Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219

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Geothermics
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Effect of tectonics and earthquakes on geothermal activity near plate boundaries:

A case study from South Iceland
Maryam Khodayar a,∗ , Sveinbjörn Björnsson b , Páll Einarsson c , Hjalti Franzson a
a
Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR), Grensásvegur 9, 108 Reykjavík, Iceland
b
National Energy Authority of Iceland (Orkustofnun), Grensásvegur 9, 108 Reykjavík, Iceland
c
Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Askja, Sturlugata 7, 107 Reykjavík, Iceland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We studied fracture-controlled geothermal fields in the Hreppar Rift-Jump Block (HRJB), a micro-plate
Received 29 January 2010 bounded by two NNE rifts and the E–W transform zone of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ). Distin-
Accepted 8 June 2010 guishing whether the extensional rift swarm or the transform zone shear fractures host the geothermal
Available online 16 July 2010
activity is challenging. GPS mapping of 208 springs and tectonic analysis indicate that six Riedel shear
fracture sets of an older transform zone in the HRJB are permeable. Northerly dextral strike-slip faults are
Keywords:
the principal permeable faults, although the highest discharge and temperature are found at their inter-
Hot springs
sections with other fracture sets. Two northerly faults from the HRJB connect to the source faults of the
Geothermal manifestations
Upflow zones
major 1784 and 1896 earthquakes within the active SISZ. The 1784 earthquake caused pressure changes
Permeable faults as far north as the studied springs, indicating that earthquakes keep faults permeable over hundreds of
Tectonics years.
Plate boundaries © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Transform zone earthquakes
South Iceland Seismic Zone
Hreppar micro-plate

1. Introduction
Geothermal activity in Iceland is found in areas where the
underlying crustal geothermal gradient is abnormally high, and
the rock and fracture permeability is suitable. Based on their loca-
tions and temperatures, Icelandic geothermal fields are classified
into two groups by the type of their reservoirs (Fig. 1). High-
temperature fields with temperatures exceeding 230 ◦ C at 1000 m
depth are found in the active rift zones. These fields mine their
heat from underlying magmatic sources. Dyke injection at depth
or fissure eruption facilitates hydrothermal circulation along rift-
parallel fractures and normal faults. Low-temperature fields have
temperatures up to 150 ◦ C at 1000 m depth. They are mostly located
on the flanks of rift zones, or within transform zones, and even in
older and cooling crust (Fig. 1). No single conceptual model explains
satisfactorily the characteristics of all low-temperature fields. Nev-
ertheless, four processes are suggested (Arnórsson, 1995): (a) deep
groundwater flows from highlands to lowlands through permeable
structures; (b) convection in young fractures formed by tectonic
movements in relatively impermeable older bedrock; (c) drift of
high-temperature fields out of the active rifts in conjunction with
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +354 528 15 22; fax: +354 528 16 99.
E-mail addresses: mak@isor.is, maryamkhodayar@gmail.com (M. Khodayar).
their cooling and extinction of the magma heat source; and (d)
magma intrusion into Quaternary or Tertiary crust adjacent to the
active rifts.
In many geothermal systems convective movement of the reser-
voir water mines the heat from the deeper regions and deposits it in
the uppermost rocks of the reservoir (Björnsson, 1980; Bodvarsson,
1983). There, vertical permeability due to tectonic activity becomes
essential. As examples, present-day seismicity indicates non-rift-
parallel faults extending either from the Western Rift Zone (WRZ)
or the transform zone of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) into
the low-temperature fields of Hreppar Rift-Jump Block (HRJB) or
micro-plate (Jakobsdóttir, 2008; Einarsson, 2008). Earthquakes also
cause pressure changes in geothermal springs and boreholes within
and adjacent to the SISZ (Thoroddsen, 1899; Björnsson et al., 2001;
Þorbjörnsson et al., 2009).
Despite the importance of tectonics and earthquakes in control-
ling geothermal activity worldwide, relatively few detailed studies
have yet been published on this relationship. In this paper, we anal-
yse selected low-temperature areas of the HRJB (Figs. 1, 2a and c).
We selected these areas because they contain: (a) some of the most
powerful hot springs of South Iceland; (b) source faults of large his-
toric and present-day earthquakes (Figs. 2b and 3a). We present
GPS maps of the leakages, deduce their tectonic settings from field
and aerial photograph observations, and correlate these settings
with earthquakes and faults in the adjacent SISZ. Our contribution

