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Application of micronutrients in the rice-wheat cropping systems of South

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ScienceDirect
2019, 26(6): 356í371
Rice Science, 2029,

Review

Application of Micronutrients in Rice-Wheat Cropping System

of South Asia

Faisal NADEEM1, Muhammad FAROOQ1, 2

(1Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan; 2Department of Crop Science, College of
Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoudh 123, Oman)

Abstract: Rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) is one of the most important cropping systems in South
Asia. However, sustainability of this system is under threat owing to several factors, of which deficiency of
micronutrients particularly zinc (Zn), boron (B) and manganese (Mn) is one of the major problems.
Continuous rotation of rice and wheat, imbalanced fertilizer use and little/no use of micronutrient-enriched
fertilizers induce deficiencies of Zn, B and Mn in the RWCS of South Asia. Here we review that (i)
imbalanced fertilizer use and organic matter depletion deteriorate soil structure resulting in low efficiency
of applied macro- and micro-nutrients in RWCS. (ii) The micronutrients (Zn, B and Mn) are essentially
involved in metabolism of rice and wheat plants, including chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthesis, enzyme
activation and membrane integrity. (iii) Availability and uptake of Zn, B and Mn from rhizosphere depend
on the physico-chemical soil properties (which differ under aerobic and anaerobic conditions) including
soil pH, soil organic matter, soil moisture and interaction of these micronutrients with other nutrients. (iv)
Plant ability to uptake and utilize the nutrients is affected by several plant factors such as root architecture,
root hairs, transport kinetics parameter and root exudates. (v) Crop management and application of these
microelements can help correct the micronutrients deficiency and enhance their grain concentration.
Key words: micronutrient deficiency; rice-wheat cropping system; agronomic approach

Rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) is one of the
most important crop production systems in South Asia,
which occupies 12.3, 2.2, 0.8 and 0.5 million-hectare
area in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal,
respectively. However, the sustainability and productivity
of this cropping system is under threat due to
deteriorating soil health and micronutrient deficiency,
and resulting in less grain yield and poor quality
(Kumar et al, 2016).
Adoption of inadequate agricultural practices
together with intensive cultivation leads to deficiency
of micronutrients in fertile regions of Indo-Gangetic
Plains (IGP), India (Nayyar, 2003). Injudicious fertilizer
management nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), less use of organic fertilizers and manures, poor
on-farm residue management and intensive cropping
create negative nutrients balance and deficiency of
micronutrients. Among these, deficiency of zinc (Zn)
is predominant after P and N, particularly in the high
pH soil irrigated with poor quality water, whereas iron
(Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn) and molybdenum
(Mo) deficiencies have also been reported in RWCS
(Nayyar, 2003). Zn deficiency has been noticed as the
major limiting factor. Many of the soils in rice and
wheat growing regions are prone to Zn, B, Mn, Fe,
Mo and copper (Cu) deficiencies (Rashid, 2005). Zn,
B and Mn deficiencies are thus becoming an increasing
problem in RWCS of the IGP, India (Nayyar, 2003).
Micronutrients are as important as macronutrients
and involved in vital metabolic events in the plants.

