Crop Protection (Principles of Crop Protection) Lecture Manual

CROP PROTECTION
(PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION)
LECTURE MANUAL
JOHNNY CORCHA JR
College of Agriculture
Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University
2019
CERTIFICATION
This lecture manual titled: “Crop Protection 101: Principles of Crop Protection” is prepared and submitted by
Johnny F. Corcha Jr is being used as instructional material for the course.
GAUDELIA C. VILLANUEVA
Chairman, Bachelor of Science in Agriculture
NOTED:
MARINA R. SABADO
Dean
PREFACE
This manual is prepared through the concerted effort of the author for the students enrolled in Crop Protection
101 (Principles of Crop Protection). It can also serve as reference for faculty members and researchers.
This manual consists of nine (9) chapters to be read by the students during the semester. It includes discussions
on the basic principles specific under each chapter to guide students and relate these to practical application in the field
of agriculture.
May this manual be useful to students, faculty members and other stakeholders in the field of agriculture.
THE AUTHOR
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Importance of Crop Protection
Almost all the food that we eat comes from plants or animal-based material. Agricultural crop loss is due to pest insects,
pathogens that cause diseases, and weeds that compete with crops. Pest is defined as organisms that causes harm,
injury, damage or destroys agricultural crops and crop by products, livestock and man.
The status of an organism as a pest within an ecosystem is not fixed. The organism may vary from being a pest that
causes substantial losses, to being of no consequence. The status of a pest is shown in pest tetrahedron, the concept of
integrating the effects of pest organism, host or crop, time and environment. These potential pest organisms only
become an actual pest problem when all the vertices of the tetrahedron are present in an appropriate state. 1. A
suitable host must be available; 2. These environments must be correct for both the pest and the host; 3. The time must
be adequate for the pest to interact with the host; 4. An objective of human activity with respect to the host or crop
must not be compromised, for the pest to take effect.
I. World Population and Food Supply
World population census projected that the 5.8 billion people in 1996 will be 8.5 billion by 2030 with 90% annual
increase from developing countries, 70% from the poorest developing countries with a person’s income of USD
2.00/ day (Footsteps, 1996). Cornelius and Cower (1997) likewise projected that the 6 billion people in 1997 will be 8
billion by 2050 with 98% annual increase from developing countries.
The Department of Cooperation Statistics (1997) estimated that 840M people in developing countries or 20% of
the population lack enough access to food supply for healthy and active life. One half of them face hunger.
Moreover, around 40 million people including 13 million children die of hunger and its consequences every year.
Forty percent of the world’s population suffer from lack of micronutrients particularly vitamins and trace elements.
Furthermore, there are 1.6 billion people living in areas with endemic lack of iodine and 230 million children across
the world suffer from vitamin A deficiency.
Table 1. Population trends in developed and less developed countries

WORLD DEVELOPED LESS DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES COUNTRIES
Population % Increase 6, 214,891 1,197,329,000 5,017,562,000
1.4% 9.9%
According to FAO and World Bank

 795 million people – or one in nine people in the world – do not have enough to eat.
 98% of the world’s undernourished people live in developing countries.
Where is hunger the worst?

 Asia: 525.6 million
 Sub-Saharan Africa: 214 million
 Latin America and the Caribbean: 37 million
 70 percent of the world’s poorest people live in rural areas and depend on agriculture and related activities for
their livelihood.
 50 percent of hungry people are farming families.
CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

II. Crop Protection
Crop Protection is divided into three major disciplines.

1. Entomology – is the branch of zoology that deals with the study of insects and other arthropods. It includes the
study and control of other pests: snails, slugs, and vertebrate pest like rats.
2. Plant Pathology – is the branch of biological science that deals with the cause, nature, prevention and control of
plant diseases.
3. Weed science – is the study of weeds and their control
Terminologies
Pests – are organisms that causes harm to man directly or indirectly or whose existence conflict with the interest and
welfare of man.
Disease – is a series of visible and invisible responses of plant cells and tissues to a pathogenic organism or
environmental factors that results in adverse changes in the form, function, or integrity of the plant or animal and may
lead to partial impairment or death of the organism.
Injury – any damage caused by a plant, animal, physical, or chemical agent. Usually cause by environmental factors/
abiotic agent or result of an instantaneous action. Non - infectious
Classification of pest and pathogen

1. Indirect pest – organisms that feed on or infect the host by the disturbance of the normal functions of the
organs attacked. Usually vectors that do not cause harm but facilitate other organisms to do so.
2. Direct pest – those that attack the plant part that is harvested, such as fruits, seeds etc. Organisms that
themselves cause harm
Categories of Pests
1. Insects Pests – are insects that cause harm to man directly or indirectly such as injury, damage or destruction of
crops and stored products. Out of 1 million species of insects described, only 1 thousand species or 1 percent of
them are considered serious pests and less than 10 thousand species are occasional or sporadic pest.
2. Pathogenic microorganisms/ organisms – any agent that causes a disease. This includes viruses, bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, nematodes, parasitic insects and arthropods.
3. Weeds – any undesirable plant and crowd out desired plants. A plant whose virtues have not been discovered. A
plant that interfere with the objectives of man in a specific situation. A plant growing where it is not wanted. A
plant whose potentialities for harm outweighs its potentialities for good
4. Vertebrate and mollusk pests – snails, slugs, rats and birds
Classification of pests in relation to economic threshold
1. Permanent pest – cause economic harm from year to year

2. Occasional pest – those which are normally below the economic threshold and frequently cause damage above
the threshold
3. Potential pest – those that remain below the economic threshold but possess capabilities to become a
permanent or occasional pest

CPRO 101
EXERCISE NO. I
CROP PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
Crop protection is a course of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture. Crop protection 101 presents the basic
principles and concepts of insects, plant diseases, weeds and other pests.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the importance of the course
2. Describe the importance and role of pest
3. Identify and discuss the various kinds of pest
III. METHODOLOGY
Make a PowerPoint presentation of the top ten pest in the Philippines. Discuss and defend your answer on why you
choose them as the top ten. Include data, pictures, and other references as evidence.
Questions to answer
1. Briefly explain the importance of crop protection in relation to Agriculture
2. Write ten men and women and their contribution to Crop Protection in the Philippines
Deadline of Submission: 5 days

CHAPTER 2
PLANT PATHOLOGY
Plant pathology as a science has practical and noble goal of protecting food available for humans and animals. Plant
pathology tries to increase our knowledge about plant diseases, develops methods, equipment and materials through
which plant diseases can be avoided or controlled. The challenges for plant pathology are to reduce food loses while
improving food quality and at the same time safeguarding our environment.
Epidemiology is the study of disease development on plant population
Epidem means disease spread
A. Factors involve in disease production

1. Pathogen – ability to increase disease (virulence)
2. Host – susceptibility
3. Environment – favorable
4. Time (element)
B. Kinds of disease base on the epidem

1. Endemic disease – within (native disease to a locality)
2. Exotic disease – outside
3. Sporadic – occurs at irregular interval
4. Pandemic – a widespread outbreak of disease
The initial amount of disease and the duration of disease increase are affected by the disease pyramid. Disease is greater
when the pathogen is virulent, the host is susceptible, the environment is favorable, and time is longer or favorable for
disease production.
Disease forecasting prediction (when disease occurs) use as a guide for disease management and show the severity of
the disease.
Disease assessment determine the amount of disease, determine disease severity prevalence, relate prevalence to yield
loss, and express yield loss in monetary equivalent.
Principles and Methods of Plant Disease Control

Principles:
1. Exclusion. Prevent the pathogen that is introduced to an area from spreading. The new pathogen is unknown.
2. Protection. Prevention of infection by means of crop management, putting chemical barriers between pathogen
and plants.
3. Eradication. Elimination, inhibition, killing of pathogen which are already found within the area.
4. Immunization. More on genetic manipulation by modifying certain physiological makeup of the host or
pathogen.
Methods of Plant Disease Control

1. Physical. Manipulate temperature
High temperature – sterilization (killing the pathogen) of soil to 20 PSI (121 degrees Celsius) for 2 hours
Low temperature – 4 -5 degrees Celsius minimize rotting of vegetables.
2. Cultural. Weeding, crop rotation, mulching (solarization), fallowing (render the area uncultivated), Flooding
(renders anaerobic condition so that organisms will die).
3. Biological. Use of biological control agents. Example: Trichoderma fungus killing Fusarium by way parasitism.
4. Breeding for resistance – determining the genes
5. Integrated control – compatible combination of methods
6. Chemical. Example: fungus – fungicide, bacteria – bactericide, disinfectant - destroy or inactivate harmful
microorganisms
Terminologies:
Pathogen – any agent (biotic/ abiotic) that causes a disease
Parasite – an organism that depends wholly or partly on another living organism for its food
Obligate parasite – organism that is restricted to subsist on living organisms and attacks only living tissues
Facultative parasite – organism which can be a parasite although it is ordinarily a saprophyte
Saprophyte – organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter
Facultative saprophyte – can become a saprophyte but is ordinarily a parasite
Suscept – organism that is susceptible to a specific disease whether the pathogen is parasitic
Host – refers to the plant that is being attacked by a parasite
Pathogenicity – capacity of a pathogen to cause or incite a disease
Pathogenesis – refers to disease development in plant
Virulence – refers to the quantitative amount of disease that can isolate of a given pathogen can cause (size/ number of
lesions)
Aggressiveness – measures the rate at which virulence is expressed by a given pathogenic isolate
Diagnosis – is the identification of specific plant disease through their characteristic symptoms and signs, and other
factors related to disease process
I. Signs and Symptoms
A. Symptoms of plant diseases:

- Refers to the expressions by the suscept or host of a pathologic condition by which a plant disease may be
distinguished from other plant diseases.
- Include visible response to infection, such as, increased respiration, increase leaf temperature, etc.
- Symptoms vary according to the environment, the host variety and the race of the pathogen involved.
- Different pathogens may cause the formation of identical symptoms
Classification
a. Local – expressed as physiological or structural changes in limited area of the tissue of the host (gall, spots,
cankers)
b. Systemic – expressed as the reaction of a greater part of all the plant (dwarfing, wilting, yellowing)
c. Primary – the direct result of pathogen activity on the invaded tissues (swollen “clubbed” in cabbage root)
d. Secondary – physiological effect on distant and uninvaded organs (wilting of cabbage leaves on a hot weather
from clubbed root)
e. Microscopic/ Histological – expression of disease in cell structure or arrangement that can be studied under a
microscope. Examples: abnormality in cell content, structure or arrangement; cell enlargement and vascular
discoloration
f. Macroscopic/ Morphological – expressions of a disease in the plant or in its parts that can be studied and visible
to the naked eye
Categories of Symptoms
A. Pre – necrotic/ Plesionecrotic – stages preceding death of cells; involve protoplasmic disorganization
1. Hydrosis – a water – soaked, translucent condition of tissue due to water – moving from cells into the
intercellular spaces (late blight lesions on potato leaves, bacterial soft rot)
2. Reddening – red or reddish-brown zones in tissues at edge of necrotic areas (Mycosphaerella leaf spot of
strawberry)
3. Yellowing – loss of green color in normal green tissue due to destruction of chlorophyll (vein clearing in aster
yellow)
4. Wilting – a flaccid condition of leaves, shoots, or entire plants. Maybe due to an infectious agent or to lack of
water. Wilting caused by the latter is often temporary and plant recovers upon the application of enough
moisture unless the drought is prolonged and the plant dies. Wilting by an infectious agent often leads to death
of the plant unless controlled in time.
B. Necrotic – involve death of protoplast, cells or tissues

