DESIGN GUIDELINES

FOR STAINLESS STEEL

IN PIPING SYSTEMS
A DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK SERIES
NO 9024

Produced by Distributed by
AMERICAN IRON NICKEL
AND STEEL INSTITUTE INSTITUTE
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR
STAINLESS STEEL IN PIPING SYSTEMS

A DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK SERIES

NO 9024

Originally, this handbook was published in 1980 by the Committee

of Stainless Steel Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute.
The Nickel Institute republished the handbook in 2020. Despite the
age of this publication the information herein is considered to be
generally valid.
Material presented in the handbook has been prepared for the
general information of the reader and should not be used or relied
on for specific applications without first securing competent advice.
The Nickel Institute, the American Iron and Steel Institute, their
members, staff and consultants do not represent or warrant its
suitability for any general or specific use and assume no liability or
responsibility of any kind in connection with the information herein.

Nickel Institute
communications@nickelinstitute.org
www.nickelinstitute.org

Contents
Introduction ............................................................
The Selection of a Piping System ...........................
Stainless Steel in Piping Systems ...........................
Advantages .........................................................
Limitations ..........................................................
The Economics of Stainless Steel
in Piping Systems ..................................................
Design Costs ......................................................
Material Costs .....................................................
Fabrication Costs ................................................
Erection Costs ....................................................
Applicable Standards .............................................
The Design, Fabrication, and Erection
of Plant Piping Systems .........................................
Construction Phase..............................................
Bibliography ...........................................................
Appendices ............................................................
DESIGN
GUIDELINES
FOR
STAINLESS
STEEL
IN PIPING
SYSTEMS
Introduction
This publication presents information on the design,
fabrication, installation and economy of stainless steel in
piping systems. The guidelines presented contain
important information for piping specialists and design
engineers that will save money, time and effort in the
several diverse industries utilizing piping systems.
Stainless steels are defined as iron-base alloys con-
3 taining 10 percent or more chromium. They are en-
6 gineering materials selected primarily for their excellent
6 resistance to corrosion, their outstanding mechanical
6 properties at either ambient, high, or low temperature,
13 and their economy.
Of the 57 stainless steels recognized as standard by
17 the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), those most
18 commonly used in piping systems are the austenitic
18 alloys represented by AISI Types 304, 304L, 316 and
19 316L. The austenitic Types 309 and 310, containing
19 considerably more chromium and nickel than Types 304
19 and 316, are also widely used, but for piping exposed to
elevated temperatures. The stabilized Types 321 and
20 347 are also used, as are some commercially available
21 proprietary grades. Appendix A shows chemical
22 compositions and typical properties. (Table 1 lists all 57
23 AISI numbered stainless steels.)
3
 Table 1
RELATIVE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF AISI STAINLESS STEELS
Mild
Atmospheric Chemical
AISI Atmospheric
TYPE UNS and Salt
Industrial Marine Mild Oxidizing Reducing
Number Number Fresh Water Water
201 (S20100) X X X X X
202 (S20200) X X X X X
205 (S20500) X X X X X
301 (S30100) X X X X X
302 (S30200) X X X X X
302B (S30215) X X X X X
303 (S30300) X X X
303 Se (S30323) X X X
304 (S30400) X X X X X
304L (S30403) X X X X X
(S30430) X X X X X
304N (S30451) X X X X X
305 (S30500) X X X X X
308 (S30800) X X X X X
309 (S30900) X X X X X
309S (S30908) X X X X X
310 (S31000) X X X X X
310S (S31008) X X X X X
314 (S31400) X X X X X
316 (S31600) X X X X X X X
316F (S31620) X X X X X X X
316L (S31603) X X X X X X X
316N (S31651) X X X X X X X
317 (S31700) X X X X X X X
317L (S31703) X X X X X X
321 (S32100) X X X X X
329 (S32900) X X X X X X X
330 (N08330) X X X X X X X
347 (S34700) X X X X X
348 (S34800) X X X X X
384 (S38400) X X X X X
403 (S40300) X X
405 (S40500) X X
409 (S40900) X X
410 (S41000) X X
414 (S41400) X X
416 (S41600) X
416 Se (S41623) X
420 (S42000) X
420F (S42020) X
422 (S42200) X
429 (S42900) X X X X
430 (S43000) X X X X
430F (S43020) X X X
430F Se (S43023) X X X
431 (S43100) X X X X
434 (S43400) X X X X X
436 (S43600) X X X X X
440A (S44002) X X
440B (S44003) X
440C (S44004) X
442 (S44200) X X X X
446 (S44600) X X X X X
(S13800) X X X X
(S15500) X X X X X
(S17400) X X X X X
(S17700) X X X X X

The "X" notations indicate that a specific stainless steel type may be considered as resistant to the corrosive environment categories.
This list is suggested as a guideline only and does not suggest or imply a warranty on the part of the American Iron and Steel Institute, the Committee of
Stainless Steel Producers, or any of the member companies represented on the Committee. When selecting a stainless steel for any corrosive
environment, it is always best to consult with a corrosion engineer and, if possible, conduct tests in the environment involved under actual operating
conditions.

Source: STEEL PRODUCTS MANUAL, STAINLESS AND HEAT RE-

SISTING STEELS, DECEMBER 1974, American Iron and
Steel Institute, Washington, D. C.

4
º
Table 2
WHERE DIFFERENT GRADES ARE USED
Environment Grades
Acids Stainless generally is not recommended except
Hydrocloric acid when solutions are very dilute and at room tem-
perature.
"Mixed acids" There is usually no appreciable attack on Type 304
or 316 as long as sufficient nitric acid is present.
Nitric acid Type 304L or 430 is used.
Phosphoric acid Type 304 is satisfactory for storing cold phosphoric
acid up to 85% and for handling concentrations up
to 5% in some unit processes of manufacture. Type
316 is more resistant and is generally used for
storing and manufacture if the fluorine content is
not too high. Type 317 is somewhat more resistant
than Type 316. At concentrations up-to 85%, the
metal temperature should not exceed 212ºF
(100ºC) with Type 316 and slightly higher with Type
317. Oxidizing ions inhibit attack and other
inhibitors such as arsenic may be added.
Sulfuric acid Type 304 can be used at room temperature for
concentrations over 80%. Type 316 can be used in
contact with sulfuric acid up to 10% at termpera-
tures up to 120ºF (50ºC) if the solutions are
aerated; the attack is greater in airfree solutions.
Type 317 may be used at temperatures as high as
150ºF (65ºC) with up to 5% concentration. The
presence of other materials may markedly change
the corrosion rate. As little as 500 to 2000 ppm of
cupric ions make it possible to use Type 304 in hot
solutions of moderate concentration. Other
additives may have the opposite effect.
Sulfurous acid Type 304 may be subject to pitting, particularly if
some sulfuric acid is present. Type 316 is usable at
moderate concentrations and temperatures.
Bases Steels in the 300 series generally have good cor-
Ammonium rosion resistance at virtually all concentrations and
hydroxide, temperatures in weak bases, such as ammonium
sodium hydroxide. In stronger bases, such as sodium hyd-
hydroxide, roxide, there may be some attack, cracking or etch-
caustic solutions ing in more concentrated solutions and at higher
termperatures. Commercial purity caustic solutions
may contain chlorides, which will accentuate any
attack and may cause pitting of Type 316 as well as
Type 304.
Organics
Acetic acid is seldom pure in chemical plants but
Acetic acid generally includes numerous and varied minor
constituents. Type 304 is used for a wide variety of
equipment including stills, base heaters, holding
tanks, heat exchangers, pipelines, valves and
pumps for concentrations up to 99% at tempera-
tures up to about 120ºF (50ºC). Type 304 is also
satisfactory for contact with 100% acetic acid va-
pors, and–if small amounts of turbidity or color
pickup can be tolerated–for room temperature
storage of glacial acetic acid. Types 316 and 317
have the broadest range of usefulness, especially if
formic acid is also present or if solutions are
unaerated. Type 316 is used for fractionating
equipment, for 30 to 99% concentrations where
Type 304 cannot be used, for storage vessels,
pumps and process equipment handling glacial
acetic acid, which would be discolored by Type
304. Type 316 is likewise applicable for parts hav-
ing temperatures above 120ºF (50ºC), for dilute
vapors and high pressures. Type 317 has some-
what greater corrosion resistance than Type 316
under severely corrosive conditions. None of the
stainless steels has adequate corrosion resistance
to glacial acetic acid at the boiling temperature or at
superheated vapor temperatures.
Source: STAINLESS STEEL AND THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, Climax Molybdenum Company, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1966.
Environment Grades
Aldehydes Type 304 is generally satisfactory.
Amines Type 316 is usually preferred to Type 304.
Cellulose Type 304 is satisfactory for low temperatures, but
acetate Type 316 or Type 317 is needed for high tempera-
tures.
Citric, formic and Type 304 is generally acceptable at moderate tem-
tartaric acids peratures, but Type 316 is resistant to all concen-
trations at temperatures up to boiling.
Esters From the corrosion standpoint, esters are compar-
able with organic acids.
Fatty acids Up to about 300ºF (150ºC), Type 304 is resistant to
fats and fatty acids, but Type 316 is needed at 300
to 500ºF (150 to 260ºC) and Type 317 at higher
temperatures.
Paint vehicles Type 316 may be needed if exact color and lack of
contamination are important.
Phthalic Type 316 is usually used for reactors, fractionating
anhydride columns, traps, baffles, caps and piping.
Soaps Type 304 is used for parts such as spray towers,
but Type 316 may be preferred for spray nozzles
and flake-drying belts to minimize offcolor product.
Synthetic Type 316 is used for preheat, piping, pumps and
detergents reactors in catalytic hydrogenation of fatty acids to
give salts of sulfonated high molecular alcohols.
Tall oil (pulp and Type 304 has only limited usage in tall-oil distilla-
paper industry) tion service. High-rosin-acid streams can be han-
dled by Type 316L with a minimum molybdenum
content of 2.75%. Type 316 can also be used in the
more corrosive high-fatty-acid streams at tempera-
tures up to 475ºF (245ºC), but Type 317 will
probably be required at higher temperatures.
Tar Tar distillation equipment is almost all Type 316
because coal tar has a high chloride content. Type
304 does not have adequate resistance to pitting.
Urea Type 316L is generally required.
Pharmaceuticals Type 316 is usually selected for all parts in contact
with the product because of its inherent corrosion
resistance and greater assurance of product purity.
Elevated Generally speaking increased chromium content
Temperatures increases oxidation resistance. Those alloys con-
taining 16 to 20% chromium such as Types 304
and 316 are generally useful in air to temperatures
of 1600 to 1700ºF (870 to 925ºC). Alloys such as
Types 309 and 310 with higher chromium and
nickel contents may extend this temperature range
to 1800 or 1900ºF (180 to 1035ºC). Exposure to
fluctuating temperatures or even mild environ-
ments such as carbon dioxide or water vapor may
result in significant increases in corrosion rates at
these temperatures.
Cryogenic Austenitic stainless steels exhibit good ductility and
Temperatures toughness at the most severe of cryogenic
temperatures - minus 423ºF (- 253ºC). Impact tests
show that Type 304 is very stable over long periods
of exposure and does not exhibit any marked
degradation of toughness. Properly made welds
also have excellent low-temperature properties.
Austenitic grades cold worked to high strength
levels are also suitable for low-temperature ser-
vice. Type 310 can be cold worked as much as
85% and still exhibit a good notched-to-unnotched
tensile ratio down to - 423ºF (- 253ºC).
5
 THE SELECTION
OF A PIPING
SYSTEM
The most commonly used material for metal piping
systems is carbon steel. Where carbon steel pipe is
satisfactory, it generally results in the most economical
system. The justification for the selection of a more
expensive material, however, is usually either a longer
life because of reduced corrosion, or an improvement in
product quality as a result of reduced contamination
(corrosion). The selection of a more expensive material
may also be dictated by piping code material restriction,
such as in those cases where operating conditions are
above or below the range of working temperatures
approved for carbon steel.
A variety of materials, both metallic and nonmetallic,
are available to fill the varied piping needs of industry.
Each of these materials has its own particular attributes
that justify its use in certain applications and they each
have limitations. A check-list has been developed (Ap-
pendix B) listing some of the factors which should be
weighed in making a decision on the relative merits of
alternative pipe materials. These include, among other
important considerations, pressure and temperature
limitations, supporting structure requirements, chemical
resistance, protection from exposure to fire, thermal
expansion, piping code restrictions, safeguarding re-
quirements, tracing, vacuum collapse and insulation.
STAINLESS STEEL
IN PIPING
SYSTEMS
The role of stainless steel in piping systems can be
defined by outlining its advantages and disadvantages
as a piping material.
Advantages
CORROSION RESISTANCE
Stainless steels possess broad resistance to a wide
variety of corrosives from fresh water to strong nitric
acid. This corrosion resistance generally allows the use
of light-weight construction with Schedule 5S or 10S
piping.
While full discussion of corrosion resistance in spe-
cific media is beyond the scope of this publication,
Table 1 lists the relative corrosion resistance of the 57
AISI-numbered stainless steels in seven broad catego-
6
ries of corrosive environments. Table 2 details more
specific environments in which various grades are used,
and a list of useful references to aid in the selection of
stainless steels is included on page 22.
When dealing with corrosive environments, the pip-
ing system designer and specifier should take careful
note of the fact that there are significant differences in
corrosion resistance and strength among the various
stainless alloys. If Type 304 is not suitable for a particu-
lar environment there is no reason to rule out other
stainless steels. There are stainless steels with higher
chromium and nickel contents or with other alloying
elements that provide better resistance to corrosion
than Type 304. For instance, the AISI-numbered stain-
less steels are not recognized as being outstanding
materials for use in seawater environments. There are,
however, commercially available proprietary stainless
steels that have exhibited excellent resistance in sea-
water environments.
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
A very important consideration in evaluating various
pipe system materials is strength. The mechanical
properties of stainless steels yield a number of important
advantages over nonmetallic pipe systems.
High-Temperature Characteristics . The austenitic
stainless steels are unique in that they combine high-
temperature strength and oxidation resistance. Appli-
cations at 1000ºF are common and some applications
utilizing stainless steels operate at temperatures ap-
proaching 1900ºF.
Figure 1 gives a broad concept of the hot strength
advantages of the austenitic stainless steels in com-
parison with other materials. The stress values for Type
304 seamless pipe compared with a low-alloy chrome
molybdenum steel pipe shown in Table 3 illustrate an
important reason why austenitic stainless steels are
preferred over other alloys for steam service at temper-
atures over 1050ºF. (Many companies use Type 316 for
high-temperature steam service.)
The most common criteria currently used in the
United States for the design of hot piping are found in
ANSI B31.3.* This code prescribes minimum require-
ments for piping systems subject to pressure or vacuum,
over a range of temperatures up to 1500ºF.
The basic allowable stress for a particular material at
a particular temperature is based on several criteria, any
of which may govern. In accordance with the Code, this
basic allowable stress shall not exceed the lowest of the
following:
1. One third of the material's minimum tensile
strength at room temperature.
2. One third of the material's minimum tensile
strength at design temperature.
3. Two thirds of the material's minimum yield
strength at room temperature.
4. Two thirds of the material's minimum yield
strength at the design temperature.
*ANSI B 31.3. American National Standards Institute Code for Chem-
ical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping, published by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1976.
 Table 3
ALLOWABLE STRESS AT MAXIMUM METAL TEMPERATURE

