranged from 1.7 to 15.1%. The magnitude of these
propagated errors was related to the complexity of the rheological behaviour exhibited by each
HTDFS used.

Fig. 7. Variation of the drilling ¯uid viscosity with temperature for the HTDFS-2, HTDFS-4, HTDFS-5 and
HTDFS-9. The arrow symbol represents the moment where the gelation process appears. The dashed curve
corresponds to the water viscosity values.
298 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

For comparison purposes, water viscosity values calculated in the same temperature range
have also been plotted (dashed curves) and included in Figs. 6±10. Such a comparison enables
the di€erences between the actual drilling ¯uids and water viscosities to be quantitatively
demonstrated. The calculation of water viscosities were performed by a numerical correlation
proposed by Zyvoloski and O'Sullivan [32].

7. Conclusions

Eleven high temperature drilling ¯uid systems commonly used in the drilling of Mexican
geothermal wells were rheologically evaluated. The composition of these drilling ¯uids was
characterised by di€erent formulations of bentonite. Transport properties (viscosity and
density) and chemical analyses of these drilling ¯uids were determined.

Fig. 8. Variation of the drilling ¯uid viscosity with temperature for the HTDFS-3, HTDFS-6, HTDFS-7, HTDFS-8
and HTDFS-11. The arrow symbol represents the moment where the gelation process appears. The dashed curve
corresponds to the water viscosity values.
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 299

Table 5
Viscosity±temperature correlations obtained by numerical analysis from the dynamic rheological tests of evaluated
HTDFS

HTDFS no. Viscosity equation (mPa s) Temperature range (8C) r % Error

1 m = 15.7688 ÿ 0.0420576 T ÿ 8.03819  10ÿ5 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9549 9.6

2 m = 9.2833 ÿ 0.0498734 T + 2.84197  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9297 3.1
3 m = 3.1367 ÿ 0.0480416 T + 2.01353  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R150 0.9516 15.1
4 m = 6.9439 ÿ 0.0220237 T + 6.71697  10ÿ5 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9038 1.7
5 m = 4.3506 ÿ 0.0275101 T + 6.69566  10ÿ5 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9603 4.9
6 m = 13.6045 ÿ 0.0218310 T + 7.23175  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9887 3.5
7 m = 11.2084 ÿ 0.0748142 T + 5.86817  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9602 3.9
8 m = 7.3834 ÿ 0.0442881 T + 1.74367  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9182 2.1
9 m = 9.1839 ÿ 0.0807539 T + 4.51417  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9327 4.6
10 m = 15.0036 ÿ 0.1967140 T + 1.22286  10ÿ3 T 2 37 R T R100 0.9540 2.0
m = 1.2691 + 0.1262360 T ÿ 6.44358  10ÿ4 T 2 100 R T R180 0.9969 11.6
11 m = 8.7342 ÿ 0.0713110 T + 5.78238  10ÿ4 T 2 25 R T R180 0.9805 4.1

Fig. 9. Variation of viscosity with temperature for the drilling ¯uid (HTDFS-1). The square bold symbols
correspond to the experimental rheological data. The solid curve represents the best polynomial ®t for all the
experimental data. The dashed curve corresponds to the water viscosity values.
300 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302

Fig. 10. Variation of viscosity with temperature for the drilling ¯uid (HTDFS-10). The circle bold symbols
correspond to all the experimental rheological data. The solid curve represents the best polynomial ®t for the
experimental data recorded in the temperature range of 258C R T R 1008C. The dashed curve represents the best
polynomial ®t for the experimental data recorded in the temperature range of 1008C R T R 1808C. The dotted curve
corresponds to the water viscosity values.

As a result of these dynamic rheological tests, twelve viscosity±temperature correlating

equations of eleven high temperature drilling ¯uids systems were derived. A statistical
evaluation of each correlating equation (based on error propagation) indicated that the
maximum average errors associated with the calculation of drilling ¯uid viscosities range
between 1.7 and 15.1%.
The new correlating equations of viscosity versus temperature of all the Mexican HDFS
evaluated have been saved in a drilling ¯uid database to be subsequently integrated to wellbore
thermal simulators. Application of this new database will provide a better knowledge of the
variability of drilling ¯uid viscosity as well as its e€ect on the heat transfer mechanisms that
govern geothermal well drilling process. Therefore, a more accurate prediction of the
circulating and shut-in temperatures in a geothermal wellbore should be expected.
 E. Santoyo et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 283±302 301

Acknowledgements

This work was initiated when the ®rst author was working at the Instituto de Investigaciones
EleÂctricas and during an academic stay at the University of Salford. Partial supports from
PAPIIT (UNAM) project IN119798 and Conacyt are also acknowledged. Additional thanks
are due to Professors: F.A. Holland and Ian D. Cluckie of the Telford Research Institute
(University of Salford) for helpful comments on the experimental work.

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