This article was downloaded by: [York University Libraries]

On: 10 November 2014, At: 18:24

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

International Journal of Production Research

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tprs20

Integration of design and inspection systems - a

literature review
a
D. I. LEGGE
a
Department of Manufacturing Engineering , Luleå University of Technology , S-951 87,
Sweden.
Published online: 17 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: D. I. LEGGE (1996) Integration of design and inspection systems - a literature review, International
Journal of Production Research, 34:5, 1221-1241, DOI: 10.1080/00207549608904962

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207549608904962

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 Integration of design and inspection systems - a literature review

This article reviews the published material relating to the integration of computer
aided design with automatic or semi-automatic off-line programming systems for
coordinate measuring machines. Numerous techniques have been developed and
demonstrated in research systems for the creation and validation of inspection
plans and are now becoming available in commercial systems. Fully automated
inspection planning is not yet generally available, primarily due to the problems of
tolerancing 3D CAD models and transferring this information to OLP systems.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

1. Introduction
T o take a component model from a computer aided design (CAD) system and
automatically generate all the information required for down stream activities such as
machining, assembly and inspection, is a utopian situation which is still many years
away from realisation.
The situation facing manufacturing industry today is far from this ideal, with
numerous separate systems linked, at best, through transfer of files in standard
formats or via specially written routines. Individual systems often have limited
facilities to help automate the planning activity. The linking and automation of the
activities involved in the design and manufacture of components hence provides
fertile ground for research and development.
This article reviews a significant proportion of the published work related to the
linking of CAD, automated inspection planning systems for coordinate measuring
machines (CMMs) and the evaluation and presentation of inspection results. The
article begins with an overview of the development and current use of C M M s in
industry. A brief background to C A D and the application of tolerances to geometric
models is followed by a review of the literature on inspection planning systems
including all key techniques applied in automation of inspection planning for CMMs.
Brief mention is also made of evaluation of inspection data.
Many of the techniques discussed are now available in commercial systems. The
development of the standard for the exchange of product model data (STEP, I S 0
10303), to allow transfer of toleranced C A D models to take place will lead to the
increased automation of many process planning activities, not least of which will be
inspection planning. Possible future trends are hence briefly discussed at the end of
the article.
This article provides a thorough and timely review of the state of the art for those
working with off-line programming and inspection systems.

2. Inspection systems
The growing emphasis towards product quality has lead to an increasingly
important role being played by inspection within manufacturing industry. An

Revision received May 1995.

tDepartment of Manufacturing Engineering, Luled University of Technology, $951 87
Sweden.
0020-7543196 $12.00 0 1996 Taylor & Francis Ltd.
 1222 D. I. Legge

inspection system would ideally be able to measure 'the dimensional characteristics of

randomly presented parts of virtually any configuration or complexity and provide
real-time feedback to the manufacturing process'. (Inglesby 1989).
CMMs were originally developed as a flexible means of performing fast and
accurate dimensional inspection of prismatic parts. They have now become widely
adopted as a general purpose tool with the capability to measure many different types
of component (Tandler). Current 'state of the art' coordinate measuring machines are
highly automated and often incorporate probe changers, articulated probe heads,
palletised part handling, automatic part identification, user friendly control software,
automatic statistical analysis and data management software.
A C M M may be used to inspect incoming parts as well as for the inspection of
components before, during and after individual manufacturing processes (Sostar).
Whilst CMMs are best located in an environmentally controlled room, improvements
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

