Measuring Discrimination Resource

David R. Williams
December, 2020

Table of Contents

I. The Everyday Discrimination Scale ............................................................................................................ 2

a. The Original and Still Recommended Scale .......................................................................................... 2
b. Everyday Discrimination Scale (Short Version) alpha = .77 ................................................................. 3
c. Expanded Everyday Discrimination Scale ............................................................................................. 3
d. Adopting the Everyday Discrimination scale in the context of healthcare utilization (scales
developed by other researchers)…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…3

e. Studies of Validity and Reliability……………………………………………………………………………………………………..4

II. Major Experiences of Discrimination ....................................................................................................... 5

a. Major Experiences of Discrimination (NSAL and SASH version) .......................................................... 5
b. Major Experiences of Discrimination (Abbreviated Version) ............................................................... 6
III. Work Discrimination ............................................................................................................................... 7
a. Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment (YES Study) ................................................................. 7
b. Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment (Abbreviated) ............................................................ 8
IV. Heightened Vigilance Scale ..................................................................................................................... 9
a. From DAS and YES Study ...................................................................................................................... 9
b. Heightened Vigilance Scale (Abbreviated) (4 items, alpha = .72) ........................................................ 9
V. Appendix A: Publications by David R. Williams on Racism and Discrimination .................................... 10
VI. Appendix B: Selected Studies That Have Used the Everyday Discrimination Scale in Other Countries 21
VII. Appendix C: Other Versions of Major Experiences of Discrimination Scale ....................................... 26
a. Major Experiences of Discrimination: Original 6 item version........................................................... 26
b. Major Experiences of Discrimination: 9 item version from the MIDUS Study................................... 27
c. Major Experiences of Discrimination (Expanded 19 item version) .................................................... 28
e. Coping with Discrimination ............................................................................................................. 32
e. Coping with Discrimination – NSAL Study (Abbreviated)................................................................... 32

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I. The Everyday Discrimination Scale
a. The Original and Still Recommended Scale
 Source: Williams, D.R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J.S., and Anderson, N.B. “Racial Differences in Physical
and Mental Health: Socioeconomic Status, Stress, and Discrimination.” Journal of Health
Psychology. 1997; 2(3):335-351.
 The scale is publicly available. No Permission is necessary for its use.

 Measure:
In your day-to-day life, how often do any of the following things happen to you?
1. You are treated with less courtesy than other people are.
2. You are treated with less respect than other people are.
3. You receive poorer service than other people at restaurants or stores.
4. People act as if they think you are not smart.
5. People act as if they are afraid of you.
6. People act as if they think you are dishonest.
7. People act as if they’re better than you are.
8. You are called names or insulted.
9. You are threatened or harassed.

Recommended response categories for all items:

Almost everyday
At least once a week
A few times a month
A few times a year
Less than once a year
Never

 Follow-up Question (Asked only of those answering “A few times a year” or more frequently
to at least one question.): What do you think is the main reason for these experiences?
(CHECK MORE THAN ONE IF VOLUNTEERED).
RECOMMENDED OPTIONS
1. Your Ancestry or National Origins
2. Your Gender
3. Your Race
4. Your Age
5. Your Religion
6. Your Height
7. Your Weight

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 8. Some other Aspect of Your Physical Appearance
9. Your Sexual Orientation
10. Your Education or Income Level
OTHER POSSIBLE CATEGORIES TO CONSIDER
1. A physical disability
2. Your shade of skin color (NSAL)
3. Your tribe (SASH)
Other (SPECIFY) _____________________________

b. Everyday Discrimination Scale (Short Version) alpha = .77

 Developed for the Chicago Community Adult Health Study (CCAHS)

 Source : Sternthal, M., Slopen, N., Williams, D.R. “Racial Disparities in Health: How Much
Does Stress Really Matter?” Du Bois Review, 2011; 8(1): 95-113.
 The scale is publicly available. No Permission is necessary for its use.

 Measure:
In your day-to-day life how often have any of the following things happened to you?
1. You are treated with less courtesy or respect than other people.
2. You receive poorer service than other people at restaurants or stores.
3. People act as if they think you are not smart.
4. People act as if they are afraid of you.
5. You are threatened or harassed.

FOLLOW-UP QUESTION AT END OF SCALE AND RESPONSE CATEGORIES:

The same as the original scale.

c. Expanded Everyday Discrimination Scale

 A 10th item was added to the original scale: “You are followed around in stores.”

 This scale was used in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) and the South African
Study of Stress and Health study (SASH)

 Source: Williams, D.R., González, H.M., Williams, S., Mohammed, S.A., Moomal, H, Stein, D.J.
“Perceived Discrimination, Race and Health in South Africa: Findings from the South Africa
Stress and Health Study.” Social Science and Medicine, 2008; 67: 441-452.
 The scale is publicly available. No permission is necessary for its use.

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d. Adapting the Everyday Discrimination scale to the context of healthcare
utilization (scales developed by other researchers)
 Bird, S. T., & Bogart, L. M. (2001). Perceived race-based and socioeconomic status (SES)-
based discrimination in interactions with health care providers. Ethnicity & disease, 11(3),
554-563.
 Peek, Monica E., Nunez-Smith, Marcella, Drum, Melinda and Lewis, Tené T. “Adapting the
Everyday Discrimination Scale to Medical Settings: Reliability and Validity Testing in a
Sample of African American Patients.” Ethnicity and Disease, 2011; Autumn; 21(4): 502–
509.

e. Studies of Validity and Reliability

o Taylor T.R., Kamarck T.W., Shiffman S. “Validation of the Detroit area study
discrimination scale in a community sample of older African American adults: the
Pittsburgh healthy heart project.” International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2004,
11:88–94.
o Clark, R., Coleman, A.P., & Novak, J.D. “Brief report: Initial psychometric properties of the
everyday discrimination scale in black adolescents.” Journal of Adolescence. 2004,
27(3): 363–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.09.004
o Krieger N., Smith K., Naishadham D., Hartman C., Barbeau E.M. “Experiences of
discrimination: validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health
research on racism and health.” Social Science & Medicine. 2005, 61(7): 1576-1596.
o Sims, M., Wyatt, S.B., Gutierrez, M.S., Taylor, H. S., Williams, D. R. “Development and
psychometric testing of a multidimensional instrument of perceived discrimination
among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study.” Ethnicity & Disease. 2019,
Winter;19(1): 56-64. PMID: 19341164. PMCID: PMC2724869.
o Shariff-Marco, S., Gee, G.C., Breen, N., Willis, G., Reeve, B.B., Grant, D., Ponce, N.A., Krieger,
N., Landrine, H., Williams, D.R., Alegria, M., Mays, V.M., Johnson, T.P., Brown, E.R. “A
Mixed-Methods Approach to Developing a Self-Reported Racial Ethnic Discrimination
Measure for Use in Multiethnic Health Surveys.” Ethnicity & Disease. 2009,
19(Autumn): 447-453. PMID: 20073147. PMCID: PMC3474598.
o Shariff-Marco, S., Breen, N., Landrine, H., Reeve, B.B., Krieger, N., Gee, G.C., Williams, D.R.,
Mays, V.M., Ponce, N.A., Alegria, M. “Measuring Everyday Racial/Ethnic Discrimination in
Health Surveys: How Best to Ask the Questions, in One or Two Stages, Across Multiple
Racial/Ethnic Groups?” Du Bois Review. 2011, 8(1): 159-177. PMID: 29354187 PMCID:
PMC5771490.
o Stucky, B.D., Gottfredson, N.C., Panter, A.T., Daye, C.E., Allen, W.R., & Wightman, L.F. “An
item factor analysis and item response theory-based revision of the Everyday
Discrimination Scale.” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2011, 17(2):
175–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023356
o Reeve, B. B., Willis, G., Shariff-Marco, S. N., Breen, N., Williams, D. R., Gee, G. C., Alegría,
M., Takeuchi, D. T., Stapleton, M. and Levin, K. Y. "Comparing Cognitive Interviewing and

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 Psychometric Methods to Evaluate a Racial/Ethnic Discrimination Scale." Field Methods.
2011, 23(4): 397-419.
o Lewis, T.T., Yang, F.M., Jacobs, E.A., & Fitchett, G. “Racial/ethnic differences in responses
to the everyday discrimination scale: a differential item functioning analysis.” American
Journal of Epidemiology. 2012, 175(5): 391–401. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr287
o Chan, K.T-K., Tran, V.T., & Nguyen, T-N. “Cross-Cultural Equivalence of a Measure of
Perceived Discrimination Between Chinese-Americans and Vietnamese-Americans.”
Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work. 2012, 21(1): 20-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2011.647348
o Kim, G., Sellbom, M., & Ford, K.L. “Race/ethnicity and measurement equivalence of the
Everyday Discrimination Scale.” Psychological Assessment. 2014, 26(3): 892–900.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036431
o Gonzales, K.L., Noonan, C., Goins, R.T., Henderson, W.G., Beals, J., Manson, S.M., Acton,
K.J., & Roubideaux, Y. “Assessing the Everyday Discrimination Scale among American
Indians and Alaska Natives.” Psychological Assessment. 2016, 28(1): 51–58.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039337
o Berenbon, R.F. “Using Rasch analysis to investigate the validity of the Everyday
Discrimination Scale in a national sample.” Journal of Health Psychology. [published
online ahead of print, 2018 Sep 19]. doi:10.1177/1359105318800788
o Grollman, E.A., Hagiwara, N. “Discrimination” versus “Unfair Treatment”: Measuring
Differential Treatment and its Association with Health. Sociological Inquiry. 2019,
89(4): 645-676.
o Michaels, E., Thomas, M., Reeves, A., Price, M., Hasson, R., Chae, D., & Allen, A. “Coding the
Everyday Discrimination Scale: Implications for Exposure Assessment and Associations
with Hypertension and Depression Among a Cross Section of Mid-Life African American
Women.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2019, 73(6): 577–584.
https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-211230
o Harnois, C.E., Bastos, J.L., Campbell, M.E., & Keith, V.M. “Measuring perceived
mistreatment across diverse social groups: An evaluation of the Everyday
Discrimination Scale.” Social Science & Medicine. 2019, 232: 298–306.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.05.011

II. Major Experiences of Discrimination

a. Major Experiences of Discrimination (NSAL and SASH version)

 Adapted from 1995 DAS and MIDUS

 Source: Williams, D.R., González, H.M., Williams, S., Mohammed, S.A., Moomal, H, Stein, D.J.
“Perceived Discrimination, Race and Health in South Africa: Findings from the South Africa
Stress and Health Study.” Social Science and Medicine, 2008; 67: 441-452.