ºF 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200

ºC 482 510 538 566 593 621 649
Type ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa
304 10.0 68.9 9.8 67.2 9.5 65.2 9.0 62.1 8.3 56.9 6.9 47.6 5.5 37.9
2¼Cr-1 Mo 13.1 90.3 11.0 75.8 7.8 53.8 5.8 40.0 4.2 29.0 3.0 20.7 2.0 13.8

Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

5. The average stress for a creep rate of 0.01 percent
per 1,000 hours.
6. 67 percent of the average stress for rupture at the
end of 100,000 hours.
7. 80 percent of the minimum stress for rupture at the
end of 100,000 hours.
An exception to the fourth criterion above is that for
austenitic stainless steels (generally the 300 series)
and for some of the nickel alloys, when used at temper-
atures below 1100ºF, the limit may be as high as 90
percent of the minimum yield strength at the design
temperature. However, this high allowable stress is not
recommended for flanged, gasketed joints or other ap-
plications where a slight deformation could cause leak-
age.
An excellent discussion of this subject is in an article
by J.D. Dawson, "Designing High-Temperature Piping."
(CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, April 9, 1979.)
Low-Temperature Characteristics. At the other ex-
treme, austenitic stainless steels are among the few
materials that retain their toughness and ductility at the
most severe of cryogenic temperatures. Table 4 shows
mechanical properties of some of these materials at
cryogenic temperatures.
In contrast, thermoplastics, fiberglass reinforced
plastic (FRP), and plastic-lined carbon steel have a
much narrower range of temperatures at which their
performance is acceptable. According to ANSI B31.3
the suggested temperature limits for thermoplastic pipe
is from -30ºF to 210ºF, depending upon the specific
material. The temperature limits for reinforced ther-
mosetting resins are from -20ºF to 300ºF. For
thermoplastics used as linings, the range is from 0ºF to
500ºF, again depending upon the specific material.
Design Considerations. Because of excellent
strength characteristics, stainless steel piping can
withstand higher pressures, or a full vacuum, over a
wide temperature range–which, in turn, means a
greater degree of safety. For example, austenitic
stainless steels provide satisfactory service from low
cryogenic temperatures to temperatures of 1800ºF and
above. Strength and toughness are especially impor-
tant for pipe systems handling hot acid solutions, other

Table 4
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS AT
CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURES
Yield Elongation
Tensile
AISI Test Strength in Izod Impact
Strength
Type Temperature 0.2% Offset 2"
ºF ºC ksi MPa ksi MPa % ft. lbs. J
304 - 40 - 40 34 234 155 1,069 47 110 149
- 80 - 62 34 234 170 1,172 39 110 149
-320 -196 39 269 221 1,524 40 110 149
-423 -252 50 344 243 1,675 40 110 149

310 - 40 - 40 39 269 95 655 57 110 149

- 80 - 62 40 276 100 689 55 110 149
-320 -196 74 510 152 1,048 54 85 115
-423 -252 108 745 176 1,213 56

316 - 40 - 40 41 283 104 717 59 110 149

- 80 - 62 44 303 118 814 57 110 149
-320 -196 75 517 185 1,276 59
-423 -252 84 579 210 1,448 52

347 - 40 - 40 44 303 117 807 63 110 149

- 80 - 62 45 310 130 896 57 110 149
-320 -196 47 324 200 1,379 43 95 129
-423 -252 55 379 228 1,572 39 60 81

410 - 40 - 40 90 621 122 841 23 25 34

- 80 - 62 94 648 128 883 22 25 34
-320 -196 148 1,020 158 1,089 10 5 7

430 - 40 - 40 41 283 76 524 36 10 14

- 80 - 62 44 303 81 558 36 8 11
-320 -196 87 607 92 634 2 2 3

Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

7
 hazardous liquids, or compressed gases (which in Table 5
large systems contain a substantial concentration of THICKNESS FOR STAINLESS STEEL PIPE DESIGNED
potential energy). Flanged joints in nonmetallic sys- TO WITHSTAND FULL 30 in. H.G. VACUUM
tems are more susceptible to gasketing and leakage
Where vibration exists, the thickness should be increased
problems due to their low modulus of elasticity. In lined
and/or reinforcing rings added.
pipe, vacuum service often leads to liner buckling.
(Table 5 shows the thickness for stainless steel pipe Size Gauge U.S. Standard Thickness
1 14 0.078
designed to withstand a full vacuum of 30 inches of 1½ 14 0.078
mercury.) 2 14 0.078
Because of their excellent high-temperature charac- 3 14 0.078
teristics, stainless steel piping systems are readily 4 14 0.078
steam jacketed, and they have a greater tolerance for 6 14 0.078
steam tracing than the nonmetallic or lined systems. 8 14 0.078
10 12 0.109
Steam tracing of lined pipe may lead to buckling of the 12 12 0.109
liner. (Care should be exercised in steam tracing any 14 11 0.125
metallic pipe system to prevent hot spots, which could 16 11 0.125
cause accelerated corrosion.) 18 11 0.125
Also relative to the use of pipe systems at high or low 20 3/16 0.1875
22 3/16 0.1875
temperatures, are the thermal expansion characteris-
24 3/16 0.1875
tics of the materials. The coefficient of thermal expan- 26 3/16 0.1875
28 3/16 0.1875
30 ¼ 0.250
32 ¼ 0.250
34 ¼ 0.250
Figure 1 36 ¼ 0.250
HOT STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
Note: Standard rolled angle face rings may be used for reinforcing
rings. (Dimensions are given in inches)
Source: SUGGESTED STANDARDS FOR STAINLESS STEEL PIP-
ING FOR THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY, Tappi En-
gineering Conference, November 1968, Houston, Texas

sion of stainless steels is much closer to that of carbon

steel than that of plastic materials. Lined metallic piping
systems have been known to fail because of the differ-
ence in expansion between the pipe and its lining.
In contrast to the excellent performance characteris-
tics of stainless steel pipe systems exposed to elevated
temperature (either internally or externally), special
provisions are required to protect nonmetallic pipe sys-
tems. These provisions are frequently in the form of
thermal insulation, shields or process controls to protect
against excessive heat or thermal shock, and/or armor
guards or barricades for protection against mechanical
abuse.
In the event of a fire, a stainless steel piping system
is more resistant than a plastic system, as it is neither
flammable nor readily melted. Also, heat can seriously
affect nonmetallic systems.
High strength means fewer and less complicated
supporting structures. Generally speaking, in a metallic
piping system a minimum of two supports is used for
each length of pipe for practical handling during instal-
lation and removal, and valves are usually supported
by the pipe system itself. In contrast, nonmetallic sys-
tems use more supports, plus additional supports for
each valve. For outside pipe runs, the supporting struc-
tures for nonmetallic systems are more substantial and
more expensive.