in C M M design, construction materials and isolation techniques means that they are
now commonly placed on the shop floor. This increasing use of CMMs a t or near
individual production activities is reflected in the rapid growth in the market for 'shop
hardened' CMMs (Kunzmann and Waldele 1988) and even portable C M M s (Raab
1994).
Small batch sizes, just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing and highly productive numeri-
cally controlled (NC) machine tools used today demand near instant component and
process verification. CMMs can be used to indirectly check the capability of
production processes and equipment and the validity of individual numerically
controlled (NC) machine part programmes (Bowen and Duncan). Techniques such
as statistical process control (SPC) are not applicable with small batch sizes and one-
off production. In these situations, the use of CMMs to inspect individual com-
ponents can reduce scrap or rework (Bosch 1988). This is also true even if inspection is
for process refinement, for example when fine tuning the form of moulds and dies
(Smith 1993).
The use of CMMs has changing the nature of inspection; many different
inspection procedures which were once carried out using different techniques can
now be carried out on the CMM (Kunzmann and Waldele 1988). The most obvious
benefits from using CMMs are the significantly lower inspection times when
compared with traditional inspection techniques; reductions of 90% being commonly
quoted (Bosch 1988). CMMs often eliminate the need and cost of complex gauging
fixtures; simple fixtures can be use to support the component correctly with respect to
datum surfaces. In many cases even this type of fixturing is unnecessary, the
component simply being located on the table of the CMM and datum faces being
inspected as part of the inspection process.
In practice, inspection remains a hybrid task with a mixture of traditional
measurement techniques used in combination with a C M M although it is certain
that CMMs will continue to play an ever increasing role in manufacturing companies
inspection activities.

3. Geometry specification for manufacturing and inspection

3.1. Conlputer oided design representations for noniirlul geotnetry
3.1 .I. Geometric representations
The earliest computer aided design systems modelled geometry in the form of
points, lines and arcs in two dimensional space; effectively acting as an electronic
drawing board. These systems naturally evolved into three dimensional geometry. A
 Integrarion of design and inspecrion systems - a literar~rrereview 1223

3 D object modelled in this way is known as a 'wireframe.' When displayed, a

wireframe model is 'transparent' as only edges, and not the surfaces between these,
are explicitly represented. However, hidden line removal algorithms can be applied to
give the impression of a solid (Taylor).
One of the representations which explicitly defines the surfaces of a model, rather
than just the framework or outline, is the boundary representation or B-rep. In a B-rep
model, the object is described by the set of faces which bound the object, individual
faces are bounded by a loop of edges which are in turn specified by their vertices.
Neither the boundary of a face nor the face itself need be linear/planar, more complex
surfaces or boundaries can be described by mathematical curves which are known as
splines, the surfaces generated being known as surface patches (Duffie et al. 1988).
The most common mathematical representation used for surface patches are Coons
surfaces (bi-directional lofting), Bicubic and Bezier Patches and non uniform rational
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

b-spline or NURB. (Taylor). B-rep modellers are generally acknowledged as offering

a good basis for the visualization of a component at a graphics terminal as the
geometry of each surface is explicitly known.
Another common representation, known as constructive solid geometry (CSG),
stores component geometry as a set of boolean operations such as cut, join, intersect
etc., applied to a limited set of solid primitive objects like cubes, cylinders, cones etc.
A CSG data structure, known as a CSG tree, contains information about an object in
a n 'unevaluated' form which needs to be evaluated into the explicit vertices, edges and
surfaces of the resulting solid for the purpose of visualization (Roy and Liu 1988). In
order to benefit from the advantages of both data structures, many of today's CAD
systems use a hybrid B-rep/CSG representation (Taylor).

3.1.2. Featrtres, product data nrodels and tneta models

The basic geometric entities of a component model in a CAD system, such as a
surface, edge or vertex, o r an auxiliary geometric attribute of a part such as a centre
line, are often referred to as primitive features. Within the component geometry
specific areas can be identified which perform particular functions and are often
known as form features. Examples of form features includes slots, holes, chamfers etc.
(Salomons et al.). Some CAD systems allow geometry to be created using user defined
form features o r allow primitive features or surfaces to be identified and to have
additional parameters associated with them for use in down stream activities such as
process planning or N C part programming. These systems are often known as
feature-based systems. Techniques are also available for identifying features within
non feature-based C A D systems (Li and Adiga 1988).
The automation of many activities such as process planning and N C machining
cannot be successfully achieved based solely upon ideal geometry. A requirement for
development and implementation of comp;ter integrated manufactking (CIM)
applications is a product model which includes specified manufacturing inaccuracies
o r tolerances associated with the location and shape of component features. More
comprehensive data structures which take account of the overall needs of engineering,
not just nominal and toleranced geometry, are known as product data models (Shaw
et 01. 1989), o r metamodels (Tomiyama et al. 1989).

