ME854 – Composite Materials

Unit 3, Fabrication of Composites

Contents: Cutting, Machining, Drilling, Mechanical fasteners, and Adhesive bonding

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Composite materials offer the benefits of part integration and thus minimize the
requirement for machining operations. However, machining operations cannot be completely
avoided and most of the components have some degree of machining. Machining operations
are extensively used in the aerospace industry. In a typical aerospace application, assembly
and sub-assembly labor costs account for as much as 50 % of the total manufacturing costs of
current airframes. A fighter plane has between 250,000 and 400,000 holes and a bomber or
transport has between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 holes; therefore, machining cost has become
major production cost factor in aerospace applications. A typical wing on an aircraft may
have as many as 5000 holes. There are several types of machining operations, such as cutting,
drilling, routing, trimming, sanding, milling, etc., performed to achieve various objectives.
Most of these machining processes are similar to metal machining. The objectives of these
machining operations are discussed below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES/PURPOSES OF MACHINING

Machining of composites is done to fulfill the following objectives:
1. To create holes, slots, and other features that are not possible to obtain during
manufacturing of the part. For example, if a pultruded part needs holes and other
features then machining of the part is unavoidable.
2. Machining is done to create the desired tolerance in the component. For example, if a
filament wound part requires the outside diameter to have a tolerance of 0.002 in.,
then centerless grinding is done to get that tolerance on the outer surface.
3. Machining is performed to prepare the surface for bonding, coating, and painting
purposes. In general, the outer surface is sanded to remove oils, grease, and release
agents.
4. Machining is performed to create smoothness on the desired surface.
5. To make prototype parts from a big blank or sheet of material, a machining operation
is performed. This process is very economical. For example, if a designer wants to
test glass/nylon short fiber composites for a bushing application, he can machine a
composite rod/tube to develop a prototype part instead of making an expensive mold

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and then injection molding the part. Similarly, test coupons for tensile and bond
testing are made from big sheets of materials.

2.1 CHALLENGES DURING MACHINING OF COMPOSITES

1. Machining of composite parts creates discontinuity in the fiber and thus affects the
performance of the part.
2. Machining exposes fibers to chemicals and moisture.
3. The temperature during cutting should not exceed the cure temperature of the resin for
thermoset composites to avoid material disintegration. Glass and Kevlar f ibers have
poor thermal conductivity, and such high temperatures may lead to localized heating
and degradation. With thermoplastic composites, if the temperature comes close to the
melting temperature of the resin, it may clog the tool.
4. It is difficult to attain dimensional accuracy during the cutting of composites because
of differences in the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) in the matrix (highly
positive CTE) and fiber (slightly negative CTE in carbon and aramid). Drilled holes
are often found to be smaller than the drill used.
5. There is heat build-up in the cutting zone due to the low thermal conductivity of the
composite. A suitable coolant should be selected to dissipate the heat from the tool
and the workpiece. In drilling metal components, chips absorb 75% of total heat,
whereas the tool and workpiece absorb 18 and 7%, respectively. In the drilling of
carbon/epoxy composites, the tool absorbs half of the heat and remainder is equally
absorbed by workpiece and chips.
6. Tool life is usually shorter because of the abrasive nature of the composite. For this
reason, high-speed steel tools are coated with tungsten carbide or titanium nitride to
increase the life of the tool.
7. Obtaining a smooth cut edge is difficult with composites, especially aramid
composites. Aramid fibers are tough and absorb the cutting energy. Fiber kinking or
burr surfaces are obtained during cutting of aramid composites.
8. The effect of coolant materials on composites is unknown and therefore any coolant
material must be selected judiciously.
9. Machining of composites causes delamination at the cut edges of continuous
composites. The lay-up sequence and fiber orientations have a signif icant effect on
the amount of delamination.