General comparison of the hot-strength characteristics of austenitic,
martensitic and ferritic stainless steels with those of low-carbon unal-
loyed steel and semi-austenitic precipitation and transformation-
hardening steels.
EASE OF FABRICATION
The excellent ductility of the austenitic stainless
steels enables extensive forming operations. Forming

8
of Van Stone flanges and pipe bending, for example, Table 6
offer economies that are unavailable with other less- REPRESENTATIVE PRESSURE RATING FOR
ductile materials. VAN STONE FLANGED TYPES 304L and 316L

Temp. ºF Schedule 10S Schedule 40S

Van Stone Flanging 100 275 psi 300 psi
200 240 psi 300 psi
Van Stone flanging involves roll flaring of the pipe 300 210 psi 300 psi
400 180 psi 300 psi
end to form a lap perpendicular to the pipe axis. Using a 500 150 psi 300 psi
lap joint back-up flange, or a slip-on flange with the inner 600 130 psi 300 psi
corner between the flange face and bore slightly cham- 650 120 psi 300 psi
fered, offers one of the best methods of providing a Ratings are based on the following:
flanged connection. The advantages, compared to a 1. Stresses used are not more than ½ allowed by ASME code.
weld-neck flange, are readily apparent: 2. Use of standard slip-on flanges per ASA B16.5.
Reliability –This is a machine operation with precise 3. Where lightweight back-up flanges are used, the bolt circle bolt size
and bore diameter should be per ASA B16.5. In this case the rating
tooling. Each lap is virtually identical. of stub and back-up assembly is limited by the capabilities of the
Speed –Always faster than welding. back-up flange.
Ease of Installation –Since the back-up flange is free 4. These ratings allow for normally encountered bending moments due
to thermal cycling. Where such conditions are severe and a piping
to rotate, there is never a problem of bolt-hole align- flexibility analysis is made, stresses due to bending moment should
ment with the mating flange. be limited to a stress range of 20,000 psi (±10,000) in the wall
No Need for Expensive Flange –Back-up flanges adjacent to the lap.
Source: PIPE FABRICATION, SGL Piping Systems, a division of SGL
have a mechanical function, which does not require
Industries, Inc., Newport, Delaware
corrosion resistance. A forged steel or ductile iron
back-up flange may be used with stainless steel pipe.
Cost –Fast fabrication, elimination of welds, fast in-
stallation, and inexpensive flanges add up to sub-
is the fact that close-radius bends match standard
stantial cost savings.
forged steel long-radius elbows per USAS B16.9; 4-inch
Stainless steel welded and full-finished pipe man-
iron pipe size (IPS), for example, is bent on a 6-inch
ufactured in accordance with standard specification
radius while 2-inch IPS pipe is bent on a 3-inch radius.
ASTM A312 is preferred for flanging Type 304 or 316
Close-radius bending may be used interchangeably with
(plus low-carbon grades) in ½ to 12-inch diameters in
forged elbows in any piping system with no revision in
Schedules 5S, 10S, and 40S. Table 6 shows represen-
layout.
tative pressure rating data for Van Stone flanged Types
Bends of 1 to 180 degrees are possible. Table 8
304 and 316, while Table 7 shows typical Van Stone lap
provides guidelines for maximizing the use of bending,
geometries. Figures 2 and 3 show typical examples.
and Figures 4 and 5 show typical applications. Bending
is used generally for sizes up to 4 inches in diameter.
Bending of larger sizes is possible with special equip-
Pipe Bending ment. For example, in some shops fabricating piping
systems for nuclear power plants, 34-inch diameter
The piping designer can achieve significant cost sav- pipe with a 4-inch wall thickness is being successfully
ings by specifying close-radius bending of stainless bent utilizing induction heating of the bend area. This
steel wherever possible in the piping system. Important type of bending results in lower welding and fitting

Table 7
VAN STONE LAP GEOMETRIES
Flange Type
IPS LAP OD Schedules Schedules Serrated
(in inches) (in inches) 5S/10S 40S/80S Face
½ 13/8 SO LJ A
¾ 111/16 SO LJ A
1 2 SO LJ A
1¼ 2½ SO LJ A
1½ 27/8 SO LJ A
2 35/8 SO LJ A
2½ 41/8 SO LJ A
3 5 SO LJ A
4 63/16 SO LJ A
6 8½ SO LJ A
8 105/8 SO LJ A
10 12¾ SO LJ NA
12 15 SO LJ NA

SO–Slip-On; LJ–Lap Joint; A-Available; NA–Not Available

Back-up flanges may be forged steel or ductile iron, flat face or raised face.

Source: PIPE FABRICATION, SGL Piping Systems, a division of SGL Industries, Inc., Newport, Delaware

9
 Figure 2
Typical example of a Van Stone flange. The flange,
which can be of a noncorrosion resistant material, is
slipped over the end of the pipe and then the end is
flared by an operation that resembles spinning.
Figure 3
The flared end of the pipe or tube can be smooth, or it can
be flared with a serrated face, as shown here. The
serrations are formed by the flaring tool and are "rolled"
in, not machined.

Table 8
CLOSE RADIUS BENDING TABLES

Min. Center-to-Center and Center-to-Face Dimensions to allow adequate clamping. (Dimensions in inches)

90°Bends 45°Bends
Pipe Radius
A B C D E F
Size R
½ 1½ 5½ 7½ 7 45/8 65/8 5¼
¾ 11/8 51/8 7½ 6¼ 49/16 6¾ 5
1 1½ 5½ 8 7 45/8 73/8 5¼
1½ 2¼ 8 9 10¼ 611/16 77/8 7¼
2 3 11 9 14 9¼ 73/8 10½
3 41/8 13½ 12 18 107/8 9½ 12¾
3½ 5¼ 14¼ 13 19½ 11¾ 10 133/8
4 6 16¾ 14 22¾ 13¼ 10½ 15¾
A or D–Plain or Beveled End B or E–Flanged End C or F–Center to Center

Source: PIPE FABRICATION, SGL Piping Systems, a division of SGL Industries, Inc., Newport, Delaware

10
Figure 4
This is a "pancake" heating coil of 1½inch Type 304
stainless steel pipe, 40 feet in diameter. The detail
(inset) shows how 180 degree bends were made to the
centerline spacing. By bending, the fabricator eliminated
one weld per return, significantly reducing the cost as
compared to conventional U-bend fittings.

costs. In any piping system, the need for fewer welds

translates into a significant reduction of in-service in-
spections and nondestructive examination require-
ments.
The repair or replacement of a stainless steel section
can be easily and quickly accomplished while other
materials often require involved repair procedures with
significant downtime. For example, special fixtures are
required with lined pipe to form the liner over a flange
face.

AVAILABILITY

Stainless steel pipe and tubing are available as either Figure 5

welded or seamless products.
Welded pipe is ordinarily preferred to seamless pipe
for chemical plant piping because it is more eco-
nomical. The greater uniformity of wall is beneficial in
performing the fabricating operations of short radius
CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION
Requires seven welds and four purchased fittings.
FLARED LAPS AND BENT CONSTRUCTION Requires
one weld and no purchased fittings. (Branch is made
with a saddle weld.)

11
 Table 9
PIPE SIZES AND WEIGHTS-304, 304L, 309, 310, 316 and 316L

Nominal Nominal Schedule 5S Schedule 10S Schedule 40S Schedule 80S

IPS OD Wall Weight Wall Weight Wall Weight Wall Weight
inches inches inches pounds/foot inches pound/foot inches pounds/foot inches pounds/foot
1/ 8 0.405 0.049 0.1880 0.068 0.2470 0.095 0.3175
¼ 0.540 0.065 0.3328 0.088 0.4287 0.119 0.5401
3/ 8 0.675 0.065 0.4274 0.091 0.5729 0.126 0.7457

½ 0.840 0.065 0.5430 0.083 0.6773 0.109 0.8589 0.147 1.098

¾ 1.050 0.065 0.6902 0.083 0.8652 0.113 1.141 0.154 1.487
1 1.315 0.065 0.8759 0.109 1.417 0.133 1.695 0.179 2.192

1¼ 1.600 0.065 1.117 0.109 1.822 0.140 2.294 0.191 3.025

1½ 1.900 0.065 1.286 0.109 2.104 0.145 2.743 0.200 3.665
2 2.375 0.065 1.619 0.109 2.662 0.154 3.687 0.218 5.069

2½ 2.875 0.083 2.498 0.120 3.564 0.203 5.847 0.276 7.733

3 3.500 0.083 3.057 0.120 4.372 0.216 7.647 0.300 10.35
3½ 4.000 0.083 3.505 0.120 5.019 0.226 9.194 0.318 12.62

4 4.500 0.083 3.952 0.120 5.666 0.237 10.89 0.337 15.12

5 5.563 0.109 6.409 0.134 7.842 0.258 14.75 0.375 20.97
6 6.625 0.109 7.856 0.134 9.376 0.280 19.15 0.432 28.84

8 8.625 0.109 10.01 0.148 13.52 0.322 28.82 0.500 43.79

10 10.750 0.134 15.34 0.165 18.83 0.365 40.86 0.500 55.25
12 12.750 0.156 21.18 0.180 24.39 0.375 50.03 0.500 66.03

14 14.000 0.156 23.28 0.188 27.99

16 16.000 0.165 28.17 0.188 32.05
18 18.000 0.165 31.72 0.188 36.10

20 20.000 0.188 40.15 0.218 45.49

22 22.000 0.188 44.21 0.218 51.19
24 24.000 0.218 55.89 0.250 64.01
30 30.000 0.250 80.18 0.312 99.85
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

bending and forming flared laps. of different methods. If the application involves a sterile
On the other hand, seamless pipe is accorded a environment, they are readily sterilized.
higher allowable hoop stress without special examina-
tion than is welded pipe, and heavier wall thicknesses
are more readily available in seamless pipe, which ABRASION RESISTANCE
would be required for some high-pressure applica-
tions.
The code for chemical plant and petroleum piping, Stainless steels possess good abrasion resistance
ANSI B31.3, permits use of the same stresses for for handling slurries.
welded pipe as those used for seamless pipe, provided
the longitudinal seam weld has passed the requisite
100 percent radiographic examination. HEAT TRANSFER
Both pipe and the necessary fittings of stainless steel
conforming to ASTM and ANSI standards are readily A metallic piping system has distinct advantages
available from a number of sources. Table 9 shows pipe over nonmetallic systems if heat transfer is important.
sizes, wall thicknesses and weights of Types 304, 304L, Table 10 provides data on the conductivity and overall
309, 310, 316, and 316L stainless steels. heat transfer coefficients of various metals.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Protective coatings are usually not required due to
the inherent corrosion resistance of stainless steel.
However, sometimes coatings are applied to the exterior
of pipe for color coding or for protection against chloride
attack from wet insulation.
EASE OF CLEANING
Stainless steels can be readily cleaned by a number
ECONOMY
When all costs are considered, stainless steel piping
systems often win out over other materials. This is es-
pecially true if advantage is taken of the mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance of stainless steel
which allow light-weight construction. For instance,
Schedule 5S, Type 304 stainless steel approaches
Schedule 40 carbon steel in installed cost, and it is
certainly more economical than Schedule 80 carbon
steel.

