MECHANI

CAL PROPERTI
ES OF MATERI
ALS

I
ntr
odu
cti
ont
oSt
res
san
dSt
rai
n
Yo umayh a
v enoti
cedt hatcert
ainobject
sc anstr
etcheasi
ly,butstr
etchi
ngob
jectsli
kea n
ir
o nrodsoundsimpos
sib
l e,r
igh
t?I nthislectur
e,wewillunders
tandwhyaf ewo b
ject
sa r
e
morema l
leable(flex
ible)thanother
s.Ma i
nly,wewilldis
cussStres
s-st
rai
ncurv
eb ec
auseitis
usefu
linu nders
tandi
ngt hetens
ilestr
engtho fag i
venmateri
al.

Wh
ati
sSt
res
s?
I
nmec
han
ics
,st
res
sisdef
ineda
saf
orc
eap
pli
edp
eru
nita
rea
.Iti
sgi
venb
yth
efo
rmu
la

=F/A
wh
ere,

 
isthestres
s
F 
istheforcea p
pli
ed
A 
istheareao ffor
cea ppli
cat
ion
Theuni
to fstres
sisN/
  m2

St
res
sa pp
liedt oama t
erialcanbeo
ftwot
ypes
.Th
eya
re:
● 
Ten
sil
eStr
ess
:I tisthefor
cea pp
l i
edp eruni
tareawh
ichresu
ltsi
nt hein
crea
sei
nlen
gth
(o
rarea
)ofab ody.Ob
ject
su ndertensi
lestr
essbeco
methi
nnerandlon
ger.

● Compr
essi
veSt r
ess
:Itisthefo
rceapp
liedp eruni
ta r
eawhic
hresu
ltsi
nthedecr
eas
ei n
leng
t h(orarea
)o fabody.Theobj
ectunder
 comp
ress
ivest
res
s 
bec
omesth
ick
erandsho
rter
.

Whati
sSt
rai
n?
The str
aini
sdefi
nedasthe 
amountofdef
ormat
ionex
periencedbythebodyinthedi
recti
onof
for
ceappl i
ed,
div
idedbyini
ti
aldi
mensi
onsoft
hebody.Therelat
ionfordef
ormati
oni
nt er
msof
l
engt hofasol
idisgi
venbelow.

= L/L
wher
e,

 
ist
hest r
ainduetostressappli
ed
L i
sthechangei nl
ength
List
heor i
ginal
lengt
hoft hemateri
al.
Thestr
ainisadimensionlessquant
it
yasi
tjustdef
inest
her
elat
ivechangei
nshape.

Dependi
ngonst
ressappl
i
cat
ion,
str
ainex
per
iencedi
nabodycanbeoft
wot
ypes.Theyar
e:

● Tensil
eSt rai
n:Itisthechangei
nlength(orarea)ofabodyduetotheappl
i
cati
onof t
ensi
l
e
stress.
● Compr essiveStrain:I
tist
hechangeinlength(orarea)ofabodyduet
otheappl
icat
ionof
compr essiv
est r
ain

Whenwest udysol
idsandthei
rmechanical
proper
ti
es,
inf
ormat
ionregardi
ngtheir
 el
ast
ic
proper
ti
es i
smostimport
ant.Thesecanbeobtai
nedbyst
udyi
ngthestress-
str
ainrel
ati
onshi
ps,
underdif
fer
entl
oads,i
nthesemat er
ial
s.
St
ress-
Str
ainCur
ve
Thest r
ess-
strai
nr el
ati
onshi
pformateri
alsisgi
venbyt
hemater
ial
’
sst r
ess-
str
aincur
ve.Under
di
fferentl
oads,thestressandcor
respondingst
rai
nval
uesar
eplot
ted.Anexampleofastress-
st
raincurveisgivenbelow.

Expl
aini
ngSt
ress-
Str
ainGr
aph
Thest
ress-
str
aingr
aphhasdi
ff
erentpoi
ntsorr
egi
onsasf
oll
ows:

 Pr
opor
ti
onal
li
mit

 El
ast
icl
i
mit

 Yi
eldpoi
nt

 Ul
ti
mat
est
resspoi
nt

 Fr
act
ureorbr
eaki
ngpoi
nt

(
i)Pr
opor
ti
onalLi
mit
I
tist
heregioninthestr
ess-st
rai
ncurvethatobeysHooke’
sLaw.I
nthisli
mit
,therati
oofstr
ess
wi
thstr
aingivesuspropor
tional
i
tyconst
antknownasy oung’
smodulus.ThepointOAinthe
gr
aphiscal
ledtheproport
ionall
imi
t.TheYoung’smodulusE= /

(
ii
)El
ast
icLi
mit
Iti
sthepoi
ntint
hegr
aphuptowhicht
hemater
ialr
etur
nst
oi t
sorigi
nalposi
ti
onwhent
hel oad
acti
ngoniti
scompl
etel
yremov
ed.Bey
ondt
hisli
mit,t
hemateri
aldoesn’
tret
urnt
oit
sori
ginal
posi
ti
onandapl
ast
icdef
ormat
ionst
art
stoappeari
nit
.