 The scale is publicly available. No Permission is necessary for its use.

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  Questionnaire
In the following questions, we are interested in the way other people have treated you or
your beliefs about how other people have treated you. Can you tell me if any of the
following has ever happened to you:
1. At any time in your life, have you ever been unfairly fired?
2. For unfair reasons, have you ever not been hired for a job?
3. Have you ever been unfairly denied a promotion?
4. Have you ever been unfairly stopped, searched, questioned, physically threatened or
abused by the police?
5. Have you ever been unfairly discouraged by a teacher or advisor from continuing your
education?
6. Have you ever been unfairly prevented from moving into a neighborhood because the
landlord or a realtor refused to sell or rent you a house or apartment?
7. Have you ever moved into a neighborhood where neighbors made life difficult for you
or your family?
8. Have you ever been unfairly denied a bank loan?
9. Have you ever received service from someone such as a plumber or car mechanic that
was worse than what other people get?

Follow-up questions after each item:

1. What do you think was the main reason for this experience?
a. Your Ancestry or National Origins
b. Your Gender
c. Your Race
d. Your Age
e. Your Religion
f. Your Height
g. Your Weight
h. Some other Aspect of Your Physical Appearance
i. Your Sexual Orientation
j. Your Education or Income Level
2. When was the last time this happened?
a. Past week
b. Past month
c. Past year
d. More than a year ago
3. How many times has this happened during your lifetime?

b. Major Experiences of Discrimination (Abbreviated Version)

 Adapted from NSAL for the CCAHS study

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  Source: Sternthal, M.J., Slopen, N., Williams, D.R. “Racial Disparities in Health.” Du Bois
Review: Social Science Research on Race, 2011; 8: 95-113.
 The scale is publicly available. No Permission is necessary for its use.

 Measure:
In the following questions, we are interested in your perceptions about the way other
people have treated you. Can you tell me if any of the following has ever happened to you:
1. At any time in your life, have you ever been unfairly fired from a job or been unfairly
denied a promotion?
2. For unfair reasons, have you ever not been hired for a job?
3. Have you ever been unfairly stopped, searched, questioned, physically threatened or
abused by the police?
4. Have you ever been unfairly discouraged by a teacher or advisor from continuing your
education?
5. Have you ever been unfairly prevented from moving into a neighborhood because the
landlord or a realtor refused to sell or rent you a house or apartment?
6. Have you ever been unfairly denied a bank loan?

USE SAME FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS AS FOR THE FULL SCALE

III. Work Discrimination

a. Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment (YES Study)
 Developed for the YES Study
 Adapted from 2 sources:
o McNeilly, M.D., Anderson, N.B., Armstead, C.A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E.L.,
Pieper, C.F. & Lepisto, E.M. “The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional
assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans.” Ethnicity
and Disease. 1996; 6 (1,2), 154-166.
o Bobo, L, Suh SA. Surveying Racial Discrimination: Analyses From a Multiethnic Labor
Market. Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles. (L. D. Bobo, M. L. Oliver, J. H.
Johnson, A. Valenzuela, Eds.). 2000; 527-564., New York: Russell Sage Foundation
 Measure:
Here are some situations that can arise at work. Please tell me how often you have
experienced them during the LAST 12 MONTHS.
1. How often are you UNFAIRLY given the jobs that no one else wants to do?
2. At work, when different opinions would be helpful, how often is your opinion not
asked for?
3. How often are you watched more closely than others?

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 4. How often does your supervisor or boss use racial or ethnic slurs or jokes?
5. How often does your supervisor or boss direct racial or ethnic slurs or jokes at you?
6. How often do your coworkers use racial or ethnic slurs or jokes?
7. How often do your coworkers direct racial or ethnic slurs or jokes at you?
8. How often do you feel that you have to work twice as hard as others work?
9. How often do you feel that you are ignored or not taken seriously by your boss?
10. How often do others assume that you work in a lower status job than you do and treat
you as such?
11. How often has a coworker with less experience and fewer qualifications gotten
promoted before you?
12. How often have you been unfairly humiliated in front of others at work?

Response scale for all items:

Once a week or more………1
A few times a month………2
A few times a year………3
Less than once a year………4
Never…………………5

b. Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment (Abbreviated)

 Developed for the CCAHS Study

 Source: Sternthal, M., Slopen, N., Williams, D.R. “Racial Disparities in Health: How
Much Does Stress Really Matter?” Du Bois Review, 2011; 8(1): 95-113.
 Measure:
Here are some more situations that can arise at work. Please tell me how often you
have experienced them during the past 12 months.

Discrimination (3 items, alpha =.73)

1. How often do you feel that you have to work twice as hard as others to get the
same treatment or evaluation?
2. How often are you watched more closely than other workers?
3. How often are you unfairly humiliated in front of others at work?

Harassment (3 items, alpha =.84)

1. How often do your supervisor or coworkers make slurs or jokes about racial or
ethnic groups?
2. How often do your supervisor or coworkers make slurs or jokes about women?
3. How often do your supervisor or co-workers make slurs or jokes about gays or
lesbians?

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 Response scale for all items:
Once a week or more………1
A few times a month………2
A few times a year………3
Less than once a year………4
Never…………………5

IV. Heightened Vigilance Scale

a. From DAS and YES Study
 Source: Developed for the 1995 Detroit Area Study along with the Everyday
Discrimination Scale
 Reference: Clark R., Benkert R.A., & Flack J.M. (2006). Large Arterial Elasticity Varies
as a Function of Gender and Racism-Related Vigilance in Black Youth. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 39, 562-569.
 The scale is publicly available. No Permission is necessary for its use.
 Measure:
In dealing with these day-to-day experiences that you just told me about, how often
do you:
1. Think in advance about the kinds of problems you are likely to experience?
2. Try to prepare for possible insults before leaving home?
3. Feel that you always have to be very careful about your appearance to get good
service or avoid being harassed?
4. Carefully watch what you say and how you say it?
5. Carefully observe what happens around you?
6. Try to avoid certain social situations and places?

Response scale for all items:

Very often………1
Fairly often………2
Not too often………3
Hardly ever………4
Never ………5

b. Heightened Vigilance Scale (Abbreviated) (4 items, alpha = .72)

 Developed for the Chicago Community Adult Health Study
 Measure:
In your day-to-day life, how often do you do the following things:
1. You try to prepare for possible insults from other people before leaving home.
2. Feel that you always have to be very careful about your appearance (to get good
service or avoid being harassed).

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 3. Carefully watch what you say and how you say it.
4. Try to avoid certain social situations and places.

Response scale for all items:

Almost every day………1
At least once a week………2
A few times a month………3
A few times a year………4
Less than once a year………5
Never………6

V. Appendix A: Publications by David R. Williams on Racism and

Discrimination
1. Conceptual/Review Papers on Racism, Discrimination and Health

 Williams, D.R., Lavizzo-Mourey, R., and Warren, R.C. “The Concept of Race and Health
Status in America.” Public Health Reports. 1994 109(1):26-41.
 Williams, D.R. and Collins, C. “U.S. Socioeconomic and Racial Differences in Health:
Patterns and Explanations.” Annual Review of Sociology. 1995 21:349-386.
 King, G. and Williams, D.R. “Race and Health: A Multidimensional Approach to African
American Health.” Benjamin C. Amick, Sol Levin, Diana Chapman Walsh, and Alvin R.
Tarlov (eds.), Society and Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1995 Pp. 93-130.
 Williams, D.R. “Racism and Health: A Research Agenda.” Ethnicity and Disease, 1996
6(1,2):1-6.
 Williams, D.R. “The Health of the African American Population.” Silvia Pedraza and
Ruben G. Rumbaut (eds.), Origins and Destinies: Immigration, Race and Ethnicity in
America. 1996 Wadsworth. Pp. 404-416.
 Williams, D.R. “Race and Health: Basic Questions, Emerging Directions.” Annals of
Epidemiology. 1997 7(5):322-333.
 Clark, R., Anderson, N.B., Clark, V.R., and Williams, D.R. “Racism as a Stressor for African
Americans: A Biopsychosocial Model.” American Psychologist. 1999 54:805-816.
 Williams, D.R. “Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health: The Added Effects of Racism
and Discrimination.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1999 896:173-188.
 Williams, D.R., and Williams-Morris, R. “Racism and Mental Health: The African
American Experience.” Ethnicity and Health. 2000 5: 243-268.
 Williams, D.R. and Neighbors, H., "Racism, Discrimination & Hypertension: Evidence &
Needed Research", Ethnicity & Disease. 2001 11:800-816.
 Williams, D.R. & Collins, C. "Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of
Racial Disparities in Health." Public Health Reports, 2001. 116 (September/October
2001): 404-416.

