Chapter 3 – PROBLEM SOLVING

Learning Competencies

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts
2. Solve problems involving problems and recreational problems following Polya’s
Four Steps
3. Organize one’s methods and approaches to proving and solving problems

3.1: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Making decisions and solving problems play crucial roles to survive in daily life. It
is then important to analyze a given situation based on logical thinking. The process of
logical thinking is called reasoning. There are two types of reasoning to make decisions
and solve problems: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining
specific examples.
For example, suppose that a teacher gives a surprise quiz every Friday for the first
four weeks of the math class.
At this point, one might make an educated guess or a conjecture (conclusion
formed by using inductive reasoning that may or may not be correct), that the teacher will
give a surprise quiz the next Friday as well.
This is an example of inductive reasoning. By observing certain events for four
specific Fridays, one will arrive at a general conclusion.

Example 1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Mathematics in the Modern World

Solution:
a. Each successive number is 5 units larger than the preceding number. Thus, it can be
predicted that the next number in the list is 5 units larger than 25, which is 30.
b. Observe that all the numbers are perfect squares. 1 = 12, 4 = 22, 9 = 32, 16 = 42, 25 = 52.
Thus, it can be predicted that the next number to be 36 = 62.

Example 2. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make Conjecture

Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out of the following process
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 10, add 8
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4.
Repeat the procedure for several different numbers. Make a conjecture between the
relationship of the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number using
inductive reasoning.

Solution:
Suppose we pick 7 as our original number.
Original number: 7
Multiply 7 by 10: 70
Add 8 to the product: 70 + 8 = 78
78
Divide the sum by 2: = 39
2
Subtract the quotient by 4: 39 – 4 = 35
We started with 7 and the procedure produces 35. Starting with 8 as our original
number, the procedure produces 40. Starting with 10 as our original number and the
procedure produces 50. Starting with 50 as our original number and the procedure
produces 250. In each of these cases, the procedure produces a number that is five times
the original number. It is conjectured that the given procedure produces a number that is
five times the original number.

Example 3. Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the table and by inductive reasoning, answer the following
questions below.
Earthquake Max. Tsunami
Magnitude Height (meters)
7.5 5
7.6 9
7.7 13
7.8 17

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 7.9 21
8.0 25
8.1 29
8.2 33
8.3 37
a) If the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in meters) can the tsunami
be?
b) Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake magnitude is less than 7?
Explain your answer.

Solution
a. In the table, for every 0.1 increase in earthquake magnitude, the maximum tsunami
height increases by 4 meters. Thus, it is conjectured that the maximum tsunami height for
the earthquake magnitude of 8.5 is 45 meters.
b. No, because when the earthquake magnitude is 7.4, the maximum tsunami height is
only 1 meter. Hence, a tsunami does not occur when the earthquake magnitude is less
than 7.

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not always be true. In other words,
a conjecture formed by using inductive reasoning may be incorrect. While it is not often
easy to prove that a conjecture is true, it is much simpler to prove that one is false. The
method of disproving a statement, that is, to find one specific example that contradicts the
conjecture is known as a counterexample.

Example 4: Finding a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statement is incorrect by giving a
counterexample.
x
a.  1
x
b. x 2  4  x  2
c. A number is divisible by 3 if the last two digits are divisible by 3.

Solution:
0 x
a. Let x = 0. Then  1 . This implies that  1 is not true for all x.
0 x
b. For x = 1, 12  4  1  4  5 . But x + 2 = 3 when x = 1. Then, 5  3 , implies that
x 2  4  x  2 is a false statement.

c. Pick a few numbers at random whose last two digits are divisible by 3, then divide the
original number by 3, and see if there’s a remainder.
1,527: Last two digits, 27, divisible by 3; 1,527  3  509
11,745: Last two digits, 45, divisible by 3; 11, 745  3  3,915

Mathematics in the Modern World

 At this point, one might start to suspect that the conjecture is true, but it is just
two cases, and there are infinitely many possibilities.
2
1,136: Last two digits, 36, divisible by 3; 1,135  3  378
3
This counterexample shows that the conjecture is false.