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3.0 TYPES OF MACHINING OPERATIONS

Machining operations are performed to achieve various objectives, as previously
discussed. The operation involves cutting, drilling, sanding, grinding, milling, and other
techniques similar to metal machining. Standard machining equipment similar to metal
machining is used with some modifications, mostly in the cutting tool and coolant. In all
machining operations, it is important to keep the tool sharp to obtain good-quality cuts and to
avoid delamination. During the machining of composites, the proper backing material is
required to avoid delamination. Two of the major machining operations cutting and drilling
are discussed in the following sections.

3.1 Cutting Operation

➢ The cutting operation is performed to get the desired dimensions or to make several
parts from one part. For example, a large sheet of FRP is cut into small rectangular
strips, or any other shape. Sometimes, the cutting operation is performed to fabricate
net-shape parts. Flashes, runners, shear edges, etc. obtained during molding processes
are removed by cutting operations. For example, during compression molding of
electronic enclosures or automotive parts, shear edges are trimmed using a file while
the part is still hot.
➢ Cutting of FRP laminated composites is required in both uncured and cured states.
✓ Uncured materials (prepregs, preforms and other starting forms) must be cut to
size for lay-up, molding, etc. Typical cutting tools: knives, scissors, power
shears, and steel-rule blanking dies. Nontraditional methods are also used,
such as laser beam cutting and water jet cutting.
✓ Cured FRPs are hard, tough, abrasive, and difficult-to-cut. Cutting of FRPs is
required to trim excess material, cut holes and outlines, and so on. For glass
FRPs, cemented carbide cutting tools and high speed steel saw blades can be
used. For some advanced composites (e.g., boron-epoxy), diamond cutting
tools cut best. Water jet cutting is also used, to reduce dust and noise problems
with conventional sawing methods.

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3.1.1 Waterjet Cutting

➢ Waterjet cutting is used for machining composites as well as sheet metals made of
steel and aluminum.
➢ In waterjet cutting, high-velocity water is forced through a small-diameter jet.
➢ As the waterjet impinges on the surface, it cuts the material by inducing a localized
stress failure and eroding the material.
➢ In waterjet cutting, water pressures up to 60,000 psi (414 MPa) are used to cut the
material. Water speeds of 2600 ft/s (800 m/s) and nozzle diameters on the order of
0.010 in. (0.25 mm) are typical.

3.1.2 Laser Cutting

➢ In laser cutting, a concentrated monochromatic raw light beam is focused on the
workpiece into a spot size of 0.1 to 1 mm.
➢ The cutting operation takes place by local melting, vaporization, and chemical
degradation. Laser operation requires expertise because of the danger of high-voltage
radiation exposure and hazardous fumes.
➢ The laser beam typically damages the resin in the areas of the cut and may score the
work stand.
➢ Proper ventilation is required while performing the laser cutting operation.
➢ Cutting of unreinforced thermoplastics and thermosets is much easier than for
reinforced composites.
➢ Cutting thermoplastics results in local melting, whereas laser cutting of thermosets
results in local vaporization and chemical degradation.
➢ Once reinforcements are included into the resin, very high temperatures are required
to vaporize the fibers.
➢ Vaporization temperature for carbon fiber is 3300°C, E-glass fiber is 2300°C, and
aramid fiber is 950°C.

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➢ The high-temperature requirement for cutting reinforced plastic results in local matrix
degradation.

3.2 Drilling Operation

➢ The drilling operation is performed to create holes in a component.
➢ Holes are created either for fastening purposes, such as riveting or bolting, or for
creating special features, such as a passage for liquid injection or wire connectio n.
➢ Drilling is performed like metal drilling, but the tool used is usually a tungsten
carbide tool because of the abrasive nature of composites.
➢ In metal drilling, drill tips are designed for metalworking, the tip heating the metal to
provide the plastic flow needed for efficient cutting.
➢ In composites, heat generation is kept low to avoid local matrix degradation and/or to
avoid tool clogging.
➢ The chip formation in metal drilling is long; whereas in composites, chips are dry and
small, and can be easily removed.
➢ If the drilling speed is high, then local heat generation makes the resin sticky and
produces a lumpy chip.