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208 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219
Fig. 1. Main tectonic elements (modified from Khodayar and Einarsson, 2002a), the spreading rate (DeMets et al., 1990), and the distribution of geothermal fields (modified
from Sæmundsson and Jóhannesson, 2003) in Iceland.
demonstrates how a multidisciplinary tectonic study sheds light
on host fractures of geothermal activity in a complex tectonic set-
ting where rifting co-exists with transform faulting. This approach
could be applied to geothermal exploration and drilling worldwide
in areas undergoing similar plate tectonics.
In the following sections, we define faults that have moved dur-
ing Holocene as active faults.
2. Geological context
In order to understand the permeable fractures hosting the
studied geothermal activity, it is essential to briefly review the
features and history of the main geological elements in Ice-
land shown in Figs. 1–5. Several segments of active rifts and
transform zones traverse Iceland and are the loci of present-
day seismicity (Figs. 1 and 2a). The geometry and history of
these segments are influenced by the Iceland hotspot leading
to a relocation of rift and transform zones over time. Shift of
plate boundaries similar to the slow-spreading centre of Ice-
land (Einarsson, 1991; Khodayar and Franzson, 2007) do occur
also in the fast-spreading centres (Shih and Molnar, 1975; Hey
et al., 1980; Phipps Morgan and Kleinrock, 1991). As an exam-
ple, rifting in Iceland shifted around 6/7 Ma ago (McDougall et
al., 1977; Jóhannesson, 1980) from the Snæfellsnes Rift Zone
(SRZ; 15–5 Ma) (Jóhannesson, 1980; Kristjánsson and Jóhannesson,
1999) to the Western Rift Zone (WRZ; 6/7 Ma-present). A Ter-
tiary transform zone may have connected these rift segments
(Sigurðsson, 1970; Jancin et al., 1985; Khodayar and Einarsson,
2002a). A younger rift-jump has occurred since 3 Ma (Jóhannesson
and Sæmundsson, 1998) as the WRZ recedes, the Eastern Rift
Zone (ERZ) propagates, and the SISZ connecting these segments
migrates (Einarsson, 1991; Khodayar and Franzson, 2007). Dur-
ing such shifts of plate boundaries, blocks of crust (Rift-Jump
Blocks) are transferred from one plate to the other. While
caught between rift segments, they get heavily fractured (Fig. 4).
Such a transfer is in progress in our study area of the HRJB
(Figs. 1 and 2a).
2.1. The SISZ
Under the spreading direction at N104◦ E, the NNE rift-parallel
fissure swarms act as normal faults and extensional eruptive fis-
sures, while the sinistral motion along the SISZ is achieved by
bookshelf faulting, mainly on dextral N–S faults (Figs. 1, 2a, and 3a)
(Einarsson et al., 1981; Einarsson, 1991). Major earthquake
sequences occur within the SISZ on average every 80 years. The
epicentres are confined to the SISZ (Fig. 3a), but the damage zones
have extended into the HRJB (Fig. 2b). Examples are the damage
zones of the major 1784 earthquake and one of the 1896 earth-
quakes. The former contains and the latter extends into our study
area (Fig. 2b).
In addition to the main N–S faults of the SISZ, there is also a
subordinate set of conjugate ENE active sinistral faults (Einarsson
and Eiríksson, 1982; Einarsson et al., 2005; Clifton and Einarsson,
2005) (Fig. 3b). To a lesser degree, fault segments strike also
E–W, WNW, and NNW. Such a fracture pattern is best explained
by a Riedel shear model (Fig. 3c). Surface ruptures of the deep
source faults are marked by sink-holes (Fig. 5e), tension gashes
and push-ups organised respectively, in left- and right-stepping
en échelon arrays (Figs. 3b and 5a). The maximum lengths of the
northerly and the ENE faults are 16 km and 2.7 km, respectively.
The maximum displacements are on northerly faults and reach
 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219 209

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic map of tectonic structures, focal mechanism of earthquakes, hot springs (modified from Sæmundsson and Jóhannesson, 2003), geothermal gradient
(modified from Flóvenz and Steingrímsson, 2009), and the study area in South Iceland. (b) Contour lines of damage zones (50%) and year of historical earthquakes (Einarsson
and Björnsson, 1979; Björnsson, in press). (c) Detailed location of the mapped geothermal sites in the HRJB. Temperatures and natural discharges of springs are after Pálmason
et al. (1985).