1. Blast – blighting or sudden death of buds, inflorescences, or young fruit (rice blast)
2. Bleeding/ Gumming or Gummosis/ Leak – chronic flow of sap from wounds or other injuries usually
accompanied by odor or fermentation (stem bleeding of coconut)
3. Blight – sudden or total killing of shoots, limbs, and blossom; resembles scorch but not as localized (bacterial
blight of cassava)
4. Blotch – large, irregular spots on leaves or fruits with necrotic injury of epidemic cells
5. Canker – sunken lesions in cortical tissues of stems, twigs, tubers, and roots. Differ from rot in having a definite
line of demarcation affected (citrus canker)
6. Damping off – decay of seed in soil or rapid death of germinating seedlings.
7. Die – back – drying of leaves starting from the tips of twigs or branches (citrus die back)
8. Firing – drying and dying of leaves (verticillium wilt of eggplant)
9. Flecks – extremely tiny spots on leaves, fruits, stems etc.
10. Mummification – final stage in certain types of rots, usually in fruit disease, where dried fruit is called a
“mummy”
11. Net necrosis – irregular anatomizing, necrotic lines giving a netted appearance (necrosis in potato tubers)
12. Pitting – dying of small, localized areas in fleshy or woody tissues beneath healthy external tissues, leaving
definite depressions (virus stem – pitting in citrus)
13. Rot – dead tissues in an advanced stage of disintegration
14. Scald - blanching of the epidermis and adjacent tissues of young shoots, foliage and fruit generally superficial
(sunscald of peppers and tomatoes)
15. Scorch – suddenly death and browning of large indefinite areas in leaves and fruit (toxicity from pesticides,
drought, or wind injury)
16. Shot – hole – necrotic spotting of leaves, in which diseased tissue dries and drops leaving a hole
17. Spot – circular to irregular dead area in which tissue dries out, color often brown, black to almost white; reddish
or yellowish tissue may surround area; characterized as location by names as leaf and fruit spot.
18. Streak or stripe – elongated, narrow, parallel, necrotic lesions especially in the leaf diseased of cereals and
grasses (helminthosporium disease)
C. Hypoplastic – the failure or cessation of differentiation, development or growth of the plant or some of its
organs
1. Abortion – halting of the development of an organ after partial differentiation (ergot of rye)
2. Chlorosis – partial or complete failure of the development of chlorophyll differentiation
3. Dwarfing – subnormal size of the entire plant or of some of its organs (powdery mildew disease, bunchy – top of
abaca)
4. Etiolation – yellowing of normally green tissues caused by inadequate light
5. Mosaic – the presence, usually on leaves, of variegated patterns of green and yellow shades with sharply
defined borders
6. Mottling – the variegation is less defined than mosaic and the boundaries of light and dark variegated areas are
more defused
7. Phyllody – metamorphosis of sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels into leaf – like structures
8. Rosetting – shortening of the internodes of shoot or branches, resulting in the crowding of the foliage
9. Vein clearing – the leaf veins are translucent or pale while; the rest of the leaf is its normal color
10. Virescence or greening – development of chlorophyll in tissues or organs where it is normally absent
D. Hyperplastic – excessive, multiplication, enlargement or overdevelopment of some aspect of plant growth

1. Abnormal discoloration – development of predominantly bronze or purple pigments in tissue or organs where
these do not ordinary occur due to a variety of causes (deficiency of phosphorus, magnesium, or potassium,
infectious diseases such as maize dwarf mosaic)
2. Abscission – the premature falling of leaves (defoliation), flowers (defloration), or small fruit associated with the
formation of the abscission of layer of cells (black spot of rose, bacterial spot, and early blight of tomato)
3. Callus – tissue outgrowth which form at the edge of a canker or wound
4. Curl – abnormal curling of shoots or leaves due to localized over growth on one side or in certain tissues (potato
leaf roll, tobacco mosaic)
5. Epinasty – the bending outward or downward of a plant part often the terminal growth of a plant or a leaf
petiole (fusarium wilt)
6. Fasciculation/fasciation or brooming – the clustering of organs such as twigs, roots, flowers, and fruits about a
common locus
7. Proliferation – the continued development of an organ after it has reached the stage at which it normally ceased
to develop (adventitious shoot development from Fiji disease of sugarcane)
8. Russeting – a brownish, superficial roughening of the epidermis of fruits, leaves, tubers, or other organs, often
due to abortization of epidermal or sub – epidermal cells following injury (pesticide injury)
9. Scab – circular, usually slightly raised and rough ulcer – like lesions on fruits, tubers, leaf or stem due to the
overgrowth of epidermal and cortical tissues accompanied with rupturing and suberization of cell walls (citrus
scab)
10. Sarcody – abnormal swelling of the bark above wounds due to the accumulation of elaborated food materials
11. Savoying – the cupping or pocketing of parts of the leaf; also curling or puckering, due to underdevelopment of
veins of leaf margins
12. Tumefaction – formation of tumor – like outgrowths or local swelling on any part of the plant. They may be
woody or fleshy (crown gall, legume nodules)
Signs
- Structures of the pathogen found associated with the infected plant part
- Some of these structures may not always be present in diseased plants because their formation depends on
environmental conditions
- Most of these signs are seen and distinguished under a microscope
Categories of Signs:
Vegetative structures – function primarily is absorption and storage of nutrients
1. Felt – a densely woven mat of mycelium
2. Hausterium – an absorbing organ of a fungus which penetrates a host cell without penetrating the plasma
membrane
3. Hypha – a single thread of filament of the fungus mycelium.
4. Mycelium – mass of branching hypha produced by a fungus
5. Pathogen cells – masses of bacterial cells
6. Plasmodium – naked mass of protoplasm
7. Rhizomorph – cordlike strand of fungal hyphae
8. Sclerotium – a hard, compact, resting body composed of fungal hyphae

Reproductive structures – function in reproduction of the organism
1. Acervulus – a mat of hyphae, generally associated with a host, forming erumpent lesions with short, densely
packed conidiophores
2. Apothecium – open, cuplike, ascus – containing fruiting body
3. Ascus – sac – like structure containing ascospores formed because of karyogamy and meiosis
4. Basidium – characteristically club – shaped structure on which basidiospores are produced because of
karyogamy and meiosis
5. Cleistothecium – a closed ascus – containing fruiting body
6. Coniophore – specialized hyphal branch on which conidia are produced
7. Conk – woody shelf – like structure characteristic of many woody – rotting fungi
8. Mildew – cobwebby or powdery growth usually on leaves
9. Mold – woolly of furry surface growth usually on leaves
10. Mushroom (toadstool) – umbrella – shaped fruiting structure of many Basidiomycetes
11. Nematode cysts or egg masses – seen in cyst nematode and root knot nematode of vegetables
12. Perthecium – characteristically flask – shaped, ascus – containing fruiting body with a small opening (ostiole)
and a wall of its own kind
13. Pseudothecium – fruiting body bearing sci in locules within a stoma
14. Pycnidium – asexual, hollow fruity body containing conidia
15. Seed – bearing plants – higher plants that parasitize trees
16. Sorus – mass or cluster of spores borne on short stalks
17. Sporangium – enlarged tip of specialized hyphal branch in which sporangiospores are borne
18. Spore – general name for a single to several – celled propagative unit in fungi and other lower plants; examples
of spores with specific names are conidia, ascospores, basidiospores, zoospores, oospores, sporangiospores,
aeciospores, urediospores, chlamydospores and teliospores
19. Sporodochium – cushion – shaped stoma covered with condiophores
20. Stroma – compact mass of fungal hyphae on or within which fruiting structures are formed
21. Worms – generally nematodes which are microscopic, wormlike animals that can cause disease
Disease products – gases and exudates resulting from disease

1. Odors – many pathogens give of distinct odors by which they can be identified
2. Ooze – droplets or strands composed of bacteria of fungus spores mixed with host – cell liquids; found on
surface of lesions or on cut ends of diseased stems or stalks
Signs of fungal diseases: mycelia, spores, fruiting bodies, etc.
Signs of bacterial diseases: bacterial cells, bacterial ooze
Signs of virus diseases: eggs, juveniles, inclusion bodies
Signs of viroid diseases: RNA fragments
Signs of diseases caused by parasitic flowering plants: seeds and the plants itself
Koch’s rules of proof of pathogenicity

- The set of rules used to prove the pathogenicity of facultative parasites
Steps:
1. The suspected pathogen must always be present in the plant when and disease occurs (association);
2. The organism which is believed to be the cause of the disease must be isolated and grown in pure culture
(isolation);
3. The pure culture of the organism must produce the symptoms and signs of the disease when inoculated into a
health plant (inoculation); and
4. The suspected causal organism must be re-isolated in pure culture from the inoculated plant and must be
identical to the original organism (re – isolation)

II. Parasitic Agents
Virus as Plant Pathogens
a. Viruses
Characteristics:
- Obligate parasites
- Ultramicroscopic
- Composed of nucleic acid, of the RNA type
Example of virus diseases:
- Tomato mosaic virus – tobravirus
- Potato mosaic virus – protex virus
b. Viroid
Characteristics:
- Stable entities of low molecular weight, RNA
- Much smaller than viruses and lack protein sheath
- Closely associated with the nuclei, especially the chromatin of its host they infect
Examples of viroid diseases and its symptoms:
- Cadang – cadang of coconut – yellowing
- Citrus exocortis – vertical breaking of bark
- Potato spindle tuber – twisting and rolling of leaves
Bacteria as Plant Pathogens
Characteristics: Procaryotic cells
Reproduce asexually: Binary fission

Classification:
a. According to shape
- Rod shape: bacillus
- Circular shape: coccus
- Spiral: spirum
b. Position of Flagella
- Lophotrichous = 2
- Limphotrichous = 2 at both ends
- Peritrichous = 1
c. Biochemical characteristics
- Gram+ = violet (basic) – Ammonium Oxalate
- Gram- = red (acidic) – Sefarin
Symptoms:
Leaf spot of tomato (Xanthomonas campestris)
Soft rot of vegetables (Pectobacterium carotovorum)
Blight of tobacco (Pseudomonas syringae)
Citrus canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri)
Wilt of solanaceous/ non-solanaceous plant (Ralstonia solanacearum)
Protozoa as Plant Pathogens
Some microorganisms like fungi were placed under the grouping of fungi but have been under the Kingdom Protozoa
Fungal – like Plasmodiophoromycetes or endoparasitic slime – molds have been transferred to Kingdom Protozoa
Example:
Clubroot of crucifers (Plasmodiophora brassicae)
Powdery scab of potato (Spongospora subterranean)
Note: Myxomycetes and Plasmodiophoromycetes now belong to Kingdom Protozoa
Chromista as Plant Pathogens
Oomycetes was classified before in the Kingdom fungi but now belong to a Kingdom Chromista. Oomocytes includes
water molds, white rust and downy mildews. Chromista which has organisms that may be unicellular or multicellular,
filamentous or colonial, with chloroplasts and cell walls containing glucans and cellulose but without chitin.
Example:
Damping – off of seedlings (Pythium spp.)
Downey mildew of corn (Peronosclerospora philippinensis)
Downey mildew of cucurbits (Pseudoperonospora cubensis)
Plant Parasitic Nematodes

Characteristics:
- Thread – like unsegmented worms
- Elongated and cylindrical in shape
- No internal separation of organs, hence the term ‘unsegmented’ to describe them
- Egg masses – located at posterior portion of female
- With stylet – hollow – needle like spear located at the anterior portion
- Behind the spear is a muscular esophagous with several digestive glands
- As the nematode feeds, the stylet is inserted inside the plant cell and the plant juice is extracted by a sucking
action
Symptoms:
- May mimic those of nutrient deficiency or drought even adequate mineral and water are available
- The first symptom that appear is leaf chlorosis, followed by stunting and eventually death
Other symptoms include:
1. Galls – are formed on the roots because of hypertrophy and hyperplasia, it may be formed on the leaves, seeds
and floral parts
2. Stunting of the above ground parts is common associated with reduced yield
3. Abnormal foliage coloration – typical with mineral deficiency diseases results from root injury and
malfunctioning. This inhibits the mineral uptake of the host
4. Wilting – results when nematodes injure the roots under a condition of moisture stress
5. Leaf spots, distortion, twisting, swelling – caused by stem and bulb nematodes
6. Necrotic lesions – in roots and excessive branching result when nematodes feed on the root system
The salivary secretion of nematodes contains enzymes that may be responsible for a variety of host responses such as:
dissolution of cell walls and middle lamella, necrosis, hypertrophy, hyperplasia and growth inhibition.
Nematodes have been involved in disease complexes (a physiological malfunctioning caused by two or more pathogens)
with fungi, bacteria, viruses and other nematodes.
Plant Pathogenic Mollicutes