12

Limitations
CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
No piping material is resistant to all corrosive media.
Stainless steels have a few limitations (or precautions)
which must be considered in the design of a piping
system. For instance, unsatisfactory service may result
from use of stainless steels in strongly reducing envi-
ronments, depending on concentration and tempera-
ture. Likewise, problems may be encountered with
stainless steels exposed to high-chloride environ-
ments. Precautions must also be taken to avoid corro-
sive attack on the exterior of the pipe by chlorides
leached from pipe insulation. Chlorides may cause pit-
ting, crevice corrosion or stress-corrosion cracking.
Materials engineers familiar with these types of corro-
sive attack can avoid problems with stainless steels by
selecting the proper grade and by taking proper pre-
ventive measures, such as avoiding environments
known to corrode stainless steels, by eliminating cre-
vices, by providing for regular cleaning to remove de-
posits or by using silicate inhibited insulation.
The types of corrosive attack which are more likely
to be of concern in utilizing stainless steels are: pitting,
crevice attack, stress-corrosion cracking, and inter-
granular corrosion.
Pitting occurs when the protective oxide film on stain-
less steel breaks down in small isolated spots. Halide
ions are most often responsible for this type of attack.
Once started, the attack may propogate because of
differences in electric potential between the large area of
passive surface vs. the small active pitted area.
Pitting is avoided in many environments by using
Type 316 or 317 or other stainless steels containing
higher levels of chromium and molybdenum.
Crevice corrosion results from local differences in
oxygen concentration associated with deposits on the
metal surface, gaskets, lap joints, or crevices under
bolt or rivet heads where small amounts of liquid can
collect and become stagnant.
The material being utilized in the formation of a cre-
vice need not be metallic. Scale, wood, plastics, rub-
ber, glass, concrete, asbestos, wax, and living or-
ganisms have all been reported to cause crevice corro-
sion. Once attack begins within the crevice, its prog-
ress may be very rapid. The stainless steels containing
molybdenum are more resistant to this type of attack
and are often used to minimize the problem. Not-
withstanding, the best solution to crevice corrosion is a
design that eliminates as many crevices as possible.
Stress-corrosion cracking is caused by the com-
bined effects of tensile stress and corrosion. Many alloy
systems have been known to experience stress-
corrosion cracking–for example, brass in ammonia,
carbon steel in nitrate solutions, titanium in methanol,
aluminum in sea water, and gold in acetic acid. Some
stainless steels (i.e. the austenitic grades) are suscep-
tible to stress-corrosion cracking in chloride and caustic
environments.
It is necessary for tensile stress, chlorides in solution
and elevated temperature all to be present for stress-
corrosion cracking to occur in stainless steel. Wet-dry or
heat transfer conditions, which promote the concen-
tration of chlorides, are particularly aggressive with
respect to initiating stress-corrosion cracking. A typical
problem area is under pipe insulation. If the insulation
becomes wet, chlorides in the insulation can leach out
and concentrate on the metal surface as a result of
alternate wetting and drying. The problem with insula-
tion can be prevented by using a silicate-inhibited insu-
lation.
While the mechanism of. stress-corrosion cracking is
not fully understood, laboratory tests and service expe-
rience have resulted in methods to minimize the prob-
lem. For instance, Type 329 (an austenitic-ferritic stain-
less containing 25-30 percent chromium, 3-6 percent
nickel, and 1-2 percent molybdenum) exhibits superior
resistance to chloride stress-corrosion cracking; plus it
has a general corrosion and pitting resistance similar to
Type 316. Recent studies indicate that Type 317 with
3.5 percent (minimum) molybdenum has excellent re-

Table 10
EFFECT OF METAL CONDUCTIVITY ON "U" VALVES
Film Coefficients Thermal Conductivity "U" Value
2 2 2
Btu/hr/ft /F of Metal Btu/hr/ft /F/in. Btu/hr/ft /F
2 2
Application Material (W/m •K) (W/m•K) (W/m •K)
ho hi
Heating Copper 300 (1704) 1000 (5678) 2680 (387) 299 (1300)
water with Aluminum 300 (1704) 1000 (5678) 1570 (226) 228 (1295)
saturated Carbon Steel 300 (1704) 1000 (5678) 460 (66) 223 (1266)
steam Stainless Steel 300 (1704) 1000 (5678) 105 (15) 198 (1124)
Heating Copper 5 (28) 1000 (5678) 2680 (387) 4.98 (28)
air with Aluminum 5 (28) 1000 (5678) 570 (226) 4.97 (28)
saturated Carbon Steel 5 (28) 1000 (5678) 460 (66) 4.97 (28)
steam Stainless Steel 5 (28) 1000 (5678) 105 (15) 4.96 (28)

Where ho = outside fluid film heat-transfer coefficient

hi = inside fluid film heat-transfer coefficient
Stainless steel is 300 Series Type

Source: Tranter Mfg. Inc.