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 Schulz, A.J., Williams, D.R., Israel, B.L., and Lempert, L.B. “Racial and Spatial Relations as
Fundamental Determinants of Health in Detroit.” Milbank Quarterly, 2002 80(4): 677-
707.
 Williams, D.R., Neighbors, H.W., and Jackson, J.S. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and
Health: Findings from Community Studies.” American Journal of Public Health, 2003
93(2): 200-208.
 Wyatt, S.B., Williams, D.R., Calvin, R., Henderson, F., Walker, E., and Winters, K. Racism
and Cardiovascular Disease in African Americans: Evidence and Implications for the
Jackson Heart Study. American Journal of Medical Sciences, 2003 325(6):315-331.
 Williams, D.R. “Race, Health, and Health Care.” St. Louis University Law Journal, 2003
48(1): 13-35.
 Williams, D.R., “Racism and Health.” 2004 Pp. 69-80 in Whitfield, Keith E., (ed.), Closing
the Gap: Improving the Health of Minority Elders in the New Millennium. Washington,
D.C., The Gerontological Society of America.
 Williams, D.R., and Collins, C. “Reparations: A Viable Strategy to Address the Enigma of
African-American Health.” American Behavioral Scientist, 2004 47 (7):977-1000.
 Williams, D.R. “Discrimination and Health.” In Anderson, N.B. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
Health and Behavior, Vol. 1, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004 254-259.
 Williams, D.R. “The Health of U.S. Racial and Ethnic Populations.” Journal of
Gerontology: Series B, 2005 60B(Special Issue II):53-62.
 Williams, D.R., and Mohammed, S.A. (2007). “Racial Harassment/Discrimination.” 2007
Pp. 321-326 in George Fink (ed.), Encyclopedia of Stress, 2nd Edition, volume 3.
Oxford, Academic Press.
 Ahmed, A., Mohammed, S., Williams, D.R., “Racial discrimination & health: Pathways &
evidence.” Indian Journal of Medical Research, 2007 126:21-30.
 Paradies, Y. , Williams, D.R. “Racism and Health.” in Kris Heggenhougen and Stella Quah
(eds.) Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2008 vol. 5 Pp. 474-483, San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
 Williams, D.R., Mohammed, S.A. “Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health:
Evidence and Needed Research.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 2009 32:20-47.
 Williams, D.R., Mohammed, S.A., Leavell, J., Collins, C. "Race, Socioeconomic Status and
Health: Complexities, Ongoing Challenges and Research Opportunities.” Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, 2010 1186:69-101.
 Albert, M.A., Williams, D.R., “Discrimination: An Emerging Target for CVD Risk
Reduction?” Invited Commentary. American Journal of Epidemiology, 2011 173(11):
1240-1243.
 Williams, D.R. "Miles to go before we Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health." Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, 2012,53(3): 279-295. PMID: 22940811. PMCID:
PMC3712789.
 White, K., Haas, J., Williams, D. R. “Elucidating the Role of Place in Health Care
Disparities: The Example of Racial/Ethnic Residential Segregation.” Health Services
Research. 2012, 47(3 Pt 2): 1278-99. PMID: 22515933. PMCID: PMC3417310.
 Williams, D.R., Mohammed, S.A. “Racism and Health I: Pathways and Scientific
Evidence.” American Behavioral Scientist. 2013, 57(8) 1152–1173. PMID: 24347666
PMCID: PMC3863357

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 Williams, D.R., Mohammed, S.A. “Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for
Effective Interventions.” American Behavioral Scientist. 2013, 57(8) 1200–1226. PMID:
24347667 PMCID: PMC3863360
 Williams, D.R. "Pathways to Promote Racial Healing and Equity in the American South:
Opportunities for Community Philanthropy." Kelly, Paula J. (ed.), Pathways to Racial
Healing and Equity in the American South: A Community Philanthropy Strategy. Little
Rock, AR: The University of Arkansas Clinton School of Public Service. 2013, Pp 48-59.
 Earnshaw, V. A., Bogart, L.M., Dovidio, J.F., Williams, D.R. “Stigma and Racial/Ethnic HIV
Disparities: Moving Toward Resilience.” American Psychologist. 2013,68(4):225-236.
PMID: 23688090. PMCID: PMC3740715.
 Lewis, T., Williams, D.R., Tamene, M., Clark, C.R. "Self-Reported Experiences of
Discrimination and Cardiovascular Disease." Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports ,
2014, 8:365. PMID: 24729825. PMCID: PMC3980947.
 Williams, D.R., Wyatt, R. "Racial Bias in Health Care and Health." Journal of the American
Medical Association. 2015, 314(6): 555-556. PMID: 26262792.
 Williams, D. R., Priest, N. “Racismo e Saúde: um corpus crescente de evidência
internacional (Racism and Health: A Growing Body of International
Evidence).” Sociologias. 2015, 17(40):124-174.
 Lewis, T.T., Cogburn, C.D., Williams, D.R. “Self-Reported Experiences of Discrimination
and Health: Scientific Advances, Ongoing Controversies, and Emerging Issues.” Annual
Review of Clinical Psychology. 2015, 11:407-40. PMID: 25581238.
 Priest, N., Esmail, A., Kilne, R., Rao, M., Coghill, Y., Williams, D.R. “Promoting equality for
ethnic minority NHS staff- what works?” British Medical Journal 2015, 351:h3297.
PMID: 26157106. PMCID: PMC4707526.
 Purdie-Vaughns, V., Williams, D.R. “Stand-Your-Ground is Losing Ground for Racial
Minorities’ Health.” Social Sciences & Medicine. 2015, 147:341-3. PMID: 26552751.
 Williams D. R., Priest, N., Anderson, N. "Understanding Associations between Race,
Socioeconomic Status and Health: Patterns and Prospects." Health Psychology. 2016,
35(4): 407-11. PMID: 27018733. PMCID: PMC4817358.
 Slopen, N., Lewis, T. T., Williams, D. R. “Discrimination and sleep: a systematic review.”
Sleep Medicine. 2016 Feb;18:88-95. PMID: 25770043. PMCID: PMC4699868.
 Williams, D. R., Purdie-Vaughns, V. “Needed Interventions to Reduce Racial/Ethnic
Disparities in Health.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. 2016, 41(4):627-651.
PMID: 27127267.
 Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A., Shields, A. E. “Understanding and Effectively
Addressing Breast Cancer in African American Women: Unpacking the Social Context."
Cancer. 2016, 122(14): 2138-2049. PMID: 26930024. PMCID: PMC5588632.
 Williams, D.R. “Improving the Measurement of Self-Reported Racial Discrimination:
Challenges and Opportunities.” In Alvin N. Alvarez, Christopher T. H. Liang, Helen A.
Neville (eds) The Cost of Racism for People of Color: Contextualizing Experiences of
Discrimination. Washington DC, American Psychological Association, 2016 Pp. 55-83.
 Cuevas, A.G., Dawson, B.A., Williams, D.R. “Race and Skin Color in Latino Health: An
Analytic Review.” American Journal of Public Health. 2016, 106(12): 2131-2136. PMID:
27736206. PMCID: PMC5104999.
 Tamane, M., Williams, D.R. “Mental Health of African Americans and Contemporary
Racism.” Vol 3: 228-236 in People of Color in the United States: Contemporary Issues in
Education, Work, Communities, Health, and Immigration [4 vol.] Kofi Lomotey, Felicia

12
 Helvey, Pamela Braboy Jackson, Muna Adem, Paulina X. Ruf, Valire Carr Copeland,
Alvaro Huerta, Norma V Iglesias-Prieto, Donathan L. Brown, Muna Adem (eds.) Santa
Barbara, Greenwood Press. 2016
 Williams D.R., Medlock, M.M. “Health Effects of Dramatic Societal Events—Ramifications
of the Recent Presidential Election.” New England Journal of Medicine. 2017. 376(23):
2295-2299. PMID: 28591522. PMCID NA.
 Williams, D.R. “From Disparity to Equity.” In Alonzo L. Plough (ed.), Knowledge to
Actions: Accelerating Progress in Health, Well-Being, and Equity. New York: Oxford
University Press. 2017, Pp. 21-30.
 Cuevas, A.G., Williams, D.R., Albert, M.A. “Psychosocial factors and hypertension: A
review of the literature.” Cardiology Clinics. 2017, 35(2): 223-230. PMID: 28411896.
PMCID: PMC5407387
 Mitchell, C.M, Williams, D.R. "Black Lives Matter: A Theological Response to Racism’s
Impact on the Black Body in the United States.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, 2017,
43(1): 28-45. PMCID N/A.
 Williams, D.R. “Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our
Understanding of Race-Related Stressors.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 2018,
59(4): 466-485. PMID: 30484715. PMCID: PMC6532404.
 Williams, D.R., McAdams-Mahmoud, A. “Racism and Mental Health: Pathways, Evidence,
and Needed Research.” In Griffith, E.E.H., Jones, B.E., Stewart, A.J. (Eds.) Black Mental
Health: Patients, Providers, and Systems. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric
Association Publishing, 2018, Pp. 269-281
 Hahn, R.A., Truman, B.I., Williams D.R. “Civil rights as determinants of public health and
racial and ethnic health equity: health care, education, employment, and housing in the
United States.” Social Science and Medicine - Population Health, 2018, 4: 17-24. PMID:
29250579. PMCID: PMC5730086.
 Priest, N., Williams, D.R. “Racial Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health.” In
Major, B., Dovidio, J.F., Link, B.G (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Stigma, Discrimination,
and Health. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018, Pp. 163-182.
 Cuevas, A.G., Williams, D.R. “Perceived Discrimination and Health: Integrative Findings.”
In Ryff, C.D., Krueger, R.F. (eds.) Oxford Handbook of Integrative Health Science. Chapter
32. New York: Oxford University Press. 2018, Pp. 443-455.
 Slopen, N., Meyer, C., Williams, D.R. “Cumulative Stress and Health.” In Ryff, C.D.,
Krueger, R.F. (eds.) Oxford Handbook of Integrative Health Science. Chapter 6. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2018, Pp. 75-85.
 Malat, J., Mayorga-Gallo S., Williams D.R. “The Effects of Whiteness on the Health of
Whites in the USA.” Social Science & Medicine. 2018, 199: 148-156. PMID: 28716453.
PIDMC N/A.
 Heard-Garris, N., Williams, D.R., Davis, M. “Structuring Research to Address
Discrimination as a Factor in Child and Adolescent Health.” JAMA Pediatrics. 2018,
172(10): 910-912. PMID: 30128554. PMCID N/A.
 Williams, D.R. and Cooper, L.A. “Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We
Already Know to Take Action.” International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health. 2019, 16(4): 606. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16040606. PMID: 30791452.
PMCID: PMC6406315.