Received: 1 August 2018; Accepted: 8 February 2019

Corresponding author: Muhammad FAROOQ (farooqcp@gmail.com)
Copyright © 2019, China National Rice Research Institute. Hosting by Elsevier B V
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review under responsibility of China National Rice Research Institute
http://dx.doi.org/
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2019.02.002
Faisal NADEEM and Muhammad FAROOQ. Micronutrient Use in Rice-Wheat Cropping System
Deficiency of even a single essential micronutrient
may disturb the plant developmental cascades and cause
substantial reduction in crop yield (Tripathi et al, 2015).
The intensity of micronutrient deficiency is determined
by several factors, including soil characteristics and
the crop types. Thus, deficiency of micronutrients in
RWCS of IGP is worse due to the size of its available
pools in the soil rather than its total contents which is
further affected by poor agricultural practices (Nayyar
et al, 2001). Several other factors including soil texture,
clay contents, microbial activity, soil organic matter,
nutrients interaction in soil and redox potential also
affect the micronutrients availability to the crop plants
(Kumar et al, 2016).
Growth and yield improvement in cereals with Zn,
B and Mn applications have been reported (Rehman
et al, 2016; Ullah et al, 2018). However, there is no
comprehensive review on Zn, B and Mn applications
in RWCS of South Asia, the dynamics and
transformations in soils, and options to overcome Zn,
B and Mn deficiencies in RWCS. In this review, we
discussed: (1) Micronutrient deficiency issues experienced
by the RWCS of South Asia with emphasis on Zn, B
and Mn; (2) Roles of Zn, B and Mn in plant biology,
factors affecting their availability in RWCS and their
soil dynamics; (3) Agronomic approaches to manage
micronutrient deficiency, as well as their utilization in
RWCS and grain biofortification.
Zinc, boron and manganese deficiencies
and their symptoms in RWCS
RWCS has fundamental importance for the increasing
food security and livelihood of people around the
globe, particularly in South Asian. However, various
factors threaten its sustainability, of which Zn, B and
Mn deficiencies are of high concern. Moreover,
adoption of RWCS on coarse textured soils of IGP
also causes deficiencies of Fe and Cu that limit
productivities of rice and wheat (Nayyar et al, 2001).
However, Cu deficiency is not widespread (less than
3%) in IGP based on soil analysis (Nayyar et al, 2001).
Hence, critical limits used for soil Cu need to be
re-caliberated. Whereas, Fe deficiency in IGP may
due to inherent low Fe content of soil and inadequate
degree of reduction of Fe oxides under flooding
conditions. Fe deficiency is considered as the second
most important micronutrient deficiency after Zn in
IGP, India (Nayyar et al, 2001).
Zinc
In northern India, deficiency of Zn was first reported
357
in rice crop grown on calcareous soil (Yoshida and
Tanaka, 1969), and now become the most widespread
micronutrient disorder (Quijano-Guerta et al, 2002).
About 50% area under cereal cultivation is Zn deficient.
Lowland rice (puddled-transplanted) are the most
affected by Zn deficiency because of low soil redox
potential (Rose et al, 2013). Most of rice in RWCS is
sown under flooded conditions with Zn insufficiency
due to high pH (reduced conditions), bicarbonate and
soil P contents. In rice, Zn deficiency symptoms appear
in 2±3 weeks after transplantation. These symptoms
include streaks and brown blotches on developed
leaves which fuse and cover older leaves. Under
severe deficiency, plant grows stuntedly and may die.
However, high soil pH and chemisorption cause Zn
deficiency in wheat crop as well (Alloway, 2009). In
wheat, first symptom of Zn deficiency appears on the
middle-aged leaves (Ozkutlu et al, 2006). Under
severe deficiency, whitish brown patches and necrotic
lesions are observed on the leaf blades leading to collapse
in middle-aged leaves (Cakmak and Braun, 2001).
Boron
Boron deficiency often occurs in soil with low organic
matter and coarse texture that is more prone to
leaching (Nayyar et al, 2001). B deficiency is
considered as an important yield-limiting factor in
calcareous soil of IGP, which severely affects the
growth of flooded rice (Rashid et al, 2004). Under
flooded conditions, B deficiency mainly expresses in
response to high leaching losses, high B adsorptive
capacity of soil particles and low soil organic matter
content (Saleem et al, 2011). In rice, B deficiency
causes delay in flowering, induces flower bud abortion
and causes panicle sterility (Rehman et al, 2018b).
B deficiency substantially induces the grain yield of
wheat by 8.5%±16.0% due to sterility (Rerkasem and
Jamjod, 2004; Iqbal et al, 2017). In young wheat
seedling, B deficiency causes longitudinal splitting of
emerging leaves near to the midrib position, and
induces the development of saw-tooth effect on the
margins of younger leaves that depicts irregular
cellular development (Rehman et al, 2018b). Furthermore,
B deficiency may restrict root growth and cause
degeneration of terminal spikelets, resulting in the
µrat-tail¶ like symptoms (Marschner, 1995).
Manganese
Continuous practice of rice-wheat sequence in IGP
leads to deficiency of Mn in soil. Mn deficiency
appears to be the most prominent in wheat grown in
358
rice-wheat rotation (Lu et al, 2004). In IGP,
traditionally, rice is cultivated with flooding, which
causes downward movement of Mn in soil layer and
results in decreased Mn concentration (Lu et al, 1990).
Loss of Mn through leaching during rice cultivation is
the primary reason for inducing Mn deficiency in
following wheat crop (Takkar et al, 1986). In rice, Mn
deficiency results in chlorotic interveinal areas on the
developing leaves that may expand into streaks under
its severe deficiency (Tanaka and Navasero, 1966). In
wheat, Mn deficiency induces patchy areas with
yellowing of upper leaves, whitish or colorless spots
and slight stripping of particularly new leaves. Under
severe deficiency, striping and light grey flacking
appear at the base of newly emerged leaves and
expand onto entire leaves.
Roles of zinc, boron, manganese in
plant biology
Reproductive growth
Micronutrients including Zn, B and Mn are very
important for better reproductive growth and development
of crop plants. Plants require continuous supply of
mineral elements to produce flower and viable seed.
Microelement insufficiency affects flowering, floral
development, anthesis, fertilization and grain formation
(Pandey, 2010), and leads to delayed maturity resulting
large reduction in yield and grain quality. Zn deficiency
alters the function and structure of stigma and pollen
grains, affects pollen viability, and disturbs the
fertilization in plants (Nautiyal et al, 2011).
Boron insufficiency in plant damages flower and
grain formation, resulting in yield losses. Plant sexual
reproduction phase is highly sensitive to B deficiency
than vegetative phase (Rehman et al, 2018b). B
deficiency induces anther, stigma and ovary aberrations,
and results in poor pollen tube development (Pandey,
2010). In wheat, critical stages of reproductive growth
including anther, pollen and ovule development are
more sensitive to B deficiency, which causes
irreversible decrease in floret sterility (Jiang and Miles,
1993). Pollination, seed-setting rate, grain formation
and panicle sterility are also affected by B element,
because B is involved in carbohydrate metabolism in
pollen tube walls that is central to pollen tube
(Rehman et al, 2018b). Under B deficiency, pollen
tube may burst because naturally B concentration is
low in pollen grains compared with stigma and ovary
(Rehman et al, 2018b).
Manganese requirement seems to be high for
Rice Science, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2019
reproductive segments and functions than vegetative
phase as its deficiency affects floral and flowering
development in plants (Pandey, 2010). Mn deficiency
impedes plant ability to produce pollen, and reduces
pollen viability and pollen grain size, resulting in
inferior pollen tube growth (Sharma, 1992). Moreover,
under Mn deficiency, alterations of anther enzymes and
reductions of their efficacies affect development of
reproductive tissues (Pandey, 2010).
Photosynthesis
Micronutrients have crucial role in various plant
metabolic processes and have direct role in photosynthesis.
Zn is involved in carbohydrate metabolism through its
vital role in photosynthesis and sugar transformation
(Römheld and Marschner, 1991). Zn deficiency is
correlated with disruption of normal enzymatic activities.
Under Zn nutritional stress, efficiency of carbonic
anhydrase (CA) that is principal enzyme in photosynthesis
is decreased, resulting in reduced photosynthesis
(Römheld and Marschner, 1991).
Boron deficiency does not directly obstruct
photosynthesis process in plants. However, B
insufficiency causes reduction in leaf constituents (e.g.,
chlorophyll) and photosynthetic area that inhibit
photosynthesis (Wang et al, 2007). Moreover, B
deficiency disrupts chloroplasts development and
decreases their amount, leading to poor photosynthesis
(Rehman et al, 2018b).
Manganese is of importance for photosynthesis
through its catalytic nature for light induced
breakdown of water molecule in photosystem II (PSII)
and RuBP carboxylase reaction (Marschner, 1986,
1995). It is integral component of oxygen evolving
complex (OEC) associated with PSII as Mn ions
bound with amino acid residue of proteins PSII
reaction center (Pandey, 2010). Thus, under Mn
deficiency, efficiency of OEC associated with PSII
reduces causes decline in photosynthesis. Mn also acts
as co-factor of enzyme Mn2+ dependent superoxide
dismutase and various enzymes of tricarboxylic cycle
in shikimic acid pathway leading to biosynthesis of
aromatic amino acids (Marschner, 1995).
Membrane function
Zinc plays a key role in upholding the membrane
integrity in plants. It helps in maintaining the
membrane structure and integrity and ion transport as
observed in cell membrane of wheat (Broadley et al,
2007). Membrane leakages have been noticed in roots
Faisal NADEEM and Muhammad FAROOQ. Micronutrient Use in Rice-Wheat Cropping System
of plant experiencing Zn deficiency (Broadley et al,
2007). Zn plays an important role in protecting
proteins, membrane lipids, DNA and various cell
components due to its ability to bind with SH-
containing compounds (Cakmak, 2000) and being
constituent of Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase (Cakmak
and Marschner, 1988).
Boron is an essential element which can affect the
structural integrity of membrane and transport across
the membrane, involving in activations of enzymes and
other plasma membrane proteins (Brown et al, 2002).
Moreover, insufficiency of B reduces Fe-reductase and
proton pumping ATPase functioning (Obermeyer et al,
1996), alters the membrane potential, and hampers
functioning of phospholipid bound oxidoreductase
(Schon et al, 1990). Changing in B amount induces
abrupt changes in cell membrane that indicates its
essentiality for plant cell membrane (Obermeyer et al,
1996).
Protein synthesis
Zinc is one of the important microelements for various
plant proteins because it helps to preserve their
structural orientation and integrity (Broadley et al,
2007). Zn deficiency impairs the biosynthesis of
proteins (Marschner, 2012). Furthermore, Zn nutrition
affects the functioning of nitrate reductase (NR), and
glutamine synthetase (GS) in wheat flag leaves
(Crawford, 1995). Activities of enzymes such as NR
and GR in flag leaves regulate the total protein contents
and some protein components of flour (Zhao et al,
2013). Contents of grain protein and concentrations of
gliadins, albumins, globulins and glutenins increase
with Zn fertilization.
Numerous physiological segments including
synthesis of proteins and nucleic acid metabolism are
affected by B. B regulates the AtBor1-1 (transporter)
that functions as post translational modification of
plasmalemma associated proteins (Takano et al, 2005).
Fluxes of energy distribution coupled with minimization
of thylakoid arrangement were interfered with Mn
deposition. Moreover, de novo synthesis of proteins
governed by Mn is also affected by Mn accumulation
(Lindon and Teixeira, 2000).
Factors affecting micronutrients
availability in RWCS
Availability, movement and uptake of micronutrients
including Zn, B and Mn from soil to plant roots are
affected by different soil physical and chemical
359
properties (Fig. 1).
Soil pH
Soil pH is the most critical factor influencing the
availability of nutrients to crop plants. As soil pH
increases, the solubility and availability of Zn
decrease, because Zn2+ activity is proportional to
square of proton (H+) activity in soil (Kiekens, 1995).
Meanwhile, adsorptive ability of soil particles
increases, because pH-dependent negative charges
cause precipitation with Fe-oxides and formation of
hydrolysed (Alloway, 2009). Zn deficiency is more
common in high pH soils, and therefore, in rice, it is
calOHG DV µDONDOL GLVHDVH¶ ,Q RWCS, fields remain
under submerged conditions during most of growing
seasons of rice, and soil undergoes different changes
such as increase in pH of acidic soils whereas
decrease in alkaline soils (Xu et al, 2003), which
reduces the Zn concentration in soil solution due to
more solubility of phosphorus (P), precipitation of
Zn(OH)2 (Sajwan and Lindsay, 1986), conversion of
soluble Zn to insoluble ZnS, and formation of ZnCO3
in calcareous soils (Johnson-Beebout et al, 2009).
High pH of soil solution reduces the bioavailability
of B, because there is a direct relationship between
soluble B level and soil solution pH (Niaz et al, 2007).
Rise in soil pH from 3 to 9 increases the adsorption of
B with soil particles (Keren and Bingham, 1985),
however, with further increase in pH from 10.0 to
11.5, B adsorption starts decreasing (Goldberg and
Glaubig, 1986). According to Keren and Bingham
(1985), there are two reasons. Firstly, B(OH)3 is
dominant when pH is below 7, and low affinity of this
substance for clay particles decreases the adsorption
of B by soil particles. Secondly, with increase in pH,
amount of B(OH)4 becomes predominant that has
strong affinity for clay particles and increases the
concentration of adsorbed B.
With decrease in soil pH, the availability of Mn in
cationic form (e.g., Mn2+) in soil solution increases.
Mn2+ is released into soil solution at pH 5.5 due to
solubilization of Mn oxides (Rengel, 2000). However,
availability of Mn decreases with increase in pH value
(Kumar et al, 2016), because higher pH promotes
adsorption of Mn2+ with soil particles and makes it
unavailable for plants (Fageria et al, 2002). At pH 8,
chemical auto oxidation of Mn2+ takes place and other
forms such as MnO2, Mn2O7, Mn3O4 and Mn2O3 that
are unavailable to plant prevails were produced
(Humphries et al, 2007).
360 Rice Science, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2019