13
 sistance. Several proprietary austenitic stainless steels
with higher nickel content also have shown resistance to
stress cracking in hot chloride environments.
The ferritic stainless steels, which are very resistant
to stress-corrosion cracking, should also be considered
when the potential exists for this type of corrosion.
Intergranular corrosion. When austenitic stainless
steels are heated or cooled through the temperature
range of about 800-1650ºF, the chromium along grain
boundaries tends to combine with carbon to form
chromium carbides. The carbide precipitation causes a
depletion of chromium and the lowering of corrosion
resistance in areas adjacent to the grain boundary. This
phenomenon, known as sensitization, is time and tem-
perature dependent.
Sensitization may result from slow cooling from an-
nealing temperatures, stress-relieving in the sensitiza-
tion range, or welding. Due to the longer time at tem-
perature of annealing or stress-relieving, it is possible
that the entire piece of material will be sensitized. Weld-
ing, on the other hand, may cause sensitization of a
narrow band adjacent to but slightly removed from the
weld in the region known as the heat-affected-zone
(HAZ).
Intergranular corrosion depends upon the mag-
nitude of the sensitization and the aggressiveness of
the environment to which the sensitized material is ex-
posed. Many environments do not cause intergranular
corrosion in sensitized austenitic stainless steels. For
example, glacial acetic acid at room temperature or
fresh clean water do not; strong nitric acids do. (High
purity water, however, such as used in primary circuits
of nuclear reactors can be aggressive to sensitized
stainless steels.)
Carbide precipitation and subsequent intergranular
corrosion in austenitic stainless steels have been thor-
oughly investigated; the causes are understood and
methods of prevention have been devised. These
methods include:
1. Use of welded stainless steel pipe in the annealed
condition (post-weld annealing).
2. Selection of the low-carbon (0.030 percent maxi-
mum) stainless steels when welding is involved.
Low-carbon grades are Types 304L, 316L, and
317L. The less carbon available to combine with
the chromium, the less likely is carbide precipita-
tion to occur. However, the low-carbon grades
may become sensitized at extremely long expo-
sures to temperatures in the sensitization range.
3. Selection of a stabilized grade, such as Type 321
(titanium stabilized) or Type 347 (columbium
stabilized). The stabilization provided by titanium
and columbium is based upon the greater affinity
that they have for carbon than does chromium.
Columbium stabilization is preferred because its
carbides are more readily retained in welds and it is
easier to add in the steelmaking process. However, the
use of columbium stabilized steel requires additional
care in welding.
A low-carbon grade is usually specified for welding
fabrication, while a stabilized grade is usually specified
when the component is to be used at elevated tempera-
ture.
14
HIGH-TEMPERATURE ENVIRONMENTS
Stainless steels are generally selected, first, on the
basis of their resistance to corrosion and, second, on
the basis of their mechanical properties. As the tem-
peratures of operating environments increase, however,
elevated temperature properties quickly become the
primary concern. The stainless steels are most ver-
satile in their ability to meet the requirements of high-
temperature service.
There are three primary design factors that
engineers consider when choosing materials for service
at elevated temperature. These design factors are:
1. Service life (corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties)
2. Allowable deformation
3. Environment.
Service life– For a given type of steel at a specific
thickness, the expected service life depends on the
maximum temperature to which it is exposed plus the
maximum stresses to which it is subjected; also
whether service is at a constant temperature or intermit-
tent high temperature, plus corrosion resistance.
For a prolonged anticipated service life, such as 20
years, plain carbon steels are usually limited to a maxi-
mum operating temperature of 750ºF; the ½ percent
molybdenum alloy steels to approximately 850ºF; and
the stainless steels to considerably higher tempera-
tures depending upon the type used and the nature of
the environment. It is important to recognize that for
high-temperature service, strength at temperature is
related to time at temperature.
Allowable deformation– Another factor to consider
in designing for high-temperature service is the amount
of deformation that can be permitted during the antici-
pated service life. This factor determines which of two
high-temperature strength properties should be given
priority; creep or creep-rupture (sometimes called
stress-rupture). If the component is small and/or the
tolerances very close (such as in turbine blades) creep
is regarded as the overriding factor. But if the compo-
nent is large and capable of accommodating greater
deformation, such as shell-and-tube heat exchangers,
the creep rupture strength is the usual basis for selec-
tion. Where considerable deformation is permitted, it is
well to know the anticipated time to rupture, so parts
can be scheduled for replacement before failure oc-
curs.
It is also useful to know whether or not service at
elevated temperature is cyclic or continuous. Cyclic
operation may lead to failure by fatigue or loss of metal
due to flaking of the oxide scale prior to the expected
creep-rupture time.
Environment–The effect of exposure of a material
to media can be a very complex subject. Elevated tem-
peratures tend to increase corrosive action, heat trans-
fer may affect corrosivity, thermal cycling can increase
metal wastage through spalling of protective scale on
the metal surface, and metal temperature probably will
not be the same as the environment to which it is ex-
posed. Generally, if oxidation or other forms of scaling
are expected to be severe, a greater cross-sectional
area–beyond that indicated by mechanical-property
requirements–is usually specified. Problems like this
cannot be solved by laboratory analysis. They require
observation of test specimens in actual operating envi-
ronments in pilot plants or full-size units.
A brief discussion of the corrosion behavior of stain-
less steels in various high-temperature environments
follows:
Oxidation
In noncyclic-temperature service, the oxidation re-
sistance (or scaling resistance) of stainless steels de-
pends on chromium content. Stainless steels with less
than 18 percent chromium (ferritic grades primarily) are
limited to temperatures below 1500ºF. Those containing
18 to 20 percent chromium are useful to temperatures of
1800ºF, while adequate resistance to scaling at tem-
peratures up to 2000ºF requires a chromium content of
at least 25 percent, such as Types 309, 310, or 446.
Sulfidation
Sulfur attack is second only to air oxidation in fre-
quency of occurrence in many industries, and it is of
even greater consequence because deterioration is
likely to be more severe. Like oxidation, sulfidation pro-
ceeds by converting metal to scale, which may be
protective except that metal sulfides melt at lower tem-
peratures than comparable oxides, and diffusion
through a molten corrosion product is much faster than
through a solid corrosion product. Also, sulfides are less
likely to form tenacious, continuous protective films.
Fusion and lack of adherence can result in accelerated
corrosion.
As with oxidation, resistance to sulfidation relates to
chromium content. Unalloyed iron will be converted
rather rapidly to iron sulfide scale, but when alloyed with
chromium, sulfidation resistance is enhanced. Silicon
also affords some protection against sulfidation.
In addition to the usual factors of time, temperature,
and concentration, sulfidation depends upon the form
in which the sulfur exists. Of particular interest is the
effect of sulfur vapor, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
and flue gases.
For example, it is extremely difficult to generalize
about corrosion rates in flue and processes gases,
since gas composition and temperature may vary con-
siderably within the same process unit. Combustion
gases normally contain sulfur compounds; sulfur dioxide
is present as an oxidizing gas along with carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and excess oxygen.
Protective oxides are generally formed, and depending
on exact conditions, the corrosion rate may be
approximately the same as in air or slightly greater. The
resistance of stainless steels to normal combustion
gases is improved by increasing chromium content.
Reducing flue gases contain varying amounts of hyd-
rogen sulfide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. The corrosion rates encountered in
these environments are sensitive to hydrogen sulfide
content and temperature, and satisfactory material
selection often necessitates service tests.
Carburization
Carburization is the diffusion of carbon into a metal. It
can be carried to such a degree as to form high-carbon
alloys with low ductility and impact strength at ambient
temperature. The chromium carbides thus formed are
prone to rapid oxidation under oxidizing conditions.
The virtual disappearance of the metal carbides leaves
deep holes. Such an extension of carburization, which
is relatively uncommon, is known as metal dusting.
Carburization can be caused by continuous over-
heating of a metal in the presence of hydrocarbon
gases, carbon monoxide, coke, or molten metals con-
taining dissolved carbon.
Laboratory and field experience indicate that the rate
of carburization is affected by chromium content.
Hydrogen Attack
Atomic hydrogen, which results from a corrosion
reaction or the dissociation of molecular hydrogen, can
diffuse rapidly through the steel lattice to voids, imper-
fections, or low-angle grain boundaries. The diffusing
atoms accumulate and combine to form molecular hyd-
rogen or, at high temperature, react with carbon to form
methane. The larger hydrogen or methane molecules
are trapped, and the subsequent pressure buildup re-
sults in blisters or laminations (hydrogen damage)
and/or degradation of ductility (hydrogen embrittle-
ment). Eventually the steel cracks and may become
unsuitable for continued use.
In low-temperature environments, carbon or low-
alloy steels are usually suitable, but for temperatures
above 800ºF and at high pressures (about 10,000 psi)
the austenitic stainless steels have sufficient chromium
to impart good resistance to hydrogen attack.
Ammonia and Nitrogen
Most metals and alloys are inert towards molecular
nitrogen at elevated temperature. However, atomic ni-
trogen will react with and penetrate many steels, pro-
ducing hard, brittle nitride surface layers.
The behavior of stainless steels in ammonia depends
on temperature, pressure, gas concentration, and
chromium and nickel contents. Results from service
tests have demonstrated that corrosion rates for
straight-chromium stainless steels are greater than
those for the chromium-nickel grades. (See publication
"Stainless Steels for Ammonia Production" by the
Committee of Stainless Steel Producers.)
Halogens
Austenitic stainless steels are severely attacked by
halogen gases at elevated temperatures. Fluorine is
more corrosive than chlorine, and the upper tempera-
ture limits for dry gases are approximately 480ºF and
600ºF, respectively, for the high chromium-nickel
grades. Wet chlorine gas containing 0.4 percent water
is more corrosive than dry chlorine up to about 700ºF.
15
 Liquid Metals
Liquid-metal corrosion differs from aqueous and
gaseous corrosion since it depends primarily on the
solubility of the solid metal in the liquid metal instead of
on electro-chemical forces. Although chemical reactions
may play an important role in liquid-metal corrosion,
mass transfer mechanisms are the most significant.
The resistance of austenitic stainless steels to vari-
ous liquid metals cannot be generalized, so some of the
low-melting metals and alloys are discussed separately:
Sodium and sodium-potassium alloys–The austeni-
tic stainless steels have been used extensively to contain
sodium and sodium-potassium alloys (NaK). They are not
susceptible to mass transfer up to 1000ºF, and the rate of
transfer remains within moderate levels up to 1600ºF.
Molten sodium may cause severe carburization of
stainless steels if it becomes contaminated by car-
bonaceous material. For example, carburization has
occurred from the storage of the liquid metal under
kerosene.
Lead–Mass transfer will be experienced to varying
degrees with any of the common engineering alloys
exposed to molten lead under dynamic conditions. In
addition, lead is an active corrodent in static systems.
Lead has a comparatively high solubility for a number of
metals, and therefore simple solution attack may result
in serious deterioration even in the absence of mass
transfer. Further, lead absorbs oxygen readily and may
cause rapid oxidation of susceptible alloys, particularly
at the interface in an open pot where oxygen contami-
nation is high. In some instances when the lead bath
has been maintained in a reduced state by the introduc-
tion of a hydrocarbon, carburization of stainless steel
containers has resulted.
Other low-melting metals– Molten metals and alloys
such as aluminum, zinc, antimony, bismuth, cadmium,
tin, lead-bismuth, and lead-bismuth-tin are generally
corrosive to stainless steels.
Molten salts– Molten salts may corrode metals ac-
cording to the reaction processes described for liquid-
metal corrosion, namely, simple solution, temperature
and concentration gradient mass transfer, and impurity
reactions. Corrosion may also occur by direct chemical
reaction, or a combination of corrosion and the reaction
processes. Most information available concerns the
corrosive nature of heat treating salts or salt mixtures.
Stainless steels high in nickel and low in chromium,
such as Type 330, are usually selected for chloride salt
containments.
For low-temperature heat treating (300 to 1100ºF)
mixtures of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate are fre-
quently used. While cast iron or steel are serviceable for
temperatures below 800ºF, the austenitic stainless
steels show excellent resistance at the upper service
temperatures.
Molten cyanide salt baths are used widely to
surface-harden mild or low-alloy steels by the formation
of a carburized, nitrided, or carbonitrided layer on the
surface. Since a chemical reaction is an essential part
of the process, these salts are more corrosive than the
salts used purely as heat transfer media. As discussed
earlier, chromium inhibits carburization but promotes
nitriding. Nickel, however, inhibits both reactions,
therefore, stainless steels with low chromium and high
nickel–Type 330 for example–are used in this service.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

The coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic

Table 11
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL PIPING STAINLESS STEELS (ANNEALED)
Type 304 Type 316 Type 309 Type 310
Modulus of Elasticity in Tension
6
psi x 10 (GPa) 28.0 (193) 28 (193) 29 (200) 30 (207)
Modulus of Elasticity in Torsion
6
psi x 10 (GPa) 12.5 (86.2)
3 3
Density, Ibs/in (kg/m ) 0.29 (8060) 0.29 (8060) 0.29 (8060) 0.29 (8060)
Specific Heat, Btu/Ib/F
(J/kg•K) 32-212ºF (0-100ºC) 0.12 (503) 0.12 (503) 0.12 (503) 0.12 (503)
Thermal Conductivity, Btu/hr/ft/ft/F
(Jkg•K) 212ºF (100ºC) 9.4 (0.113) 9.4 (0.113) 8.0 (0.096) 8.0 (0.096)
932ºF (500ºC) 12.4 (0.149)
Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
-6 -6
x10 /ºF (x1 0 /ºC)
32-212ºF (0-100ºC) 9.6 (17.3) 8.9 (16.0) 8.3 (15.0) 8.8 (15.9)
32-600ºF (0-315ºC) 9.9 (17.9) 9.0 (16.2) 9.3 (16.6) 9.0 (16.2)
32-1000ºF (0-538ºC) 10.2 (18.4) 9.7 (17.5) 9.6 (17.2) 9.4 (17.0)
32-1200ºF (0-648ºC) 10.4 (18.8) 10.3 (18.6) 10.0 (18.0) 9.7 (17.5)
32-1500ºF (0-815ºC) - - 11.1 (20.0)
32-1800ºF (0-982ºC) - - - - 11.5 (20.6) 10.6 (19.1)
Melting Point Range ºF 2550 to 2650 2550 2650 2650
(ºC) (1398 to 1454) (1398) (1454) (1454)
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