2 m horizontal offset and 0.5 m vertical slip during a single earth- form faulting, leading to strike-slip faulting (Fig. 3c). The Riedel
quake. shears formed within an E–W transform zone farther north in the
HRJB, which then migrated in time southwestward to become the
presently active SISZ (Khodayar and Franzson, 2007).
2.2. The HRJB

The late Tertiary-Pleistocene crust (3.1–0.7 Ma) consists

of basaltic lavas, hyaloclastites, acidic intrusions within the
Stóra-Laxá and Þjórsárdalur central volcanoes (Aronson and
Sæmundsson, 1975), and sills and dykes (Khodayar and Einarsson,
2002b). The crust is eroded down to a maximum paleo-burial depth
of 500–700 m, and covered in places by interglacial lavas younger
than 0.7 m.y. (Sæmundsson, 1970), the 8000-year-old Þjórsá lava
(Hjartarson, 1988), and the Holocene soil and fluvio-glacial sedi-
ments.
The two main tectonic elements are (Fig. 2a): (a) A NNE–NE
striking anticline (Friðleifsson et al., 1980; Jóhannesson and
Sæmundsson, 1998), bending to N–S (Friðleifsson et al., 1980) or
to NNW at its southern end (Khodayar and Einarsson, 2002b).
Such anticlines result from loading and extension, due first to the
lava tilt towards the active rift zone creating flexures and regional
discordances, and then from the re-tilt of the crust towards the
new rift zone (Walker, 1963; Pálmason, 1973). (b) Intense fractur-
ing (Fig. 4a and b), striking dominantly NNE and N–S, then ENE,
E–W, WNW, and NNW (Khodayar and Einarsson, 2006). These
fractures are faults, dykes (some injected into faults), prominent
mineral veins, and tectonic joints (Fig. 5a–d). Field structural analy-
sis (Khodayar and Einarsson, 2002b; Khodayar and Franzson, 2004)
indicates extension along all sets and horizontal shear along all
but the NNE set (Fig. 4c). Such a fracture pattern resulted from
both rifting, leading to the NNE extensional fractures, and trans-
2.3. Geothermal activity
The geothermal gradient in the western half of the HRJB and
the SISZ is between 100 ◦ C/km and 125 ◦ C/km (Fig. 2a). Within the
SISZ, geothermal activity is mainly associated with the N–S and ENE
source faults of recent earthquakes, and influenced by present-day
seismicity (Björnsson et al., 2001).
In the HRJB, traces of older geothermal activity are found in
fault zones of all the fracture sets, particularly the ENE faults, or
in association with dykes especially those injected into N–S faults
(Khodayar and Einarsson, 2002a; Khodayar and Franzson, 2004)
(Fig. 5c). The hydrothermal alteration in the older crust gener-
ally consists of amorphous silica and zeolite assemblages. Active
geothermal manifestations appear in different parts of the HRJB,
essentially to the west of the anticline. In our study area, the highest
natural discharge and temperatures of the springs are at Syðri-
Reykir, Reykholt, and Laugarás (Fig. 2c). The trend in geochemical
temperatures and geothermal gradient is interpreted as evidence
of a flow from the northwest, where the heat source could be intru-
sions from the WRZ into the HRJB (Arnórsson and Ólafsson, 1986).
Hydrothermal alteration fills the pores and leads to low perme-
ability (Arnórsson, 1995). Therefore, major faults and associated
secondary fractures are necessary for the lateral flow and the ascent
of the hot water, especially in the older rocks.
210 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219

Fig. 3. Deformation in the SISZ. (a) Present-day seismicity and the N–S source faults of earthquakes in the SISZ. The epicentres of present-day seismicity are deduced by the
South Iceland Lowland (SIL) seismic network at the Icelandic Meteorological Office; those of historical earthquakes are based on surface ruptures (Einarsson and Eiríksson,
1982; Einarsson et al., 2005) within the 50% damage zones (Einarsson and Björnsson, 1979; Björnsson, in press). (b) Schematic map of the en échelon northerly dextral and
the ENE sinistral strike-slip source faults in the SISZ. Other minor fracture sets strike E–W, WNW, and NNW. (c) Interpretation of the six fracture sets in the SISZ in terms of
the Riedel shear model within an E–W shear zone (modified from Khodayar and Franzson, 2007).

3. Analysis of collected data
We mapped 208 geothermal features with a hand-held GPS
device in fifteen locales (Khodayar et al., 2004, 2005), namely
at Laugarás, Reykjavellir, Reykjanes/Þorlákshver/Hvítá, and other
locales shown in Figs. 2c and 6–8. The mapped features are mostly
hot springs (centimetre-scale eyes to metre-scale pools), a few frac-
tures with steam and leakage of hot water, and a few cold springs
(Fig. 6a and b). Some 24 of these features are boreholes drilled
both for exploration and production, for space heating, bathing,
horticulture and generation of electricity. These surface geother-
mal manifestations were mapped in Holocene soil and sediments,
making it difficult to directly identify the underlying major host
fractures. The features associated with the springs are alteration,
 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219 211

Fig. 4. (a) Tectonic lineaments in the HRJB and the SISZ as observed on aerial photographs (modified from Khodayar and Einarsson, 2006). (b) Close-up on the six fracture
sets within the HRJB. (c) Fault motions observed in the field along the six fracture sets of the HRJB (Khodayar and Einarsson, 2002b; Khodayar and Franzson, 2004).