3.2. Geonietric tolerancing

3.2.1. Geotnetrical tolerancing sfandards
The current ANSI/ISO standard for dimensioning and tolerancing ( I S 0 1101)
 1224 D. I. Legge

divides geometric tolerances into four categories; form, orientation, location and
runout. Tolerances should only be applied 'where they are essential, that is, in the
light of functional requirements, interchangability and probably manufacturing
circun~stances'.
Tolerances constrain a feature to lie within regions known as tolerance zones and
may relate to a single feature, for example a diameter, o r to several features, for
cxample a distance between two holes. Related features usually are referenced to
datum features which are used to establish the location and orientation of component
datum's o r reference surfaces.
3.2.2. Geot?ietric dimension and tolerance dam in CAD
Whilst 3D C A D modellers allow nominal geometry to be defined, most commer-
cial systems do not support geometric dimensional and tolerance (GD&T) informa-
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

tion; although this situation is changing. This is a known problem when integrating
systems which require tolerance data (Yau and Menq 1992). As GD&T information
must be associated with component surfaces in the geometric model, the user should
operate through a common user interface to both the geometric model and the GD&T
model (Patrik 1987, Brown and Gyorog 1990).
Component geometry presented in a two dimensional drawing is open to inter-
pretation and cannot be relied upon to give an unambiguous representation of a
product. It is therefore quite possible that the original design intent can be lost
(Smolky and Vrana 1992). Wireframe models lack mathematical rigour and therefore
a surface o r solid model based upon a B-rep and/or CSG representations are required
as ;I basis of a product data modeller which incorporates tolerances (Patrik 1987,
Brown and Gyorog 1990). If the underlying solid modeller uses boundary representa-
tion, linking tolerances to surfaces of the model presents few problems. However,
with CSG modellers specific surfaces are not known to exist until the model is
'evaluated' in which case primitive surfaces may be split or even totally disappear
(Juster 1992).
3.3. Toleratices in research CAD systems
3.3.1. Tolerancing oS3D geometry
The provision of tolerance data in 3D C A D models has been investigated by many
researchers. Roy and Liu (1988) developed a structured face adjacency graph (SFAG)
over a hybrid B-rep/CSG modeller. The face adjacency graph linked B-rep surfaces to
CSG primitives in such a way that all kinds of tolerance could be attached to the part
model. Gossard et al. (1988) also used a combined B-rep/CSG modeller and a graph
structure known as an object graph. This representation held dimensions as a relative
position operator (RPO) giving the location of a feature face relative to a reference face.
Wang and Ozsoy proposed a hybrid B-Rep/CSG structure in which the CSG tree
was modified with the addition of constraining operator nodes (Cnodes) which
constrains the position o r orientation between two primitives. Requicha and Chan
(1986) presented a variational graph or VGraph tolerance representation based upon
CSG modeller PADL-2. The VGraph stores all tolerance information about an object
linked to a traditional CSG tree through a set of nominal faces (NFaces) of the object.
Kanai et a/. used a hyper-patch model which was toleranced through the application
of entity attribute relationships (EARS). These were also used to attach information
about machining processes used to generate the referenced surfaces.
EPS-I (Patrick 1987, Reimann and Sarkis, Ranyak and Fridshal) and IPPEX
(Brown and Gyorog 1990) used two separate databases, one for dimensional and
 Integration of design and inspection systerns - a literature review 1225

tolerance data and one containing a B-rep model for nominal geometry. These two
databases were accessed through a common programming interface which allowed
calls to be made to the underlying data structure via an application interface
specification (AIS). The link between these two databases was a dimension and
tolerance (D&T) node consisting of a datum reference frame, which pointed to the set
of entities (features or surfaces) in the geometric model which were used as a
reference, an entity linking node, pointing to the specific entity on the model which
was being toleranced and an evaluated data node used to hold dimensions. (see Fig. 1.)
EPS-I and IPPEX built upon CAM-1's work (Johnsson 1985) which attached
tolerances to the geometric model using the concept of entity linking nodes. (see Fig. 2.)
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

I Dimensional & Tolerancing Modelling System Models

Geomeuic
Geometric Modelling System Models

Figure 1. EPS-l/IPPEX database structure.

Linked to 3 Datum Reference

Datum Entities F m - DRF

DimensionL!
Tolerance Node

Evaluated Data

Figure 2. CAM4 Evaluated dimension and tolerance (EDT).