16
stainless steels is approximately 1½ times that of carbon
steel. The design of a stainless steel pipe system must allow
for this by providing more flexibility. Coefficients of thermal
expansion and other characteristic physical properties are
given in Table 11.
PROPER IDENTIFICATION
Although stainless pipe is shipped from the mill with
proper identification, this identification is sometimes
damaged during fabrication and handling. Carelessness
in maintaining alloy identification can lead to the
installation and use of the wrong alloy, which in turn
often results in unexpected and premature pipe failure.
If the material has lost its identification, qualitative tests
can and should be made. Unfortunately, field tests
cannot distinguish among some grades of stainless
steel, so when in doubt, consult a stainless steel
supplier.
THE
ECONOMIES OF
STAINLESS STEEL
IN
PIPING SYSTEMS
For any proposed piping installation, the design en-
gineer will quickly narrow down a long list of available
piping materials to one or more that satisfy chemical,
temperature, and pressure requirements. More often
than not, stainless steels emerge as the obvious and
uncontested choice, in which case design efforts are
then directed toward achieving maximum economies.
This includes "fine tuning" the piping layout to reduce
its complexity as much as possible, choosing the
proper stainless steel composition to avoid ''over
specifying," and selecting efficient and economical
fabrication and installation methods, such as shop fab-
rication utilizing Van Stone flanging and close-radius
bending.
Occasionally, situations arise when two or more pipe
materials appear suitable from an engineering stand-
point, so the designer wants to base his final selection
on an economic study. In large companies with well
staffed engineering and construction departments, such
studies are often programmed for computer analysis
with much of the cost data available from previous
projects. For small companies or applications for which
there is no previous experience, a new study is con-
ducted. This can be a complex problem, because the
costs of systems of different materials depend on many
factors, such as system complexity, pipe sizes, availa-
bility of building steel for support, capability of available
pipe fabricating facilities, etc.
Piping system designers should avoid the inclination
to base selection on general comparisons which have
been published in the literature. While many of these
comparisons appear complete with a large amount of
data, they are often based on one specific installation.
Furthermore, the installation on which the study is
based is usually tailored to take advantage of one par-
ticular material, and the data are often not valid for
other specific installations.
For example, it has been the experience of many
companies in the chemical and pulp and paper indus-
tries that the two materials most often vying for a particu-
lar piping installation are FRP and stainless steel. An
economic study conducted by one manufacturer of
nonmetallic piping (J. Yamartino, Dow Chemical Com-
pany, "Installed Cost of Corrosion-Resistant Piping–
1978," CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, November 20, 1978)
gives the advantage to FRP.
In order for FRP and stainless steel to be considered
for the same installation, the service has to be corrosive
enough to warrant going to stainless steel; and the
temperature and pressure requirements must be low
enough to be within the range of FRP pipe. Fur-
thermore, there have been many other studies of other
installations in which the installed cost gives the advan-
tage to stainless steel. To illustrate, consider the follow-
ing study, which was made in 1972.
STAINLESS STEEL
VERSUS
REINFORCED PLASTIC
A cost comparison between stainless steel and two
types of reinforced plastic for a scrubber water piping
system at Copper Cliff, Ontario, was made by an inde-
pendent engineering firm. The study indicates that
stainless steel, in normal wall thickness of Schedules
10S and 40S, was competitive with the best reinforced
epoxy and polyester piping systems on an installed-
cost basis. The cost comparison is given in Table 12.
Dollar figures are Canadian and equivalent to .98 U.S.
dollars.
Most of the stainless steel considered in the study
was more expensive than Type 304; 53.8 percent of the
total length of piping was Type 316L, 27.4 percent was
Type 304L and 9.3 percent was Type 316 and only the
remaining 9.5 percent was Type 304.
Machine-made, reinforced epoxy pipe was not
made in Canada and had to be imported from the U.S.
Therefore, the material cost for this system included a
17½ percent duty plus a small brokerage charge
amounting to a total of $7,890. The hand-layed-up
polyester system was made in Canada and no duty
was included in the estimate.
Several grades of machine-made, reinforced epoxy
piping systems were available. This estimate was based
upon one of the better grades with the best chemical
resistance and a rating of 150-350 psig. (depending on
size) and a temperature rating of 250-300ºF.
The system consisted of a total of 2,747 feet of piping
and 565 fittings which varied in size from one-inch to
14-inch as shown in Table 13.
17
 Screwed fittings (150 lb) were specified for the stain-
less steel 1½ inch and under, and butt-welded fittings
were specified for the larger sizes. Where welding was
required the low-carbon grade was utilized.
On the basis of this cost comparison, the stainless
steel system was chosen because it was more eco-
nomical than either a machine-made epoxy system or a
hand-layed-up polyester system. There would have
been an even greater cost differential if an all-
lightweight stainless steel system could have been
used. If the installation were to be installed in the United
States, the epoxy system would have been more com-
petitive but still higher priced ($128,650 vs $128,100 for
the installed stainless steel).
It should be stressed that every installation has to be
considered separately, and there are a number of con-
siderations to take into account. A quick check of piping
costs alone is likely to indicate a definite cost advan-
tage for reinforced plastic. There are, however, factors
favoring lightweight, thin-wall stainless steel piping that
should be considered. For example, the cost figures for
stainless steel cited in this example could be consid-
erably less if Van Stone lapped joints were used and if
bending were substituted for many of the elbows in the
smaller diameter pipe.
It soon becomes apparent that each system must be
estimated in considerable detail to reach a trustworthy
cost comparison.
A comparative estimate should reflect a comparison
of costs for each of the following elements (their in-
dividual significance is reviewed in the following text):
Design Costs
Models
Piping Arrangement Drawings
Detail Sketching
Pipe Support Design
Material Costs
Pipe
Fittings
Valves
Supporting Structures
Miscellaneous Material
Fabrication Costs
Field Fabrication
Shop Fabrication
Purchase of Fabricated Pipe
Table 12
COST COMPARISON FOR GLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC PIPING
SYSTEMS VS STAINLESS STEEL IN CANADIAN CHEMICAL PLANTa
System
Machine-made, glass reinforced
epoxy (high quality)
HLU Glass reinforced polyester made in accordance
with Canadian Government Specifications Board
Standard 41-GP-22 (for 125 psig, 0 - 100ºF)
Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L Stainless steel–
Schedule 40S for 1½ in. piping and below,
Schedule 10S for 2 in. piping and over
(a) Estimates by independent engineering firm.
(b) Canadian dollar floating at time of estimate–exchange rate,
$1.00 U.S. equal to $.98 Canadian.
18
Erection Costs
Pipe Supports
Pipe Erection
Testing
Incidental Work
Design Costs
Either models or piping arrangement drawings are
required on any major scope of piping work. They serve
the same purpose, namely to route pipe runs between
the pieces of equipment they are connecting. The re-
quirements will be the same for all the piping materials
being compared; i.e. stainless steel, FRP, or plastic-
lined carbon steel.
Pipe support design and detail sketching are interre-
lated. They will be dependent on the kind of piping
installed. For example, FRP piping requires the most
support, including separate supports at each valve and
other special considerations covered in the manufac-
turers design manuals. (Note: Thermoplastic pipe sys-
tems would require more support than FRP.) The pre-
ferred routing of the three systems being compared may
differ somewhat to take advantage of the most
economical layout to suit fabrication or the use of
standard pieces. Plastic lined steel pipe can generally
follow the route of stainless steel pipe although the cost
and availability of standard or special fittings may be-
come a problem. It should also be noted that the
smaller sizes of pipe valves and fittings are not avail-
able for FRP or plastic-lined steel systems.
Material Costs
It is common practice to purchase FRP and plastic-
lined steel pipe prefabricated. Stainless steel pipe and
fittings can be purchased and shop fabricated into a
piping system locally at the construction site. For small
projects it may be more economical to purchase the
pipe prefabricated. These alternatives are discussed
under Shop Fabrication.
Estimated Cost, Canadian Dollarsb
Material Labor Total
$53,090c $83,450 $136,540
$58,422 $83,450 $141,872
$56,930 $71,170 $128,100
(c) System has to be imported into Canada from U.S. and is subject to
duty of 17½% plus brokerage charge. This comes to $7,890;
therefore, cost in U.S. would be $45,200 for material, $128,650 for
total, times .98.)
 Table 13 suit the fabricating methods available. As an example,
PIPING BREAKDOWN FOR ESTIMATE savings can be effected in a combination by routing the
AISI Size Quantity Number pipe so that there is space for machine access to pro-
Type Schedule (inches) (feet) of Fittings vide for the bending and lapping operations.
304 40S 1½ 115 18 For small piping projects that must be carried out
304 40S 1 145 73 with a minimum of shop facilities, purchase of
304L 10S 8 300 30
304L 10S 6 98 32 prefabricated pipe should be evaluated. Custom
304L 10S 4 40 4 fabricating shops are available with the capability of
304L 10S 3 195 70 short radius bending and flare-lapping stainless steel
304L 10S 2 120 33 pipe.
316 40S 1 255 79
316L 10S 14 70 7 Stainless steel pipe has an advantage over competi-
316L 10S 12 60 6 tive materials since last minute field modifications can
316L 10S 10 65 16 utilize conventional fittings and welding methods,
316L 10S 8 227 45 whereas FRP or plastic-lined pipe generally require
316L 10S 6 382 66
316L 10S 4 245 42 special fittings as well as special techniques and tool-
316L 10S 3 155 24 ing. In the case of plastic-lined steel pipe, this means
316L 10S 2½ 15 2 liner flaring tooling for the various sizes. In the case of
316L 10S 2 160 18 an FRP system, it may mean tooling suited to forming
the proprietary joint arrangement of the particular pipe
manufacturer.

Fittings are generally high-cost items in FRP systems.

They are frequently an even greater cost item in
plastic-lined steel systems. The material cost for these
systems increases much more rapidly with increasing
complexity than does the cost of a stainless steel sys-
tem. FRP and plastic-lined valves are likewise much
more expensive than stainless steel valves. The mate-
rial requirements for supporting structures will usually
be somewhat greater for FRP and plastic-lined steel
than for a stainless steel system.
The requirements for miscellaneous materials, such
as paint, will vary according to the system. FRP may
require an ultra-violet resistant paint coat, while plastic-
lined steel pipe and flanges will require painting. The
steel backup flanges on the stainless steel system will
require corrosion protection by painting (an alternative
is galvanizing). Also, the supports should be painted,
while bolting is sometimes galvanized.
Generally, FRP does not require insulation because
the plastic is, in itself, a good insulator. However, some
insulation may be required for ambient heat or fire pro-
tection of the FRP pipe.
Fabrication Costs
Erection Costs
Somewhat higher erection costs might be expected
with FRP due to more frequent support than that re-
quired for stainless steel pipe. In the case of plastic-
lined steel pipe, there are usually more erection joint
flanges to be bolted up, resulting in a direct cost in-
crease.
Testing is required for all piping systems. Some FRP
manufacturers advocate the practice of test-pressure
application and release for 5 to 10 pressure cycles in
order to assure integrity of the system. This recommen-
dation represents an added cost consideration com-
pared to stainless steel or plastic-lined steel where a
one-cycle test is usually adequate.
Incidental erection labor is, of course, required for
painting, insulation, etc., already discussed under mis-
cellaneous materials.
In conclusion, it is obvious that comparing the costs
of corrosion-resistant systems of various materials is a
complex problem. Very few overall conclusions can be
reached. There is no known shortcut solution. The as-
sumptions used for a general comparison may or may
not be valid for a particular system. A detailed analysis
of the specific installation is the only reliable cost guide.

Field fabrication of pipe at the point of installation is

extremely inefficient. Estimates of labor for field fabrica-
tion are often 50 percent higher than for the identical
work done under shop conditions. The concentration of
APPLICABLE
work in a shop may also increase the shop work load
sufficiently to justify improved shop facilities. For
example, the addition of equipment to make flared Van
STANDARDS
Stone laps may reduce fabricating labor 15 percent and
eliminate the cost of stub ends. The addition of modern AISI
short-radius bending facilities may reduce fabricating
labor another 20 percent in addition to eliminating the The American Iron and Steel Institute recognizes 57
purchase of elbows. In both cases, savings in labor stainless steels as standard, and indicates their chemi-
results from the elimination of the welds at the fittings, cal composition limits. A table of the AISI stainless steel
two in the case of the elbow and one in the case of the grades most commonly used for piping and their corre-
stub end. sponding UNS numbers, typical properties and appli-
Economies can often be effected by detailing pipe to cable ASTM specifications are included in Appendix A.