Figure: Schematics of delamination caused by drilling (a) upon entry, and (b) upon exit

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3.3 Mechanical Fastening

➢ Mechanical fastening has been in widespread use as a joining technique ever since
humans first realised the possibilities that joining different things together offered,
either as means of providing improved shelter or to increase the efficiency of weapons
used to hunt prey or defend against attack.
➢ As materials have developed, and through the growing introduction of composites
since the 1960s, designers have been tempted to adopt the established, historical
mechanical fastening rules and guidelines.
➢ However, experience has shown that this may not be the best approach, and the
doubts over the ability of these relatively new materials to withstand fibre damage
during cutting and drilling, the complex effects relating to anisotropy, and the lack of
any real plasticity and yielding have tempered this initial enthusiasm.
➢ Engineers are still learning, through the continuing efforts of researchers in the f ield
of composites, how to accommodate the peculiar properties of these anisotropic
materials into the design of efficient and safe structural joints.
➢ Fortunately, confidence in composite joints has grown sufficiently for them to be
accepted for many applications in just about all industry sectors, including
automotive, oil and gas and aerospace.

3.3.1 Mechanical fasteners

➢ Mechanical fasteners are generally regarded as nuts and bolts or rivets; joints where a
separate fastener is inserted through the materials being joined to transfer the loads.
➢ This category of joining generally requires a hole to be made in all parts bein g joined,
into which the fastener is inserted.
➢ The exception to this is where a fastener is embedded and co-cured into the composite
part, or where it is bonded onto the part with adhesive.
➢ Fasteners can be separated into two main categories; permanent (where the fastener is
in place for the entire life of the structure) and removable (where the fastener needs to
be replaced at some point for access or maintenance operations), depending on the life
expectancy of a structure.

3.3.2 Types of fastener material

➢ Two main classes of fasteners used to join composites parts are metallic and non -
metallic.

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➢ The strength offered by non-metallic fasteners is adequate for lightly loaded

structures. Highly loaded structures still need metallic fasteners.
3.3.2.1 Metallic fasteners
➢ The choice of metallic fasteners depends mainly on the environmental compatibility
of the fastener and the laminate material in order to avoid galvanic corrosion.
➢ When fastening carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) in particular, fastener
materials such as titanium, corrosion-resistant steels (CRES), nickel and cobalt alloys
are used in order to prevent galvanic corrosion.
➢ Stainless steels, Monel and precipitation hardening (PH) stainless steels are alloys
which can be used with caution.
➢ Aluminium, magnesium, cadmium and low alloy steels are not compatible with CFRP
and their use can be taken into consideration only if reliable coatings are used.
3.3.2.2 Non-metallic fasteners
➢ Non-metallic fasteners are made of reinforced thermoset and/or thermoplastics.
➢ The main advantages of non-metallic fasteners are:
✓ Elimination of dissimilar material corrosion
✓ Reduction of weight
✓ Use would avoid fuel tank arcing during lightning strike
✓ Electromagnetic transparency

3.3.3 Machining of fastener holes

➢ The holes that are a prerequisite for mechanical fastening can be f ormed during the
composite manufacturing process, by a tow placement/tow steering operation, or by
positioning a dry fabric preform such that fibres are displaced around a shaped feature
in a tool in a resin infusion process (windowing).
➢ Post-manufacture holes, made through material removal techniques such as drilling
and milling (‘machining’) after the composite parts have been manufactured, are more
common as they allow flexibility in positioning the fasteners at any time during the
life of a product, and can compensate for mismatch and manufacturing induced
geometry variations.
➢ However, these machining processes can lead to problems. During machining, defects
such as delamination, fibre damage, surface damage and thermal degradation can be
introduced into the composite parts, which can reduce the performance and the
reliability of the structure.

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➢ Machining technology can be categorised into mechanical methods (those using direct
contact between a tool and surface) and non-mechanical methods (those using a
cutting jet or beam of radiation).
➢ A brief review of cutting composites clarifies the potential defects, and subsequent
inspection required, when selecting mechanical fastening as a joining approach.

