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 Locomotion and
Movement

Lecture 2

Dr. Sachin Kapur 20+ years Teaching experience

M M.Phil, Phd 4,00,000 Students & Teachers
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Locomotion and Movement
Development of Skeletal Muscle
 Development of Skeletal Muscle

Myoblasts Muscle forming cells in an embryo.

Myocyte Many myoblasts fuse to form single muscle

fiber (Myocyte) covered by endomysium.

Muscle Fasciculus Bundle of muscle fibers covered by

perimysium.

Muscle Many muscle fasciculi group to form muscle

which is covered by epimysium.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Ultrastructure

❖ Plasma membrane of muscle fiber is sarcolemma.

❖ Cytoplasm of muscle fiber is sarcoplasm.
❖ Sarcoplasm includes a substantial amount of glycogen.
❖ Glycogen can be used for synthesis of ATP.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Ultrastructure

❖ Sarcoplasm contains a red-colored protein called myoglobin.

❖ It binds oxygen molecules that diffuse into muscle fibers from interstitial fluid.
❖ Myoglobin releases oxygen when it is needed by the mitochondria for ATP
production.
❖ The mitochondria (sarcosomes) lie in rows throughout the muscle fiber,
strategically close to the muscle proteins that use ATP during contraction.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Ultrastructure

❖ Muscle fiber has many myofibrils.

❖ Within myofibrils are smaller structures called myofilaments.
❖ Thin filaments are 8 nm in diameter and 1–2 μm long, while thick filaments are 16
nm in diameter and 1–2 μm long.
Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Proteins in Myofibrils

Contractile proteins

Regulatory proteins

Structural proteins
Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Contractile Proteins

❖ The two contractile proteins in muscle are myosin and actin, which are the main
components of thick and thin filaments, respectively.
❖ Myosin functions as a motor protein in all three types of muscle tissue.
Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Regulatory Proteins

❖ The two regulatory proteins in muscle are troponin and tropomyosin.

❖ These are also called relaxing proteins.
❖ These block binding sites of actin and does not allow myosin cross bridges to
bind with actin.
Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Structural Proteins

❖ These keep the thick and thin filaments in the proper alignment.
❖ These give the myofibril elasticity and extensibility.
❖ These link the myofibrils to the sarcolemma and extracellular matrix.
Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Myofibrils

❖ In skeletal muscle, about 300 molecules of myosin form a single thick filament.
❖ Each myosin molecule is shaped like two golf clubs twisted together.
❖ The myosin tail (twisted golf club handles) points toward the M line in the center
of the sarcomere.
❖ Tails of neighboring myosin molecules lie parallel to one another, forming the
shaft of the thick filament.
❖ The two projections of each myosin molecule (golf club heads) are called myosin
heads.
Myofilaments
Myofibrils
Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fiber
Skeletal Muscles

Ultrastructure

❖ Narrow, plate-shaped regions of dense protein material called Z discs separate

one sarcomere from the next.
❖ Sarcomere extends from one Z disc to the next Z disc.
Skeletal Muscles

Ultrastructure

❖ The thick and thin filaments overlap one another to a greater or lesser extent,
depending on whether the muscle is contracted, relaxed, or stretched.
❖ The pattern of their overlap, consisting of a variety of zones and bands, creates
the striations that can be seen both in single myofibrils and in whole muscle
fibers.
Skeletal Muscles

Ultrastructure

❖ The darker middle part of the sarcomere is the A band, which extends the entire
length of the thick filaments.
❖ Toward each end of the A band is a zone of overlap, where the thick and thin
filaments lie side by side.
❖ The I band is a lighter, less dense area that contains the rest of the thin filaments
but no thick filaments.
Skeletal Muscles

Ultrastructure

❖ A Z disc passes through the center of each I band.

❖ A narrow H zone in the center of each A band contains thick but not thin
filaments.
❖ Supporting proteins that hold the thick filaments together at the center of the H
zone form the M line, so named because it is at the middle of the sarcomere.
Myofibrils

Myofilaments

❖ Individual actin molecules join to form an actin filament that is twisted into a helix.
❖ On each actin molecule is a myosin-binding site, where a myosin head can attach.
❖ Smaller amounts of two regulatory proteins—tropomyosin and troponin—are also
part of the thin filament.
Muscle Contraction

Sliding Filament Theory

❖ Muscle contraction occurs because myosin heads attach to and “walk” along the
thin filaments at both ends of a sarcomere.
❖ As a result, the thin filaments slide inward and meet at the center of a sarcomere.
❖ As the thin filaments slide inward, the Z discs come closer together, and the
sarcomere shortens.
❖ The length of the individual thick and thin filaments do not change.
Muscle Contraction

Neuromuscular Junction

❖ The junction between a nerve fibre and a muscle fibre is called neuromuscular
junction.
❖ Neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle to contract are somatic motor neurons.
❖ Each somatic motor neuron has a threadlike axon that extends from the brain or
spinal cord to a group of skeletal muscle fibers.
❖ The axon of a somatic motor neuron typically branches many times, each branch
extending to a different skeletal muscle fiber.
Neuromuscular Junction
Muscle Contraction

Sliding Filament Theory

❖ Region of sarcolemma opposite the synaptic end bulbs is called motor end plate.
❖ Within each motor end plate, there are 30 to 40 million acetylcholine receptors.
❖ These receptors are abundant in junctional folds, deep grooves in the motor end
plate that provide a large surface area for ACh.
Neuromuscular Junction
Muscle Contraction

Initiation of Muscle Action Potential

Release of acetylcholine

Activation of ACh receptors

Production of muscle action potential

Termination of ACh activity

Muscle Contraction

Release of acetylcholine

❖ Arrival of the nerve impulse at the synaptic end bulbs causes many synaptic
vesicles to undergo exocytosis.
❖ During exocytosis, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the motor neuron’s plasma
membrane, liberating ACh into the synaptic cleft.
❖ The ACh then diffuses across the synaptic cleft between the motor neuron and
the motor end plate.
Neuromuscular Junction
Muscle Contraction

Activation of ACh receptors

❖ Binding of ACh to the receptor on the motor end plate opens an ion channel in
the ACh receptor.
❖ Once the channel is open, Na ions can flow across the membrane.
Muscle Contraction

Production of muscle action potential

❖ Inflow of Na (down its electrochemical gradient) makes the inside of the muscle
fiber more positively charged.
❖ This change in the membrane potential triggers a muscle action potential.
❖ Each nerve impulse normally elicits one muscle action potential.
Muscle Contraction

Production of muscle action potential

❖ Muscle action potential then propagates along the sarcolemma into the T tubule
system.
❖ This causes sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm.
Muscle Contraction

Termination of ACh activity

❖ The effect of ACh binding lasts only briefly because ACh is rapidly broken down
by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
❖ This enzyme is attached to collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix of the
synaptic cleft.
❖ AChE breaks down ACh into acetyl and choline.
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