Fig. 1. Uptake mechanism of zinc, boron and manganese from soil to plant.
Plant uptakes Zn as Zn2+, B as B(OH)3 and Mn as Mn2+ from soil solution. Uptake of these micronutrients is influenced by soil physio-chemical
properties such as soil pH, organic matter, soil moisture, soil temperature and soil micro biota. Phytosiderophores secreted by plant roots, microbes
and organic molecule increase the mobility of Zn and Mn to plant. Plant uptakes Zn via ZIP transporters, B movement occur through BOR transporter
facilitated by NIP5;1 channels, and Mn via membrane transporters IRT1, NRAMP1 and YS1, YSL6 through symplastic (cell to cell) and apoplastic
pathway (movement via extra-cellular spaces). (I) Using these transporters, Zn, B and Mn enter into epidermis and then cortex. (II) To enter the
xylem, Zn, B, Mn must pass through casparian strip. ZIP transporter, NIP5;1 and YSL2 have role in the mobilization of these nutrients from cortex to
endodermis and then pericycle. (III) Casparian strip present in endodermis obstruct the uptake of nutrients directly from root apoplast. (IV) Xylem
loading of Zn, B and Mn takes place via HMA pumps, BOR1 and ZIP2, respectively. (V) ZIP, YSL and YS/YSL transporters have role in movement
and translocation of Zn and B from xylem to phloem. (VI) B accumulation in leaf occurs through transpirational pull. Symplastic movement depict
solute movement from cell to cell, whereas, apoplastic refers to movement through extracellular spaces.