3.3.4 Parameters in mechanical fastening

➢ A wide range of geometric parameters must be considered in the design of
mechanically fastened joints, to obtain a high level of integrity of the structure.
➢ The aerospace industry must meet the highest safety requirements in operation as well
as economic efficiency.
➢ To achieve safe aircraft structures, safe-life and damage tolerance philosophies need
to be followed in the design phase and it is normal that a structure has a minimum life
during which it is predicted that no catastrophic failure will occur.
➢ A benefit of nuts and bolts is their ease of assembly and disassembly, which is useful
for allowing access to the interior of the structure for inspection and repair.
➢ Mechanical joint designs for composite materials depend on the following main
parameters:
✓ Selection of joining method (riveted or bolted joint)
✓ Joint configuration (single-lap, double-lap, etc.)
✓ Geometric parameters
✓ Lay-up (stacking sequence)
✓ Clearance between fastener and hole
✓ Preload or initial clamping force

3.3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of mechanical fastening

✓ When mechanical joints are present in composite structures, a hole must be made to
accommodate the fasteners, around which a stress concentration occurs. Additionally,
if there are cut fibres around the hole, they can no longer transfer the load. The use of
fastener holes results in micro and macro damage to the composite during joint
fabrication. Consequently, strength degradation of the structure is inevitable.
✓ In mechanical fastening, the fasteners themselves can be a signific ant source of
weight increase. Particularly in weight-sensitive structures like aircraft, seeking ways
of reducing the number of fasteners is a priority.

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✓ In spite of its disadvantages, mechanical fastening is a well-proven joining method. It

is the only feasible and economic method for joining highly loaded composite
components in aircraft structures, while allowing relatively easy inspection of damage
inside the material at the joint. The main advantages and disadvantages of mechanical
joints are summarized in below Table.
Table: Advantages and disadvantages of mechanical joints in composites
Sl. No. Advantages Disadvantages
1. Low initial risk (established Considerable stress concentration
technology)
2. Can be disassembled (maintenance Prone to fatigue cracking in
or end of life)
component
3. No thickness limitations Hole formation can damage
composite
4. Simple joint configuration Relatively poor bearing properties of
composites
5. Simple manufacturing process Prone to galvanic corrosion with
some metallic fasteners
6. Simple inspection procedure May require extensive shimming
7. Less environmentally sensitive Sensitive to hole location and fit-up
8. Provides through-thickness Fastener over/under-tightening can
reinforcement; not sensitive to peel
cause failure
stresses
9. No major residual stress problem Additional weight of fasteners
10. Easier inspection of damage Can be expensive

3.4 Adhesive Bonding

➢ Adhesive bonding is probably the most versatile joining technology available to the
engineer, and in the case of composites, it is often the most practical way to combine
them with other materials such as metals and polymers.
➢ Indeed, composites themselves can be described as a product of adhesion between a
resin (thermoplastic or thermoset) and the structural fibres within.
➢ However, in the vast majority of cases, adhesive bonding should be considered a
pseudo-two-dimensional, surface driven process where stresses and strains are
transferred across an interface between two planes; the substrate (often referred to as
the adherend) and the adhesive.

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➢ Where the adhesive bond thickness is low, i.e. less than 100μm, the adhesive could
almost be described as a single interphase region between two adherends.
➢ As the adhesive layer thickens, the adhesive becomes a component and the bond
should be described as a sandwich of two adherends, two interphases and a layer of
adhesive, with the bulk properties of the adhesive playing a larger role in the joint
performance.