The other method of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
assumptions, procedures, or principles. It is based on overall rules, NOT specific
examples.

Example 5. Use deductive reasoning to establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Solution:
Let n represent the original number
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
8n  6
Divide the sum by 2:  4n  3
2
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
It started with n and ended with 4n after following the given procedure. This means that
the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.

Example 6: Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

a) The last six times Jose’s team played their archrival in football, they won, so they
know they’re going to win on Saturday. Is it based on inductive or deductive
reasoning?
b) The syllabus states that any final average between 80 and 85% will result in a 1.5.
If Joan get 79% on the finals, her overall average will be 80.5%, so she’ll get a
1.5. Is it based on inductive or deductive reasoning?

Solution:
a. The conclusion is based on six specific occurrences, not a general rule that needs to be
true, so, it is inductive reasoning.
b. Although it’s about specific person’s grade, the conclusion that Joan will get a 1.5 is
based on a general rule: all scores between 80 and 85% earn a 1.5. This is deductive
reasoning.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Example 7: Logic Puzzles
a. Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation
(editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of
each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.

Solution:
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or dentist. In the following chart, write X1 (which
stands for “ruled out by clue 1) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column
of Sarah’s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home, and we
know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the Banker.
Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah’s row.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for
the three of the four occupations in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place
a  in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef.
Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in
Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a  to indicate that Maria is the
editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 X3
Maria  X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2  X3
Brian X3 X3

Mathematics in the Modern World

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. See the following table.
Sine there are three Xs in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker. Place  in that
box. Thus, Sean cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the
Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a  in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3  X3 X4
Maria  X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2  X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 

Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.

KenKen Puzzle is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the

Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004.

Rules:
1. Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
2. The numbers in each heavily outlined sets of squares, called cages, must combine (in
some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
3. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
4. A number can be repeated within the cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.

Example 8: Solve each of the following puzzles.

a. 6+ 3x b. 2x 64x 3

5+ 8+ 9+

2 3÷

Mathematics in the Modern World

Solution:
a. b.

2 1 4 3
2 1 3
1 3 2 4
3 2 1
3 4 1 2
1 3 2
4 2 3 1

Mathematics in the Modern World

3.2: Problem Solving Strategies

Mathematics is all about learning and practicing problem-solving strategies. One

of the recent who outlines a strategy for solving problems is a Hungarian mathematician
named George Polya (1887 – 1985). He provides four basic steps that can be used in
solving problems in any field.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

Step 1 Understand the Problem
To solve a problem, one must first know what is being asked, and
what information or data that is provided. Also, one must see to it
that he or she can state the problem in his or her own words.
Step 2 Devise a Plan
In this step, one must think of various techniques or strategies in
attempting to solve the problem. Some common strategies: making
list, chart or table, drawing a diagram, guess and check (or trial and
error), finding similar problem that previously solved, using
arithmetic or equations, looking for patterns, performing an
experiment, and working backwards.
Step 3 Carry Out the Plan
After planning, try it out. If it doesn’t work, try a different strategy.
Work carefully and keep an accurate record of all the attempts until
the problem is solved.
Step 4 Review the Solution
Check the answer. It is always a good idea to think about whether
the answer is reasonable. Ensure that the solution is consistent with
the facts of the problem. Then, interpret the result in the context of
the problem.

Example 1. Solving a Problem Using a Diagram

A gardener is asked to plant eight tomato plants that are 18 inches tall in a straight
line with 2 feet between each plant. How much space is needed between the first plant
and the last one?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

The key information given is that there will be eight plants in a line, with 2
feet between each, and it asked to find the total distance from the first to
the last.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

It is a situation where drawing a diagram would be a big help.

Mathematics in the Modern World

 Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

The diagram would look like this:

2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ
Use the diagram to add up the distances:
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 14 feet.

Step 4: Review the Solution

There are eight plants, but only seven spaces of 2 feet between them.
So, 7 x 2 = 14 feet is right.