 1226 D. I . Legge

Walker and Wallis (1992) used a CSG modeller which allowed attributes to be attached
to surhces. Yau and Menq (1991, 1992) used CATIA's Graphic Interactive Interface
(GI]) and the ATTRIBUTE function as a basis for associating tolerances with
particular component surfaces.

3.3.2. Tolercrt~cerepreseritution in feature bused systems

The use of form features or identification of features in an existing model (B-rep o r
CSG) olfers a way of linking manufacturing data to the C A D model (Park and
Mitchell). However, the use of design features as a basis for subsequent manufactur-
ing process planning is not without its difficulties. What constitutes a 'feature' will
dilfer for design, manufacturing, assembly o r inspection in their respective contexts;
the so called multiple-view problem (Salomons et al.).Also, a given component can be
generated, o r decomposed, into an almost infinite number of ways. In practice only a
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

significantly small sub-set of these would be used, but even this sub-set will not
necessarily form a good basis for automation of down stream activities, for example
manufacturing o r inspection planning (Hummel and Brown 1989). There is thus the
need for feature recognition, feature refinement, feature conversion or feature
mapping where features are a context dependent entity. All these are active areas
of research interest (Salomons).
ElMaraghy and G u (1987) developed a feature based system offering a limited
number of toleranced primitives with known engineering and dimensional attributes.
The features available represented a trade OR between the flexibility and generality of
the modelling system developed and the complexity of the feature data structure.
Merat and Radack (1992) developed a feature base design system, the strategic
design driven inspector (SDDI), based upon Concept ~ o d e l l e r Associated
~~. with
each feature type was a set of alternative schemas for dimensioning and tolerancing
the feature. When developing a component, the user would create a starting feature,
for example a block or cylinder, and add or subtract additional features.

3.3.3. Tolerance cotisistency validation

Smolky and Vrana (1992) described software which verifies that the model has
been correctly toleranced to IS0 1101 and from this develop a worst case part o r
softgauge@' which is displayed along side the original geometry in the C A D
system. This can be later used for generation of CMM part programmes and for
validation of the component. This is also described by Foundyller (1988) and
Granquist (1993).

4. Component inspection
4.1. Inspection planning
4.1.1. Computer airled process plannir~gand CADICAM
Computer aided process planning (CAPP) systems are often regarded as being
central to the realization of computer integrated manufacturing as they provide the
link between design and manufacturing activities (Brown and Gyorog 1990).
Early CAPP systems were almost purely text based and used for the high level
planning of the overall method of manufacture. Generating cutter paths and the code
necessary to drive computer numerically controlled (NCICNC) machines has a
similar background; the text language Automatically Programmed Tool (APT)
being probably the best known (Eversheim and Scheenwird 1993).
 Integration of design and inspection systems - a lirerature review 1227

For many years now it as been commonplace to use the 2 o r 3D geometry from a
computer aided design (CAD) system as a basis for generating cutter paths. This is
known as CAD/CAM. In this article, the term Inspection Planning will be used to
encapsulate the high levels of planning automation typically associated with CAPP as
well as the generation of the programmes to drive computer controlled measuring
machines. This is also sometimes known as off-line programming o r OLP.

4.1.2. lmpection planning and the progrom~ningof C M M s

T o inspect a component requires knowledgeable interpretation of the design
intent presented in engineering drawings as well as a knowledge of the processes used
in its manufacture and of the capabilities of the inspection facilities available. From
this, a suitable method to inspect a component (which might not necessarily be on a
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

CMM) can be developed.

An inspection plan will include the sequence of inspection of datum surfaces and
individual features and, in the case of CMMs, selection of suitable component and
probe orientations and the placing of probing points on the feature surfaces (Hopp
1984). Inspection planning will also determine how the raw inspection data is to be
evaluated and how these results are to be presented. An inspection plan may not
necessarily be a formal document, but, in the case of CMMs, would more commonly
be embedded in the program use to drive the CMM. These programmes are still often
'taught in' to the CMM; an initial manually driven inspection routine being replayed
for the inspection of subsequent components. This programming overhead can be
significant, especially when relatively few parts are inspected.
Excluding metal removal, CMM programming is very similar to NC: program-
ming; both ideally building upon a common base, a three dimensional model of the
part (Patrick 1987). However, whilst the majority of machine tools and machining
centres are today programmed either off-line or at the machine whilst it is running
another part program, CMMs are just starting to follow this path. Programming
software for both off- and on-line programming of CMMs is said to lie a decade
behind comparable software for N C machine centres (Mason 1992) although this
situation is changing rapidly. A recent Delphi survey (Future) identified off-line
programming tools as a major area of development for the 1990's.