3.4.1 Adhesive selection principles

➢ Selection of an adhesive for a particular application may at first appear daunting.
However, there are many sources of assistance, such as adhesive suppliers, expert
consultants and computer-based selection systems.
➢ Since none of these sources can be comprehensive, there are some guiding principles
which will help in any decision-making process.
➢ The joint type, joint function, in-service conditions and manufacturing issues must all
be considered. But by defining a few key performances or manufacturing
requirements, this will quickly deselect most potential adhesive types.
➢ Key deselecting questions may consider one or more of the following:
✓ Maximum allowed cost
✓ Bond-line thickness or gap filling ability
✓ Maximum or minimum continuous temperature performance
✓ Mechanical performance required - for example, shear strength, extension
✓ Required open-time before cure
✓ Cure speed
✓ Tolerant of contaminated surfaces
✓ Required form of adhesive - for example, film, paste, liquid, one-part
✓ Special property required - for example, electrical, thermal, and optical
✓ Specific approval required - for example, fire rating, Mil-spec., FDA, medical
✓ Acceptable for site Health and Safety policies

3.4.2 Types of adhesive

➢ Adhesives can be classified by several methods, none of them perfect, such as the way
they set or cure (that is, transform from a wetting liquid to a load-bearing solid), the
way they are used in assembly, their form prior to cure or by chemical type.

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➢ The strongest adhesives cure by chemical reaction, while lower strength adhesives
typically harden by physical change, cooling from a melt or evaporation of a solvent.
The major classes are described in Table below.
Table: Summary of adhesive classes
Type Description
Anaerobics Anaerobic adhesives cure when in contact with metal, and the air is
excluded (bolt/nut thread). They are often known as 'thread -locking
compounds', being used to secure, seal and retain turned, threaded, or
similarly close-fitting parts, such as mechanical fasteners. They are
based on synthetic acrylic resins. Such systems are not suitable for
bonding composites only.
Cyanoacrylates Cyanoacrylate adhesives cure through reaction with moisture held on
the surface to be bonded. They need close fitting joints and usually
solidify in seconds. Cyanoacrylates are suited to small plastic parts
and to rubber and as such, are not well suited for bonding composite
materials. They are a special type of acrylic resin.
Toughened Toughened acrylics, such as methyl methacrylate (MMA), are fast
Acrylics
curing and offer high-strength and toughness. Both one-part and two -
part systems are available. In some two-part systems, no mixing is
required because the adhesive is applied to one substrate, the activator
to the second substrate, and then the substrates joined. They tolerate
minimal surface preparation and bond well to a wide range of
materials including composites.
Epoxies Epoxy adhesives consist of an epoxy resin plus a hardener. They
allow great versatility in formulation since there are many resins and
many different hardeners. Epoxy adhesives can be used to join most
materials especially thermoset composites. Epoxies have good
strength, do not produce volatiles during curing and have low
shrinkage. However, they can have low peel strength and flexibility
and may be brittle. Epoxy adhesives are available in one-part, two-
part and film form, and produce extremely strong durable bonds with
most materials. They can be selected to cure at room or elevated
temperatures.

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Polyurethanes Polyurethane adhesives are chemically reactive formulations, which

may be one-part or two-part systems and are usually fast curing. They
provide strong impact-resistant joints and have better low-temperature
strength than many other adhesive. Polyurethanes are useful for
bonding glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP). The fast cure usually
necessitates applying the adhesives by machine. They are often used
with primers.
Silicones Silicones are not very strong adhesives but are known for their
flexibility and for their low and high temperature resistance. They are
available in single or two-part forms. The latter function like the two -
part epoxies, the former like the single-part polyurethanes. When the
single-part adhesives cure they liberate either alcohol or acetic acid
(the familiar smell of vinegar). Neutral cure silicones are also
available which produce no by-products during curing. They are often
used as bath and shower sealants. Their adhesion to surf aces is only
fair but, like their flexibility, their durability is excellent. The two-part
versions need a hardening agent to be mixed into the resin. Two single
part forms are available - those which liberate acid on curing and
those that do not. As might be anticipated, the two-part adhesive
systems give a better cure in thick sections than do the single-part
types.
Phenolics Phenolics were the first adhesives for metals and have a long history
of successful use for joining metal to metal and metal to wood. They
require heat and pressure for the curing process and are not
recommended for bonding modern composites.
Polyimides Polyimides are available as liquids or films, but are expensive and
difficult to handle. They are superior to most other adhesive types
with regard to long term strength-retention at elevated temperatures.
Hot-melts Hot-melts are generally based on thermoplastics or themoplastic-
elastomers and are used for fast assembly of structures designed to be
only lightly loaded.
Plastisols Plastisols are modified PVC dispersions, which require heat to harden.
The resultant joints are often resilient and tough but generally never

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used for composite bonding.