alkaline soils with high OM content due to their

Organic matter (OM)
Decrease in microelement availability due to OM is
attributed to formation of complex with lignin, humic
acid and insoluble compounds. Whereas availability
increases are due to mineralization and solubilization,
as well as action of low molecular weight ligands (e.g.
amino acid), resulting in mobilization of micronutrients
(Mortvedt, 2000).
Fractionation and solubility of Zn are strongly
regulated by soil adsorption and desorption reactions
governed by OM content in soil (Alloway, 2009). In
flooded rice, high OM content and Mg:Ca ratio
greatly affect Zn solubility and uptake (Neue and
Lantin, 1994). Soil under submerged conditions has
low available Zn concentration. Moreover, addition of
OM accelerates this condition (Haldar and Mandal,
1979). High P, Mn and Fe concentrations and
application of OM coupled with microbiological
immobilization substantially reduce Zn availability.
Zn and P solubility and availability decrease in
adsorption with carbonate and Fe hydroxides (Kirk
and Bajita, 1995).
Soil OM content can affect B uptake by plants.
Some studies have indicated strong relationship
between organic carbon content and B (Goldberg et al,
2000; Arora and Chahal, 2010). Further, positive
correlation exists between B adsorption maxima and
soil OM content, because OM has more ability to
adsorb B than other soil particles or clay minerals
(Yermiyahu et al, 1988). Application of composted
OM in soil results in increase in B adsorption (Van et al,
2005). Humus is a good source that possess high B
concentration, but chemical reactions occur between B
and di-hydroxy organic substances, indicating that B
is bound with µdiols¶ of OM or those compounds and
is gradually released in the process of microbiological
breakdown of OM in soil (Parks and White, 1952).
Addition of OM into soil has reducing potential that
results in marked and rapid increase in exchangeable
Mn (Andrade et al, 2002). Low OM content in soil is
Faisal NADEEM and Muhammad FAROOQ. Micronutrient Use in Rice-Wheat Cropping System
considered as an important reason of Mn deficiency
(Kielbaso and Ottman, 1976). Contrarily, in field
crops, high OM content may cause Mn deficiency in
soil (Rengel, 2000) and restrict its availability and
uptake due to formation of organic Mn-complexes
(McBride, 1982), and vice versa has been observed
with low OM content in soil (Shuman, 1979).
Soil moisture and temperature
Environmental factors including soil moisture content
and temperature influence the availability and
acquisition of micronutrients (Moraghan and Mascagni,
1991). Zn deficiency is common in rainfed areas
having low available water (Cakmak et al, 1996).
Crops grown in these areas experience severe Zn
deficiency due to low moisture availability that
restricts Zn movement in soil. Moreover, low moisture
negatively affects root growth, ultimately resulting in
poor Zn uptake (Marschner, 2012). At low soil
temperature, Zn deficiency may be due to decrease in
solubility of native soil Zn (Deb et al, 2009). Changes
in soil Zn availability with variation in soil temperature
are attributed to low rate of mineralization (release of
Zn by OM decomposition) (Moraghan and Mascagni,
1991). Moreover, low OM decomposition under low
soil temperature limits root growth and decreases
uptake of Zn by plants (Alloway, 2008). However, at
high soil temperature, Zn uptake and concentration in
soil increase (Kumar et al, 2016). Availability and
translocation of Zn at low temperature reduce due to
poor root growth and planmycorrhizal colonization
(Moraghan and Mascagni, 1991).
Mineralization of OM is affected by soil moisture
content, which eventually affects B availability (Gupta,
1979). Under low soil moisture and dry weather, B
deficiency appears more serious, because water
deficiency decreases B mobility in soil solution,
increases the length of diffusion path and reduces the
B liberation from organic complexes (Tisdale et al,
1985), leading to poor root B uptake. Increase in root
zone temperature may increase soil B adsorption
because high soil temperature causes soil dryness, and
soil water content is directly associated with B
availability/deficiency (Goldberg, 1997). Gupta (1979)
stated that reduced B uptake is observed at low soil
temperature. In addition, microbial activity decreases
at low soil temperature that may increase the plant
demand for B.
Soil moisture content and temperature influence Mn
solubility and also cause its deficiency (Hebbern et al,
361
2005). Under aerobic conditions (having less moisture),
Mn2+ oxidation starts resulting in precipitation of
oxides of Mn3+ and Mn4+, which are not easily taken
up by plants. For instance, in rice, submerged
conditions reduce the O2 diffusion in soil and decrease
the substance containing Mn, ultimately resulting in
Mn deficiency. Low soil temperature affects Mn
solubility in soil solution, and indirectly affects root
uptake of Mn (Moraghan and Mascagni, 1991).
Temperature influence on Mn availability seems
complex. For example, microbial activity in soil is
also governed by soil temperature, resulting in
mobilization and immobilization of Mn in soil
(Marschner, 1988).
Soil salinity and interaction of micronutrients with
other elements
Micronutrients availability and uptake are affected by
their interaction with other nutrients. Interaction with
other nutrient elements also depends on soil physio-
chemical properties (Malvi, 2011). Positive interaction
exists between N application and Zn (Lakshmanan et al,
2005). Furthermore, with high N application/
concentration, increases in abundance of Zn
transporters and Zn chelating nitrogenous compounds
are observed (Kutman et al, 2010). In wheat, more N
fertilization enhances uptake and translocation of Zn
by 300% in roots and shoots (Erenoglu et al, 2011),
resulting in higher Zn accumulation in grain (Kutman
et al, 2011). Zhang et al (2012) found negative
association between Zn and P. Molar ratio of P and Zn
expands with more P fertilization that adversely
affects Zn bioavailability. Negative interaction
between P and Zn also depends on mycorrhizal
infection (Ova et al, 2015). There is a positive
relationship between K and Zn because Zn decreases
the leakage of K and amides by maintaining the
membrane integrity (Cakmak and Marschner, 1988).
Zn being a cation reacts with nearly all soil anions
and other mineral elements (Lakshmanan et al, 2005).
At the interface of root, the availability of Zn reduces
due to strong interaction between salt cations and Zn
(Tinker and Lauchli, 1984). The soils receiving
irrigation water that has high sodium levels are prone
to Zn leaching (Alloway, 2008) as the exchange sites
are occupied by Na+ in saline-sodic soils. If soils are
contaminated with cadmium, the uptake of Zn also
decreases due to the formation of highly soluble
CdCl2 (Khoshgoftar et al, 2004).
Various functions of B are associated with the
362
presence of other elements including N, P, K and Ca
in plants. The presence of N, P, Ca, K, Mg, Zn and Al
may interrupt the plant to take up B. In the presence of
Zn, increase in B accumulation occurs. Therefore, Zn
application significantly reduces B toxicity by
inhibiting its uptake. Negative interaction exists
between B and N (Chapman and Vanselow, 1955). B
interaction with P is not clear as compared to N
because borate resembles with phosphate in its
physiological and biochemical actions (Gupta, 1979).
Similarly, with P, borates are essential constituents of
esters and make polyhydroxyl compounds with
organic complexes. Under B deficiency, symptoms of
P deficiency become more severe (Bergmann, 1992).
Indirect influence of K on B availability has been
observed due to its effect on Ca absorption.
Nevertheless, excessive application of B increases K
and B concentration in rice (Kumar et al, 1981). B
adsorption with soil particles is not parallel to some
other soil anions such as NO3-, PO43-, SO42- and Cl-
(Bingham and Page, 1971). The soil pH turns acidic
due to the presence of phosphate group by the use of
Ca(H2PO4), which decreases B uptake due to fixation
(Bingham and Garber, 1960). Availability of B
reduces in acidic soil with addition of lime that causes
formation of insoluble Ca-metaborate.
Mn has positive interaction with N. Uptake of Mn
in rice increases with application of N fertilizers e.g.,
urea (Hao et al, 2007), because nitrate has ability to
enhance the Mn availability (Yadava and Malik, 2016).
Application of N fertilizers as nitrate (NO3-) increases
rhizospheric pH, while ammonium ions (NH4+) results
in higher uptake of Mn (Yadava and Malik, 2016). Mn
uptake also increases by chloride and sulfate ions
associated with K, whereas carbonate content causes
decrease in Mn availability, and sulfate ion acts as
reducing agent that increases Mn uptake (Cheng and
Ouellette, 1970).
Micronutrients dynamics/transformation in soil in
RWCS
Zn concentration in soil largely depends on different
factors including parent material, atmospheric
deposition, farmyard application, industrial waste, and
synthetic fertilizers. It is also existing in different
chemical forms with different rate of solubility
(Marschner, 1995). In RWCS, Zn deficiency in
flooded rice occurs due to several reasons such as high
soil pH, bicarbonate concentration and soil P (Alloway,
2009), whereas high soil pH and chemisorption
resulting in Zn deficiency in wheat. Flooding induces
Rice Science, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2019
different physical, chemical and biochemical changes
in soil such as pH fluctuation that decreases Zn
concentration in soil solution (Xu et al, 2003).
Declining Zn concentration is associated with
increased P availability and Zn(OH)2 precipitation due
to high pH and transformation of Zn to insoluble
franklinite (ZnFe2O4) and zinc sulfide (ZnS) in acidic
soil whereas ZnCO3 in alkaline soils (Sajwan and
Lindsay, 1986). Low redox potential in flooded field
decreases Zn availability to plants due to its
conversion in ZnS, high OM and bicarbonate content,
and high Mg and Ca ratio (Neue and Lantin, 1994).
In RWCS, most of lowland rice is cultivated on
alkaline soils having low soil OM content and higher
leaching losses (Rashid et al, 2007; Saleem et al,
2011). Standing water in paddy fields leads to B
deficiency (Saleem et al, 2011). Undissociated boric
acid and borate anions freely move in water and are
quickly leached from upper soil layer. In flooded soils,
B availability decreases due to its high mobility rate
which causes its leaching. At high pH, B availability
reduces due to its fixation with soil particles
(Goldberg, 1997). Substantial increase up to 185.7%
in exchangeable soil Mn content at 0±20 cm depth has
been observed in continuous wheat cropping system
as compared to fallow soil (Wang et al, 2016).
Application of synthetic fertilizers may increase the
exchangeable and carbonate bounded Mn in soil.
Whereas carbonate bounded Mn acts as direct source
of available Mn followed by OM bound and
exchangeable Mn (Wang et al, 2016). Mn associated
with OM and exchangeable Mn is more easily taken
up by plants (Wei et al, 2008).
Agronomic approaches to managing
micronutrient in RWCS
Soil application
Micronutrients application through soil is the most
convenient and effective method and has multiple
benefits. It is a quite effective method to correct the
deficiencies of Zn (Rehman et al, 2018a), B (Rehman
et al, 2015, 2018b) and Mn (Ullah et al, 2018).
Moreover, soil applied Zn fertilizers causes significant
increase in grain yield, improvement in crop growth
along with increase in grain Zn concentration (Table 1)
(Khan et al, 2003). Under water deficient conditions,
plants have shown a high tendency to Zn concentration,
therefore, under these conditions, Zn application
through soil did not enhance its concentration in grain
(Gomez-Coronado et al, 2016). Maqsood et al (2009)
Faisal NADEEM and Muhammad FAROOQ. Micronutrient Use in Rice-Wheat Cropping System 363