19
 ASTM
The American Society for Testing and Materials covers
AISI grades and proprietary grades of stainless steel in
their specifications. They also add a number of other
requirements, such as dimensional tolerances, heat
treatment, mechanical property requirements, etc. and
in this way are more definitive and restrictive.
ASME
Piping may be considered to fall under the fired or
unfired pressure vessel codes of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers. These codes are used for
design. Allowable design stresses for code piping are
defined in the codes.
ANSI
The American National Standards Institute has prepared
codes for pressure piping. These fall under the several
sections of B31 listed in Appendix C. ANSI B31.3 was
written specifically for chemical plants and petroleum
refineries.
THE DESIGN,
FABRICATION
AND ERECTION
OF PLANT
PIPING SYSTEMS
The following sequence indicates the natural devel-
opment of the selection and design of a piping system.
The discussion is provided by Addison Hempstead. The
sequence is similar to that in use by some of the major
chemical companies.
INDEX OF FLUIDS AND GASES
It is appropriate to begin with an alphabetical list of
the products and services that will require piping sys-
tems (Appendix D is a hypothetical listing which serves
as a basis for discussion in this section). The piping
material, maximum operating pressures and tempera-
tures and other pertinent information are tabulated for
each item. If sizes or operating conditions cover a
broad range for a given service, it may be desirable to
assign two or more pipe codes to most effectively
satisfy the requirements (Example: Items 1 and 8, Ap-
pendix D). When a line carrying any one of these ser-
vices is added to a piping diagram, the proper pipe
code can be selected from this list. This procedure
provides for an orderly assignment of piping specifi-
cations, and it may be maintained as a standard for
reuse on future installations having the same service.
This will save design time otherwise required to rede-
velop the pipe code requirements.
20
SPECIFICATION SUMMARY
The characteristics of distinct piping systems may be
recapped by pipe codes for reference and possible use
for piping fluids not yet identified. See Appendix E.
THE PROCESS PIPING DIAGRAM
This is a type of flow diagram. All significant pipe lines
complete with valves and equipment are assigned line
numbers and shown. Sizes are based on flow require-
ments. Information on piping system specifications, in-
sulation, tracing, etc. is added as it is developed. See
Appendix F.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Usually this step occurs simultaneously with the
preparation of the index of fluids and gases, although it
may be delayed until a cost analysis can be made. Cost
comparisons, reliability predictions, corrosion allow-
ances and product contamination must be given con-
sideration.
DEVELOPMENT OF PIPING
SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
Utilizing the size requirements from the process pip-
ing diagram (Appendix F) the wall thickness, and hence
the pipe schedule, is calculated from temperature,
pressure and corrosion allowances. Gasket materials,
fittings, joints, fabrication techniques, valves, weld
testing, and cleaning requirements are then de-
termined. Allowable stresses are available in the appli-
cable ANSI B31 Codes (Appendix C).
THE PROCESS MODEL
A scale model of the proposed installation is fre-
quently made, which is useful for many purposes such
as:
1. Visualizing equipment arrangement to assure
space for operating access and maintenance.
2. Planning installation of the facilities.
3. Avoiding interferences.
4. Pipe sketching and takeoff of construction mate-
rials.
5. Operator training.
The detail of the model depends on its complexity
and the specific design. Models usually include all
significant pipelines with their valves and flanged joint
locations.
Final models are usually scaled ¾ inch equals one
foot, although a preliminary study model is sometimes
made at a scale of 3/8 inch equals one foot.
PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
ANSI B31.3, The Code for Chemical Plant and Petro-
leum Refinery Piping, requires that piping systems shall
have sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion or
contraction or movements of pipe supports and ter-
minals from causing: Failure of piping or supports from
overstress or fatigue, leakage at joints, or detrimental
stresses or distortions in piping or in connected pumps,
turbines, valves, etc.
A formal analysis of piping flexibility is not always
required to meet code requirements. For details the
reader is referred to the ANSI B31 Codes.
ESTIMATING
At this point in the development of design informa-
tion, it is usually possible for an experienced estimator
to develop an estimate to any degree of detail required.
Organizations with highly developed estimating data
often can calculate average costs based on a typical
pipe line run, which is then multiplied by a simple count
of the number of pipelines. This provides an estimate on
a broad scope. However, in order to accurately compare
costs of alternate pipeline materials, it may be
necessary to calculate the costs of individual elements,
such as pipe, fittings, valves, hangers, etc., which may
then be built up into a detail estimate of a single pipe
line.
PRELIMINARY COMMENTS AND
APPROVALS
It is appropriate at this point to review the model, the
index of fluids and gases, the specifications for the
piping systems, corrosion data, system safety under
emergency conditions, maintainability of the piping,
experience with the operation of similar facilities etc.,
among the interested parties. This is the "last chance"
to make changes without incurring major cost penal-
ties.
PIPING SKETCHES
Isometric pipe sketches are prepared from a combi-
nation of the model and equipment arrangement data
that provide precise connection locations. These
sketches and the requisite material takeoff may be
drawn manually or computer generated. Computer
generated sketches are generally more accurate.
Computer programs are available that also generate
shop (traveller) cards providing exact cut lengths for
each piece of pipe as well as shop routing for any
bending or end preparation (laps, flanges, bevels or
threading).
Construction Phase
FABRICATION
General considerations– Craft labor is more effi-
cient working in a shop than at the pipe installation site.
For economy, productivity and quality, any large vol-
ume of pipe, as a general rule, should be shop fabri-
cated. The shop, to be efficient, should have suitable
modern equipment and it must have some effective
production control system. Material should not be re-
leased to the shop for fabrication until all the material
required for a line or other unit has been assembled.
Since labor is usually more than half the cost of a piping
system, it must be used efficiently. When a pipe line
goes from the shop to the field for erection, it should be
sent complete with all of the valves, bolts, nuts, hangers
and gaskets.
If possible, steam tracing and insulation should be
applied before the piping leaves the shop. The im-
provements in productivity and quality come both from
the better facilities that can be made available at a shop
and from the conveniences in material availability and
better working conditions. Pipe should follow a rudi-
mentary production line thru the shop.
It should be noted that stainless steels are generally
more easily fabricated (for repair or replacement) in the
field as compared with other piping materials.
Welding– There are four principal processes for fu-
sion welding stainless steels. They are:
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), using
coated electrodes.
2. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG),
using an inert gas (such as argon) to protect the
weld zone from the atmosphere.
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW or MIG), also an
inert gas shielded process.
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), which is seldom
used on piping except for heavy sections.
In the submerged arc process shielding is provided
by a granulated flux covering the weld area and welding
electrode. Automated or semi-automated welding
equipment is available. Table 14 shows time study data
for GTAW welding of eight sizes of stainless steel pipe.
Bending– Modern "push" bending equipment is
available that will accomplish bends at conventional
Long Radius (bend radius = 1½ x nominal pipe diam-
eter) radii with wall thinning of 20 percent or less. This
operation eliminates the cost of the purchased elbow
and the two welds required for its installation, with sav-
ings up to approximately 35 percent realized in some
sizes.
Flared (Van Stone) laps– The ANSI B31 Series of pipe
codes permits the use of laps formed by flaring the end
of the pipe in most applications. (ANSI B31.3-76
paragraph 306.4.2). Flared laps can be formed with
either a smooth or modified spiral finish depending on
the type of roller used for flaring. This technique elimi-
nates the cost of a purchased stub end and the weld
required for its installation.
ERECTION
To maintain the pattern of labor effectiveness, pipe
erection in the field should follow a production se-
quence. When a line has been received complete in the
field, it can be erected most efficiently by first installing
the hangers, followed by sequential erection of the pipe
and bolting up the flanges. Efficient tools, such as
rachet wrenches, are a labor-saving investment. Spe-
cialized crews may be utilized for the various opera-
tions where the scope of the job warrants, such as a
crew for hangers, one for pipe erection, one for testing,
etc.
TESTING
Testing requirements are usually prescribed by the
specifications. Shop testing of individual fabricated
sections followed by testing the erected pipe may
21
 prove economical. It is generally permissible to make a
preliminary air test at not more than 25 psig prior to
making a final hydrostatic test. This preliminary air test
is useful in locating major leaks before the system is
filled with a fluid that must be drained before the leak
can be corrected.
An excellent presentation of a method for establish-
ing nondestructive examination (NDE) levels for fluid
services in chemical plants and refineries is in an arti-
cle, ''A Quantitative Method for Determining NDE
Levels" by R. Getz. (HEATING/PIPING/AIR CONDI-
TIONING, August 1979.)

Table 14
TIME STUDY DATA FOR WELDING THREE SIZES OF STAINLESS STEEL PIPEa

b,c
Time, hr
Pipe size, in. 1 1¼ & 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 6 8
Time required to make one butt weld
Schedule 5S 0.067 0.083 0.083 0.1 0.1 0.112 0.166 0.333
Schedule 10S 0.1 0.1 0.133 0.166 0.2 0.232 0.333 0.5
Schedule 40S 0.25 0.3 0.333 0.415 0.415 0.5 0.75 1.166

Time required to align, tack, and

weld one 90 deg elbow
Schedule 5S 0.465 0.5 0.5 0.535 0.535 0.57 0.675 1.0
Schedule 10S 0.57 0.57 0.6 0.665 0.735 0.8 1.8 1.333
Schedule 40S 0.866 0.93 1.0 1.1 1.16 1.333 2.0 2.5

Time required to align, tack, and

weld one 45 deg elbow
Schedule 5S 0.666 0.666 0.666 0.7 0.7 0.73 0.89 1.166
Schedule 10S 0.735 0.75 0.75 0.83 0.9 1.0 1.166 1.75
Schedule 40S 1.0 1.0 1.166 1.333 1.333 1.5 2.1 2.65

Time required to align, tack and

weld one tee
Schedule 5S 1.0 1.1 1.25 1.33 1.5 1.5 1.75 2.0
Schedule 10S 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.65 1.65 2.0 3.5
Schedule 40S 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.25 2.25 2.5 3.5 4.0

Time required to align, tack and

weld one slip-on flange
Schedule 5S 0.166 0.166 0.25 0.333 0.333 0.42 0.5 0.75
Schedule 10S 0.166 0.166 0.3 0.42 0.42 0.5 0.666 0.75
Schedule 40S 0.25 0.3 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.58 0.835 1.25

Time required to align, tack and

weld one butt-weld flange
Schedule 5S 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.42 0.5 0.6 0.835
Schedule 10S 0.333 0.333 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.666 0.75 1.0
Schedule 40S 0.42 0.42 0.666 0.666 0.75 0.835 1.0 1.333
a b
All values are based on gas tungsten-arc welding of austenitic stainless Add 10 minutes to each fabrication (tee, elbow, pipe joint, etc.) for
steel, using 3/32 and 1/8 in. diam filler metals, where required. purging, if a purge is required.
c
These times do not include cutting and beveling.

Source: H. A. Sosnin, "The Joining of Light-Wall Stainless Steel Piping," WELDING JOURNAL, October 1967.