Characteristics:
- Prokaryotic microorganisms like bacteria
- Unlike bacteria they do not have a unit plasma membrane or cell wall

- Pleomorphic and sensitive to osmotic change
- Contains both RNA and DNA
- Resistant to penicillin but sensitive to tetracycline and chloramphenicol
Symptoms:
- Yellowing
- Virescence
- Stunting
- Phyllody (production of axillary and adventitious roots)
Disease caused by mollicutes

Lethal yellowing of coconut tree (Phytoplasma)
Citrus stubborn disease (Spiroplasma)
Corn stunt (Spiroplasma)
Parasitic Flowering Plants
There are over 2500 higher plant species that parasitize other plants in varying degrees of dependence. A few of them
cause considerable damage on crop plants or forest trees. Phanerogams a parasitic seed plants that are harmful to
agriculture and forestry are considered.
1. Hemi – parasites – depend on their hosts for water and minerals but not for photosynthesis because their leaves
contain chlorophyll and manufacture food thru photosynthesis.
Example:
a. Witchweed (Striaga asiatica) – can cause severe damage in some monocots like corn, sorghum, and sugarcane
by attacking the root system, utilizing water and minerals of its hosts.
The parasitized plant becomes stunted and yellowish, wilt and eventually die. The seeds of the witchweed are
carried by water or air current to another host. Seeds that fail to land on host may remain dormant but viable up to
20 years.
b. Mistletoe (Phoradendron spp.) – parasitizes conifers and broad-leaved trees. Causes swelling in the host. The
berries are carried by birds or wind to branches of other trees. The seed upon germination forms a disc – shaped
structure for attachment and develops haustoria strands. The haustorium enters the host through lenticel or
axillary bud, then form branches, called sinkers which invades the cambium rays of its host.
2. True – parasite – obtains food from its host for its own growth
a. Dodder (Cuscuta sp.) – attacks several host plants forming a yellow to orange leafless vine strands around the
host. The seed germinates in the soil forming a weak root and a stem. The stem winds itself around its host and
forms a haustoria that penetrate the phloem tissue of the host and obtains food for its growth. The seeds fall to
the ground and may remain dormant for 5 years before germination takes place.
b. Broomrape (Orobanche spp.) – appears as cluster of yellowish, brownish stem arising from the soil at the base of
the host plant. Upon germination, the root attaches itself to the root of the host. The new root and stem of the
parasite fuse with the other host roots forming a nodule which sends forth a stem newer roots, forming a
cluster.
Insects as Plant Pathogens
Insects have been known to cause mechanical injuries in plants with corresponding physiological malfunctioning of its
host. Insect injury may block or cut – off portions of phloem and/ or xylem thus disturbing the normal transport of plant
nutrients. Insect my also secrete toxic compounds harmful to plants, such are called toxicogenic insects, usually with
piercing sucking mouthparts, injecting the toxin while feeding on the plant. Insects may cause formation of local lesions
such as leaf spots, fruit spots at the feeding area.
III. Non – Parasitic Agents of Plant Diseases
Abiotic diseases or injury

1. Injury caused by too low temperatures
- Freezing injury – when temperature is below 0⁰C, ice crystals form within or in – between cells
- Chilling injury – low temperatures slightly above freezing (below 12.5 ⁰C) causes many tropical fruits and
vegetables pitted and water – soaked symptoms
2. Injury caused by too elevated temperature
- Sun scald – tissues are light – colored and blistered, due to prolonged exposure to elevated temperature and
bright sunlight
- Heat necrosis of potato – potatoes grown in light soils where it is hot and dry and exhibit yellow or brown
discoloration in the vascular system
3. Stress caused by lack of oxygen
- At oxygen below 2%, normal respiration cannot proceed which results in anaerobiosis
- Blackheart disease of potato
4. Too much or too less light
- Too much light scorches or scalds leaf tissues; too less light produces etiolated plants
5. Injury caused by adverse meteorological conditions
- High winds, heavy rains, lightning can also cause various disorders in plants.
6. Injury caused by air pollutants
- Mainly gases and particulates (soot, dust, ashes)
- Ethylene – essential plant hormone, from vehicle emissions
- Nitrogen oxides – from automobile emissions, combustion of coal, gasoline, natural gas and fuel oil
- Peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs) – formed from nitrogen oxides undergoing a phytochemical reaction with gaseous
hydrocarbons
- Ozone – constituents of smog, also formed in the same way as PANs
- Particulates – lime and cement dusts, ash and soot
- Other air pollutants like chlorine (Cl2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), fluorides, hydrogen chloride, etc.
7. Mineral deficiencies/ mineral excesses
8. Unfavorable soil pH
9. Excessive pesticide levels
10. Improper agricultural practices
11. Lack or excess of soil moisture
12. Naturally occurring toxic chemicals
- Example: hydrogen sulfide at toxic levels may be formed in the presence of ferrous ion in flooded rice fields
under anaerobic conditions causing a disease in rice
SOME IMPORTANT PLANT DISEASES COMMON IN THE PHILIPPINES AND THEIR CAUSAL AGENTS
PLANT DISEASES CAUSAL AGENTS
A. Fungal Disease
1. Downy mildew of Corn Peronosclerospora philippinennsis
2. Downy mildew of Cucurbits Pseudoperonospora cubensis
3. Downy mildew of Grapes Plasmopara viticola
4. Powdery mildew of Beans Erysiphe polygoni
5. Cotton Rust Phakopsora gossypii
6. Corn Rust Puccinia polysora
7. Sorghum Rust Phakopsora sorghi
8. Soybean Rust Puccinia phaseoli
9. Coffee Rust Hemelnea vastatrix
10. Bean Rust Uromyces phaseoli
11. Peanut Rust Phakopsora arachidis
12. White Rust of Mustard Albugo candida
13. White Rust of Kangkong Albugo ipomoea panduranae
Albugo ipomoea – aquatica
14. Smut of Corn Ustilago maydis
15. Damping – off of Vegetables Pythium debaryanum
16. Damping – off of Cereals Pythium aphanidermatum
17. Late blight of Eggplant Phytophtora parasitica
18. Late blight of Potato and Tomato Phytophtora infestans
19. Leaf blight of Gabi Phytophtora colocasiae
20. Clubroot of Crucifers Plasmodiophora brassicae
21. Powdery Scab of White Potato Spongospora subterranean
22. Orange galls of Winged Bean Synchytrium psophocarpi
23. Brown Spot of Corn Physoderma maydis
24. Banana Freckle Phyllosticta musarum
25. Aspergillus Rot of Onion Aspergillus niger
26. Green Mold of Citrus Penicillium digitatum
27. Blotch Leaf Mold of Tomato Pseudocercospora fuligena
28. Narrow Brown Spot of Rice Cercospora oryzae
29. Leaf Spot of Tobacco Cercospora nicotianae
30. Leaf Mold of Okra Cercospora abelmoschi
31. Leaf Spot of Mungbean Cercospora cruenta
32. Leaf Spot of Corn Bipolaris maydis
33. Brown Spot of Rice Helminthosporium oryzae
34. Stem Spot of Rice Helminthosporium sigmoideum
35. Culvularia Leaf Spot of Corn Culvularia inequalis
36. Rice Blast Pyricularia grisea
37. Purple Blotch of Onion Alternaria porri
38. Anthracnose of Onion or Twister Colletotrichum gleosporioides
39. Kernel Blast of Corn Fusarium moniliforme
40. Early Blight of Tomato Alternaria solani
41. Late Blight of Tomato Phytophthopra infestans
42. Black Spot of Peanut Cercospora personata
43. Fusarium Root Rot of Bean Fusarium solani
44. Rhizoctonia Stalk & Stem Rot of Plants Rhizoctonia solani
(Sunflower, Sorghum, Sugarcane etc.)
45. Sheath Blight of Rice and Corn Sclerotium rolfsii
46. Phomopsis Blight of Eggplant Phomopsis vexans
47. Jackfruit Bud Rot Rhizopus nigricans
48. Choanephora fruit rot of Pepper Choanephora cucurbitarum
49. Anthracnose of Pepper Colletotrichum capsica
50. Anthracnose of Beans Colletotrichum lindemuthianum
51. Anthracnose of Mango, Guava Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
52. Citrus Scab Elsinoe fawcetti
53. Stem End Rot of Mango, Papaya and other fruits Lasiodiplodia theobromae
54. Black spot of Rose Marsoninna rosae
55. Gray Leaf Spot of Coconut Pestalotia palmarum
B. Bacterial Diseases
1. Bacterial Leaf Streak of Rice Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola
2. Bacterial Leaf Blight of Rice Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
3. Citrus Canker Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri
4. Bacterial Wilt of Crops (Solanaceous crops, Abaca, Ralstonia solanacearum
Banana, Peanut, Ginger, Castor Bean, Cowpea,
Bitter gourd, Squash, Winged Bean, Marigold)
5. Leaf Stripe of Sorghum and Corn Leaf Burkholderea andropogonis
6. Red stripe of Sugarcane Xanthomonas albidineans
7. Bulb Rot of Onion Burkholderea gladioli pv. aliicola
8. Black Rot of Broccoli, Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
Radish
9. Bacterial Blight of Anthurium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. dieffenbachiae
10. Blight of Soybean Pseudomonas savastanoi subsp. glycinea
11. Bacterial Blight of Cotton Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacearum
12. Cassava Leaf Blight Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis
13. Common Blight of Cowpea/ Bean Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli
14. Bacterial Spot of Tomato and Pepper Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria
15. Leaf Spot of Blight of Poinsettia Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. poinsettiicola
16. Soft Rot of Vegetables and Orchids Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum
17. Bacterial Wilt of Cucurbits Erwinia tracheiphlia
18. Crown Gall Agrobacterium tumefaciens
19. Cancer of Tomato Corynebacterium michiganense
20. Potato Scab Streptomyces scabies
21. Sweet Potato Scab Streptomyces ipomeae
C. Viral Diseases
1. Cucumber Mosaic Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)
2. Tobacco Mosaic Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
3. Tomato Mosaic Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV)
4. Bunchy Top of Banana/ Abaca Abaca/ Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)
5. Abaca Mosaic Abaca Mosaic Virus (AMV)
6. Tungro of Rice Rice Tungro Virus
7. Peanut Rossette Peanut Rossette Virus
8. Papaya Ringspot Papaya Ringspot Virus (PRSV)
9. Tomato Leaf Curl Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (TLCV)
10. Coconut Yellow ringspot Coconut Yellow Ringspot Virus
11. Tristeza of Citrus Citrus Tristeza Virus (CTV)
D. Diseases caused by Nematodes
1. Root Knot of Tomato Meloidogyne incognita
2. Slow Decline of Citrus Tylenchulus semipenetrans
3. Spreading Decline of Citrus Radopholus citrophilus
4. Root, Blackheads, or Toppling Disease of Banana/ Radopholus similes
Yellow Dwarf of Black Pepper
5. Bulb and Stem Rot Ditelynchus spp.
6. Onion Bloat Ditelynchus dipsaci
7. White Tip Disease of Rice Aphelenchoides besseyi
8. Rice Root Rot “Mentek” Hirchmanniella mucronata and H. oryzae
9. Yellow Dwarf of Soybean Heteredora glycines
10. Red Plant Disease of Strawberry Aphelenchoides fragariae
11. Red Ring Disease of Coconut Rhadina phelenchus cocophilus
12. Stunt Disease of Pine Seedlings Tylenchorhynchus claytoni
13. Potato Decline Globodera rostoschiensis
14. Root Decay of Papaya Rotylenchus reniformis
CPRO 101
EXERCISE NO. 2
PLANT PATHOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
According to Aquios (1978) Plant diseases are any disturbance brought by a pathogen or an environmental factor which
interferes with the manufacture, translocation or utilization of food, animal nutrient and water is such a way that the
affected plant changes in appearance and/ or yield less than the normal healthy plant of the same variety.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To describe the parasitic and non – parasitic causes of plant disease
2. To be familiarized with the different symptoms of plant diseases
III. METHODOLOGY
Make a PowerPoint presentation of the all the symptoms discussed in chapter two. Include pictures and state the causal
agent of the symptom (biotic and abiotic).
Questions to answer
1. Below is a list of common crops found in the Philippines. Complete the table by filling in the blanks. Give an
example of a disease and the parasitic agent. An example is given for number one.
CROPS Disease/Parasitic Agents
Virus/Viroid Bacteria Fungi Nematode/ other
causal agent
1. Potato Potato mosaic virus Bacterial wilt of Early blight of potato Potato cyst
– protex virus potato - Ralstonia - Alternaria solani nematode –
solanacearum Globodera pallida
2. Tomato
3. Tobacco
4. Banana
5. Strawberry
6. Eggplant
7. Lettuce
8. Pineapple
9. Melon
10. Coconut
11. Beans
12. Coffee
13. Cacao
14. Papaya
15. Rice
16. Corn
17. Citrus
18. Cabbage
19. Onion
20. Bitter gourd
21. Mango
2. What are the different methods of control and prevention of plant diseases? What is the best method of control
to be used.
CHAPTER 3
WEEDS
Weed science is the study of weeds and their control. It is an off – shoot of plant physiology having evolved from the
study of plant growth regulators. Its main goal is the formulation of most effective, economical, and satisfactory
methods of controlling weeds.
A weed is defined as a plant growing where it is not wanted. A plant whose potentialities for harm far outweighs its
potentialities for good. A unique characteristic of a weed is its adaptation to disturbed environment. They can occupy
the ecological spaces left open in those environments altered by man for his use.
Characteristics of weeds:
1. They have rapid vegetative growth. In grasses, this may be manifested by fast and numerous tiller production, in
sedges, by rapid tuber and shoot formation and in broadleaves, by faster stem elongation and branching. There
is also rapid leaf production which allows rapid photosynthetic activity.
2. They reproduce rapidly and mature early. The means of reproduction can be asexual and sexual. In annual
weeds which reproduce mainly by seeds, there is rapid vegetative growth manifested by profuse tiller and
branching which contribute to the numerous seed production.
3. Most weeds are very prolific and produce abundant seeds. Rottboellia cochinchinensis, for instance, can produce
more than 700 tillers and branches which can produce inflorescence. Scripus maritmus, a perennial sedge, can
produce more than 100 dormant and non – dormant tubers in one cropping season in irrigated paddy rice.
4. They can survive and adapt to adverse conditions. Some species can germinate and grow under a wide range of
environmental conditions. They possess mechanism to resist drought and excessive moisture stress. While many
crop seeds are capable of resisting decay and remain dormant.
5. Propagules possess dormancy or can be induced to become dormant under unfavorable conditions. Dormancy is
one mechanism that enables the species to survive under unfavorable conditions including control operations.
Flashes of annual weed seed germination under field conditions require more weeding operations or more
persistent control agents.
6. Adaptation to crop competition. Have proper synchronize germination, rapid establishment and growth of
seedlings, and quick response to available moisture and nutrient.
Classification of weeds
Common weeds – weeds that are found in every farm but not exceptionally injurious and are readily controlled by a
good farming practice.
Noxious weeds – weeds that are particularly undesirable characteristics, like the presence of an extensive perennial
underground system which enable to resist the most determined effort to control.
Specific Classification
Morphological Classification
1. Dicotyledonous – have two seed leaves or cotyledons. Plants have expanded leaf blades, netted leaf venation,
and a taproot system. Example: Annual – Ageratum conyzoides; Perennial – Lantana camara
2. Monocotyledonous – have a single cotyledon with parallel venation and a fibrous root system. Example:
Cynodon dactylon
Based on Body Texture – general appearance of the stem