Table 1. Effects of Zn nutrition on grain yield of rice and wheat crop.

Application Increase in grain Zn Increase in
Crop Source Application rate Soil texture Reference
method concentration (%) grain yield (%)
Wheat Seed priming ZnSO4 0.3% Calcareous 11.87 14.47 Harris et al, 2008
Seed priming ZnSO4 0.1 mol/L Sandy clay loam ± 5±7 Nazir et al, 2000
Seed priming ZnSO4ÂH2O 0.004 mol/L ± 900 ± Johnson et al, 2005
Soil ZnSO4 25 kg/hm2 Loam 11±29 ± Dwivedi and Srivastva, 2014
Soil Zinc-enriched urea ± Sandy clay loam 21±31 20±26 Shivay et al, 2008
Soil ZnSO4Â7H2O 20% ± 144±195 ± Wang et al, 2015
Foliage ZnSO4ÂH2O 0.02%±0.06% Sandy clay loam 6±17 8±15 Sultana et al, 2016
Foliage ZnCl2 (10% Zn) 54±216 g/hm2 Clayey silt ± 4±14 Zoz et al, 2012
Foliage ZnSO4 20 g/L Silty loam ± 14.2 Ali et al, 2009
Seed coating ZnSO4Â7H2O 1.25±1.50 g/kg Sandy loam 21±27 33±55 Rehman and Farooq, 2016
Seed coating ZnCl2 1.25±1.50 g/kg Sandy loam 27±35 41 Rehman and Farooq, 2016
Rice Seed priming ZnSO4Â7H2O 0.5 mol/L Sandy loam 24.13 Farooq et al, 2018
Seed priming ZnSO4 ± ± ± 15±18 Slaton et al, 2001
Soil ZnSO4Â7H2O 10 kg/hm2 Sandy loam ± 31±40 Farooq et al, 2018
Soil Zn-EDTA 20 kg/hm2 ± 12.3 ± Tariq et al, 2007
Soil ZnSO4Â7H2O 10 kg/hm2 Silt loam ± 59.6 Khan et al, 2003
Soil ZnSO4Â7H2O 5±15 kg/hm2 Loam ± 20±60 Khan et al, 2002
Soil ZnSO4 11.2 kg/hm2 Silt loam ± 18.3 Slaton et al, 2005a
Soil ZnSO4Â7H2O 13.5 kg/hm2 ± ± 18.5 Slaton et al, 2005b
Soil ZnSO4Â7H2O ± Silt clayey ± 13±25 Prasad et al, 2002
Foliage ZnSO4Â7H2O 0.5% Sandy loam ± 25±40 Farooq et al, 2018
Foliage Zn-EDTA ± Silt loam ± 24.9 Slaton et al, 2005a
Seed coating ZnSO4Â7H2O 2 g/kg Sandy loam ± 26±28 Farooq et al, 2018
Seed coating ZnO coated urea prills 0.5%±1.0% Sandy clay loam 4±16 11±19 Shivay et al, 2008
Seed coating ZnSO4 coated urea prills 1%±2% Sandy clay loam 13±48 18±30 Shivay et al, 2008