Example 2. Solving a Problem Using a List

The UNP Shark basketball team won three out of their last six games. In how
many different orders could they have attained three wins and three losses in six games?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

There are many different ways. UNP Shark may have won three straight
wins and three losses (WWWLLL), or maybe they lose in the first three
games and won in the last three games (LLLWWW). Also, there are other
several orders.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

One can organize a list of all the possibilities making sure that no entry
will be duplicated.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

Three Ws must be present in every entry without duplication. The strategy

is to start the list with three consecutive wins. Next in the list are all the
entries starting with two consecutive wins, then next in the list are all the
entries starting with a single win. Following this pattern, consider starting
with three consecutive losses and so on.

WWWLLL LLLWWW
WWLWLL LLWLWW
WWLLWL LLWWLW
WWLLLW LLWWWL
WLLLWW LWWWLL

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 WLLWLW LWWLWL
WLLWWL LWWLLW
WLWLLW LWLWWL
WLWWLL LWLLWW
WLWLWL LWLWLW

Step 4: Review the Solution

The list is organized and has no duplicated, so there are twenty different
orders in which a basketball team can win exactly three out of six games.

Example 3. Solving a Problem Using an Equation

Leonardo da Vinci was a famous artist during the renaissance period. He wrote in
his notebook that “from the top to the bottom of the chin is the sixth part of the face, and
it is the fifty-fourth part of the man.” Suppose the distance from the top to the bottom of
the chin of the person is 1.2 inches. Using Leonardo da Vinci’s measurements, find the
height of the person

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

One needs to find the height of the person in this problem.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

Let x be the unknown height of the person. Write an equation satisfying da

Vinci’s measurement.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

Let x = height of the person

1
Equation: x  1.2
54

 1 
Multiply 54 on both sides of the equation:  x   54   1.2  54 
 54 
x = 64.8 inches or 5.4 ft.
Thus, the person is 5.4 ft tall.

Step 4: Review the Solution

The solution is quite simple. One may check it – Leonardo da Vinci’s

measurements to find his/her best friend’s height.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Example 4. Solving a Problem Using Guess and Check
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are
the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

There’s a need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from 13 to

19 (possible ages for teenagers), that have a product of 4590.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

If the ages are represented by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590, but this cannot
be able to solve. Notice that 4590 ends in a zero, hence, 4590 has a factor
of 2 and 5, which means that at least one of the numbers must be an even
number and at least one number must have 5 as a factor. The only number
in the list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus, 15 is one of the numbers, and
at least one of the other numbers must be an even number. So, in this case,
it can be solved by guessing and checking.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

15 x 16 x 18 = 4320 No, this product is too small.

15 x 16 x 19 = 4560 No, this product is too small.

15 x 17 x 18 = 4590 Yes, this is the correct product.

The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Step 4: Review the Solution

Because 15 x 17 x 18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a

teenager, the solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a
factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.

Example 5. Solving a Problem with NO SOLUTION

The grade in Aaron’s math class will be determined completely by three tests,
each worth 100 points. He scored 78 and 84 on the first two tests, but still hopes to get a
1.0, which would require an average of 93. What’s the minimum score he can get on the
third test?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

Mathematics in the Modern World

 The given is two test scores of 78 and 84 and asked about the average for
three tests. Specifically, it should be at least 93.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

Start by seeing what the average would be if Aaron scores 100 on the last
test, then decide how much lower he can go and still have an average of at
least 93.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

With a third test score of 100, Aaron’s average would be

78  84  100 262
  87.3
3 3
Even with perfect score, Aaron’s average will be only 87.3, so, it is not
possible for him to get a 1.0

Step 4: Review the Solution

In this case, the answer is already checked as part of the plan, so, there’s
no solution to the problem.

References:

Baltazar, E., Ragasa, C., Evangelista, J. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. C &
E Publishing Inc.

N.A. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Rex Book Store, Inc.

Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in our World. McGraw-Hill Education.

Nocon, R. & Nocon, E. (2016). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C & E
Publishing Inc.

Leban, R. (2020). How to Solve KenKen® Puzzles. From http://www.puzzazz.com/how-

to/kenken

Mathematics in the Modern World