BIBLIOGRAPHY April 1978, Committee of Stainless Steel Produc-

1. "Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of
Stainless Steel," April 1977, Committee of Stainless
Steel Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
2. "High Temperature Characteristics of Stainless
Steels," April 1979, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
3. "Welding of Stainless Steels and Other Joining
Methods," April 1979, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
4. "The Role of Stainless Steels in Petroleum Refining,"
April 1977, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C.
5. "Effective Use of Stainless Steels in FGD Scrubber
Systems," April 1978, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
6. "Stainless Steels for Pumps, Valves and Fittings,"
22
ers, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
7. "The Role of Stainless Steels in Desalination," April
1974, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
8. "Stainless Steels: Effective Corrosion Control in
Water and Waste-Water Treatment Plants," March
1974, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
9. "Stainless Steels in Ammonia Production,"
November 1978, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
10."Stainless Steels for Acetic Acid Service," April
1977, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
11.''Joining of Light Wall Stainless Steel Piping,"
WELDING JOURNAL, October 1967
 APPENDIX A
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS AND TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS
COMMONLY USED IN PIPING SYSTEMS
Chemical Analysis, % Mechanical Properties of Solution
(Single Values are Maximums Except as Noted) Annealed Material at Room Temperature
Corresponding ASTM Spec’s
Yield Elongation For Piping Components **
AISI Tensile Strength in 2"
Type Strength (Offset 0.2%) (50.80mm) Pipe & AISI
(UNS) Cr Ni C Mn Si Mo P S Other ksi MPa ksi MPa % Tubing Fittings Forgings Castings Characteristics TYPE
304 18.0- 8.0- 0.08 2.0 1.0 – 0.045 0.03 85 586 35 241 50 A312 A403 A182 A296 The most commonly used 304
(S30400) 20.0 10.5 A409 A351 stainless piping material
304L 18.0- 8.0- 0.03 2.0 1.0 – 0.045 0.03 78 538 34 234 55 A312 A403 A182 A296 Lower carbon than Type 304 304L
(S30403) 20.0 12.0 A409 A351 reduces potential for carbide
precipitation during welding
309 22.0- 12.0- 0.20 2.0 1.0 – 0.045 0.03 90 621 45 310 45 A312 A403 A182 A296 For high temperature 309
(S30900) 24.0 15.0 A409 A351 applications
309S 22.0- 12.0- 0.08 2.0 1.0 – 0.045 0.03 90 621 45 310 45 A312 403 A182 A296 Low carbon modification of 309S
(S30908) 24.0 15.0 A409 A351 Type 309 reduces potential
for carbide precipitation
310* 24.0- 19.0- 0.25 2.0 1.5 – 0.045 0.03 95 655 45 328 45 A312 A403 A182 A296 Better high temperature 310
(S31000) 26.0 22.0 A409 A351 resistance than Type 309
but more prone to welding
problems
310S* 24.0- 19.0- 0.08 2.0 1.5 – 0.045 0.03 95 655 45 328 45 A312 A403 A182 A296 Low carbon modification of 310S
(S31008) 26-0 22.0 A409 A351 Type 310 reduces potential
for carbide precipitation
316 16.0- 10.0- 0.08 2.0 1.0 2.0-3.0 0.045 0.03 85 586 35 241 50 A312 A403 A182 A296 Molybdenum increases 316
(S31600) 18.0 14.0 A409 A351 corrosion resistance of
this alloy compared to
Type 304
316L 16.0- 10.0- 0.03 2.0 1.0 2.0-3.0 0.045 0.030 80 552 35 241 55 A312 A403 A182 A296 Lower carbon than Type 316 316L
(S31603) 18.0 14.0 A409 A351 reduces potential for carbide
precipitation during welding
321 17.0- 9.0- 0.08 2.0 1.0 – 0.045 0.030 Ti, 5xC 84 586 35 241 50 A312 A403 A182 A246 Stabilized for service in 321
(S32100) 19.0 12.0 min. A409 A351 800-1600F range
347 17.0- 9.0- 0.08 2.0 1.0 – 0.045 0.030 Cb+ta, 85 586 35 241 45 A312 A403 A182 A296 Similar to Type 321 347
(S34700) 19.0 13.0 10xC min. A409 A351

* Composition of Type 310 and 310S pipe and tubing varies slightly from AISI values shown. See
ASTM A312.

** Composition and Mechanical Properties may vary from those shown, see the ASTM Spec for
actual values. Due to space limitations, only the most common ASTM Specs have been listed.

23
 APPENDIX B

Useful Guides In Making A Selection Of Material For A Piping System

I. General Considerations F. Branches and taps can be provided without spe-

A. Consider the safety inherent in stainless steel
compared to alternative materials by virtue of its
properties, methods of joining and history of ser-
vice, reliability.
1. Does the fluid have hazardous properties
that need special consideration?
2. What quantity of fluid could be released by a
piping failure?
3. What would be the effect on the environ-
ment?
4. What potential exists for personnel expo-
sure?
B. Would special provisions be required to protect
plastic or reinforced thermo-setting resin pipe
against possible failures such as: thermal insula-
tion, shields or process controls to protect from
excessive heat or thermal shock; armor, guards,
barricades or other protection from mechanical
abuse?
C. Is a metallic system preferred tofacilitate ground-
ing static charges?
D. How important is continuity of service?
1. What are the relative reliabilities of the pipe,
fittings, and joints of the alternative system
materials under consideration?
E. Is insulation an adequate precaution to protect
piping against failure under fire exposure?
F. Are the thread sealant, packing, gasket material,
etc., compatable with the fluid being handled?
II. Metallic Pipe
A. Ability of stainless steel pipe to withstand higher
and lower temperatures than plastic, reinforced
thermo-setting resin, or plastic-lined carbon steel
pipe.
B. Ability to withstand full vacuum over a wide tem-
perature range.
C. Greater tolerance for steam tracing than non-
metallic or lined systems.
D. Readily steam jacketed.
E. Minimum of flanged joints required.
1. Reduces cost of piping.
2. Reduces leakage potential and maintenance
cost.
cial fittings at a minimum cost.
G. Requires fewer supports.
1. Requires less support for runs. A minimum of
two supports are often provided for each
length of pipe for practical handling in instal-
lation and removal.
2. Valves are generally supported by the piping
in a metallic pipe system. Special valve
support is usually required in most non-
metallic piping systems.
H. Thermal expansion of stainless steel is greater
than that of carbon steel but considerably less
than that of most nonmetallic piping materials.
Lined metallic piping systems sometimes fail be-
cause of the difference in the expansion of the
pipe and liner.
I. A metallic system offers greater safety for com-
pressed air or gas service applications. This is
especially true for larger systems with a substan-
tial amount of potential energy stored in the com-
pressed gas.
J. Carbon and low-alloy steels are generally more
susceptible to corrosion than stainless steels,
leading to reduced life and potential contamination
of the product.
K. The maximum and minimum temperatures for
carbon and low-alloy steel and nonmetallic piping
systems are limited compared to stainless steels.
See the B31. Piping Codes for limitations.
L. Is the pipe material compatible with the fluid being
handled?
1. Consider the possibility of embrittlement
when handling strong caustic fluids in carbon
or low-alloy steel.
2. Consider the increased possibility of hyd-
rogen damage under some conditions when
carbon or low-alloy steel piping material is
exposed to hydrogen or aqueous acid
solution. The austenitic stainless steels re-
sist hydrogen effects.
M. Stainless steel pipe has excellent resistance to
most atmospheric corrosion. Does not require
painting or other protection from sunlight, oxygen
or ultraviolet exposure, as is the case with some
nonmetallic materials.

24
III. Nonmetallic Pipe
A. Principal Classes
1. Thermo-plastic
2. Reinforced thermo-setting resin
3. Special materials, (ceramic, asbestos-
cement, glass, impregnated graphite) gen-
erally are limited to very specialized appli-
cations.
B. The applications of thermo-plastic pipe are se-
verely limited by service temperature consid-
erations.
C. Thermo-plastics are excluded from use in flamm-
able liquid service above ground by the B31.3
Code.
D. Nonmetallic pipe is not susceptible to electrolytic
corrosion.
E. Nonmetallic pipe may be permeable by toxic
materials.
1. Internal to external permeation.
2. External to internal (buried lines in contami-
nated soil).
F. Nonmetallics are very resistant to corrosion in
some classes of fluids such as non-oxidizing
acids and chlorides.
G. Nonmetallic pipe may require insulation or other
provisions for protection from any potential fire
exposure.
H. Flanged joints of nonmetallic materials are sus-
ceptible to gasketing and leakage problems due
to the low modulus of elasticity of the flanges.
I. Nonmetallic lines generally require more closely
spaced supports and guiding than metallic pip-
ing. This may necessitate supplementary inter-
mediate steel structures.
J. Valves generally require independent support.
IV. Lined Metallic Pipe
A. Linings are available of materials resistant to
most chemical environments.
B. Fittings are required for all branches and taps.
All pipe joints are flanged.
C. Less support is required than for nonmetallic
pipe, particularly in smaller sizes. Valves gen-
erally do not require independent support.
D. Steam tracing or vacuum service may result in
liner buckling.
E. Thermal cycling may cause liner to crack at
flanges.
F. Lined flanged fittings are required at all
branches, taps and changes in direction. These
added flange joints increase both the cost and
potential for leakage.
G. Field or shop fabrication requires special fixtures
for forming the liner over the flange face.

APPENDIX C
Status of ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping
Standard Number and Designation Scope and Application Remarks
B31.1.0 Power Piping For all piping in steam generating stations. *

B31.2 Fuel Gas Piping For fuel gas for steam generating stations *
and industrial buildings.

B31.3 Chemical Plant and For all piping within the property limits of *
Petroleum Refinery facilities engaged in the processing or
Piping handling of chemical, petroleum, or related
products unless specifically excluded by the
code.

B31.4 Oil Transportation For liquid crude or refined products in *

Piping cross-country pipe lines.

B31.5 Refrigeration Piping For refrigeration piping in packaged units *

and commercial or public buildings.

B31.7 Nuclear Power Piping For fluids whose loss from system could Withdrawn; see Section
cause radiation hazard to plant personnel or 3, ASME Boiler & PV
general public. Code

B31.8 Gas Transmission For gases in cross-country pipe lines as well *

and Distribution as for city distribution lines.
Systems

* Addenda are issued at intervals between publication of complete

editions. Information on the latest issues can be obtained from the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY

25
 APPENDIX D
Index of Fluids and Gases
Max. Operating
Product Condition Test Pipe
or Degrees Press. Basic Code
Item Service PSIG ºF ºC PSIG Material Number Remarks
1 Air, Plant 150 375 190 Copper P14 ¾" and smaller
150 300 148 Steel P13 On-Off valve-B120 for
Galv. ½"–2"; G92JH for 3"

2 Oil, Lubrication 150 300 148 304 SST P10 Tubing

3 Process Piping 175 350 176 304 SST P16A

4 Steam Tracers, 1000 600 315 304 SST P10 Tubing

Acid Exposure

5 Steam, 50 PSIG & 50 300 148 Steel P18

Lower

6 Water, 120 220 104 Steel P11 Use X11A

Aboveground, Ball Valve

7 Water, 50 300 148 Steel P19

Condensate

8 Water, 150 376 190 304 SST P16

Demineralized 1400 200 93 304 SST P17

9 Water, Process 150 500 260 Steel P12

A.G. 3" & Larger 220 150 65 Steel P12A

10 Water, Process, 150 375 190 304 SST P16

Hot

11 Water, Process 150 150 65 Cast Iron P15

Underground Cement
Lined

APPENDIX E
Pipe Code Summary
Max. Operating Condition
Pipe
Degrees
Code Basic
Number PSIG ºF ºC Material Remarks

P10 1000 600 316 304 SST Tubing

P11 125 220 104 Steel
P12 150 500 260 Steel
P12A 220 150 65 Steel
P13 175 330 148 Steel-Galvanized
P14 150 375 190 Copper
P15 150 150 65 Cast Iron Cement Lined
P16 150 375 190 304 SST
P16A 175 350 176 304 SST
P17 1500 250 120 304 SST
P18 75 350 176 Steel
P19 100 340 171 Steel

26
 APPENDIX F
Typical Process Piping Diagram

Line Numbers
(a) Numbers allotted 1-99
(b) Last number used 7
(c) Numbers canceled 1

(a) Record Numbers allotted to this diagram in this block.

(b) Record last number used in this block.
(c) Record canceled numbers of those allotted in this block.

Valve

Line Number and Direction of Flow

27