Fig. 5. Examples of tectonic structures. (a) Schematic block diagrams of basement structures and dextral strike-slip surface ruptures and leakages on underlying active faults.
(b) WNW-striking dyke in the HRJB. (c) Dykes injected into the fault zone of a northerly fault in the HRJB. (d) Mineral veins in Þjórsárdalur central volcano. (e) Sink-hole of
a Holocene surface rupture of earthquake in the SISZ.
212 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219

Fig. 6. Examples of geothermal activity in the field. (a) Right-stepping en échelon arrangement of geothermal manifestations at Laugarás (black circles and arrows). Houses
show the scale. (b) Northerly secondary host fractures to geothermal manifestations at Þorlákshver field.

Fig. 7. (a) and (b) Locations, temperatures, and regional and local alignments of hot springs at Laugarás. (c) and (d) Locations, temperatures, and regional and local alignments
of hot springs and a borehole at Reykjavellir. Note: due to their small size, not all mapped springs and boreholes are presented on the maps. The interval in rose diagrams is
10◦ . (N) is the total number of measurements, and (Max.) is the maximum measured value.
 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219 213

Fig. 8. (a) Locations, temperatures, regional and local alignments of hot springs and boreholes at Reykjanes and Þorlákshver. (b) and (c) Interpretation of the local tectonic
alignments of geothermal features at Reykjanes and Þorlákshver fields.

mineral deposition (generally silica), bright-green moss and vege-
tation even during winter time, algae, swamp, steam, bubbles and
oxidation.
We measured the temperatures of the springs and boreholes
at the surface with a hand-held thermometer (Figs. 7 and 8).
Where the springs clustered, we also made a number of measure-
ments to identify the geometry of the hottest zones. Therefore,
the figures show both the highest temperatures, the fluctuations
in the temperatures of the hottest zones (sometimes tens of
degrees) and their average temperatures. The reason for these fluc-
tuations is the mixing of the upflowing hot water with colder
surface or groundwater. Though lower than the real base tem-
perature, the highest measured temperature is the best indicator
for the geothermal system located at depth. While the silica con-
tent of the hottest springs indicates sub-surface temperatures of
120–140 ◦ C (Stefánsson and Arnórsson, 1975), the boiling springs
are slightly below 100 ◦ C at the surface due to altitude and dissolved
gas.
Note that the temperatures and natural discharges shown on
Figs. 2b, 9a, and 10a are from Pálmason et al. (1985). We used
214 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219

Fig. 9. Summary map and interpretation of the results. (a) Leakages, boreholes, fractures observed in the field (black lines), and fractures inferred from aerial photographs
(grey lines). The temperature and natural discharges of springs are from Pálmason et al. (1985). (b) Tectonic lineament map as observed from aerial photographs (modified
from Khodayar and Einarsson, 2006).

Fig. 10. Block diagrams summarising the results and interpretations. (a) Host fractures and upflow zones from Efri-Reykir to Reykjanes/Þorlákshver/Hvítá. Temperatures
and natural discharges of springs are from Pálmason et al. (1985). (b) Host fractures and upflow zones at Reykjavellir/Laugarás.
 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219 215

Fig. 11. Correlation of our results with earthquakes in the SISZ. (a) Permeable faults in the HRJB and the SISZ, some source faults of earthquakes (Einarsson et al., 2005; Clifton
and Einarsson, 2005), epicentre of June 21, 2000 earthquake (Stefánsson et al., 2006), epicentres and damage zones of historical earthquakes (Björnsson, 1976; Einarsson and
Björnsson, 1979; Björnsson, in press; Einarsson and Eiríksson, 1982), and hot springs (Iceland Geosurvey-ÍSOR) in the SISZ. (b) Riedel shear model and schematic location of
geothermal manifestations.

these data as they show a regional distribution before drilling in
the studied sites.
3.1. Laugarás
We mapped 46 hot springs in Laugarás (Fig. 7a). The high-
est measured temperature is 96.4 ◦ C and the average temperature
of the hottest zone is 88 ◦ C (Fig. 7a). Regionally, the mapped
manifestations are organised into dominantly northerly short seg-
ments, and then into ENE and NNW segments. The northerly
segments have a distinct left-stepping en échelon arrangement
(Figs. 6a and 7a), identical to the segmentation of N–S dex-
tral source faults in the adjacent SISZ, while the ENE segments
are parallel to the ENE sinistral conjugate faults within the SISZ
(Fig. 4a). The NNW segments strike parallel to fractures commonly
observed in the HRJB but also within the SISZ (Figs. 3b and 4).
216 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219

Fig. 12. Suggested source fault of the 1784 earthquake and water level changes: The epicentre of the major 1784 earthquake, dextral strike-slip fault plane solution of the
Reykjavellir/Laugarás/Gíslholtsvatn Fault, and correlation with historical reports of co-seismic water level changes in the springs.