4.1.3. C M M and C A D inrerface standards

The transfer of C A D geometry to off-line programming (OLP) systems is usually
made by either bespoke routines or via standard C A D exchange standards such as
ICES and VDA. The major problem with these interface standards is that they do not
encompass tolerance data which is important for both the evaluation of inspection
results, which is often done within the CMM software, and also the automation of
many inspection planning tasks.
CMMs typically have their own programming language to which the off-line
programming system must adhere. The dimensional measuring interface specification
(DMIS) is a standard format used for bi-directional transfer of inspection data
between C A D systems and CMMs (DMIS 1990) and is a high level programming
language with a syntax similar to APT.DMIS format part programmes and returned
inspection results are usually pre- and post-processed into a format usable by the
CMM or CAD system (DMIS 1990, Zink 1987).
The emerging standard for the exchange of product data (STEP) is likely to
 1228 D. I. Legge

encompass geometric and process planning requirements in the future. However,

acceptance of STEP is still a number of years away (King and Norman 1992).

4.2. Commercial and research inspection planning systems

4.2.1. Commercial off-line programming systems
Due to the similarity between programming of C N C machines and CMMs, many
CAD/CAM vendors already offer off-line C M M programming capability, as d o
vendors of some robot simulation systems; many C M M vendors have also developed
off-line programming software. The functionality of these systems varies consider-
ably, the more advanced systems are being totally integrated with a host C A D system
and able to use the original C A D geometry directly without the need for data transfer
via bespoke routines o r the use of neutral formats such as ICES o r VDA.
Commercial offerings are typically a combination of an established C A D system
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

coupled with a third party inspection program. Available off-line programming

systems for C M M s include: Prime/Calma (Jennings), EDS/Unigraphics, IBM's
CATIA with Audi AG's Audimess o r Valisys (Foundyller 1988, Granquist 1993),
Matra Datavision's Euclid with GEMINI and CAMPS 3D, Silma with CimStation
Inspection, (Mason 1992) Tecnomatixs with Robcad/CMMxWorks, Brown & Sharp
with Microquindos Qualstar/First (Jennings) and Mitutoyo with CMMCAD.
Bespoke developments include Lehr Precision integrating with McDonnell Douglas
(Reynolds 1988) and Mitutoyo/Geopak with a number of C A D systems (Inglesby
1989).
4.2.2. Research off-line programtnit~gsystems
Few fully automated inspection planning systems have been realised, although all
research into inspection planning contains elements of automation. Those research
groups that have reported complete systems, as opposed to concentrating upon
elements of the planning task, typically break the problem of inspection planning
down into different stages. These provide a useful framework against which to
consider the problem of inspection planning.
(1) Intelligent Planning Environment (IPE). Yau and Menq (1992) implemented
an automated inspection planning system based upon the commercial C A D
system CATIA and a knowledge based expert system shell. This system
comprises five steps of inspection planning;

(a) Specification. Translate product data, geometry, tolerances, manufactur-

ing methods, inspection constraints etc. into a specification of what is to
be measured and how.
(b) Inspection Planning. Locate probing points, define approach vectors, plan
moves between individual probing points and between features.
(c) Program Verification. Check this initial path for clash situations and if
necessary correct.
(d) Execution. Execute this verified program.
(e) Analysis. Analyse the resulting data points against the nominal geometry
and generate an inspection report.
(2) Expert planning system one ( E P S - I ) . Expert planning system one is a research
system developed by CAM-I. This testbed system aimed to develop an
intelligent inspection planning environment leading to highly automated
 Integration of design and inspection sysfems - a literature review 1229

dimensional inspection planning through the integration of CAD, CAM and

CAPP. EPS-1 included a geometric modeller, a dimensioning and tolerancing
modeller and an inspection plan generator. Considerable use of built in logic
aimed to automate the process as much as possible. Automated facilities
included selection of appropriate CMM, fixturing, global inspection plans
and probing sequences for individual features (Brown and Gyorog 1990,
Patrick 1987, Reimann and Sarkis). EPS-I breaks inspection planning down
into nine parts:
(a) Obtainldefine inspection plan. Definition of part id's and inspection
strategy constraints; component size etc.
(b) Task decomposition/definition. Extraction of toleranced features and
datum surfaces from the GD&T modeller. For each feature a 'work
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

element' is added to the overall inspection plan.