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  Williams, D.R., Lawrence. J.A., Davis, B.A. “Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed
Research.” Annual Review of Public Health. 2019, 40: 105-125. PMID: 30601726.
PMCID: PMC6532402.
 Williams, D.R., Lawrence, J.A., Davis, B.A., Vu, C. “Understanding How Discrimination Can
Affect Health.” Health Services Research. 2019, 54(S2): 1374-1388. PMID: 31663121.
PMCID: PMC6864381.
 Williams D.R. with Griffith, D.M. “ ‘We Just Haven’t Put Our Minds to It’: An Interview
With David Williams Describing the Trajectory of His Career Studying Racism.” In C.L.
Ford, D.M. Griffith, M.A. Bruce, and K. L. Gilbert (Eds.) Racism: Science & Tools for the
Public Health Professional. Washington, D.C.: APHA Press. 2019, Pp. 73-95.
 Gee, G.C., Hing, A., Mohammed, S., Tabor, D.C., Williams, D.R. “Racism and the Life
Course: Taking Time Seriously.” American Journal of Public Health. 2019, 109(S1): S43-
S47. PMID: 30699016. PMCID: PMC6356137.
 Cooper, L.A., Beach, M.C., Williams, D.R. “Confronting Bias and Discrimination in Health
Care—When Silence Is Not Golden.” JAMA Internal Medicine. 2019, 179(12): 1686-
1687. PMID: 31657843. PMCID: N/A.
 Anekwe, L. Interview with David Williams. “Harnessing the outrage: it's time the NHS
tackled racial bias.” British Medical Journal. 2020, 368, m341.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m341. PMID: 32046954. PMCID: N/A
 Williams D.R., Cooper L.A. COVID-19 and Health Equity—A New Kind of “Herd
Immunity.” JAMA. 2020, 323(24): 2478–2480. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.8051. PMID:
32391852. PMCID: N/A
 Cooper, L.A. & Williams, D.R. “Excess Deaths From COVID-19, Community Bereavement,
and Restorative Justice for Communities of Color.” JAMA, 2020, 324(15), 1491–1492.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.19567. PMID: 33044518. PMCID: N/A.
 Mateo, C.M. & Williams, D.R. “More Than Words: A Vision to Address Bias
and Reduce Discrimination in the Health Professions Learning Environment.” Academic
Medicine, 2020, 95(12) S169-S177. DOI: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000003684. PMID:
32889917. PMCID N/A.
 Mateo, C.M. & Williams, D.R. “Addressing Bias and Reducing Discrimination: The
Professional Responsibility of Health Care Providers.” Academic Medicine, 2020,
95(12), S5-S10. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000003683. PMID: 32889919.
PMCID N/A.
 Cuevas, A.G., Ong, A.D., Carvalho, K., Ho, T., Chan, S., Allen, J.D., Chen, R., Rodgers, J., Biba,
U., & Williams, D.R. “Discrimination and systemic inflammation: A critical review and
synthesis” Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 2020, 89, 465–479.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.07.017
 Razai, M.S., Kankam, H.K.N., Majeed, A., Esmail, A., Williams, D.R. “Mitigating ethnic
disparities in covid-19 and beyond.” BMJ, 2021, 372:m4921.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4921.

2. Empirical Publications on Racism, Discrimination and Health

 Jackson, J.S. Brown, T.N., Williams, D.R., Torres, M., Sellers, S.L., and Brown, K. “Racism
and the Physical and Mental Health Status of African Americans: A Thirteen-Year
National Panel Study.” Ethnicity and Disease, 1996 6(1,2):132-147.

14
 Williams, D.R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J.S., and Anderson, N.B. “Racial Differences in Physical and
Mental Health: Socioeconomic Status, Stress, and Discrimination.” Journal of Health
Psychology. 1997 2(3):335-351.
 Forman, T.A., Williams, D.R., and Jackson, J.S. “Race, Place, and Discrimination.” in Carol
Gardner (ed.), Perspectives on Social Problems. JAI Press. 1997 9:231-261.
 Ren, X.S., Amick, B., Williams, D.R. “Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health: The Interplay
Between Discrimination and Socioeconomic Status.” Ethnicity and Disease. 1999
9(2):151-165.
 Kessler, R.C., Mickelson, K., and Williams, D.R. “The Prevalence, Distribution, and Mental
Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States.” Journal of Health
and Social Behavior. 1999 40(3):208-230.
 Collins, C., and Williams, D.R. “Segregation and Mortality: The Deadly Effects of Racism.”
Sociological Forum. 1999 14(3):495-523.
 Williams, D.R., Spencer, M., and Jackson, J.S. “Race Stress and Physical Health: The Role
of Group Identity” R.J. Contrada and R.D. Ashmore (eds.), Self, Social Identity and
Physical Health: Interdisciplinary Explorations. 1999 New York: Oxford University
Press. Pp. 71-100.
 Brown, T.N., Williams, D.R., Jackson, J.S., Neighbors, H.W., Torres, M., Sellers, S.L., and
Brown, K.T. “Being Black and Feeling Blue: The Mental Health Consequences of Racial
Discrimination”. Race & Society. 2000 2:117-131.
 Schulz, A., Williams, D., Israel, B., Becker, A., Parker, E., James, S., and Jackson, J. “Unfair
Treatment, Neighborhood Effects, and Mental Health in the Detroit Metropolitan Area”.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2000 41:314-332.
 Guthrie, B.J., Young, A.M., Williams, D.R., Boyd, C.J., and Kintner, E.K., “African American
Girls’ Smoking Habits and Day-to-Day Experience with Racial Discrimination. Nursing
Research, 2002 51(3): 183-190.
 Jackson, J.S., Williams, D.R., and Torres, M. “Perceptions of Discrimination, Health and
Mental Health: The Social Stress Process.” 2002 Socioeconomic Conditions, Stress and
Mental Disorders: Toward a New Syn of Research and Public Policy. Online. Internet.
Available: http://www.mhsip.org/pdfs/jackson.pdf.
 Schulz, A.J., Gravlee, C.C., Williams, D.R., Israel, B., Mentz, G., Rowe, Z. “Discrimination,
Symptoms of Depression, and Self-rated General Health among African American
Women in Detroit: Longitudinal Results from Eastside Village Health Worker
Partnership.” American Journal of Public Health, 2006 96(7):1265-1270.
 Borrell, L. N., Kiefe, C.I., Williams, D.R., Diez-Roux, A.V., Gordon-Larsen, P. “Self-Reported
Health, Perceived Racial Discrimination, and Skin Color in African Americans in the
CARDIA Study.” Social Science and Medicine, 2006 63:1415-27.
 Richman, L.S., Kohn-Wood, L.P., Williams, D.R., “The Role of Discrimination and Racial
Identity for Mental Health Service Utilization.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,
2007 26(8): 960-981.
 Oyserman, D., Uskul, A.K., Yoder, N., Nesse, R.M., Williams, D.R., “Unfair Treatment and
Self-Regulatory Focus.” Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 2007 43:505-
512.
 Williams, D.R., González, H.M., Williams, S., Mohammed, S.A., Moomal, H, Stein, D.J.
“Perceived Discrimination, Race and Health in South Africa: Findings from the
South Africa Stress and Health Study.” Social Science and Medicine, 2008 67: 441-452.

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 Tynes, B., Giang, M.T., Williams, D.R., and Thompson, G.N. “Online Racial Discrimination
and Psychological Adjustment among Adolescents.” Journal of Adolescent Health, 2008
43:565-569.
 Haas, J.S., Earle, C.C., Orav, J.E., Brawarsky, P., Neville, B.A., Williams, D.R. “Racial
segregation and disparities in cancer stage for seniors.” Journal of General Internal
Medicine, 2008 23(5):699-705.
 Haas, J. S., Earle, C. C., Orav, J. E., Brawarsky, P., Keohane, M., Neville, B. A., Williams, D. R.
"Racial segregation and disparities in breast cancer care and mortality." Cancer, 2008
113(8): 2166-2172.
 Sims, M., Wyatt, S.B., Gutierrez, M.S., Taylor, H. S., Williams, D. R. “Development and
psychometric testing of a multidimensional instrument of perceived discrimination
among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study.” Ethnicity & Disease, 2009
Winter;19(1):56-64.
 Moomal, H., Jackson, P.B., Stein, D.J., Herman, A., Myer, L., Seedat, S., Madela-Mntla, E.,
Williams, D.R. “Perceived discrimination and mental health disorders: The South
African Stress and Health study.” South African Medical Journal, 2009 99(5):383-389.
 Hunte, H., Williams, D.R. “The Association Between Perceived Discrimination and
Obesity in a Population Based Multiracial/Ethnic Adult Sample.” American Journal of
Public Health, 2009 99(7):1285-1292.
 Friedman, E.M., Williams, D.R., Singer, B.H., Ryff, C.D. “Chronic discrimination predicts
higher circulating levels of E-selectin in a national sample: the MIDUS study.” Brain
Behavior and Immunity, 2009 23:684-692.
 Shariff-Marco, S., Gee, G.C., Breen, N., Willis, G., Reeve, B.B., Grant, D., Ponce, N.A., Krieger,
N., Landrine, H., Williams, D.R., Alegria, M., Mays, V.M., Johnson, T.P., Brown, E.R. “A
Mixed-Methods Approach to Developing a Self-Reported Racial Ethnic Discrimination
Measure for Use in Multiethnic Health Surveys.” Ethnicity & Disease, 2009
19(Autumn):447-453.
 Surkan, P.J., Mukerjee, J.S., Williams, D.R., Eustache, E., Louis, E., Jean-Paul, T., Lambert.
W., Scanlan, F.C., Oswald, C.M. Smith Fawzi, M.C. “Perceived Discrimination and Stigma
Towards Children Affected by HIV/AIDS and Their HIV-Positive Caregivers in Central
Haiti,” AIDS Care, 2010 22(2):803-815.
 Shariff-Marco, S., Breen, N., Landrine, H., Reeve, B.B., Krieger, N., Gee, G.C., Williams, D.R.,
Mays, V.M., Ponce, N.A., Alegria, M. “Measuring Everyday Racial/Ethnic Discrimination in
Health Surveys.” Du Bois Review, 2011 8(1): 159-177.
 Sternthal, M., Slopen, N., Williams, D.R. “Racial Disparities in Health: How Much Does
Stress Really Matter?” Du Bois Review, 2011 8(1): 95-113.
 Rooks, Ronica., Xu, Y., Holliman, B., Williams, D.R. “Discrimination and Mental Health
among Black and White Adults in the YES Health study.” Race and Social Problems, 2011
3(3):182-196.
 Kim, S.S., Williams, D.R.” Perceived Discrimination and Self-Rated Health in South Korea:
A Nationally Representative Survey.” PLoS ONE. 2012 7(1): e30501.
 Krieger, N., Waterman, P.D., Kosheleva, A., Chen, J.T., Carney, D.R., Smith, K.W., Bennett,
G.G., Williams, D.R., Freeman, E., Russell, B., Thornhill, G., Mikolowsky, K., Rifkin, R.,
Samuel, L. “Exposing Racial Discrimination: Implicit & Explicit Measures-The My Body,
My Story Study of 1005 US-Born Black & White Community Health Center Members.”
PLoS One. 2011 6(11):e27636.