1. Herbaceous – soft stem. Ex: Amaranthus spinosus
2. Woody – hard texture. Ex: Lantana camara
3. Vine – soft and weak. Ex: Ipomoea trilobal
Based on outward appearance or gross morphology
Grasses
- Are members of the family Gramineae (Poaceae) which range from small, twisted, erect, or creeping annuals
and perennials
- Stems are called culms, is cylindrical with well -defined nodes and internodes
- Leaves arise alternately in two rows from the nodes
- The leaf is composed of two parts, the leaf sheath with clasp and culm and leaf blade with parallel venation
- Leaf sheaths overlap to protect the growing shoot
- Ligule, a hairy membranous outgrowth between the leaf blade and leaf sheath
Sedges
- Are members of the family Cyperaceae has some narrow-elongated leaves but differs from grasses by their
distinguishing triangular stem
- Ligule is absent
- Indistinct nodes and internodes located at the basal part of the culm
- Leaf sheath fused to form a tube around the culm forming rosette leaf arrangement
Broadleaves
- Are members of the family Dicotyledonae and Monocotylidonae characterized by shorter but wider leaves with
either parallel or netted venation like pickerel weed (parallel veins) or three – lobed morning glory (netted veins)
Based on maturity period or life cycle

Annual weed – is one that matures in one growing season or within one year
Example: barnyard grass and goose grass
Perennial weed – is one that matures in more than one growing season or year. Simple perennials reproduced by seeds
as Mimosa pudica and Lantana camara. Creeping perennials reproduce by seeds and by vegetative propagules. The
vegetative propagules may be in the form of stolons as in Cynonodon dactylon, rhizomes as in Sorghum halepense, Off
shoot as in Imperata cylindrica, tubers as in Scirpus maritimus
Example: purple nutsedge and Bermuda grass
Based on manner of reproduction

Sexual weed – is one that reproduces by means of seeds or seed propagules (is a plant part of which can regenerate its
own species)
Example: Barnyard grass
Asexual weed – is one that reproduces by means of vegetative propagules. Example of vegetative propagules are:
Rhizome – is a modified underground stem with buds and scales. Example: Cogon grass
Stolon – is a modified underground stem that creeps and roots at the side. Example: Bermuda grass
Tuber – is a short thickened underground stem. Example: purple nutsedge
Off – shoot – is a baby plant that arises from the mother plant. Example: water lettuce
Based on habit of stem growth

1. Erect – Upright growth habit. Ex: Itch grass
2. Prostrate – lying flat on the ground. Ex: jungle grass
a. Decumbent – lying flat with the growing shoots ascending. Ex: goose grass
b. Procumbent – trailing or lying flat but not rooting at nodes, growing shoot not ascending
3. Twining – clinging or climbing. Ex: three – lobed morning glory
4. Ascending – day flower
5. Creeping – Bermuda grass

Based on habitat or place for preferred growth
Wetland/ Aquatic weed – grows well in lowland or moist soil. Example: barnyard grass and water lettuce
a. Plants that float on the water surface, having roots not attached to the soil bottom. Ex: Pistia stratiotes
b. Emerged – plants that have their roots beneath the surface of the water and their leaves above the surface;
roots attached to the soil. Ex: Cyperus iria
c. Submerged – plants that normally have all leaves beneath the water surface but may have floral parts above the
water. Ex: Hydrilla verticillata
Dryland weed/ Terrestrial – grows well in upland or drier soil, arable lands, waste places, pasture/ rangeland Example:
itchgrass
Aerial or epiphytes – growing in trees, attached or parasitize other plants
Based on the inflorescence or floral structure of the plant

A panicle is an inflorescence in the main axis with at least primary and secondary branching. Example: barnyard grass,
the inflorescence is a panicle with numerous ascending green spikes
Digitate – is a compound structure whose members arise and diverge from the same point, like the fingers of the hand.
Example: goose grass, the inflorescence is digitate, terminal whorl of 3 to 6 spikes
Raceme – is conical inflorescence with flowers arising laterally from a common axis. Example: itch grass, the
inflorescence is a raceme at terminus of culm or branch
Umbel – is an inflorescence in which several divergent flowers arise from the same point. Example: purple nutsedge, the
inflorescence is composed of terminal umbels which are reddish – brown when mature
Benefits of weeds
1. Prevent and control erosion
2. Provide habitat for insect predators
3. Source of genetic material (germplasm) useful in plant breeding
4. Source of medicinal properties
5. Provide alternative source of food (few provide edible fruits) and feed (pasture and hay for livestock)
6. Add and provide organic matter to the soil, returning nutrients to the soil
7. Provide materials for aesthetic purpose
Agricultural Losses Due to Weeds

1. Reduction in quality and quantity of crops, pastures, meat milk and wool
2. Increase cost of crop production because of cultivation, hoeing moving and buying and spraying herbicide
3. Limitations of crop choice, because some crops will not grow well in areas that are heavily infested with certain
weed species
4. Reduced land values
5. Increased harvesting costs
6. Lethal effects on livestock by poisonous weeds
7. Harbor insects and pathogens that attract and injure crop plants
8. Causes human discomforts as skin dermatitis
9. Railroads, public utilities and highway department were vast of money for weed control

LIST OF COMMON WEEDS IN THE PHILIPPINES
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
1. Purslane Portulaca oleracea
2. Jungle rice Echinochloa colona
3. Cogon Imperata cylindrical
4. Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
5. Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus
6. Sprangle top Leptochloa chinensis
7. Goose weed Sphenoclea zeylanica
8. Water purslane Ludwigia octovalvis
9. Goose grass Eleusine indica
10. Crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium aegyptium
11. Slender amaranth Amaranthus viridis
12. Spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus
13. Water fern Azolla pinnata
14. Water lettuce Pistia stratioles
15. Hydrilla Hydrilla verticillate
16. Swamp morning glory Impoea aquatica
17. Lantana Lantana camara
18. Sesbania Sesbania bispinosa
19. Spurge Euphorbia hirta
20. Horse purslane Triantherma portulacastrum
21. Castor plant Ricinus communis
22. Three – lobe morning glory Impomoea triloba
23. Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis
24. Rice flatsedge Cyperus iria
25. Wandering jew Tridax procumbens
26. Joy weed Alternanthera sessilis
27. Pennywort Centella asiatica
28. Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides
29. Blackjack Bidens Pilosa
30. Devil weed “Hagonoy” Chromolaena odorata
31. Pigweed Crassocephalum crepidioides
32. Galinsoga Galinsoga parviflora
33. Climbing Hemp weed Mikania cordata
34. Dandelion Taraxacum officinale
35. Common sedge Cyperus brevifolius
36. Touch – me – not “Makahiya” Mimosa pudica
37. Wire grass Eleusine indica
38. Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum
39. Plantain Plantago major
40. Talahib Saccharum spontaneum
CPRO 101
EXERCISE NO. 3
WEED SCIENCE
I. INTRODUCTION
Weeds constitute a major problem in agriculture. Yield reduction caused by uncontrolled weeds can reach 96%,
depending upon the crop. The damage is generally inflicted mixed populations of weeds, with one or two species
predominating. Different weed species vary in their ability to compete with crops; the more competitive the weed is, the
greater is its ability to reduce yield.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To collect and identify cropland weeds in the Philippines
2. To be familiar with the different classification and types of weeds based on the life cycle, morphological
features, body texture, habit and habitat.
III. METHODOLOGY
Make a PowerPoint presentation of 100 different weeds found in the Philippines. Include photos and information on
their classification based on: morphological classification, based on body texture, based on outward appearance or
gross morphology, based on maturity period or life cycle, based on manner of reproduction, based on habit of stem
growth, based on habitat or place for preferred growth and based on the inflorescence or floral structure of the plant.
Questions to answer
1. Give 10 weeds that are beneficial to man. Why are they beneficial?
2. How are weeds disseminated? What are the agents of their dispersal?