(c) Determine methods. Selection of a suitable C M M based upon the types of
features to be measured and inspection strategy constraints.
(d) Determine set-up. Optimisation of orientation of the part with respect to
the C M M using orientation vectors for each feature. Work element
accessibility is based upon machine axis, feature surface normal's o r
cylindrical axis and referenceldatum feature orientation. The rules used
minimised the total number of component orientations required.
(e) Determine toollholder. Probe orientations required are selectt:d for each
feature/work element heuristically. Strategy may be to minimise the
number of probes used o r to maximise the number of probings from a
given probe.
(f) Detail/optimise plan. Sequencing of inspection activities/work elements is
determined via heuristics and decision table logic. Datum and feature
precedence is accounted for.
(g) Generatelsimulate. Individual feature probing sequences are generated
using templates, and the path viewed as a 3 D line in the geometric
modeller. clash detection and avoidance must be carried out manually
as no clash detection was available.
(h) Produce control information. Produce DMIS output for the measurement
task.
(i) Produce support information. Add further information required by the
operator.
(3) Strategic design driven inspector (SDDI). Merat and Radack (1992) and Galm
and Merat (1988) described a strategic design-driven inspection system. The
inspection planning steps were:
(a) Generate inspection plan fragments (IPF). Each feature or datum surface
is linked to a n inspection plan fragment generator (IPFG) for that par-
ticular class of tolerance. The IPFG produces inspection plan fragments
which contain valid probe/component orientations for the particular feature.
(b) Group measurement requests by part orientation. All IPF's which can be
measured with the same part orientation are grouped together.
(c) Select an I P F to inspect each feature. One IPF from those generated by the
IPFG is selected based upon optimisation rules.
(d) Eliminate redundant measurement requests. IPF's for different tolerances
 1230 D. I. Legge

can generate measurement requests for the same surface. Duplicate

requests are removed.
(e) Create measurement sequences from measurement requests. Each IPF is
used to generate a sequence of probe movements.
(f) Sequence the operations. A valid sequence, taking account of precedence
etc. is generated using a topological sort algorithm.
(g) Generate collision free path. Configuration spaces are used to generate
movements between individual features.
(h) Generate executable code. Executable code in DMIS format is generated.

Additional systems with less well documented inspection strategies include:

(4) Inspection process planning expert (IPPEX) . Brown and Gyorog (1 990)
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

developed inspection process planning expert (IPPEX) as a further refinement

of the concepts demonstrated by EPS-I.

(5) McMaster inspection planner. ElMaraghy and G u (1987) used an expert

system written in Prolog coupled with a research geometric/GD&T modeller.

( 6 ) DofE A P M . Klages and Wilson (1994) describe a system developed by the US

Department of Energy which combined a geometry modeller with a rule based
inspection planning system.

( 7 ) Stultgart IPA. Roth-Koch (1993) described a system under development a t

Stuttgart [PA for the inspection of free form surfaces and evaluation of
inspected data based upon the CATlA C A D system.

(8) Brunel C M M - C A D . Cowling and Mullineux (1989), Medland et al. and

Medland and Mullineux (1993) described a constraint based system under
development a t Brunel University.

(9) Netv South Wales, PC based inspection. Farmer and Smith (1991) described a
PC based inspection planing system where inspection data coded into feature
attributes in a 2D AutoCAD drawing were used to drive a CMM.

(10) Inspeclion Planning Assistant. Legge and Ahman describe an inspection

planning system based upon a commercial robotics simulation/programming
system. This took feature descriptions in DMIS format and automatically
generated inspection sequences from these.