reported increase in grain Zn concentration (51.7%±
69.9%) with soil Zn fertilization as 6 mg/kg.
Soil B application rates for various crops range
from 0.25 to 3.00 kg/hm2 depending on soil types,
crop requirement and application methods (Gupta,
1979). There is a narrow range between B deficiency
and toxicity. Cereals including rice are B sensitive and
show toxicity symptoms when grown on calcareous
soils containing high level of inherent B (Singh et al,
1990). Therefore, great care is warranted in applying a
safe B dosage and uniform field broadcast of B
fertilizer. In transplanted rice, 0.75 kg/hm2 B applied
via broadcasting in calcareous soils overcomes its
deficiency. Moreover, it had a beneficial residual
effect for three subsequent crops grown in the same
field (Rashid et al, 2007).
Foliar application
Foliar application of nutrients seems helpful compared
to soil amendments for efficient use of nutrients and
curing the visual deficiency problems in a short time
(Fageria et al, 2009). Soil deficiency problems are
minimized by the micronutrient application through
foliar spray as compared to soil application (Modaihsh,
1997). Foliage applied Zn and Mn enhances the grain
yield of field crops including wheat, barley and rice
(Ullah et al, 2018). Foliar fertilization with micronutrients
is proved to be an effective strategy to remove the
deficiency when soil application is not beneficial
(Cakmak, 2008). Under field conditions, application
of Zn through foliar method improves Zn concentration
in edible parts (Cakmak, 2008). B can also be applied
as foliage particularly under water deficient conditions
to overcome B deficiency (Mortvedt, 2000) as it can
translocate easily into plants due to formation of
organic substance (e.g., mannitol, sorbitol) (Brown
and Shelp, 1997).
Organic fertilizers
Organic sources help in maintenance of Zn pool and
its availability in RWCS compared with inorganic
ZnSO4 (Kumar and Yadav, 1995). Manures are good
sources of plant nutrient and can change soil chemical,
physical and biological properties, thus improving the
availability of micronutrients. Integrated nutrient
management (i.e. combination of organic and
inorganic sources) significantly improves soil OM,
soil physical conditions and hence micronutrient
contents (Rehman et al, 2018a, b). Mobilization of Zn
in calcareous soils is improved through N supply by
manures and decreasing soil pH by the application of
organic acids (Marschner, 1995). Application of
organic manure adds OM in soil and may decrease the
requirement of Zn fertilizers. Upon decomposition of
364 Rice Science, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2019

crop residue, organic acid is releases that helps
improving the availability of Zn (Dwivedi and
Srivastva, 2014). Heterotrophic bacterial biomass is
increased by the application of organic fertilizers,
which encourages other mineral nutrients and secondary
productivity to improve primary productivity (Qin et al,
1995). Application of manure affects the accumulation
of B in soil by adding organic matter (Marschner,
1995). Addition of farmyard manure enhances the
availability of applied and native B by reducing B
fixation with soil particles and increasing desorption
of applied B into soil (Marzadori et al, 1991).
Seed priming
Seed priming is pre-sowing hydration technique that
allows seeds to perform their pre-germination activities
without radical protrusion (Bradford, 1986). Primed
seeds have more potential to give uniform stand
establishment than dry seeds (Farooq et al, 2006).
Seed priming improves the growth and productivity of
crop as observed in an experiment conducted in South
Asia (Harris et al, 2007). Nutri-primed seeds show
better growth and improved yield of both rice and
wheat (Rehman et al, 2012a). Seed Zn concentration is
increased by nutrient (Zn) seed priming before sowing
and results in better germination and uniform seedling
(Harris et al, 2007). Harris et al (2018) reported that
seed priming with 0.05% Zn solution increases the
grain Zn concentration and yield by 29% and 19%,
respectively. Seed priming with B content of 0.001%
or 0.1% improves the stand establishment of rice crop.
However, priming with B content of 0.5% hampers
the germination (Rehman et al, 2012a). Seed priming
with B solution improved the yield contributing
parameters of wheat as compared to control (Table 2,
Iqbal et al, 2012). By increasing priming solution
concentration (up to 0.2% MnSO4), for 12 h, linear
increase in grain yield and grain Mn content were
noted (Khalid and Malik, 1982). In wheat, priming
with MnSO4 has also increased the yield and Mn
concentration in grain (Marcar and Graham, 1986).
Seed coating
Seed coating refers to the application of finely ground
powder of nutrients together with inert sticky material
(e.g., arabic gum). Seed coating affects the soil or seed
at soil-seed interface which may influence the availability
of coated and soil applied nutrients (Farooq et al,
2012). However, several factors including coated
micronutrient, nutrient:seed ratio, soil moisture, soil
type, soil fertility and material used for coating alter
the efficiency of micronutrients applied through seed
coating (Halmer, 2008). Application of Zn through
seed coating has great potential in crop advancement