CHAPTER 4
RODENTS
Rodents
- Most populous mammal
- Animal with back – bone and mammary glands
- 42% of all mammals are rodents
- Flourish in close association with humans
- Rodents have only a single pair of incisors in both the upper and lower jaws
- No canine
- Incisors grow continuously
- Incisors can wear away by rubbing the lower against the upper set
Classification of Rodents
- The order Rodentia are classified based on the skull characteristics
- The rodent pest belongs to the myomorphs which all generally have elongated heads and pointed snout
Rodent Pests in the Philippines

1. Rattus tanezumi
- Formerly named Rattus rattus mindanensis
- Distributed all over the country in croplands as well as storage
- Medium – sized rat averaging about 175 g
- Tail uniformly dark usually longer than the head plus body
- Mammary formula: 2 + 3 = 10
2. Rattus argentiventer
- Prevalent is some crop areas in Mindanao and Mindoro
- Generally smaller than R. tanezumi
- Tuft of orange hair near base of ear
- Tail shorter than head plus body
3. Rattus exulans
- Agile climber and smaller than R. tanezumi and R. argentiventer
- Tail nearly as long as head plus body
4. Rattus norvegicus
- Commonly called Norway rat
- Found all over the Philippines commensal with man
- Urban pest creating problems in public health and sanitation, food and grain storage, structural damage, fire
hazards, and garbage disposal
- Generally larger and heavier than the three-species mentioned above
- Has thick tail, shorter than head plus body
- Long vibrissae on snout
5. Mus Musculus castaneous
- Common house mouse and an important pest in urban areas
- It gnaws wood structures and feeds on grains
- Smaller than R. exulans
- Weigh 12 g
- Tail length equal to or longer than head plus body
Food and Feeding Behavior
- Commensal rodents have taste patterns like those of human beings
- They are omnivorous, consuming food waste, stored foods, growing crops and other food items
- Adult rats eat about 8 – 10 % of their body weight
- In general, rats have more regular feeding habits than mice and the former prefer cereals
Population Growth
- High reproductive rate
- Young develop rapidly
- Pregnancy period 19 – 21 days
- Can give birth every three weeks
- Young mature at about 6 weeks of age
- Average litter size about 12
- One female can produce 36 young/ rice seasons
- In intensive rice growing areas breeding is linked to rice cropping cycles
- Extension in cropping season positively influence population size
Agricultural and Domestic Pests

- Major competitor with human for food
- Cause significant losses to crop in fields and in storage
- Rice is one of the preferred crops
- Cut and pull rice seedlings
- Cut tillers
- Cut and store ripened panicles
Human Disease Carrier (60 diseases)

- Bubonic plague
- Salmonellosis
- Leptospirosis
- Rat – bite fever
- Tsutsugamushi disease/ Scrub typhus
- Oriental schistomiasis
Ecological Importance
- Integral part of the ecosystem
- Important food source of predators – owl, hawk, snakes, cats, dogs
- Some are predators – feed on insect pest
- Some are scavengers – help in nutrient cycling
Social Importance
- Key place in literature, mythology, and history
- Experiment animals for medical, biological, and psychological research
- As pets
- Serve as food for humans

CPRO 101
EXERCISE NO. 4
RODENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
Rats occur in almost all rice fields in Southeast Asia and frequently cause estimated yield losses ranging from 5 –
60%. These rice field rats are predominant in both lowland and upland rice fields. They comprise more than 90% of
the rat populations in rice in the Philippines
II. OBJECTIVES
To be familiar with the characteristics, behavior and life biology of rodents
III. METHODOLOGY
Interview farmers in a farm area near you. Make a video. Ask the questions concerning their problems on rats and how
they manage rat problems in the farm.
Questions to answer
1. What is CTBS? How does it help rice farmers manage rodents?
2. Name Five Rodenticides that are available in market today?

CHAPTER V
INSECT PEST
Principles of Entomology
I. Definition of terms
Entomology – the study of insects and related arthropods; branch of zoology that deals with the study of insects;
“entoma” – insects and “logos” – study
Entomologist – people who specialize in entomology
Arthropods – invertebrate animals with segmented bodies and jointed appendages; “arthros” – jointed and “poda” – leg
Insects – animals belonging to Phylum Arthropoda under class Insecta; “insecare” – cut into and “secare” – cut
II. Fields of Entomology

Insect Morphology – study of the form and structure of insects including their function
Insect Systematics – deals with the classification and nomenclature of insects
Insect Physiology – study of the physical and chemical mechanisms that make it possible for the insect to survive in
every environment
Insect Ecology – study of interrelationship of insects and with its environment
Medical Entomology – study of insects that are associated with mammals
Integrated Pest Management – study of insect pests of crops and their management
Apiculture – refers to the rearing of honeybees
Sericulture – refers to the rearing of silkworm
Acarology – study of mites and ticks
III. History of Entomology

Beginning of entomology
Aristotelian Era
Aristotle – father of entomology
Theopratus – economic entomologist
Linneaus – recognized 2,000 species of insects
Fabricius – first insect taxonomist; wrote first textbook in entomology “Philisophica Entomologi” and “Systema
Entomologica”
Latreille – founder of natural system; classification of insects is based on all parts; introduced concept of family and tribe
1800 – 1900
Gregor Mendel – father of genetics, made use of Drosophila melanogaster to demonstrate the Theory of Inheritance of
Separation and Independent Assortment
Philippine entomology
Spanish Occupation
Pigafetta (1521) – account of Palawan leaf insects, the first recognized written record of a Philippine insect
1569 – earliest recorded account of locust swarm in the Philippines in Panay island
1593 – spanish priest Padre Antonio Sedeno first planted mulberry and introduced sericulture in the Philippines
1616 – Philip III of Spain promulgated laws of the Indies which prescribed the extermination of locusts. Similar decrees
followed from years 1774, 1819, 1858, 1866, 1888
1780 – Father Manuel Galliana introduced sericulture for the second time
1781 – Governor Jose Vasco Vargas promote sericulture in the Camarines by planting millions of mulberry trees
1816 – Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz – first entomological investigator to visit the Philippines
1826 – Cochineal insect was first introduced and again in 1861 but failed
1831 – Hugh Cuming – publication of important Philippine insects like Promecotheca cumingii (Baly) 1858
1848 – Hans Herman Behr collected Lepidoptera for two years
1849 – Introduce Aetheopsar cristatellus Linn. from China to control locust
1851 – earliest known species of Philippine Hemiptera by W.S. Dallas
1856 – Pierre Joseph Michael Lorquin, French entomologist worked on Lepidoptera in the Philippines
1859 – 1865 – Carl Semper collected and published insects in the Philippines
1868 – Brauer described Philippine Neuroptera and Odonata (Libellulidae)
1870 – Carl Stal father of modern Hemipterology, a Swedish entomologist published “Hemiptera Insularum
Philippinarum”
1870 – 1871 – F. Smith earliest report on Philippine Hymenoptera
1875 – Candeze, Belgian entomologist first describe Philippine elaterids (Coleoptera)
1877 – Carl Stal published “Orthoptera Nova ex Insulis Philippines, first report on Philippine Orthoptera
1877 – Baron Edmond de Selys Longchamps, first report on Odonata in the Philippines
1882 – C.R. Osten – Sacken, first report on Diptera from the Philippines
1886 – 1892 – George Semper, published first extensive publication of Philippine Lepidoptera, “Die Schmitterlings der
Philippinischen der Inseln; Raphalocera”
1890 – Domingo Sanchez – the first published biological study of insect pest (coffee longhorn borer)
1894 – Jose Sanchez, study on white grub Leucopholis irrorata
1895 – Francisco Alvarez, first comprehensive description on locust ecology
American Occupation
1902 – Bureau of Agriculture organized; first microbial agent, a fungus was used for the control of locust
1902 – Charles S. Banks, first government entomologist in the Philippines
1904 – Charles S. Banks published pest of cacao
1906 – founding of the Philippine Journal of Science where most of the taxonomic work on Philippine insects were
published
1908 – C.S. Ludlow first extensive publication on mosquitoes of the Philippines
1909 – Department of Entomology established with the UP College of Agriculture, first headed by E.M. Ledyard
1911 – F.O. Cevallos, presented earliest work on the use of chemicals for pest control. Insecticides tested were kerosene
emulsion, Resin wash, Bordeaux mixture, white arsenic, carbon bisulphide
1912 – Second Philippine Legislature ended the first Plant Quarantine Law, Act No. 2145
1913 – M.S. Mitzmain, found that surra, a disease of carabao is striated transmitted by garbage fly Tabanus stratus F.;
first established veterinary entomology in the Philippines
1913 – C.H. Schultz, first attempt of using imported Italian bees
1915 – enacted Locust Act No. 2472
1915 – Leopoldo B. Uichanco, first Filipino instructor in entomology
1916 – 1917 – W. Schultz, published Catalogue of Philippine Coleoptera
1917 – Muir, introduced Scolia manilae in Hawaii
1918 – L.B. Uichanco, first Filipino M.S. in entomology, UPCA and first Filipino to finish doctoral degree in entomology in
1922
1919 – Gonzalo Merino, first chief Plant Pest Section
1921 – Hawaiian Sugar Planter’s Association, first private source that donated an insectary in Los Baños
1921 – 1922 – H.E. Woodworth, published first comprehensive host – index of injurious insects to Philippine crops
1922 – L.B. Uichanco described new species of Psyllids; first Filipino to describe Philippine insects
1922 – S.M. Cedaña reported biology of banana weevil, a serious pest of banana in the country
1925 – first time airplane was utilized in the control of migratory locust
1926 – report of G.O. Ocfemia on the transmission of bunchy top of abaca virus by an aphid Pentalonia nigonervosa,
first report of insect transmission of a plant virus in the country
1931 – De Mesa report on wood borer and the lumber industry, first report on forest insects

1933 – J.N. Samson, first study on pesticide residues – amount of residual arsenic on vegetable crops dusted and
sprayed with arsenicals
1934 – Gonzalo Merino, introduced of cane toad Bufo marinus
1934 – 1935 – Russel and Baisas published the first illustrated key to the Philippine Anopheles
1934 – Fajardo and Bellosillo, first report on mites of crop plants in the Philippines
1934 – S.M. Cendaña, first Filipino trained in biological control of insects
1941 – Viado, first insecticide toxicologist in the Philippines
1947 – C.R. Baltazar, first Filipina with college degree major in entomology
1954 – S.M. Cendaña, first study conducted on plant resistance to insects using hybrid corn and inbred strains against
corn borer
1961 – L.C. Rimando, first Filipino acarologist spearheaded research on mites in the Philippines
1962 – July 22, Founding of the Philippine Entomological Society (now Philippine Association of Entomologists, Inc.) the
first entomological organization in the Philippines, S.M. Cendaña as first president
1964 – B.P. Gabriel, first Filipino insect pathologist, international symposium on the major insect pests of rice by IRRI
1966 – C.R. Baltazar, first catalogue of a major insect order done by a Filipino, publication of the catalogue of Philippine
Hymenoptera
1966 – Delfinado, first monographic treatment of Philippine mosquitos except Aedes
1976 – National Crop Protection Center founded by F.F. Sanchez as first director
Insect Morphology
Distinguishing Characteristics of Insects

a. Body with the distinct regions: Head, Thorax, and Abdomen
b. One pair of antennae
c. Three pairs of legs
d. Two pairs of wings
e. The mouthparts consist of the mandibles, a pair of maxillae, labrum and labium
Parts of an insect
a. The insect body wall is composed of three parts
a.1. Epidermal cell – cellular layer of the body wall; secretes molting fluid involved in the growth process
a.2. Cuticle – non – cellular layer of the body wall; covers the entire body surface and the lines the insects’ air
tube lining, salivary glands and parts of the digestive tracts.
3 layers of cuticle:
Epicuticle – outermost thin layer which contains cuticulin, wax and cement
Exocuticle – middle part which give the cuticle its characteristics strength and resilience; it is formed of chitin (a
resistant substance insoluble to water, alcohol, alkali, and dilute acids)
Endocuticle – innermost thick layer of cuticle
a.3. Basement membrane – separates body wall from internal organs
b. Head – comprises the globular to capsule like anterior body segment of an insect which bears the eyes,
antennae and mouthparts
b.1. Types of head orientation. Classification based on the head position in relation to the axis of the body
Hypognathous head – condition wherein the mouthparts are at the right angle to the body axis or the mouthparts is in
continuous series with the legs on the lower surface of the head close to the first thoracic segment. Occurs mostly in
phytophagous or plant – feeding species
Example: grasshopper, roaches, mantids, larva of butterfly