Rubbers Rubber based adhesives are based on solutions of latexes and solidify
through loss of the medium. They are not suitable for sustained
loadings.
Polyvinyl Vinyl acetate is the principal constituent of the PVA type emulsion
Acetate
adhesive. They are suited to bonding porous materials, such as paper
(PVAs)
or wood, and to general packaging work.
Pressure- Pressure-sensitive adhesives are suitable for use as tapes and labels
sensitive
and, although they do not solidify, are often able to withstand adverse
adhesives
environments. This type of adhesive is not suitable for sustained
loadings.

3.4.3 Adhesive Bonded Joints

➢ In adhesive bonding, two substrate materials are joined by some type of adhesive
(e.g., epoxy, polyurethane, or methyl acrylate). The parts that are joined are called
substrates or adherends.
➢ Various types of bonded joints are there the most common type of joint is a single lap
joint wherein the load is transferred from one substrate to another by shear stresses in
the adhesive. However, because the loads applied are off-centered during a single lap
joint, the bending action caused by the applied load creates normal stresses (cleavage
stress) in the thickness direction of the adhesive. The combination of shear stress and
normal stress at lap ends of the adhesive reduces the joint strength in a single lap
joint.
➢ To overcome the bending effect, a double lap joint is preferred. In a double lap joint,
the bending force and therefore normal stresses are eliminated. The joint strength
obtained by double lap joint testing is greater because of the absence of normal
stresses. For adhesive selection and characterization purposes, single lap joint tests are
conducted because single lap joints are very easy to manufacture.
➢ The stepped and scarf joints shown in below Figure provide more strength than single
lap joints, but machining of stepped or scarf ends is difficult.

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Figure: Types of adhesively bonded joints.

3.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of adhesive bonding

➢ Adhesives can provide many benefits over other types of joining technology and
composites are no exception.
➢ However, it is important to provide a balanced view where disadvantages, both real
and perceived are described in Table.
Table: Advantages and disadvantages of adhesively bonded joints in composites
Sl. No. Advantages Disadvantages
1. Provision of large, stress-bearing Some type of surface preparation will be
area – especially relevant for
required – composite surface preparation
composites as explained in the
previous section. will either require some type of cleaning,
followed by abrasion/peel-ply removal
and then a subsequent cleaning stage
prior to bonding.
2. Excellent fatigue strength. Significant cure-times may be required.
3. Good shock absorption – this Heat and pressure may be needed to cure
property is dependent upon the
an adhesive.
type of adhesive selected and the
design of the joint.

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4. Reduced galvanic corrosion – of Jigs and fixtures may be required to

particular importance where
locate components whilst the adhesive
carbon fibre systems require to be
joined to metals such as aluminium cures.
and steel.
5. No need to have access to far-side Rigid process control is required to obtain
of adherend to make joint.
consistent results.
6. Bonding is possible on dissimilar Conventional non-destructive inspection
materials.
of bonded joints is difficult.
7. Provision of smooth contours and Adhesives have a finite shelf-life prior to
sections around joint areas.
curing and may require special storage
conditions before use.
8. Sealing properties. Adhesives have poor resistance to peel
and cleavage stresses in relation to shear
and tension loading – ideally the best
loading direction is in compression.
9. Weight reduction – in contrast to other
joining technologies where fasteners
are required and additional composite
is required to maintain performance
around holes, the only added mass is
that of the adhesive which in not
normally significant.

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