Table 2. Effects of B nutrition on the grain yield and grain B concentration of rice and wheat crop.
Increase in grain B Increase in
Crop Application method Source Application rate Soil texture Reference
concentration (%) grain yield (%)
Wheat Seed priming Na2B4O7 0.01±0.05 mol/L Sandy loam 28±38 21±64 Iqbal et al, 2017
Seed priming H3BO3 0.1% Silt loam ± 18.6 Fakir et al, 2016
Seed priming ± 0.008 mol/L ± ± 2122 Johnson et al, 2005
Soil Na2B4O7Â+2O 1 kg/hm2 ± ± 10 Ahmad and Irshad, 2011
Soil H3BO3 1.5 kg/hm2 Silt loam ± 37.8 Fakir et al, 2016
Soil H3BO3 0.75±3.00 kg/hm2 Silt loam 30±59 22±48 Debnath et al, 2012
Soil ± 5±10 kg/hm2 Sandy loam ± 59±129 Biswas et al, 2015
Foliage H3BO3 0.4% Silt loam ± 36±40 Fakir et al, 2016
Foliage H3BO3 30 g/L ± 93.7 Ali et al, 2009
Foliage H3BO3 175 g/hm2 ± ± 9±15 Korzeniowska, 2008
Rice Seed priming H3BO3 0.01 mol/L Sandy loam 36±43 11±27 Rehman et al, 2016
Seed priming H3BO3 0.01 mol/L Sandy loam 26±36 15±18 Rehman et al, 2014a
Seed priming H3BO3 0.001%±0.010% Sandy loam 33±47 12±34 Rehman et al, 2012b
Seed priming H3BO3 0.008 mol/L ± 600 ± Johnson et al, 2005
Soil Na2B4O7ǜ10H2O 1±3 kg/hm2 Silt clay loam 56±89 17±28 Saleem et al, 2011
Soil Ca2B6O11Â5H2O 1±3 kg/hm2 Silty clay 17±67 5±21 Saleem et al, 2013
Soil H3BO3 1 kg/hm2 Sandy loam 23±37 9±22 Rehman et al, 2014a
Soil Na2B4O7Â+2O 1 kg/hm2 ± ± 31 Ahmad and Irshad, 2011
Foliage H3BO3 0.2±0.6 mg/kg Silty clay ± 3±4 Rao et al, 2013
Foliage Na2B4O7ǜ10H2O 1.5% Silty clay ± 8±10 Hussain et al, 2012
Foliage H3BO3 200 mmol/L Sandy loam 29±62 19±23 Rehman et al, 2014b
Foliage H3BO3 200 mmol/L Sandy loam 62 10 Rehman et al, 2016
Foliage H3BO3 0.16±0.48 mol/L Sandy loam 20±65 5±20 Rehman et al, 2014a
Seed coating H3BO3 1±3 g/kg Sandy loam 5±42 5±20 Rehman and Farooq, 2013
Faisal NADEEM and Muhammad FAROOQ. Micronutrient Use in Rice-Wheat Cropping System 365

as it improves the yield of various field crops. Zinc
seed coating in wheat crop enhanced the germination,
seedling growth, Zn concentration in tissue than
non-coated seeds (Rehman and Farooq, 2016). Seed
coating of rice with B (1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 g/kg)
results in better uniform germination and tillering
(Rehman et al, 2012b) by improving water relation
and assimilate partitioning, resulting in B enrichment
in rice grain (Rehman and Farooq, 2013). Coating
wheat seeds with Mn improved the grain and straw
yield, grain Mn concentration and Mn uptake ratio
(Table 3) (Ullah et al, 2018).
Tillage
Carbon sequestration, soil chemical properties and
distribution of soil nutrients are much affected by soil
tillage practices (West and Post, 2002; Houx et al,
2011). Soil tillage increases crop yield by improving
soil physical conditions (aeration and porosity) and
conservation of soil moisture for plants, and also
increases uptake of nutrients in roots by releasing
microbes from soil micro-flora pool (Wang and Dalal,
2006). Soil organic residues accumulate in conservation
tillage system improves water holding capacity, increases
moisture in soil and decreases soil temperature (Aziz
et al, 2013; Motschenbacher et al, 2014). These features
may be helpful to make easy and frequent availability
of soil micronutrients which is not possible in soils
with regularly tilled. However, little information is
available regarding the micronutrients supply under no
tillage cultivation and surface liming. Bhaduri and
Purakayastha (2011) inferred that conservation tillage
system with organic nutrient sources can improve soil
quality as it improves Zn availability in rice.
Residual effect of soil applied micronutrients
Micronutrient application in soil to improve the
growth and yield of crop may have residual effect that
reduces the requirement of fertilizers for the following
crops (Table 4). In two-year field study, application of
B fertilizers (2 kg/hm2) in B deficient soil (0.29 mg/kg)
results in beneficial residual B that helps to improve
yield of rice and wheat (Khan et al, 2011). B
fertilization (1 kg/hm2) shows residual effect (Yang
et al, 2000). For instance, rice (puddled transplanted)
grown in calcareous soil only uptakes 1.7%±3.4%
[plant basis] of applied B (Rashid et al, 2007). Kumar
and Singh (2018) studied residual effect of micronutrients
including Zn and B and reported a significant residual
effect of Zn and B fertilizers on the yield of both rice
and wheat. In field experiment, following rice-wheat
rotation, different Zn fertilizers (ZnSO4Â7H2O, EDTA-
chelated Zn and ZnO) were applied to investigate its
residual effect on subsequent wheat crop, and
EDTA-chelated Zn gives the maximum residual effect
with respect to grain Zn concentration, grain and straw
yield (Table 4) due to its less soil retention and greater
transport of Zn to plant roots (Maftoun and Karimian,
1989; Singh and Shivay, 2013). Amanullah and
Inamullah (2016) applied Zn (0±15 kg/hm2) to rice
crop under RWCS and found that grain yield of
subsequent wheat crop is significantly improved by
Zn residual effect. However, beneficial and magnitude
of residual effect of micronutrients are governed by
various soil properties, soil absorption or adsorption
and leaching (Shorrocks, 1997).
Biofortification with micronutrients
Approximately 25 nutrients are needed by human to
maintain proper health, and the major portion is taken
up by plant sources. People of both developed and
developing countries are suffering from mineral
defieicncies. In addition, about one third of population
around the globe are more affected due to
consumption of food with less nutrients (Stein, 2010).
Malnutrition is now considered as widespread