These three sets also appear in the local alignments of the springs
(Fig. 7b).
The presence of a conspicuous N–S structure hosting the springs
can be deduced from nearby outcrops. This deduction is based on
≥10 m vertical displacement of the lava and hyaloclastites, with a
throw down to the east (Franzson, 1994; Khodayar et al., 2005).
There are also two geothermal features to the east of Laugarás
(Fig. 2c). One of them is narrow snow-free aligned E–W with 5–7 ◦ C,
and the other one is an isolated hot spring with 40.2 ◦ C.
3.2. Reykjavellir
We mapped 19 hot springs, 10 cold springs, and 1 borehole
(Fig. 7c). The average temperature of the hottest zones is 62.8 ◦ C,
somewhat colder than the Laugarás field (Fig. 7). On a regional scale,
the manifestations form three NNE striking segments with a left-
stepping en échelon arrangement (Fig. 7c). Some hot springs to the
north, however, are also aligned E–W. An earlier modelling of tem-
peratures measured at 50 cm depth also reflects the NNE and E–W
segmentations (Abouriche, 1989). On a local scale, the springs are
also dominantly aligned NNE then E–W. In fact, the hottest part
of the “largest spring” strikes N20◦ E reflecting the underlying host
fracture. Only the southernmost springs are aligned ENE and WNW
(Fig. 7d). The en échelon arrangement of the main NNE segments
is identical to that of Laugarás and to the dextral strike-slip source
faults in the SISZ (Figs. 3b and 7a).
3.3. Reykjanes, Þorlákshver, and Hvítá
Twelve springs and one borehole were mapped in Reykjanes,
and 75 geothermal features and one borehole in the Þorlákshver
field (Fig. 8a). Most of the features at Þorlákshver are hot springs,
but a few are small fractures with steam and alteration (Fig. 6b).
Based on a characteristic algae and an elevated temperature, a sin-
gle 54.3 ◦ C spring was mapped east of Þorlákshver under water on
the western shore of Hvítá (Fig. 2c).
In Reykjanes and Þorlákshver fields, the highest measured tem-
peratures are respectively 86.8 ◦ C and 94.9 ◦ C, and the average
temperatures of the hottest zones 63.1 ◦ C and 81.3 ◦ C. In Reykjanes
the regional tectonic alignments of geothermal manifestations are
 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219
dominantly NNE, then ENE and N–S (Fig. 8a). Their local alignments
are similar, except that the ENE strike is more prominent (Fig. 8b).
In the Þorlákshver field, all manifestations are contained in an area
with a vague northerly strike (Fig. 8a). At a local scale, several short
open host fractures and numerous alignments were observed in
the arrangement of the springs, which strike dominantly northerly,
ENE and NNW, and to a lesser degree ENE and E–W (Fig. 8c).
Despite the proximity of the Reykjanes and Þorlákshver
geothermal fields, their tectonic settings and temperatures differ
slightly. Þorlákshver field is hotter, and there the underlying host
fractures strike dominantly northerly and ENE parallel to the con-
jugate set of source faults of earthquakes, while in Reykjanes the
NNE rift-parallel host fractures seem to predominate (Fig. 8a–c).
3.4. Other areas
We mapped 15 hot and cold springs and 21 boreholes at nine
other nearby sites (Fig. 2c). At Efri-Reykir, we mapped two springs
(77.1 ◦ C, and 29.8 ◦ C). Currently, the deepest well delivers 50 l/s of
146 ◦ C water and steam (Orkustofnun data base). The hot spring
at Syðri-Reykir is boiling (96.8 ◦ C) and erupts every 10 minutes
with an estimated discharge of 40 l/s. At Böðmóðsstaðir, one warm
spring (26 ◦ C) was mapped. More springs were active there in the
past but they disappeared following intensive drilling. The high-
est discharge temperature we measured from the boreholes was
91.6 ◦ C. At Miklaholt, we measured 88.1 ◦ C in the discharge from
two wells. At Reykholt, one spring is 57.2 ◦ C, but the larger spring
is boiling, erupts every 10 minutes, and yields 14 l/s. We measured
85.2 ◦ C in the discharge water from that spring. Two production
wells deliver 13 l/s and 12 l/s, respectively of water and steam, at
125 ◦ C (Orkustofnun data base).
At other sites the manifestations are colder. Hagi has an isolated
warm pool of 20.5 ◦ C. At Spóastaðir, a natural spring has a tem-
perature of 29 ◦ C, but the well discharge is 74.7 ◦ C hot. The natural
springs at Fell are 13.8 ◦ C and 7 ◦ C. At Fellskot the spring is 35 ◦ C, but
a borehole has a temperature of 44.9 ◦ C at the surface. Additional
springs exist opposite Hagi, on the eastern shore of Brúará, but we
did not map them for this study. As the mapping was done during
the winter time, we also observed a few snow-free areas, gener-
ally a few metres in size, but up to several hundred square meters
around Miklaholt. They imply underlying thermal anomalies.
4. Interpretation
4.1. Observed host fractures