Opisthognathous/ Opisthorrhynchous head – condition wherein the mouthparts are projecting backwards or
posteriorly between the front legs
Example: cicada, bugs, hoppers
Prognathous head – mouthparts is in line to the body axis or directly forward. Commonly seen in carnivorous adult
insects or in burrowing wood & soil larvae particularly beetles
Example: ground beetle, earwigs, antlion, wood borer
b.2. Mouthparts – vary in type depending on the kind of food the insect eat
Mandible – or jaws; Tooth – like structure used for chewing, grinding, tearing or pinching – off solid food. May be used
for defense. Heavily sclerotized, paired and unsegmented
Maxillae – helps in putting the food into the mouth. Paired segmented structures used for mastication and lie directly
behind the mandibles
Labrum – “upper lip”, forms the roof of the oral cavity and covers the base of the mandibles; with a ventral surface
called epipharynx
Labium – “lower lip” found posterior to the maxillae
Hypopharynx – a central tongue – like which drops from the membranous floor of the head and bears the opening of
the salivary ducts.
Types of Insect Mouthparts

Mandibulate or chewing type – the mandibles cut off and grind solid food, and the maxillae and labium push it into the
esophagus
Example: beetle, grasshopper
Cutting – Sponging type – the mandibles are produced into sharp blades, and the maxillae into long probing style
Example: Horse fly
Sponging type – the mandibles and maxillae are non – functional and the remaining parts from the proboscis with a
sponge – like apex called labella
Example: Housefly
Chewing – lapping type – the mandibles and labrum are of chewing type and are used for grasping prey, molding wax or
nest materials; feed on solid and liquid
Example: honeybee
Piercing – sucking type – the mouthparts of this group are modified to piercing tissues and suck juices from them
Example: Mosquito
Siphoning type – the food either nectar or liquid food already are sucked up by means of a long proboscis compost only
of a united galea of each maxilla
Example: Butterfly and moth
Rasping – sucking type – has a cone – shaped beak formed from clypeus, labrum, parts of the maxillae and labium; feed
on liquid as in plant sap
Example: Thrips
b.3. Antennae – elongated, mobile segmented appendages in adults of varying designs and sizes, are used for sensory
purpose and sometimes for defense
Three main parts:
Scape – basal segment
Pedicel – second segment
Flagellum – whip – like part beyond the pedicel
Type of Antennae
Filiform – threadlike, segments nearly uniformly cylindrical in size
Example: grasshopper, cricket, cockroach
Moniliform – beadlike, segments similar in size and nearly spherical in shape
Example: termite
Clavate – clubbed, segments gradually increase in diameter distally
Example: butterfly, ladybird beetle
Serrate – saw – like, the distal half of the antennal segments triangular.
Example: female click beetle
Pectinate – comb – like, most segments with long slender lateral process
Example: male click beetles
Bipectinate – double comb – like
Example: Male Atlas Moth
Flabellate – fan – shaped
Example: Male twisted – wing parasite
Geniculate – elbowed, the first segment is long, and the following segments are small and going off at an angle to the
first
Example: ants, bees
Plumose – feathery – like or hairy – like, most segments with whorls of long hair
Example: Male mosquito
Aristate – with a large third segment bearing a conspicuous dorsal bristle called arista
Example: housefly
Setaceous – bristle – like or needle – like, segments taper distally
Example: dragonfly and damselfly, cicada, leafhoppers
Capitate – having a head, terminal segments suddenly enlarged
Example: sap beetle
Lamellate – leaf – like or plate – like, terminal segment expanded laterally to form rounded lobes
Example: June beetle
b.4. Eyes
Compound eyes – located on each side of the head of most adult insects, which consist of many hexagonal elements
known as facets or ommatidia
Simple eyes or ocelli (singular: ocellus) – are three simple lenses located between the compound eyes on top of the
head, typically arranged in an isosceles triangle; for light detection and are not designed for high resolution vision
Lateral or posterior ocelli – found between the eyes and above the bases of the antennae
Anterior or median ocellus – antero – ventral to the lateral ocelli and between the antennal bases
c. Thorax
- The middle region of the insect body which is connected from the head by a flexible membranous neck (cervix)
- Major function is for insect locomotion
- Contains 3 distinct segments: prothorax (bears the prolegs), mesothorax (bears the forewings and midlegs),
metathorax (bears the hindwings and hindlegs)
- Each thoracic segment is composed of hardened plates that give it rigidity, such as: Notum (upper plate),
Sternum (lower plate), Pleuron (side/ lateral plate)
c.1. Legs – are articulated appendages comprising five segments.

Legs comprises of five segments:
Coxa – the proximal segment that is usually short and stout
Trochanter – connects the coax with the femur
Femur – the stoutest and sometime the largest segment of the leg, in some instances, it is armed with strong spines

Tibia – is often a long, slender structure with downward – pointing spines that aid in climbing
Tarsus – usually made up of several subsegments called tarsomeres, terminate in a pretarsus
Types of insect legs and their uses:

Raptorial legs – grasping forelegs. Example: praying mantis
Cursorial legs – running legs. Example: cockroach
Gressorial legs – walking legs. Example: stick insect
Fossorial legs – digging forelegs. Example: mole cricket
Saltatorial legs – jumping hind legs. Example: grasshopper, flea
Natatorial legs – swimming legs of aquatic insects. Example: diving beetle, water scorpion
Clinging or Clasping legs – hooks on legs. Example: louse
Grooming legs – legs for cleaning head. Example: fly, honeybees
Pollen – collecting legs – flower visiting insects. Example: Hind legs of honeybee called pollen basket have hairs were
pollen is attached
Silk producing legs – forelegs of some insects have silk glands to produce silk to make homes. Example: Web spinners
c.2. Wings
Insect wings show much diversity, varying in shape, texture, and coloration. Some specific types of wings are used to
identify insect orders, such as:
Elytra (singular: elytron) – are thick chitinous and hard with uniform texture which is used to protect the soft abdomen
Example: forewings of beetle (Coleoptera)
Hemelytra (singular: hemelytron) – thickened basal section and membranous apical section
Example: true bugs
Fringed type – are hair – like along the margins of the central using structure
Example: wings of thrips (Thysanoptera)
Membranous type – are soft, flexible, translucent or transparent with prominent wing veins
Halteres/ Halter – are small knob – like structures which are used for balancing instead of flight
Example: hindwings of flies and mosquitoes (Diptera)
Scaly wings - flattened seta or hair because of cuticular extension
Example: scaly wings of Lepidoptera
Tegmina/ Tegmen – hardened leathery or horny forewings which protect the membranous hind wings and soft
abdomen
Example: forewing of grasshopper, mantis, roach (Orthoptera, Mantodea, Blattodea)
d. Abdomen
- This is third body region and usually the largest part especially among females
- The abdomen differs from the head and thorax by its simple structure and lack of appendages in the anterior
segments
- It is primarily for reproduction, excretion and digestion because the abdomen bears the genitalia, the anus,
outwardly, and the digestive system inside, respectively.
d.1. Spiracles – these are external openings of the respiratory system found along the side of the thorax and the
abdomen.
d.2. Tympanum – “ear” is located on the first abdominal tergite in grasshopper but may be found elsewhere in the body
of other insects
- it is the main auditory organ
Tympanal organs may also be located on the: Ventral thorax between the metathoracic legs of mantids; Prothoracic legs
of many orthopterans; Abdomen of cicadas and some moths and beetles; Wing bases of some moths and lacewings;
Prosternum of some flies; Cervical membranes of some scarab beetles
d.2. Cerci – slender, pointed structures found on the eleventh segment of the abdomen
Claspers – found at the posterior end of male insect usually use to hold female during mating while depositing sperm
Ovipositor – found on the posterior end of female insect usually use for depositing eggs; in some insects the ovipositor
is modified as needle like tube that can be inserted to soft tissues were eggs are being deposited
Style – slender tubular process, long spine – like appendages, thickened cerci could also be styles
Vesicle – a little sac bladder or cyst
Classification, Nomenclature, and Identification of Insects
I. Definition of terms:
Classification – ordering of an organism into a hierarchy of categories
Nomenclature – naming of organisms (“Nomen” – name; “Calare” – to call)
Identification – major application of classification and takes place within a pre – existing classification framework
Keys – comprise a sequence of paired statements and questions that allow the user to eliminate alternative options and
eventually associate the unknown specimens with a name
Taxonomy – involves the theoretical basis for classification and the study of classification schemes
Systematics – is the scientific study of the diversity of and relationship between the different organisms
II. Structural Diversity of Insects

Five most dominant insect order
Coleoptera (Beetle)
- 40% of describe insects; estimated 350,000 species
Hymenoptera (wasp, ant, bee)
- Estimated 250,000 species
Lepidoptera (moth, butterfly, skipper)
Diptera (Fly and mosquito)
Hemiptera (bug)
III. Functional Diversity of Insects: the feeding guilds

a. Phytophagous – plant eating insects
Leaf feeders – type of damage include defoliation, tissue damage resulting to skeletonize leaves; leaf rolling; leaf mining
Sap feeders – feed on succulent plant parts by sucking the sap or liquefied tissues; act as vectors of diseases
Flower, nectar, pollen, feeders – pollinators
Seed and fruit feeders
Stem and root borers/ feeders
Gall makers
b. Zoophagous – carnivorous; feeding on living animal

Predator – feed on other insects; eat several preys to complete development; may be specialized or generalist
Parasitoid – larval stage develops in the host which they kill; require only one host to complete development
Parasite – live in another animal
c. Saprophagous/ Detrivores – decomposers/ scavengers; insects that feed on decaying or dead organic matter
d. Mycetophagous – fungus feeders
Feeding Categories
Monophagous – specialist that feed only on one taxon
Oligophagous – feed on a few taxa
Polyphagous – feed on variety of species
IV. Phylum Arthropoda and their Characteristics