Table 3. Effects of Mn nutrition on the grain yield and grain Mn concentration of rice and wheat crop.
Increase in grain Mn Increase in
Crop Application method Source Application rate Soil texture Reference
concentration (%) grain yield (%)
Wheat Seed priming MnSO4 0.01±0.10 mol/L Clay loam 30±67 10 Ullah et al, 2018
Seed priming MnSO4 0.02%±0.20% Sandy loam 53±106 4±23 Khalid and Malik, 1982
Soil MnSO4 10±40 kg/hm2 Loamy sand 17±40 48±78 Nayyar et al, 1985
Foliage MnSO4 0.75 mol/L Clay loam 1.7 2.4±63 Ullah et al, 2018
Foliage MnSO4 1% Loamy sand 32.32 74.07 Nayyar et al, 1985
Foliage ± 0.5% Sandy loam 7 2±4 Pahlavan-Rad and Pessarakli, 2009
Foliage MnSO4 0.5% Sandy 73.60 28.47 Zeidan et al, 2010
Seed coating MnSO4 250±500 g/kg Clay loam 22±70 4±9 Ullah et al, 2018
Rice Soil ± ± ± ± 7.3 Zayed et al, 2011
Soil MnSO4 5 kg/hm2 Sandy clay loam ± 4.4 Kumar, 2013
± MnSO4Â7H2O 25±50 mg/kg Sandy silt 15±26 18±28 Swarup, 1981
366 Rice Science, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2019

Table 4. Influence of residual Zn and B on the grain yield of rice and wheat crop under rice-wheat cropping system.
Application Year of Crop Residual Increase in
Nutrient Source Soil texture Reference
rate residual effect applied nutrient (mg/kg) grain yield (%)
Zn ZnSO4Â+2O Clay loam 5 kg/hm2 Second year Rice 1.26 4.3 Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016
Zn ZnSO4Â+2O Clay loam 10 kg/hm2 Second year Rice 1.37 5.5 Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016
Zn ZnSO4Â+2O Clay loam 15 kg/hm2 Second year Rice 1.44 8.3 Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016
Zn ZnSO4Â+2O Sandy clay loam 5 kg/hm2 Second year Rice ± 20.4±23.2 Singh and Shivay, 2013
Zn ZnSO4Â+2O Sandy clay loam 5 kg/hm2 Second year Rice ± 15.4±18.4 Singh and Shivay, 2013
Zn ZnO Sandy clay loam 5 kg/hm2 Second year Rice ± 6.5±6.8 Singh and Shivay, 2013
Zn ZnSO4Â+2O + ZnO Sandy clay loam 5 kg/hm2 Second year Rice ± 11.0±12.4 Singh and Shivay, 2013
Zn EDTA-chelated Zn Sandy clay loam 5 kg/hm2 Second year Rice ± 29.3±30.8 Singh and Shivay, 2013
B ± ± 1 kg/hm2 Second year Wheat ± 36.8 Khan et al, 2006
B ± ± 2 kg/hm2 Second year Wheat ± 48.8 Khan et al, 2006

problem globally. Various nutrient deficiencies have
been observed in human diet, and among those,
deficiency of micronutrients is of high concern (Stein,
2010). It is estimated that about two billions of
population is facing threat of Zn deficieny worldwide
(Khalid et al, 2014). Bifortification is an efficient and
cost effective approach to produce nutreint enriched
food and to bring million from malnourishment to
micronutrients sufficieny (Bouis et al, 2011). Genetic
and agronomic biofortification are two important tools
to improve nutrient status in cereals (Cakmak, 2008).
However, several factors including interaction between
environment and genotype, poor genetic diversity
among cultivars, yield and consumer resistance are
major issue in success of genetic biofortification
(Cakmak, 2008). In contrary, agronomic biofortication
is considered as a rapid solution to increase micro-
nutrient concentration in food crops (Rehman et al,
2018a).
Foliar application of Zn in rice improves grain Zn
content compared with soil application that has
disadvantage of soil fixation and high application rates
(Fang et al, 2008). Zn-phytate interaction is a major
factor determining bioavailability of Zn when applied
through different methods. Therefore, soil applied Zn
by using adequate quantity helps in improving the
grain yield, whereas application of Zn as foliage at the
booting stage increases Zn concentration (Hussain et al,
2012) and its bioavailability in wheat grain. In rice,
agronomic biofortification is unpredictable because
rice is generally grown under flooded condition and
certain chemical changes in soil properties affect the
uptake of Zn by crop (Impa and Johnson-Beebout,
2012). In wheat, embryo and aleurone layer contain
more Zn concentration, however, bioavailability of Zn
is much important than its higher concentration in
grain (Cakmak et al, 2010). Furthermore, Zn application
at the grain filling phase enhances Zn content in
endosperm, and minimum phytate is present in seed
fraction at the stage (Cakmak, 2012).
Conclusion and future research thrusts
Micronutrient deficiency such as Zn, B and Mn is a
widespread problem affecting the performance and
productivity of RWCS in South Asian region. Moreover,
several other sustainability issues, nutrient imbalance
and IDUPHUV¶ reluctance to use micronutrient-enriched
fertilizers accelerate this problem. The prodigious
significance of Zn, B and Mn in plant metabolism is
unavoidable, because plant relies primarily on these
micronutrients, and these elements have profound
effects on array of plant physiological and
biochemical activities such as cell wall integrity,
chlorophyll synthesis, protein synthesis and photo-
synthesis. However, various soil physio-chemical and
biological properties and plant factors affect the
availability, uptake and utilization of Zn, B and Mn.
Moreover, deficiency of micronutrients is considered
as a major index of malnourishment in growing
population of developing countries in South Asian.
Deficiency of micronutrients can be corrected by
agronomic management practices that also help to
improve grain biofortication.
Micronutrients (Zn, B and Mn) dynamics and
transformation vary under different production systems.
Thus, in future research, nutrient dynamics and
transformation in conservation tillage system may be
explored for better understanding of their availability
to crops. Crop residue is also a source of nutrients,
therefore, Zn and B release patterns together with
retention of previous crop residues on the uptake of
these nutrients should be evaluated. Nutrient
transformations, with and without residue retention,
may be evaluated at different soil moisture regimes
and wetting and drying cycles. To enhance
micronutrient concentration in edible part of rice and
Faisal NADEEM and Muhammad FAROOQ. Micronutrient Use in Rice-Wheat Cropping System
wheat, integration of agronomic and genetic strategies
to increase mineral transport to phloem fed tissues
should be studied. Geological survey should also be
conducted to identify Zn, B and Mn deficient pocket
existing in RWCS of IGP.
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