Host fractures were observed on two scales, i.e. secondary small
fractures within the mapped sites and three major faults. The sec-
ondary fractures strike dominantly northerly (Fig. 6b), then ENE
and NNW, and to a lesser degree NNE and E–W (Figs. 7 and 8).
One of the faults stretches from Laugarás northwards to Reykjavel-
lir connecting the two geothermal sites (Fig. 9a). This fault strikes
N10◦ E, and has a minimum length of 12.5 km. The left-stepping en
échelon segmentation of geothermal manifestations (Fig. 7a and c)
indicates that the fault also has a dextral strike-slip motion (Fig. 9a).
The strike, geometry, length and motions of this fault are identical
to the source faults in the SISZ (Fig. 3b). However, the vertical slip
along such an active fault does not exceed 0.5 m within the SISZ. The
fact that the Reykjavellir/Laugarás Fault has ≥10 m apparent ver-
tical displacement may indicate that this cumulative slip is older
than the dextral strike-slip along the fault, hence the conservation
of the en échelon segmentation.
The second regional fault observed bounds the western flank of
the mountain Fellsfjall (Fig. 9a). It strikes N22◦ E, has a minimum
length of 8 km, and an apparent throw ≥25 m to the west with no
217
evidence of strike-slip motion. Geothermal manifestations at Fell
are associated with this fault. The third fault observed (Franzson,
1994) strikes N30◦ E. It may have some 80 m throw towards the east
and lodges the minor geothermal manifestations of Fellskot. Both
these faults extend south and likely merge at Reykholt to contribute
to the geothermal manifestations there (Fig. 9a).
4.2. Host fractures inferred from aerial photographs
Lacking more outcrops, we used aerial photographs to iden-
tify additional regional fractures that host the geothermal activity
(Fig. 9b). Three tightly spaced northerly fracture systems may
stretch from Efri-Reykir to Mosfell, from Miklaholt to Reykjanes,
and from Þorlákshver possibly towards the south (Fig. 9a and b).
They are at least 15 km, 10 km and 4 km long respectively. Another
set of tightly spaced ENE striking fractures stretches over at least
10 km from north of Fellsfjall to Böðmóðsstaðir. A third fracture set
strikes NE and crops out over 11 km from east of Efri-Reykir to Hagi
(Fig. 9b).
Geothermal manifestations at Efri-Reykir/Syðri-Reykir,
Miklaholt/Spóastaðir and Þorlákshver could be aligned on
northerly left-stepping en échelon fault segments similar to the
dextral strike-slip faults within the SISZ (Figs. 3b, 5a, and 9a).
Böðmóðsstaðir and Syðri-Reykir are on the trace of ENE faults
parallel to the sinistral strike-slip conjugate faults of the SISZ
(Figs. 3a and b and 9a). The isolated pool at Hagi is near the
southwestern tip of the NE fracture set, which is parallel to the
normal faults and eruptive fissures of the rift zone (Fig. 9a). The
high temperature and discharge at Syðri-Reykir can be explained
by the location of this isolated spring at the intersection of fracture
sets similar to those of the transform (northerly and ENE) and
rift (NE) zones (Fig. 9a and b). The great number of hot springs at
Reykjanes and Þorlákshver fields, and the single spring at Hvitá,
cluster at the intersection of several host fractures. These fracture
sets strike northerly and ENE at Reykjanes, northerly and E–W
at Þorlákshver, and E–W at Hvítá (Fig. 9a and b). The ENE and
E–W fractures are respectively 5.5 km and 10.5 km long. They are
parallel to the sinistral strike-slip faults of the SISZ, and to the
boundaries of the SISZ itself (Fig. 3a and c). The local alignments
of the springs and the presence of secondary host fractures are
consistent with the strikes of the three regional host fracture sets
described above.
4.3. Geomorphological evidence
The influence of the described fracture sets is visible in the mor-
phology and the drainage system (Fig. 9a and b). For instance, the
hills surrounding Reykjavellir/Laugarás and several small ponds
strike northerly adjacent to the northerly host faults to geother-
mal activity. Fellsfjall strikes NNE and is bounded by a N22◦ E and a
N30◦ E fault. East of Efri-Reykir, the Fullsæll River bends sharply to
NE on the trace of the NE fracture set (Fig. 9a). Portions of Brúará
River strike northerly adjacent to the northerly fracture segments.
Locally, the meandering of the river around Böðmóðsstaðir, as well
as a group of ponds east of Fullsæll River, coincide with the trace of
the ENE fractures (Fig. 9a). The most spectacular influence of frac-
turing in the drainage system are, however, the local bends of the
Brúará and the Hvítá Rivers from northerly to E–W at the latitude
of the suggested E–W fracture at the Reykjanes-Hvítá geothermal
sites (Fig. 9a).
5. Correlation with faults and earthquakes of the SISZ