1. Taxonomic classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class: Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea, Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Collembola, Diplura, Protura
2. General Characteristics
- Segmented body
- Body segments bear a pair of jointed appendages
- Chitinous exoskeleton
- Bilaterally symmetrical body
3. Distinct Characteristics
Class Arachnida (spider, scorpion, mite, tick)
- Four pairs of legs; fused head and thorax (cephalothorax); gnathal appendages composed of two pairs (first pair
called chelicerae and second pedipalps)
Class Crustacea (crab, shrimp, sowbug, pillbug)
- Have a pair of eyes, pair of antennae, pair of lateral mandibles for chewing; thorax composed of 2 – 60 segments
(somites), distinct or fused, often with carapace over the head and parts of thorax as a dorsal shield or as two
lateral valves; abdominal somites distinct, with telson at the posterior end and appendages variously modified,
biramous; respiration by gills, pseudotrachea or pleopods of some land isopods; excretion by one or two pairs of
green glands, sexes separate, with paired sex openings, egg carried by female
Class Diplopoda (millipede)
- Long cylindrical body; short antennae, pair of mandibles, maxilla fused into plate – like structure called
gnathochilarium; thorax composed of four single somites, each containing two pairs of jointed legs; single sex
opening located at center of third somite of the thorax, excretion by Malpighian tubules, respiration by trachea
Class Chilopoda (centipede)
- Dorsoventrally flattened slender body; long antennae, pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae; body somites
fifteen or more each with a pair of legs, the first legs are modified into well – developed hook – like structure
(poison claws)
Class Insecta
- The class Insecta is divided into orders based on the structure of the wings and mouthparts, the metamorphosis
and on the various other characteristics
Subclass Apterygota – primitively wingless insects
Class/ Order Protura – proturan
- Entognathous; Antennae, compound eyes, wings and cerci are absent; Forelegs held forward; 12 abdominal
segments; Ametabolous
Class/ Order Collembola – springtail
- Entognathous; antennae present and presence of abdominal forked (forcula) a jumping organ; 6 abdominal
segments without cerci; Ametabolous
Class/ Order Diplura – dipluran
- Entognathous; compound eyes and wings absent; antennae filiform and terminal cerci is present; Ametabolous
Order Thysanura – silverfish
- Three tail – like filaments, paired cerci pointed outward and nearly long as long as the middle median caudal
appendage; body covered with gray silvery scale; Ametabolous
Order Archaeognatha – bristletails

- Humped thorax, hypognathous, large compound eyes in near contact; three tails, paired cerci shorter than
single median caudal appendage
Subclass Pterygota – winged and secondarily wingless insects

Division Exopterygota – “external wing growth”. Characterized by the presence of wing pads that simply grow during
each moulting (Incomplete metamorphosis: Paurometabolous and Hemimetabolous)
Order Ephemeroptera – mayfly (“Ephemero” – short – lived or for a day; “ptera” – with wings)
- Presence of setaceous antennae and three tails (paired long multi – segmented cerci and median caudal
filament); vestigial mouthparts, live in 1 – 2 days
Order Odonata – dragonfly and damselfly (“Odon” – tooth)
- Large compound eye, strong chewing mouthparts; have 2 suborders: suborder Anisoptera (“Aniso” – not equal;
“ptera” – wings) dragonfly have forewings not equal in size as hindwings, wings extended horizontally when at
rest; suborder Zygoptera – damselfly have forewings and hindwings equal is size and have the same shape,
wings held vertically above the abdomen when at rest)
Order Plecoptera – stonefly (“Pleco” – folded)
- Naiads live in freshwater bodies of water having two tails; fore and hindwings nearly equal in size, at rest wings
partly wrap abdomen and extend beyond abdominal apex; filiform antennae, chewing mouthparts and long
multisegmented cerci
Order Grylloblattodea – rock crawlers or ice crawlers
- Wingless and often eyeless, prognathous, stout coxae, females with short ovipositor
Order Dermaptera – earwig (“Derma” – skin)
- Forewing small and leathery (tegmina), hindwings are folded lengthwise and crosswise; forceps – like cerci;
predatory
Order Orthoptera – grasshopper, cricket (“Ortho” – straight)
- Forewings are leathery (tegmen) whereas hindwings are membranous; chewing mouthparts and most are
phytophagous; antennae filiform and hindlegs modified for jumping
Order Mantodea – mantis
- Head mobile and triangular, compound eyes large and separated, forelegs raptorial, forewings form tegmina
Order Phasmatodea – walking stick, stick insect, leaf insect
- Prognathous mandibulate, cylindrical stick – like or flattened leaf – like, forewings for leathery tegmina
Order Mantophasmatodea – gladiator
- Recently discovered new insect Order in 2002; prognathous mandibulate, similar to Phasmatodea in appearance
but predatory and carnivorous habit
Order Blattodea – cockroach
- Dorsoventrally flattened, hypognathous, prothorax large and shield – like, forewings form tegmina, coxae large
Order Isoptera – termite (“Iso” – equal)
- Social insects; winged forms have 4 equally alike membranous wings; prognathous head, chewing mouthparts
and moniliform antennae; with the advent of molecular analysis, it is now considered an epifamily Termitoidae
under order Blattodea “social cockroaches”
Order Embioptera – web spinner (“Embio” – lively)
- Prognathous, kidney shaped compound eyes, have 4 membranous wings in males and wingless in females; basal
fore tarsus swollen/ enlarged and with silk gland
Order Zoraptera – zorapteran (“zor” – pure; “aptera” – wingless)
- Hypognathous, termite – like, wingless species lack either eyes and ocelli; winged species have simple wing
venation and shed readily
Order Psocoptera – bark and booklice (“Psoco” – rub small)
- Filiform antennae; large compound eyes; chewing mouthparts asymmetrical, maxillae with rod shaped laciniae
- Wings reduced or absent, if present venation simple, held like roof at rest; cerci absent
Order Phthiraptera – Chewing lice (Suborder: Mallophaga); Sucking lice (Suborder: Anoplura)
- Dorsoventrally flattened, wingless ectoparasite; chewing mouthparts; legs with claws
Order Thysanoptera – thrips (“Thysano” – fringe)
- Hypognathous with feeding tube formed from three stylets, the maxillary laciniae and the left mandible; 4
membranous wings are fringed
Order Hemiptera – true bug (“Hemi” – half); Homoptera – aphid, scale insect, cicada, pyllid, whitefly (“Homo” – alike,
uniform)
- Forewings have a thickened and leathery basal part while apical portion is membranous; piercing – sucking
mouthparts arise from the anterior end of the head extend ventrally
Order Dermaptera – earwigs
- Elongate and flattened, prognathous, forewings are small leathery tegmina, hindwings semi – circular, cerci
modified as forceps
Division Endopterygota – wings in insects with complete metamorphosis may be present internally in larvae as
undifferentiated cells called “imaginal discs” and may be only visible starting from pupal instar
Order Neuroptera – antlion and lacewing (“Neuro” – nerve)
- 4 membranous wings with numerous veins and cross veins; chewing mouthparts
Order Coleoptera – beetle (“Coleo” – sheath)
- Presence of hard or thickened front pair of wings called elytra; chewing mouthparts with well – developed
mandibles
Order Strepsiptera – twisted – winged parasite (“Strepsi” – twisted)
- Endoparasite; males have forewings reduced and without veins while hindwings are fan – shaped with few
veins, females are larviform and wingless; larvae initially a triangulin with three pairs of thoracic legs, later
maggot – like without mouthparts
Order Mecoptera – scorpionfly and hanging fly
- Membranous wings; hypognathous chewing mouthparts modified into a beak, elongated rostrum formed from
slender, serrate mandibles, maxillae and elongated labium; legs raptorial
Order Megaloptera – alderfly and dobsonfly
- Prognathous mandibulate; thorax elongated but prothorax only slightly longer than mesothorax and metathorax
Order Trichoptera – caddisfly (“Tricho” – hair)
- Membranous wings covered with hair; adult mouthparts reduced (no proboscis) but well developed maxillary
and labial palps
Order Lepidoptera – moth, butterfly (“Lepido” – scale)
- Adults have siphoning mouthparts while larvae (caterpillar) have chewing mouthparts; scaly wings and
forewings is locked to hindwings by a structure called frenulum
Order Diptera – true fly (“Di” – two)
- Hindwings are modified into slender, knob – like structure called halteres use for balancing
Order Siphonaptera – flea (“Siphon” – tube; “aptera” – wingless)
- Ectoparasites; body laterally flattened; Piercing – sucking mouthparts without mandibles; antennae lying in
grooves
Order Hymenoptera – ant, bee, wasp, sawfly (“Hymeno” – couple)
- Both wings are membranous, small hindwings are interlocked with the forewings by a hook – like structure
(hamuli); chewing – lapping mouthparts; thorax either three – segmented or forms a mesosoma by
incorporation of 1st abdominal segment in which case the abdomen is petiolated (waisted), the fusion of the
metathorax with the first abdominal segment is called propodeum.
Order Pthiraptera – louse
- Dorsoventrally flattened, wingless ectoparasite; mouthparts mandibulate or beak – like
Order Raphidioptera – snakefly
- Prognathous mandibulate, prothorax much longer than meso – and metathorax

Insect Growth and Development
I. Definition of terms
Development – changes that happens in insect from egg to adult morphologically and physiologically
Metamorphosis – the change in form during the development period after the embryonic development
Ecdysis/ Molting/ Moulting – the process by which an insect shed off old skin (cuticle) to provide enough space to grow;
most insects molts at least three or four times during normal development
Exuvium (exuviae) – old skin (cuticle) left after molting
Stadium (stadia) – the total period between any two molts
Instar – the growth stage between two consecutive molts
Oviduct – one of the paired tubules through which the egg passes from the ovarian tubes into a common oviduct then
into the vagina
Zygote – a fertilized egg
Oocyte – a female egg cell before maturation
Spermatheca – a sac – like structure in the female where sperms from the male is received and stored
II. Types of metamorphosis

Ametabolous/ Ametabola – no metamorphosis (Example: Protura, Diplura, Collembola, Thysanura)
- There is no change in appearance of the young compared to the adult, except in size and development of
reproductive structure or genitalia (egg – young – adult)
Paurometabolous/ Paurometabola – simple, gradual or direct metamorphosis (Example: Hemiptera, Orthoptera,
Thysanoptera, Dermaptera)
- The immature (nymph) resembles the adult except in size, wings, and genitalia development (egg – nymph –
adult)
Hemimetabolous/ Hemimetabola – incomplete metamorphosis (Example: Odonata, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera)
- in which accessory organs like gills are present in immature (naiads); naiads are aquatic while adults are
terrestrial (egg – naiad – adult)
Holometabolous/ Holometabola – complete metamorphosis (Example: Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera,
Neuroptera)
- all stages differ in appearance (egg – larva – pupa – adult)
III. Stages of Metamorphosis

a. Egg – almost all insects produces from egg
Parts of egg:
Yolk/ vitellus – supplies nourishment to the developing egg
Vitelline membrane – a sheath that covers the yolk
Blastoderm – the one cell thick layer of cells that surround the yolk of an egg early in embryonic development
Chorion – or shell which gives protection to the egg
Micropyle – consists of one or more very minute openings thru which the male sperm enters, and fertilization takes
place
Operculum – a lid or cap thru which the young escape a line of weakness in the chorion which splits as the first stage of
larva escapes from the egg
Embryo – the young animal before leaving the body of the parent or before emerging from the egg
b. Larva – the immature stage between the egg and the pupal stage; characterized as the growing feeding and
developing stage that usually cover the longest period in the life cycle
Types of Larva Form
Eruciform – body cylindrical, head well developed; with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs
Example: Lepidoptera, Mecoptera
Scarabeiform – cylindrical and curved U – shaped and head well – developed; with thoracic legs but without prolegs; a
pair of spiracles on the prothorax and 8 pairs abdominal spiracles are present
Example: Coleoptera family including Scarabaeidae, Bruchidae, Ptinidae
Campodeiform – lavae have flattened body and long legs and usually with cerci
Example: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, naiads of Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera and Odonata
Elateriform – elongated body, cylindrical and hard shelled; legs present but short and the body setae reduced
Example: wireworms, Coleoptera family including Elateridae, Tenebrionidae, Alleculidae
Vermiform – body elongated and wormlike, legless, with or without head
Example: Diptera, Siphonaptera
Carabiform – modified campodiform; body flattened but legs shorter and without caudal filaments
Example: Coleoptera family including Chrysomelidae, Lampyridae, Carabidae, Melyridae
Types of Larva in terms of legs