16
 Reeve, B. B., Willis, G., Shariff-Marco, S. N., Breen, N., Williams, D. R., Gee, G. C., Alegría,
M., Takeuchi, D. T., Stapleton, M. and Levin, K. Y. "Comparing Cognitive Interviewing and
Psychometric Methods to Evaluate a Racial/Ethnic Discrimination Scale." Field Methods
2011, 23(4): 397-419.
 Williams, D.R., Haile, R., Mohammed, S.A., Herman, A., Sonnega, J., Jackson, J.S., Stein, D.J.
“Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being in the U.S. and South Africa.”
Ethnicity and Health. 2012,17(1-2): 111-33. PMID: 22339224. PMCID: PMC3468317.
 Williams, D.R., John, D., Oyserman, D., Sonnega, J., Mohammed, S.A., Jackson, J.S.
“Research on Discrimination and Health: An Exploratory Study of Unresolved
Conceptual and Measurement Issues” American Journal of Public Health. 2012, 102(5):
975-978. PMID: 22420798. PMCID: PMC3329155.
 Sims, M., Diez-Roux, A. V., Dudley, A., Gebreab, S., Wyatt, S. B., Bruce, M. A., James, S. A.,
Robinson, J. C., Williams, D. R. and Taylor, H. A. "Perceived Discrimination and
Hypertension among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study." American Journal
of Public Health. 2012,102: Suppl 2: S258-265. PMID: 22401510.
 Kim, S.S., Williams, D.R.” Perceived Discrimination and Self-Rated Health in South Korea:
A Nationally Representative Survey.” PLoS ONE. 2012,7(1): e30501. PMID: 22272357.
PMCID: PMC3260296
 Kim, S.-S., Chung, Y., Subramanian, S. V. and Williams, D. R. "Measuring Discrimination in
South Korea: Underestimating the Prevalence of Discriminatory Experiences among
Female and Less Educated Workers?" PLoS ONE 2012,7(3): e32872. PMID: 22427901.
PMCID: PMC3299710.
 Borrell, L. N., Kiefe, C. I., Diez-Roux, A. V., Williams, D. R. and Gordon-Larsen, P. Racial
discrimination, racial/ethnic segregation and health behaviors in the CARDIA Study.
Ethnicity and Health. 2013, 18:3, 227-243, PMID: 22913715. PMCID: PMC3523091.
 Duncan, D., Kawachi, I., White, K. and Williams, D.R. "The Geography of Recreational
Open Space: Influence of Neighborhood Racial Composition and Neighborhood
Poverty." Journal of Urban Health. 2013,90(4):618-31. PMID: 23099625. PMCID:
PMC3732687
 Krieger, N., Waterman, P.D., Kosheleva, A., Chen, J.T., Smith, K.S., Carney, D.R., Bennett, G.,
Williams, D.R., Thornhill, G., Freeman, E. “Racial discrimination & cardiovascular disease
risk: My Body My Story study of 1005 US-born black and white community health
center participants (US).” PLoS ONE, 2013, 8(10):e77174.
 Brewer L.C., Carson K.A., Williams D.R., Allen A., Jones C.P., Cooper L.A. “Association of
Race Consciousness With the Patient-Physician Relationship, Medication Adherence,
and Blood Pressure in Urban Primary Care Patients.” American Journal of Hypertension.
2013, 26(11). PMID: 23864583. PMCID: PMC3790452.
 Slopen, N. & Williams, D.R. "Discrimination, Other Psychosocial Stressors, and Self-
Reported Sleep Duration and Difficulties." SLEEP. 2014, 37(1): 147-156A. PMID:
24381373. PMCID: PMC3865350.
 Lewis, T., Williams, D.R., Tamene, M., Clark, C.R. "Self-Reported Experiences of
Discrimination and Cardiovascular Disease." Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports. 2014,
8:365. PMID: 24729825. PMCID: PMC3980947.
 Garnett, B.R., Masyn, K.E., Austin, S.B., Miller, M., Williams, D.R.,Viswanath, K. "The
Intersectionality of Discrimination Attributes and Bullying Among Youth: An Applied
Latent Class Analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2014, 43(8): 1225-39. PMID:
24318776.

17
 Tynes, B.M., Rose, C.A., Hiss, S., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Mitchell, K., Williams, D.R. “Virtual
environments, online racial discrimination, a diverse, school-based sample of
adolescents.” International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations.
2014,6(3), 1-6.
 Dutra, L. M., Williams, D. R., Kawachi, I., Okechukwu, C. A. "Racial and Non-Racial
Discrimination and Smoking Status among South African Adults 10 Years after
Apartheid." Tobacco Control. 2014 Nov, 23(e2):e114-21. PMID: 24789604. PMCID:
PMC4214915.
 Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Tynes, B., Toomey, R. B., Williams, D.R., Mitchell, K. “Latino
adolescents’ perceived discrimination in online and off-line settings: An examination of
cultural risk and protective factors.” Developmental Psychology. 2015, 51(1):87-100.
PMID: 25546597. PMCID: PMC4752111.
 Garnett, B.R., Masyn, K.E., Austin, S.B., Williams, D.R., Viswanath, K. "Coping styles of
adolescents experiencing multiple forms of discrimination and bullying: Evidence from
a sample of ethnically diverse urban youth." Journal of School Health. 2015, 85(2):109-
17. PMID: 25564979.
 Slopen, N., Shonkoff, J., Albert, M. A., Yoshikawa, H., Jacobs, A., Stoltz, R., Williams, D. R.
“Racial Disparities in Child Adversity in the United States: Interactions with Family
Immigration History and Income.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2016,
50(1): 47-56. PMID: 26342634. PMCID NA.
 Ong, A.D., Williams, D.R., Nwizu, U., Gruenewald, T. “Everyday Unfair Treatment and
Multisystem Biological Dysregulation in African-American Adults.” Cultural Diversity
and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2017, 23(1): 27-35. PMID: 28045308. PMCID:
PMC5443680.
 Park, I.J., Wang, L., Williams, D.R., Alegría, M. “Does anger regulation mediate the
discrimination–mental health link among Mexican-origin adolescents? A longitudinal
mediation analysis using multilevel modeling.” Developmental Psychology. 2017, 53(2):
340-352. PMID: 27893238. PMCID: PMC5293666.
 Siddiqi, A., Shahidi, F.V., Ramraj, C., Williams, D.R. “Associations between race,
discrimination and risk for chronic disease in a population-based sample from Canada.”
Social Science and Medicine, 2017, 194: 135-141. PMID: 29100138. PMCID N/A.
 Agunwamba, A.A., Kawachi, I., Williams, D.R., Finney Rutten, L.J., Wilson, P.M.,
Viswanath, K. “Mental Health, Racial Discrimination, and Tobacco Use:
Differences Across Rural-Urban California.” The Journal of Rural Health. 2017,
33: 180-189. PMID: 27074968.
 Ong, A.D., Cerrada, C., Lee, R.A., Williams, D.R. “Stigma Consciousness, Racial
Microaggressions, and Sleep Disturbance Among Asian Americans.” Asian
American Journal of Psychology. 2017, 8(1): 72-81.
 Colen, C.G., Ramey, D.M., Cooksey, E.C., Williams, D.R. “Racial disparities in health
among nonpoor African Americans and Hispanics: The role of acute and chronic
discrimination.” Social Science and Medicine. 2018, 199: 167-180. PMID:
28571900. PMCID: PMC5673593.
 Park, I.J.K., Du, H., Wang, L., Williams, D.R., Alegría, M. “Racial/ethnic
discrimination and mental health in Mexican-origin youths and their parents: Testing
the “linked lives” hypothesis.” Journal of Adolescent Health. 2018, 62: 480-487.
PMID: 29275862. PMCID: PMC5866742.