We present a model in Fig. 10 summarising the host faults to
geothermal activity. The model shows the geometry, complex block
partitioning, as well as the upflow zones along northerly, ENE, and
218 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219
E–W fractures. There are several analogies between the host frac-
tures and leakages in the HRJB and the faults and earthquake data
within the SISZ (Fig. 11a) as demonstrated in Section 5.1.
5.1. The active faults of SISZ
All our studied fractures and leakages fall within the damage
zone of the first earthquake of 1784 (Fig. 11a), the source fault of
which has been identified near the Eastern Lake Gíslholt (Gíslholts-
vatn). The Reykjavellir/Laugarás Fault is a dextral strike-slip fault
with a normal-slip component. It is on strike with, and could be
connected to, the source fault of the 1784 earthquake. No clear
relationship appears between the Fellskot/Reykholt Fault and the
source faults within the SISZ, indicating that this fault could be
either a splay of the Reykjavellir/Laugarás Fault or a rift-parallel
fault taking into account its high magnitude of throw.
The left-stepping en échelon arrangement of the northerly fault
segments stretching from Efri-Reykir to Þorlákshver indicates a
dextral motion. These segments could extend southwards along
the Hvítá River and be connected either to the Lón or the Skeið
Fault in the SISZ (Fig. 11a). The Skeið Fault is the source fault of the
fourth event in the 1896 earthquake sequence, but the 90% damage
zone of that earthquake does not reach the HRJB. The 70% damage
zone of the 1896 Skeið earthquake, on the other hand, extends into
our study area, suggesting that some slip may have occurred on the
Reykjavellir/Laugarás Fault during that earthquake, even though
the main source fault lies farther west (Fig. 11a).
As to the other fracture sets, the suggested E–W fault at
Reykjanes/Þorlákshver/Hvítá may extend eastwards to Laugarás.
The bend in the paths of the Brúará and Hvítá Rivers from a
northerly strike to E–W coincides with the trace of this fault,
which is parallel and lies very near the northern boundary of
the SISZ (Fig. 11a). The ENE fault segments hosting the geother-
mal manifestations of Böðmóðsstaðir, Syðri-Reykir, and those of
Reykjanes/Þorlákshver are parallel to the conjugate source faults
within the SISZ, but the NE striking fault stretching from Efri-Reykir
to Hagi could be extensional and a rift-parallel fault.
The above correlation shows that the fractures studied in the
HRJB and the fractures within the SISZ can be explained by the
same Riedel shear model (Fig. 11b). Though the six fracture sets
may be permeable, the main upflow zones in both contexts are the
northerly faults. Not only are the fault segments within the SISZ
active during earthquakes but also the older portions of the same
faults in the HRJB are open, creating vertical permeability.
5.2. Effects of earthquakes on geothermal activity
Hot springs are present within the SISZ on portions of the Lón,
Skeið and Gíslholtsvatn source faults (Fig. 11a). Earthquakes are
known to influence geothermal reservoirs primarily within the
SISZ where source faults of earthquakes rupture. After both the
June 2000 (Björnsson et al., 2001) and the May 2008 earthquakes
(Þorbjörnsson et al., 2009), geothermal reservoir pressure changes
were observed extending to a radius of at least 16 km from the epi-
centres. The water level of boreholes and springs fell in the quadrant
of co-seismic extension and rose in the quadrant of co-seismic com-
pression conformable with the dextral motion along the N–S fault
plane.
Historical accounts report that the 1784 and the 1896 earth-
quakes greatly affected the hot springs outside the SISZ in our study
area in the HRJB, and even as far as Geysir (Thoroddsen, 1899),
which is located some 40 km away from the epicentre. After the
1784 earthquake the hot springs at Reykjavellir disappeared, but
those near Skálholt (Laugarás or Þorlákshver) boiled vigorously
(Thoroddsen, 1899). This supports the idea that the Reykjavellir-
Laugarás Fault was active as a dextral strike-slip fault during that
earthquake. We suggest that the activity of this fault induced a
water level drop in the quadrant of co-seismic extension and a
rise in the quadrant of co-seismic compression separated by the
fault planes (Fig. 12). The radius of the area where these changes
occurred is similar to those suggested for the 2000 and 2008 earth-
quakes.
The 1896 earthquake sequence also greatly affected geother-
mal activity in the HRJB. The hot spring at Reykholt began erupting
up to 7 m soon after the first two events, which occurred farther
east. The Great Geysir was dormant but erupted several times a day
after the earthquake sequence. The short time interval between the
