A nerve impulse is an electrochemical change dat travels along a nerve fibre.

It involves a change in
electrical voltage that is brought about by changes in concentration  of ions inside n outside the cell
membrane of the neuron. Voltage is the potential to come together and release energy of a group of
separated positive  and negative charges. de speed of a nerve impulse depends on whether de nerve
fibre is myelinated or unmyelinated and also on the diameter of the fibre. Membrane potential is the
potential difference in the ion concentration on either side of de cell membrane. Extracellular fluid
contains high concentration of + sodium ions n negative chloride ions. Intracellular fluid contains +
potassium ions n negative ions from a variety of  organic substances made by the cell.Process: de
membrane potential is maintained by sodium-potassium pump: it actively moves ions across the
membrane.The membrane is not equally permeable to all ions. The inside of the cell is negative in
relation to the outside. In this state the cell is said to be polarised. When a sufficiently strong stimulus
is applied to a nerve fibre, the membrane becomes  permeable to sodium ions and they move across
the membrane. This movement can’t be balanced by outward movement of potassium ions and so
the  membrane becomes depolarised. When the stimulus is strong enough to cause a change of
about 15V then the movement of  sodium ions proceeds independently of the stimulus and also the
neuron has passed the thereshold level. That is, the size of the response isnt related 2de strength of
the stimulus. This is called all-or-none response. Bc of de movement of sodium ions, the original
polarity of the membrane decreases 2 zero, the inside becomes + relative to the outside. Then the
sodium gates shut and the potassium iron gates open, the membrane begins 2becum more negatively
charged again, it is being repolarised. de potassium ion gates eventually shut but it does overshoot
slightly causin hyperpolarisation b4 returnin 2de resting state. During an action potential, that part of
the nerve fire cannot be stimulated to respond again. This is called the refractory period. The nerve
impulse is prevented from going backwards along the fibre by the refractory  period. It is important in
the transmission of an impulse along the fibre.Each action potential generates another action
potential just in front of it. The action potential does not travel along the nerve fibre but the nerve
impulse does.  Conduction along myelinated fibres is called Saltatory conduction is when the nerve
impulses jump from one node of Ranvier to the next node because of myelin sheath . myelin sheath
produced by Schawann cells (fatty material) is unable to conduct electricity, so an action potential can
only form a gaps in the myelin sheath.This way  the nerve impulses can travel much faster than the
unmyelinated ones. A strong stimulus produces more nerve impulses in a given time and also can
cause depolarisation of more nerve fibre than a weak stimulus. At the synapse, special chemicals are
released from the ends of the axon.They then diffuse across the gap and attach to receptors on the
membrane of the next  neuron. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters.The transmission of
nerve impulses across a synapse occurs in only one direction, from  axon to dendrite or from axon to
the cell body. de pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland: de pancreas is an exocrine
gland since it secretes digestive enzymes in2 de small intestine. The pancreas is an endocrine gland
since it contains special cells called the Islets of Langerhans (pancreative islets), which consist of two
types: The beta cells dat secrete hormone insulin. Insulin decreases the blood sugar level down to
normal by carry glucose molecules into cells 2b used 4protein synthesis. Carries glucose molecules
2de liver, where they can either be used as energy 4de liver’s activities, or b converted in2 glycogen
in liver and muscles or stored as fat in the fat storage tissue. De alpha cells secrete hormone
glucagon which increases the blood sugar level up to normal by glucagon travels in the blood and
reaches the liver. In the liver, the hormone stimulates the processes glycogenolysis (break down of 
glycogen into glucose) and gluconeogenesis (making glucose from amino acids,  fatty acids).The
glucose produced will be transported into the bloodstream. Type of vaccine:
Livin attenuated micro-organisms: reduce virulence (less ability 2produce de disease), can be
produced by recombinant DNA tech, eg:MMR, rabies. Dead micro organisms: Microbe kill b4 bein
injected not as long lasting but can result in an immune response. Toxoids: de toxins produced by
bacteria can be inactivated so they dunt make de person ill, eg: tetanus, diphtheria. Sub-unit: a
fragment of de micro organism is used 2provoke an immune response, eg: human papilloma virus
hepatitis B