18
 Park, I.J.K., Wang, L., Williams, D.R., Alegría, M. “Coping with racism: Moderators
of the discrimination—adjustment link among Mexican-origin adolescents.”
Child Development. 2018, 89, e293-e310. PMID: 28635029. PMCID:
PMC6013037.
 Priest N., Slopen N., Woolford S., Philip J.T., Singer D., Kauffman A.D., Mosely, K., Davis,
M., Ransome, Y., Williams, D.R. “Stereotyping across intersections of race and age: Racial
stereotyping among White adults working with children.” PLoS ONE. 2018, 13(9):
e0201696. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201696 PMID: 30208023. PMCID:
PMC6135395.
 Bor, J., Venkataramani A.S., Williams, D.R., Tsai, A.C. “Police killings and their spillover
effects on the mental health of black Americans: a population-based, quasi-experimental
study.” The Lancet. 2018, 392(10144): 302-310. PMID: 29937193. PMCID:
PMC6376989.
 Cuevas, A.G., Wang, K., Williams, D.R., Mattei, J., Tucker, K.L., Falcon, L.M. “The
association between perceived discrimination and allostatic load in the Boston
Puerto Rican Health Study.” Psychosomatic Medicine. 2019, 81(7): 659-667.
PMID: 31145378. NIHMS: 1552941.
 Cuevas, A.G., Chen, R., Thurber, K.A., Slopen, N., Williams, D.R. “Psychological
Stress and Overweight and Obesity: Findings From the Chicago Community
Adult Health Study.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2019, 53(11): 964-974.
PMID: 30917198. PMCID: PMC6779073.
 Ong, A.D., Williams, D.R. “Lifetime discrimination, global sleep quality, and
inflammation burden in a multiethnic sample of middle-aged adults.” Cultural
Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psycholog, 2019, 25(1): 82–90.
doi:10.1037/cdp0000233. PMID: 30714770. PMCID: PMC6369702.
 Fuller-Rowell, T.E., Homandberg, L.K., Curtis, D.S., Tsenkova, V.K., Williams, D.R.,
Ryff, C.D. “Disparities in insulin resistance between black and white adults in the
United States: The role of lifespan stress exposure.” Psychoneuroendocrinology.
2019, 107: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.04.020. PMID: 31055182. PMCID:
PMC6635018.
 Colen, C.G., Li, Q., Reczek, C., Williams, D.R. “The Intergenerational Transmission
of Discrimination: Children’s Experiences of Unfair Treatment and Their
Mothers’ Health at Midlife.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2019, 60(4):
474-492. PMID: 31912765. PMCID N/A.
 Cuevas, A.G., Chen, R., Slopen, N., Thurber, K.A., Wilson, N., Economos, C.,
Williams, D.R. “Assessing the Role of Health Behaviors, Socioeconomic Status,
and Cumulative Stress for Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Obesity.” Obesity. 2020,
28(1) 161–170. doi:10.1002/oby.22648. PMID: 31858741. PMCID:
PMC6927482.
 Cressman, A.E., Howe, C.J., Nunn, A.S., Adimora, A.A., Williams, D.R., Kempf, M-J.,
Chandran, A., Wentz, E.L., Blackstock, O.J., Kassaye, S.G., Cohen, J., Cohen, M.H.,
Wingood, G.M., Metsch, L.R., Wilson, T.E. 2019. “The relationship between
discrimination and missed HIV care appointments among women living with

19
 HIV.” AIDS and Behavior. 2020, 24(1) 151-164. PMCID 31049811. PMCID:
PMC6824941.
 Smith, K.W., Krieger, N., Kosheleva, A., Urato, M., Waterman, P.D, Williams, D.R.,
Carney, D.R., Chen, J.T., Bennett, G.G., Freeman, E. “A Structural Model of Social
Determinants of the Metabolic Syndrome.” Ethnicity & Disease. 2020, 30(2): 331-
338. doi:10.18865/ ed.30.2.331 PMID: 32346279 PMCID: PMC7186050.
 Park, I.J.K, Du, H., Wang, L., Williams, D.R. and Alegría, M. 2019. “The Role of
Parents’ Ethnic-Racial Socialization Practices in the Discrimination–Depression Link
among Mexican-Origin Adolescents.” Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent
Psychology. 2020, 49(3): 391-404. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2018.1547969. PMID:
30689432. PMCID: PMC6661225.
 O’Connor M., Slopen, N., Becares L., Burgner, D., Williams, D.R., Priest, N.
“Inequalities in the distribution of childhood adversity from birth to 11 years.” 2020,
20(5): 609-618. Academic Pediatrics. 2020, 20(5): 609-618. PMID: 31841661.
PMCID: N/A
 Van Dyke, M.E., Baumhofer, N.K., Slopen, N., Mujahid, M.S., Clark, C.R.;
Williams, D.R., Lewis, T.T. “Pervasive Discrimination and Allostatic Load in
African-American and White Adults.” Psychosomatic Medicine. 2020, 82(3): 316-
323. PMID: 32108740. PMCID: PMC7138744.
 Gaston, S.A., Feinstein, L., Slopen, N., Sandler, D.P., Williams, D.R., & Jackson,
C.L. “Everyday and major experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination and sleep
health in a multiethnic population of U.S. women: findings from the Sister Study.”
Sleep Medicine. 2020, 71: 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2020.03.010.
PMID: 32505024. PMCID: PMC7302966.
 Tynes, B.M, English, D., Del Toro, J., Smith, N.A., Lozada, F.T., Williams, D.R.
“Trajectories of Online Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning Among
African American and Latino Adolescents.” Child Development, 2020, 91(5): 1577-
1593.
 Hswen, Y., Qin, Q., Williams, D.R., Viswanath, K., Brownstein, J.S., &
Subramanian, S.V. “The relationship between Jim Crow laws and social capital from
1997-2014: A 3-level multilevel hierarchical analysis across time, county and state.”
Social Science & Medicine, 2020, 262, 113142.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113142
 Hswen Y., Qin, Q., Williams, D.R., Viswanath, K., Subramanian, S.V., Brownstein,
J.S. “Online negative sentiment towards Mexicans and Hispanics and impact on
mental well-being: A time-series analysis of social media data during the 2016 United
States presidential election.” Heliyon, 2020, 6, e04910. PMID: 33005781 PMCID:
PMC7519357.
 Cuevas, A.G., Ortiz, K., Lopez, N., & Williams, D.R. “Assessing racial differences in
lifetime and current smoking status & menthol consumption among Latinos in a
nationally representative sample.” Ethnicity & Health, 2020, 25(5), 759–775.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1447651. PMID: 29540075 PMCID:
PMC6179942.

20
  White, K., Bell, B.A., Huang, S.J., & Williams, D.R. “Perceived Discrimination
Trajectories and Depressive Symptoms Among Middle-Aged and Older Black
Adults.” Innovation in Aging, 2020, 4(5), igaa041.
https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa041. PMID: 33324760 PMCID: PMC7724643
 Cuevas, A.G., Mann, F.D., Williams, D.R., & Krueger, R.F. “Discrimination and
anxiety: Using multiple polygenic scores to control for genetic liability.” Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2021, 118(1),
e2017224118.
 In Press Yip, T., Chen, M., Wang, Y., Slopen, N., Chase, D., Priest, N., Williams,
D.R. “Linking Sleep and Discrimination and Profiles with Biomakers: An
Investigation in the MIDUS Study.” Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology.
 In Press Cuevas, A.G., Ho, T., Rodgers, J., DeNufrio, D., Alley, L., Allen, J. and
Williams, D.R.. “Developmental timing of initial racial discrimination exposure is
associated with cardiovascular health conditions in adulthood.” Ethnicity & Health,
Online May 7, 2019. pp.1-14. doi:10.1080/13557858.2019.1613517 PMID:
31064206. PMCID: PMC7026859

3. Publications on Vigilance, Race and Health

 Hicken, M.T. Lee, H., Ailshire, J., Burgard, S.A., Williams D.R. ““Every Shut Eye, Ain’t
Sleep”: The Role of Racism-Related Vigilance in Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Sleep
Difficulty.” Race and Social Problems 2013, 5(2):100-112. PMID: 23894254. PMCID:
PMC3722054
 Hicken, M. T., Lee, H., Morenoff, J., House, J. S. and Williams, D. R. "Racial/Ethnic
Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence: Reconsidering the Role of Chronic Stress."
American Journal of Public Health. 2014, 104(1): 117-123. PMID: 24228644. PMCID:
PMC3910029.
 LaVeist, T. A., Thorpe Jr., R.J., Pierre, G., Mance, G. A., Williams, D. R. “The Relationships
Among Vigilant Coping Style, Race, and Depression.” Journal of Social Issues. 2014,
70(2):241-255. PMID: 24954953. PMCID: PMC4061746.

VI. Appendix B: Selected Studies That Have Used the Everyday

Discrimination Scale in Other Countries

Australia
Runions, K., Priest, N., Dandy, J. Discrimination and psychological adjustment amongst Australian
children from Middle-Eastern and Asian backgrounds. Australian Community Psychologist. 2011,
23(1), 23-33.

Agrawal, R., Foresti, K., Rajadurai, J., & Zubaran, C. Assessing workplace discrimination among
medical practitioners in Western Sydney. Australasian Psychiatry. 2018, 26(5): 491–495.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856218772248

21
Thurber, K.A., Walker, J., Batterham, P.J., Gee, G.C., Chapman, J., Priest, N., Cohen, R., Jones, R.,
Richardson, A., Calear, A.L., Williams, D.R., & Lovett, R. “Developing and validating measures of self-
reported everyday and healthcare discrimination for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults.”
International Journal for Equity in Health, 2021, 20:14, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-
01351-9.

Brazil
Celeste, R. K., Gonçalves, L. G., Faerstein, E., Bastos, J. L. The role of potential mediators in racial
inequalities in tooth loss: the Pró‐Saúde study. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology. 2013,
41(6), 509-516.

Faerstein, E., Chor, D., Werneck, G. L., Lopes, C. D. S., Kaplan, G. Race and perceived racism,
education, and hypertension among Brazilian civil servants: the Pró-Saúde Study. Revista Brasileira
de Epidemiologia. 2014, 17, 81-87.

Kemp, A., Koenig, J., Thayer, J.F., Bittencourt, M.S., Pereira, A.C., Santos, I.S., Dantas, E.M., Mill, J.G.,
Chor, D., Ribeiro, A.L.P., Benseñor, I.M., Lotufo, P.A. Race and Resting-State Heart Rate Variability in
Brazilian Civil Servants and the Mediating Effects of Discrimination: An ELSA-Brasil Cohort Study.
Psychosomatic Medicine. 2016, 78, 950-958. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000359

Canada
Kim, I. Noh, S. Racial/ethnic variations in the main and buffering effects of ethnic and nonethnic
supports on depressive symptoms among five ethnic immigrant groups in Toronto. Ethnicity Health.
2015, 21(3): 215-232.