six events of the 1896 earthquake sequences and their geographi-
cal distribution make, however, a correlation with the geothermal
pressure changes difficult.
6. Summary and concluding remarks
Geothermal activity, cold springs, and leakages in the Hreppar
Rift-Jump Block (HRJB) are fracture-controlled. They break through
a heavily fractured crust (Fig. 4a), which is caught between the
receding WRZ, the propagating ERZ and the transform zone of SISZ
(Fig. 1). The crust in the HRJB was initially formed at the rift zones
but shifted away from the plate boundary to its present location.
One might therefore expect dominantly NNE rift-parallel exten-
sional fractures as the main host to geothermal manifestations.
Results of our study show, however, that:
1. The host fractures strike dominantly northerly, ENE, E–W, and
to lesser degree WNW, NNW and NNE (Figs. 4a, 7–10). All sets in
the HRJB present extension, and horizontal shear occurs along
all sets but the NNE. In our study area, we found dextral motion
along the northerly set (Figs. 3c and 4c). The six fracture sets of
the HRJB are also present within the SISZ where the main source
faults of earthquakes are northerly dextral strike-slip faults and
sub-ordinate conjugate ENE sinistral faults (Fig. 3). Both fracture
patterns conform to the Riedel shear model of an E–W shear zone
(Figs. 3c and 11b), where an older transform zone in the HRJB
migrated southwestward to become the present SISZ (Einarsson,
1991; Khodayar and Franzson, 2007). The transform zone frac-
tures are therefore younger than the rift-parallel ones and thus
host the geothermal activity in the HRJB.
2. In our study area, the main permeability is associated with
northerly as much as with rift-parallel faults. However, the high-
est discharges and temperatures in the HRJB are also found at the
intersection of the northerly and the fractures of the other five
sets (Figs. 9–12).
3. The Reykjavellir/Laugarás Fault extends from the HRJB into the
SISZ, and is likely connected to the Gíslholtsvatn Fault, which
was the source fault of the major 1784 earthquake. Changes in
the water level of hot springs at Reykjavellir/Laugarás/Reykjanes
demonstrate the activity of this section of the fault with
a dextral motion during the earthquake (Fig. 12). The Efri-
Reykir/Þorlákshver Fault likely extends southwards and could
be connected to the Lón or Skeið Faults. The latter was the source
fault of one of the 1896 earthquakes (Figs. 3a and 11a).
4. The maximum vertical and horizontal slips along the northerly
active faults of the SISZ are respectively 0.5 m and 2 m, but these
magnitudes are greater in the HRJB, indicating cumulative slips.
Permeability depends more on whether a fault is activated dur-
ing earthquakes than the length and slip magnitude of the fault.
5. Geothermal manifestations at Fell/Fellskot/Reykholt are found
on N22◦ E and N30◦ E faults that could either be a splay of the
Reykjavellir/Laugarás Fault or rift-parallel faults.
6. In addition to the high regional geothermal gradient providing
the heat, we suggest that other heat sources could be a cool-
ing intrusion such as a sill at depth, or dykes injected at depth
 M. Khodayar et al. / Geothermics 39 (2010) 207–219
into faults. Examples of dyke injection into older source faults of
earthquakes are known in former transform zones in the HRJB
(Khodayar and Franzson, 2004) as well as in the Borgarfjörður
Rift-Jump Block (Khodayar and Einarsson, 2002a).
7. We have performed a detailed analysis of geothermal springs
and their tectonic settings, correlation with present-day and
historical seismicity, and the effect of earthquakes on water
level. This methodology can be used to identify permeable faults
that create upflow zones in all low- and high-temperature areas
where rifting and transform faulting co-exist. Thus our approach
is applicable to geothermal exploration and drilling in areas
undergoing similar plate tectonics deformation, for instance in
Djibouti, and possibly in East African Rifts, the Salton Through of
California, and the Taupo Rift of New Zealand.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the National Energy Authority of Iceland
(Orkustofnun), the National Power Company (Landsvirkjun), and
Reykjavík Energy (Orkuveita Reykjavíkur) for financing data col-
lection, interpretation and writing of this paper; Sveinborg H.
Gunnarsdóttir and Ásdís D. Ómarsdóttir for their participation
in the field mapping of geothermal manifestations; Pat Browne,
Wilifred Elders, an anonymous reviewer for their valuable com-
ments on the paper; and Halldór Ármannsson for improving the
English. Thanks are also to the editors Sabodh K. Garg and Ahmed
Ghassemi, as well as to Darla Jean for editing and improving our
manuscript.
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