Oligopod – no compound eyes
Example: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, Stepsiptera
Polypod – with thoracic and abdominal prolegs
Example: Lepidoptera
Apodous – no legs and purely sclerotinized
Example: housefly, flea
Protopod – with different forms and is often quite unlike a normal insect
c. Nymph – the active developing stage in paurometabolous insects

d. Naiad – the immature stages of hemimetabolous insects; aquatic; closed spiracles and breathe by means of gills
Example: Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata
e. Pupa – the resting (inactive/ quiescent) or reorganization stage of holometabolous insects

Types of Pupa:
Obtect – appendages more or less glued to the body; covered with tight – fitting, more or less transparent skin which
holds all the parts except the end of the abdomen; pupa of many Lepidoptera is covered by a silken cocoon formed by
the larva before it molts to the pupal stage
Example: Lepidoptera, Diptera
Exarate – appendages free and not glued to the body; looks like a pale mummified adult
Example: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, most Coleoptera
Coarcate – appendages are not visible; like exarate but remain covered by hardened exuvia of the next to the last larval
instar called puparium
Example: Diptera (Cyclorrhapha), Hemiptera (Coccidae)
Decticous – with articulated/ functional mandibles; always exarate
Adecticous – with immobile mandibles; both obtect and exarate
Pharate adult – adult inside the pupa
Pharate pupa – pupa inside the larval skin
f. Adult/ imago – the stage after the last molt; reproductive stage of insect; reproductive system fully matured or
complete
Reproduction in Insects
1. Sexual Reproduction – both male and female are required; an individual is produced by fusion of gametes (eggs
fertilized by sperm); most insects reproduce this way
Oviparity – egg – laying as the normal means of reproduction
Ovoviviparity – production of well – developed eggs that hatch inside the mother’s body; could also refer to a type of
viviparity wherein the eggs are retain in the genital tracts until the larvae are ready to hatch; occurring just before or as
the eggs are laid; all nourishment for the embryo is present in the egg and no special nutritional structures are
developed in the eggs or parent; differ in the normal oviparity in the retention of the eggs
Viviparity – reproduction by giving birth to live offspring rather than eggs
2. Parthenogenesis – only females are required to reproduce the young; offspring can develop without fertilization
Example: aphids undergo sexual reproduction sometime in the year and parthenogenesis during summer months
Two classifications:
Arrhenotoky – males are produced
Thelytoky – females are produced
Deuterotoky – males and females are produced
3. Paedogenesis/ Neotony – reproduction in the sexually immature or larval stage

Example: larvae of some hymenoptera and gall midge
4. Paedoparthenogenesis – parthenogenesis in larva
Oviparous – insects that produce eggs

Viviparous – insects that produce live young
Ovoviviparous/ Oviviviparous – insects produce living young by hatching of the ovum while still inside the mother
INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
RICE
1. Rice whorl maggot Hydrellia philippina
2. Green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens/ N. nigropictus/ N. malayanus
3. Brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens
4. Rice stemborers
Striped stemborer Chilo suppresalis
Dark headed stemborer Chilo polychrysus
Yellow stemborer Scirpophaga incertulas
White stemborer Scirpophaga innonata
Pink stemborer Sesamia inferens
5. Rice bug Leptocorisa oratorius
6. Leaffolder/ leaf roller Cnaphalocrosis medinalis
7. Cutworm Spodoptera litura
8. Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis
9. Green Semilooper Naranga aenescens
10. Rice seedling maggot Atherigona oryzae
11. Asian rice gall midge Orseolia oryzae
12. Rice leaf miner Agromyza oryzae
13. Rice hispa Dicladispa armigera
14. Swarming caterpillar Spodoptera mauritia
15. African armyworm Spodoptera exempta
16. Thrips Stenchaetothrips biformis
17. Rice grasshopper Oxya hyla intricate
18. Locust Locusta migratoria manilensis
19. Malaysian black bug Scotinophara coarctata
Japanese black bug Scotinophara latiuscula
CORN
1. Corn earworm Helicoverpa armigera armigera
2. Asiatic corn borer Ostrinia furnacalis
3. Corn semi lopper Chrysodeixis chalcites
4. Corn Aphid Rhopalisiphum maidis
TOBACCO
1. Tobacco budworm Helicoverpa armigera armigera
2. Tobacco thrips Thrips tabaci
3. Tobacco whitefly Bemisia tabaci
COTTON
1. Cotton bollweevil Amorphoidea lata
2. Cotton stainer Dysdercus cingulatus
3. Cotton leafhopper Amrasca bigutulla
SWEETP OTATO
1. Sweet potato weevil Cylas formicarius formicarius
2. Hornworm Agrius convulvoli
3. Sweet potato bug Physomerus grossipes
4. Tortoise beetle Laccoptera philippinensis
POTATO
1. Potato tuber moth Phtorimaea operculella
CUCURBITS
1. Cucurbit beetle Aulacophora indica
2. 26 – spotted lady beetle Epilachna vigintisexpunctata philippinensis
3. Melon fruitfly Bactrocera cucurbitae
CRUCIFERS
1. Diamond – back moth Plutella xylostella
2. Cabbage worm Crocidolomia binotalis
3. Striped flea beetle Phyllotreta stiolata
4. Cabbage webworm Hellula undalis
SOLANACEOUS CROPS
1. Eggplant shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis
2. Sweet pepper fruitfly Bactrocera dorsalis
LEGUMES
1. Bean fly Ophiomyia phaseoli
2. Bean pod borer Etiella zinckenella
3. Black bean aphid Aphis craccivora
4. Bean Lycaenid Euchrysops cnejus
5. Green soldier bug Nezara viridula
STORED PRODUCT PESTS
1. Bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis
2. Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae
3. Corn weevil Sitophilus zeamays
TARO
1. Gabi hornworm Hippotion Celerio
2. Gabi sphinx moth Rhyncolaba acteus
BANANA
1. Banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa
2. Banana weevil Cosmopolites sordidus
3. Banana leafroller Erionota thrax
4. Banana thrips Thrips florum
CITRUS
1. Citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri
2. Lime butterfly Papilio demoleus
3. Wooly whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus
4. Citrus aphid Toxoptera spp.
5. Citrus green locust Melicodes tenebrosa tenebrosa
MANGO
1. Mango leafhopper Idioscopus niveosparsus
2. Mango twig borer Niphonoclea albata
3. Mango pulp weevil Sternochetus frijidus
4. Mango seed borer Deanolis albizonalis
COCONUT
1. Rhinoceros beetle Oryctes rhinoceros
2. Asiatic palm weevil Rhynchoporus ferrugineus
3. Coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor
OTHER FRUIT TREES
1. Chico blossom moth Eustalodes anthivora
2. Nangka fruitfly Bactrocera umbrosus
3. Atis fruitborer Heterographis bengalella
4. Spiraling whitefly on guava Aleurodicus disperses
5. Atlas moth Attacus atlas
6. Blister mites on Santol Eriophyes sandorici
7. Mealybug on guyabano Planococcus lilacinus
8. Lacewing bug on guyabano Stephanitis typicus
CPRO 101
EXERCISE NO. 5
ENTOMOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
Insects are essential for ecosystem functions including nutrient cycling through decomposition, plant propagation
via pollination, as a food for insectivorous vertebrates
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To explain the general description and characteristics of insects
2. To identify and describe insect life biology
3. To identify the parts of an insect
4. To be familiar with the function/s of the different kinds of insects
5. To discuss the specialized and modified parts of the different kinds of insects
III. METHODOLOGY
Make a power point presentation (with photo or illustration) on the
a. Parts of insect head
b. Parts of insect body parts
c. Types of head orientation
d. Types of insect mouthparts
e. Types of insect antennae
f. Types of insect legs
g. Types of insect wings
h. Insect Orders
i. Types of metamorphosis
j. Types of larva form
k. Types of pupa
Dissect a grasshopper and identify its parts
a. Identify the three body regions
b. Identify the appendages found in each region
c. Identify the function of each parts

CPRO 101
EXERCISE NO. 6
INSECT COLLECTION
I. Introduction
II. Objectives
- To learn how to make paraphernalia and equipment for collecting and preserving insects
- To learn how to collect, identify and properly preserve insects
- To learn about insect’s habitat and their relationship to the environment
III. Methodology
A. Identification of Insect Orders
Insects live in different places and habitat. Insects can be seen under stones, rotting logs, grasses, ponds and creeks etc.
Examine the insects that are found around and try to identify some of them.
B. Making paraphernalia and equipment for collecting and preserving insects

a) Spreading board
Cork board or recycled Styrofoam can be used in making a spreading board. The board is made by placing two pieces of
Styrofoam together to make a groove where the insect body can be secured while the wings are being spread. The
spreading board is used to show the wings of insects.
b) Insect Killing Jar
A screw cap bottle is placed with a poison to kill the insect instantly and to prevent further damage of its part while the
insect is struggling.
c) Light traps
Light traps are used in attracting insects during night time. This can be made from a simple white cloth or expensive kind
of light bulbs.
d) Vials and alcohol
Small to large vials are needed to preserve small and soft bodied insects. 80% alcohol is used as preservative.
- Collect the following number of insect Orders

Order Coleoptera = 15 species Order Embioptera = 1 species
Order Lepidoptera = 4 species Order Ephemeroptera = 1 species
Order Hemiptera = 5 species Order Isoptera = 1 species
Order Odonata = 2 species Order Neuroptera = 1 species
Order Orthoptera = 2 species Order Phthiraptera = 1 species
Order Diptera = 3 species Order Psocoptera = 1 species
Order Hymenoptera = 3 species Order Siphonaptera = 1 species
Order Thysanoptera = 1 species
Order Thysanura = 1 species
IV. Result and Discussion
1. What orders of insect are difficult to find? Explain why?
2. Why do some insects become active only during night time?
3. What orders of insects are abundant in the area? Explain why?
V. Summary and Conclusion

VI. References

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CROP PROTECTION

(PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION)

Importance of Crop Protection

I. World Population and Food Supply

Table 1. Population trends in developed and less developed countries

According to FAO and World Bank

Where is hunger the worst?

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Crop Protection is divided into three major disciplines.

Classification of pest and pathogen

Classification of pests in relation to economic threshold

1. Permanent pest – cause economic harm from year to year

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Deadline of Submission: 5 days

Epidemiology is the study of disease development on plant population

Epidem means disease spread

A. Factors involve in disease production

B. Kinds of disease base on the epidem

Principles and Methods of Plant Disease Control

Methods of Plant Disease Control

I. Signs and Symptoms

A. Symptoms of plant diseases:

B. Necrotic – involve death of protoplast, cells or tissues

D. Hyperplastic – excessive, multiplication, enlargement or overdevelopment of some aspect of plant growth

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Disease products – gases and exudates resulting from disease

Koch’s rules of proof of pathogenicity

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Bacteria as Plant Pathogens

Characteristics: Procaryotic cells

Reproduce asexually: Binary fission

Chromista as Plant Pathogens

Plant Parasitic Nematodes

Plant Pathogenic Mollicutes

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Disease caused by mollicutes

Parasitic Flowering Plants

Abiotic diseases or injury

Based on Body Texture – general appearance of the stem

Based on maturity period or life cycle

Based on manner of reproduction

Based on habit of stem growth

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Based on the inflorescence or floral structure of the plant

Agricultural Losses Due to Weeds

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Deadline of Submission: 5 days

Rodent Pests in the Philippines

Agricultural and Domestic Pests

Human Disease Carrier (60 diseases)

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Deadline of Submission: 5 days

II. Fields of Entomology

III. History of Entomology

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020

Distinguishing Characteristics of Insects

CPRO101 Principles of Crop Protection/ Johnny Corcha Jr/ SY 2019 - 2020