Social Determinants and Science Integration Directorate, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada. Strengthening the evidence base on social determinants of health: measuring
everyday discrimination through a CCHS rapid response module. Health promotion and chronic
disease prevention in Canada: research, policy and practice. 2016, 36(2): 41.
https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.36.2.04

Williams, C.C., Curling, D., Steele, L.S., Gibson, M.F., Daley, A., Green, D.C., & Ross, L.E. Depression and
discrimination in the lives of women, transgender and gender liminal people in Ontario, Canada.
Health & Social Care in the Community. 2017, 25(3): 1139–1150.
https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12414

Khan, S., Ion, A., Alyass, A., Greene, S., Kwaramba, G., Smith, S., Carvalhal, A., Kennedy, V.L.,
Walmsley, S., & Loutfy, M. Loneliness and perceived social support in pregnancy and early
postpartum of mothers living with HIV in Ontario, Canada. AIDS Care. 2019, 31(3): 318–325.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2018.1515469

China

22
Huang, Y., Chen, J., Yang, J., Song, K., Wang, X., Cheng, X., Qu, S. Evaluation of depressive symptoms in
obese patients with or without acanthosis nigricans. Hormones. 2015, 14(3), 417-424.

Yu, N., Chan, C., Zhang, J. Dyadic Effects of Stigma and Discrimination on Distress in Chinese HIV
Discordant Couples. AIDS Education and Prevention. 2016, 28(4), 277-286.

Zhu, Z., Hu, Y., Xing, W., Guo, M., & Wu, B. Perceived discrimination and cognitive function in middle-
aged and older adults living with HIV in China. AIDS Care. 2019, 31(9): 1061–1068.

Democratic Republic of Congo

Verelst, A., De Schryver, M., Broekaert, E., Derluyn, I. Mental health of victims of sexual violence in
eastern Congo: associations with daily stressors, stigma, and labeling. BMC Women's Health. 2014,
14(1), 106.

Verelst, A., De Schryver, M., De Haene, L., Broekaert, E., Derluyn, I. The mediating role of
stigmatization in the mental health of adolescent victims of sexual violence in Eastern Congo. Child
Abuse Neglect. 2014, 38(7), 1139-1146.

Dominican Republic
Keys, H. M., Noland, G. S., De Rochars, M. B., Taylor, T. H., Blount, S., & Gonzales, M. Perceived
discrimination in bateyes of the Dominican Republic: results from the Everyday Discrimination
Scale and implications for public health programs. BMC Public Health. 2019, 19(1), 1513.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7773-2

England
Hatch, S.L., Gazard, B., Williams, D.R., Frissa, S., Goodwin, L. SELCoH Study Team, Hotopf, M.
Discrimination and common mental disorder among migrant and ethnic groups: findings from a
South East London Community sample. Soc Pyschiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016, 51, 689-701.

Furnham, A. Swami, V. An Investigation of Attitudes toward Surveillance at Work and Its Correlates.
Psychology. 2015, 6, 1668-1675.

Shankar, A. & Hinds, P. Perceived discrimination: Associations with physical and cognitive function in
older adults. Health Psychology. 2017, 36(12): 1126–1134. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000522

England, France, and Germany

Kunst, J. R., Sam, D. L., Ulleberg, P. Perceived Islamophobia: Scale development and
validation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2013, 37(2), 225-237.

France

23
Dambrun, Michaël. Gender differences in mental health: The mediating role of perceived personal
discrimination. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2007, 37(5), 1118-1129.

India
Khubchandani, J., Soni, A., Fahey, N., Raithatha, N., Prabhakaran, A., Byatt, N., Moore Simas, T.A.,
Phatak, A., Rosal, M., Nimbalkar, S., & Allison, J.J. Caste matters: perceived discrimination among
women in rural India. Archives of Women's Mental Health. 2018, 21(2): 163–170.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-017-0790-1

Italy
Tarricone, I., Cianconi, P., Chierzi, F., Marcacci, T., Berardi, D. Comprendere le cause dell’esordio
psicotico dall’ascolto della storia migratoria: il lavoro del Bologna Transcultural Psychitric Team
(BoTPT). Interventi precoci nelle psicosi. 2013.

Korea
Kim, K., Jung, S.J., Cho, S., Park, J.H., & Kim, H.C. Perceived Discrimination, Depression, and the Role
of Perceived Social Support as an Effect Modifier in Korean Young Adults. Journal of Preventive
Medicine and Public Health. 2019, 52(6): 366–376. https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.19.114

Netherlands
Ikram, U.Z., Snijder, M.B., Fassaert, T.J.L , Schene, A.H., Kunst, A.E., Stronks, K. The contribution of
perceived ethnic discrimination to the prevalence of depression. European Journal of Public Health.
2015, 25(2), 243-248.

Ikram, U., Snijder, M., Wit, M. Schene, A. Stronks, K., Kunst, A. Perceived ethnic discrimination and
depressive symptoms: the buffering effects of ethnic identity, religion and ethnic social network.
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2016, 51(5), 679-688.

Ikram, U.Z., Snijder, M.B., Agyemang, C., Schene, A.H., Peters, R.J., Stronks, K., Kunst, A.E. Perceived
Ethnic Discrimination and the Metabolic Syndrome in Ethnic Minority Groups: The Healthy Life in
an Urban Setting Study. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2017, 79(1): 101–111.
https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000350

Schmengler, H., Ikram, U.Z., Snijder, M.B., Kunst, A.E., & Agyemang, C. Association of perceived
ethnic discrimination with general and abdominal obesity in ethnic minority groups: the HELIUS
study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2017, 71(5): 453–460.
https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2016-207875

Netherlands, England, and Germany

24
van der Laan, L. C., Meeks, K., Chilunga, F. P., Agyemang, C., Venema, A., Mannens, M., Zafarmand, M.
H., Klipstein-Grobusch, K., Smeeth, L., Adeyemo, A., & Henneman, P. (2020). Epigenome-wide
association study for perceived discrimination among sub-Saharan African migrants in Europe - the
RODAM study. Scientific reports, 10(1), 4919. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61649-0

New Zealand
Thayer, Z.M. Kuzawa, C.W. Ethnic discrimination predicts poor self-rated health and cortisol in
pregnancy: Insights from New Zealand. Social Science Medicine. 2015, 128, 36-42.

Pakistan
Sadiq, S., Bashir, A. Relationship between perceived discrimination and loneliness among
transgender: Mediating role of coping mechanism. International Journal of Research Studies in
Psychology. 2014, 3(5).

Philippines
Datu, J.A., & Jose Mateo, N. How to combat the negative impact of discrimination in a collectivist
context? The safeguarding function of peer-oriented hope. Psychology, Health & Medicine. 2017,
22(3): 345–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2016.1164875

Datu J. Everyday discrimination, negative emotions, and academic achievement in Filipino

secondary school students: Cross-sectional and cross-lagged panel investigations. Journal of School
Psychology. 2018, 68, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.04.001

Portugal
Freitas, D.F., Coimbra, S., Marturano, E.B., Fontaine, A.M. Adaptation of the Everyday Discrimination
Scale to Portuguese Youth. Psicologia: Refl exão e Crítica. 2015, 28(4), 708-717.

Freitas, D.F., D'Augelli, A.R., Coimbra, S., Fontaine, A.M. Discrimination and Mental Health Among
Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youths in Portugal: The Moderating Role of Family Relationships and
Optimism. Journal of GLBT Family Studies. 2016, 12(1), 68-90.

Serbia and Macedonia

Janevic, T., Osypuk, T., Stojanovski, K., Jankovic, J., Gundersen, D., & Rogers, M. Associations between
racial discrimination, smoking during pregnancy and low birthweight among Roma. European
Journal of Public Health. 2017, 27(3): 410–415. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckw214

South Africa

25
Moomal, H., Jackson, P. B., Stein, D. J., Herman, A., Myer, L., Seedat, S., Williams, D. R. Perceived
discrimination and mental health disorders: the South African Stress and Health study. SAMJ: South
African Medical Journal. 2009, 99(5), 383-389.

Williams, D. R., Gonzalez, H. M., Williams, S., Mohammed, S. A., Moomal, H., Stein, D. J. Perceived
discrimination, race and health in South Africa. Social Science Medicine. 2008, 67(3), 441-452.

Williams, D.R., Haile, R., Mohammed, S., Herman, A., Sonnega, J., Jackson, J., Stein, D. Perceived
discrimination and psychological well-being in the USA and South Africa. Ethnicity Health. 2012m
17(1-2), 111-133.

Uganda
Amone-P’Olak, K., Ovuga, E., Jones, P.B. The effects of sexual violence on psychosocial outcomes in
formerly abducted girls in Northern Uganda: the WAYS study. BMC Psychology. 2015, 3(46).

VII. Appendix C: Other Versions of Major Experiences of Discrimination

Scale
a. Major Experiences of Discrimination: Original 6 item version

 Developed for the 1995 Detroit Area Study (DAS)

 Source: Williams, D.R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J.S., and Anderson, N.B. “Racial Differences in
Physical and Mental Health: Socioeconomic Status, Stress, and Discrimination.” Journal
of Health Psychology. 1997; 2(3):335-351.

 Source: Forman, T.A., Williams, D.R., and Jackson, J.S. “Race, Place, and Discrimination.”
In Carol Gardner (ed.), Perspectives on Social Problems. JAI Press. 1997; 9:231-261.

 Measure:
In the following questions, we are interested in your beliefs about the way other people
have treated you.
1. Do you think you have ever been unfairly fired or denied a promotion?
2. For unfair reasons, do you think you have ever not been hired for a job?
3. Have you ever been unfairly stopped, searched, questioned, physically threatened or
abused by the police?
4. Have you ever been unfairly discouraged by a teacher or advisor from continuing
your education?