(
ii
i)Yi
eldPoi
nt
Theyiel
dpointisdef
inedasthepointatwhi
chthemateri
alst
art
stodef
orm plasti
call
y.Aft
erthe
yi
eldpointi
spassed,permanentpl
asti
cdefor
mationoccur
s.Ther
earet
woy ieldpoint
s(i)upper
yi
eldpoint(
ii
)loweryi
eldpoi
nt.

(
iv)Br
eaki
ngSt
res
s/Ul
ti
mat
eSt
res
sPoi
nt
I
tisapoi
ntthatr
epresent
sthemaxi
mum st
resst
hatamat
eri
alcanendur
ebef
oref
ail
ure.
Beyondt
hispoi
nt,
fail
ureoccur
s.

(
v)Fr
act
ureorBr
eaki
ngPoi
nt
I
tist
hepoi
nti
nthest
ress-
str
aincur
veatwhi
cht
hef
ail
ureoft
hemat
eri
alt
akespl
ace.

Hooke’
sLaw
Inthe19th-
century
, whilestudyi
ngspri
ngsandel ast
ici
ty,Engli
shsci
enti
stRobertHookenoticed
thatmanymat eri
alsexhibitedasimil
arpropert
ywhent hestress-
str
ainrel
ati
onshi
pwasst udied.
Therewasal i
nearregionwher etheforcerequi
redtostretchthemateri
alwasproport
ionalt
ot he
extensi
onofthemat er
ial.Thi
sisknownasHooke’ sLaw.

Hooke’sLawstat
esthatt
hestr
ainofthemateri
ali
spr opor
ti
onal
tot
he
appl
iedstresswi
thi
ntheel
ast
icli
mitofthatmater
ial
.
Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,Hooke’
slawi
scommonl
yex
pressedas:

F=–k.
x
Wher
e,

 Fi
sthef
orce

 xi
stheex
tensi
onl
engt
h

 ki
stheconst
antofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyknownasspr
ingconst
anti
nN/
m

Di
ff
erenceBet
weenDuct
il
eMat
eri
alandBr
it
tl
e
Mater
ial
Everyengineeri
ngmaterial,wheni nservice,issubject
edt oexter
nalloadingof
severalnatur
es(conti
nuous, repetit
iveorfluctuati
ngloading)
.Insomeappl i
cati
ons
(f
orex ample,metalr
olli
ngorbendi ng),
itisintendedthatthecomponentshoul d
el
ongat easmuchaspossi blebef orefr
acture;whileinotherappli
cati
ons( f
or
exampl e,
stonebraki
ng),iti
si ntendedthatt hemat eri
alshoul
dbr eakwi t
hmi nor
deformationunderexter
nal l
oadi ng.Basedont hecapabili
tyt
oelongat eunder
ex
ternal
loadi
ng,
sol
i
dmat
eri
alscanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntwocat
egor
ies–duct
il
eand
br
it
tl
e.

Whenex t
er naltensil
eloadi sappl i
edonamat eri
al,i
nitial
lyi
tundergoesel asti
c
deformationandt henpl asti
cdef ormat i
onst arts.Anel asti
cdef or
mationis
recoverable,whi l
eapl asti
cdef ormat i
oni sper manent . Abil
it
yofamat er
ial t
oex hi
bit
plasti
cdef ormat i
onbef orefractureist heindicationofduct il
i
ty.Material
st hatshow
substanti
al plasti
cdef ormationunderex ternal l
oadingar ecall
edductilemat eri
als;
whilebrit
tl
emat erial
sex hibi
tnegl i
gibleplasticdef or
mat i
on.Simil
ari
ti
esand
diff
erencesbet weenduct il
emat erialandbr it
tlemat erialareprovi
dedbel ow.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenduct
il
emat
eri
alandbr
it
tl
e
mater
ial
Duct
il
eMat
eri
al Br
it
tl
eMat
eri
al

Soli
dmat eri
alst
hatcanundergo
Sol
idmat
erial
sthatexhi
bitnegl
i
gibl
eplast
ic
substant
ialpl
asti
cdefor
mationpri
orto
def
ormat
ionarecall
edbri
ttl
emat er
ial
s.
fr
acturearecall
edducti
l
emat er
ial
s.