26
 5. Do you think you have ever been unfairly prevented from moving into a
neighborhood because the landlord or a realtor refused to sell or rent you a house
or apartment?
6. Have you ever moved into a neighborhood where neighbors made life difficult for
you or your family?

FOR EACH YES RESPONSE TO THE ABOVE QUESTIONS, HERE ARE THE FOLLOW-UP
QUESTIONS:
1. What was the main reason?
Your ethnicity………1
Your gender………2
Your race………3
Your age………4
Your religion………5
Your physical appearance………6
Your sexual orientation………7
Your income level/social class………8
Other Specify __________
2. Did that happen in the last 12 months?

b. Major Experiences of Discrimination: 9 item version from the MIDUS Study

 Adapted from the 1995 DAS

 See http://www.midus.wisc.edu/ for more information

 Source: Kessler, R.C., Mickelson, K., and Williams, D.R. “The Prevalence, Distribution, and
Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States.” Journal of
Health and Social Behavior. 1999 40(3):208-230.

 Questionnaire
S13. How many times in your life have you been discriminated against in each of the
following ways because of such things as your race, ethnicity, gender, age, religion,
physical appearance, sexual orientation, or other characteristics? (If the experience
happened to you, but for some reason other than discrimination, enter "0".)
# OF TIMES IN YOUR LIFE
1. You were discouraged by a teacher or advisor from seeking higher education?
2. You were denied a scholarship?
3. You were not hired for a job?
4. You were not given a job promotion?
5. You were fired?

27
 6. You were prevented from renting or buying a home in the neighborhood you
wanted?
7. You were prevented from remaining in a neighborhood because neighbors made life
so uncomfortable?
8. You were hassled by the police
9. You were denied a bank loan?
10. You were denied or provided inferior medical care?
11. You were denied or provided inferior service by a plumber, car mechanic, or other
service provider?

 Follow-up question for each item: number of times in your life?

S15. GLOBAL FOLLOW UP QUESTION AFTER ALL ITEMS: What was the main reason for
the discrimination you experienced? (If more than one main reason, circle all that
apply.)
1. Your age
2. Your gender
3. Your race
4. Your ethnicity or nationality
5. Your religion
6. Your height or weight
7. Some other aspect of your appearance
8. A physical disability
9. Your sexual orientation
10. Some other reason for discrimination (Please specify:)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

S16. Overall, how much has discrimination interfered with you having a full and
productive life?
1. A lot
2. Some
3. A little
4. Not at all

S17. Overall, how much harder has your life been because of discrimination?
1. A lot
2. Some
3. A little
4. Not at all

c. Major Experiences of Discrimination (Expanded 19 item version)

28
 Expanded from the 1995 Detroit Area Study and the MIDUS study for the YES Health
Study
 Source: Williams, D.R., John, D., Oyserman, D., Sonnega, J., Mohammed, S.A.,
Jackson, J.S. “Research on Discrimination and Health: An Exploratory Study of
Unresolved Conceptual and Measurement Issues” American Journal of Public
Health. 2012, 102(5): 975-978
 Questionnaire
We are interested in your beliefs about the way other people have treated you. In this
section, I am going to ask you about experiences of being treated unfairly.
Employment
First, I will ask you about being treated unfairly at work. Can you tell me if each of the
following has ever happened to you:
1. At any time in your life, have you ever been UNFAIRLY fired?
2. For UNFAIR reasons, do you think you have ever not been hired for a job?
3. Have you ever felt that others at your place of employment UNFAIRLY got
promotions or pay raises faster than you did?
4. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY denied a promotion?
5. In addition to what we have talked about, is there any other way you have been
treated UNFAIRLY AT WORK, for example, prevented from doing something or been
hassled or made to feel inferior?
Housing
6. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY prevented from moving into a neighborhood
because the landlord or a realtor refused to sell or rent you a house or apartment?
7. Have you ever moved into a neighborhood where neighbors UNFAIRLY made life
difficult for you or your family?
8. (IF YES) Was it so bad that that you moved out?
9. In addition to what we have talked about, have you ever been treated UNFAIRLY,
prevented from doing something, or been hassled or made to feel inferior in getting
into or staying in a neighborhood that you wanted?
Education
10. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY discouraged by a teacher or advisor from continuing
your education?
11. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY denied a scholarship?
12. In addition to what we have talked about, have you ever been treated UNFAIRLY,
prevented from doing something, or been hassled or made to feel inferior by
teachers or classmates?
Police/Courts
13. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY stopped, searched, or questioned by the police?
14. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY physically threatened or abused by the police?
15. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY suspected or accused of doing something illegal by
the authorities?

29
 16. In addition to what we have talked about, have you ever been treated UNFAIRLY,
prevented from doing something, or been hassled or made to feel inferior by the
police or the courts?
Other Major Experiences of Unfair Treatment
17. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY denied a bank loan?
18. Have you ever been UNFAIRLY denied medical care or provided medical care that
was worse than what other people get?
19. Have you ever UNFAIRLY received service from someone such as a plumber or car
mechanic that was worse than what other people get?
20. Thinking over your entire life, in addition to what we have talked about, have you
ever been treated UNFAIRLY, prevented from doing something, or been hassled or
made to feel inferior in some other aspect of your life?

Response categories for all of the previous questions are Yes/No.

 Follow-up Questions:
We want to talk in more detail about experiences of unfair treatment you told me about
earlier.
For each Question:
H1. You told me that you have been UNFAIRLY ________________.
H1a. How many times has this happened in your ENTIRE LIFE?
1. ONCE
5. MORE THAN ONCE (SPECIFY):
GO TO H1c.
H1b. In what month or year did this happen? (GO TO H5b)
H1c. How many times has this happened in the last year?______________
H1d. In what year did you first have an experience of ___________________?
H1e. What do you think was the main reason for this experience? (CHECK MORE
THAN ONE IF VOLUNTEERED).
1. Your ancestry or National Origins
2. Your Gender
3. Your Race
4. Your Age
5. Your Religion
6. Your Height or Weight
7. Some other Aspect of Your Physical Appearance
8. Your Sexual Orientation
9. Your Education or Income Level
10. A Physical Disability
11. Other (SPECIFY) _____________________________
H1f. How certain are you that __________ was the main reason for this experience?
Absolutely positive

30
Pretty sure
Somewhat doubtful
Very doubtful
H2. Think of your WORST experience of ____________________. Could you tell me more
about what happened? (PROBE: ensure that information is included about the age,
gender, and race of the perpetrator).
H3. Was your worst experience of ________________________ also your VERY FIRST
experience?
Response Categories: YES - GO TO H4. NO
H3a. What do you think was the main reason for your worst experience? (CHECK
MORE THAN ONE IF VOLUNTEERED).
H4. Was your worst experience of ____________________ also your MOST RECENT
experience?
Response Categories: YES - GO TO H5e. NO
H5. In what year was your MOST RECENT EXPERIENCE of _____________________?
H5a. In what month did it happen?___________________________________
H5b. Could you tell me more about what happened? (PROBE: ensure that
information is included about the age, gender, and race of the perpetrator).
H5c. What do you think was the main reason for this (your most recent
experience)? (CHECK MORE THAN ONE IF VOLUNTEERED).
H5d. How certain are you that __________ was the main reason for this experience?
Absolutely positive
Pretty sure
Somewhat doubtful
Very doubtful
H5e. How did this experience make you feel? (check all that apply).
1. Angry
2. Frustrated
3. Sad
4. Powerless
5. Hopeless
6. Scared
7. Vulnerable
8. Humiliated
9. Vengeful
10. Inferior
11. Not surprised/resigned
H5f. How stressful was this experience for you? Would you say it was:
Very stressful
Quite stressful
Somewhat stressful
Not at all stressful

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d. Coping with Discrimination
 Used in the Yes Health Study
 Adapted from 2 sources:
o McNeilly, M.D., Anderson, N.B., Armstead, C.A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson,
E.L., Pieper, C.F. & Lepisto, E.M. “The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional
assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans.”
Ethnicity and Disease. 1996; 6 (1,2), 154-166.
o Krieger, N. “Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood
pressure?” Social Science and Medicine. 1990; 30 (12), 1273-1281.

H6. How did you respond to this experience? Please tell me if you did each of
the following things A LOT, SOME, or NOT AT ALL:
1. Tried to do something about it.
2. Accepted it as a fact of life.
3. Worked harder to prove them wrong.
4. Talked to someone about what to do about the situation.
5. Didn’t let it get to you; refused to think about it too much.
6. Felt that you brought it on yourself.
7. Talked to someone about how you were feeling.
8. Tried to keep your feelings to yourself.
9. Criticized or lectured yourself.
10. Increased your efforts to make things work.
11. Talked to someone who could do something concrete about the situation.
12. Went on as if nothing had happened.
13. Expressed anger to the person who caused the problem.
14. Tried to forget that it had happened.
15. Sought or found spiritual comfort and support.

Global Evaluation

H7. How well do you feel you have dealt up to now with this experience and any
changes or problems which may have resulted from it?
VERY WELL
QUITE WELL
SOMEWHAT WELL
NOT TOO WELL

e. Coping with Discrimination – NSAL Study (Abbreviated)

 Adapted from 2 sources:
o McNeilly, M.D., Anderson, N.B., Armstead, C.A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E.L.,
Pieper, C.F. & Lepisto, E.M. “The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional

32
 assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans.” Ethnicity
and Disease. 1996; 6 (1,2), 154-166.
o Krieger, N. “Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure?”
Social Science and Medicine. 1990; 30 (12), 1273-1281.
 How did you respond to this/these experience(s)? Please tell me if you did each of the
following things.
1. Tried to do something about it.
2. Accepted it as a fact of life.
3. Worked harder to prove them wrong.
4. Realized that you brought it on yourself.
5. Talked to someone about how you were feeling.
6. Expressed anger or got mad.
7. Prayed about the situation.

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