Percentageelongati
onoftheduct
il
e Percentageelongati
onofthebri
tt
le
material
sbeforefract
ureundert
ensi
le material
sbeforefract
ureundert
ensil
e
test
ingishigher. test
ingisveryless.

Ducti
l
emat eri
alsfai
lgr
adual
lybyneck
Bri
tt
lemateri
alsfai
lbysuddenfr
act
ure
for
mationundertheacti
onofext
ernal
(wi
thoutanywarningsuchasnecki
ng)
.
t
ensil
eloading.
Energyabsorbedbyducti
lemater
ial
s
Bri
tt
lemateri
alsabsor
bver
ysmal
lener
gy
beforefr
actureundert
ensi
let
esti
ngis
bef
orefr
acture.
mor e.

Vari
ousmetalf
ormingoperati
ons(suchas Formingoperat
ionscannotbeeasi ly
rol
l
ing,
for
ging,
drawing,bendi
ng,et
c.)can perf
ormedonbr it
tl
emat er
ials.Forexample,
beperf
ormedonduct i
l
emat er
ial
s. bri
tt
lemateri
alcannotbedr awni nt
owire.

Duct
il
emat
eri
alsshowlongerl
i
fewhen Bri
ttl
emater
ial
sfai
lfast
erwhensubj
ect
ed
subj
ect
edt
ofati
gueloadi
ng. tofati
guel
oadi
ng.

Ex
ampl
esofduct
il
emat
eri
al: Ex
ampl
esofbr
it
tl
emat
eri
al:

 Mildsteel  Castir
on
 Aluminum  Ceramicssuchasgl
ass,
cement
,
 Copper concr
ete,
etc.
 Rubber  Stone
 Mostpl ast
ics  Ice

QUESTI
ONSwi
thANSWERS

Wh
ata
ret
heSIu
nit
sfo
rst
res
san
dst
rai
n?
TheSIunitofst
ressisNewt onpersquaremeter.Orwecanex pr
essthesameinter
msofPascal
.
1Pascal=1Pa=1N. m- 2.
Whilet
hereisnounitforst
rain.I
tisadimensi
onlessquant
it
y.Thisisbecausei
tist
her
ati
oof
changeoflengt
htotheor i
ginall
engt
h,andtherefor
eiti
sunit
less.

Wh
ati
sth
eus
eoft
hes
tres
s-s
tra
indi
agr
am?
Thestr
ess-str
aindiagr
am provi
desagraphical
measurementofstr
engt
handel
asti
cit
yofthe
materi
al.Al
so,thebehavioroft
hemateri
alscanbestudi
edwiththehel
poft
hestr
ess-st
rai
n
di
agram whichmakesi teasywit
htheappli
cati
onoft
hesemat er
ial
s.

Wh
ati
sth
erel
ati
onbet
weens
tres
san
dst
rai
n?
Therelat
ionbetweenstressandstr
ainisthattheyaredir
ectl
ypropor
ti
onaltoeachotheruptoan
elast
icli
mit.Hooke’
slawex pl
ainst
herelati
onshipbetweenstr
essandstrai
n.Accor
dingto
Hooke’slaw,thestr
aininasoli
disproport
ionaltotheappli
edstr
essandthisshoul
dbewi t
hin
theelast
icli
mitofthatsol
id.

Wh
ata
ret
het
ypeso
fst
rai
n?
Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofst
rai
nandt
heyar
e:
 Nor
mal
str
ain:
Nor
mal
str
aini
sdef
inedast
her
ati
oofchangei
ndi
mensi
ont
oit
sor
igi
nal
di
mension.Consi
derani
ronbarofl
engthLandl
etdLbet
hechangei
nthel
engt
hoft
he
bar
.Accordi
ngtonormalst
rai
n,e=dL/L.

 Shearst
rai
n:Theshearst
rai
nisdef
inedast
heangul
ardi
stor
ti
onbet
weent
womut
ual
l
y
per
pendi
cul
arpl
anes.I
tisr
epr edbyℽ
esent .

 Vol
umet
ri
cst
rai
n:Vol
umet
ri
cst
rai
nisdef
inedast
her
ati
oofchangei
nact
ual
vol
umet
o
t
heor
igi
nal
vol
ume.