4.3. Eler?~entsof inspeclion planning

4.3.1. Cot?lponent/probeorientalion stralegy
Numerous valid orientations of a component/probe are possible. An important
part of inspection planning is to establish which component orientations are required
to allow inspection of all features. These orientations must take account of accessi-
bility of features and datum surfaces, and also machine axis and possible probe
orientations.
Spyridi and Requicha (1990) developed the concept of feature accessibility cones.
The set of probe orientations which allowed contact with an entire feature surface was
 Integration of design and inspection systet?ts - a literature review 1231

T Surface Nonnal

Figure 3. Feature accessibility cones.

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

Figure 4. Template probe placement

termed the features' local accessibility cone (LAC). (see Fig. 3.) For regular features
the LAC can be calculated. In order to account for situations where valid probe
orientations intersected the workpiece, i.e. a clash situation, a global accessibility cone
(GAC) was also determined as the set of probe orientations which did not pass
through the workpiece. Given that a set of features can be inspected by the same
probe if there is a non-empty intersection of their GAC's, determining the minimum
number of probe orientations required to inspect all features is a matter of finding the
minimum number of sets of features with non-empty GAC intersections. Finding the
optimal minimum number of sets is an insoluble problem, but algorithms for
determining sub-optimal sets are possible. Other techniques must be used to select
appropriate orientations from the candidate orientations suggested. Yau and Menq
(1994) used the principle of local accessibility cones for free form surfaces which
cannot be directly calculated. Instead, the set of surface normals for a finite number of
candidate inspection points was used to create the LAC.
Khoshnevis and Yeh (1992) developed the similar concept of accessibility zones
for given feature surfaces. An accessibility zone was the area of the feature accessible
given the available probe orientations.

4.3.2. Probe point placement algorithms and probit~gdensity

When a 'hard' gauge is replaced by a CMM, the nature of the inspection changes.
Inspection using a CMM only samples the surface at a finite number of points which
leads to two related problems; where to sample the surface and how to interpret the
resultant data (Merat). The number and location of inspection points should reflect
both the geometry of a feature and the tolerance applied to it as well as taking into
account accessibility.
 D . I. Legge

Cowling and Mullineux (1989), Medland er at. and Medland and Mullineux
(1993) used standard probing algorithms for regular features and point to point
inspection for other, non-regular surfaces. Standard algorithms included equi-distant
points on the circumference of a circle, the number of points to be inspected could be
defined interactively.
EPS-1 (Patrick 1987, Brown and Gyorog 1990) used a template for each feature
assuming an ideal relative orientation of probe and feature (see Fig. 4). This idea was
extended by Legge and Ahman to compensate for relative probelfeature orientation.
Merat and Radack (1992) used a template known as an inspection plan fragments
generator (IPFG) which produced inspection code fragments, i.e. inspection plans for
individual feature, depending upon tolerance feature type.
Walker and Wallis (1992) used a regular rectangular grid projected upon the
surface of the feature to be measured, placing probing points a t random positions
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

inside each grid cell. These points were then grouped into 'clusters', the cluster size
(and grid mesh) depending upon feature type and tolerance. Each cluster was
subsequently replaced by a representative probing point. Varder and Ozsoy used a
method for the placement of probing points on a planar surface which was derived
from the technique of mesh generation for finite element analysis (FEA). A candidate
set of inspection points was given by the centroid of each of the triangular mesh
pzitches from the mesh generation algorithms. Three methods of selecting the required
number of points from this candidate set were presented; random selection,

Figure 5. Meshing and clustering.

Figure 6. Variable probing densitity over complex surfaces.

 Integration of design and inspection systems - a literature review 1233

maximizing the distance between selected points and selection of the outermost points
within the meshed surface (see Fig. 5).
Yau and Menq (1991, 1992) used a statistical sampling plan to determine the
number of probing points required based upon the design tolerance and the accuracy
of the manufacturing processed used to generate the feature. This information was
held as inspection attributes associated with each feature in the C A D system used.
The sampling plan gave the number of inspection points but not their distribution
over the feature and, as would be expected, increased the number of sample points in
response to tighter tolerances, and reduced them as process capability improves.
Duffie et al. (1988) generated paths for probing complex sculpted surfaces which
drove the probe normal to the surface, with a given scanning density. This technique
was also described by Roth-Koch (1993) and Reynolds (1988). Kawabe et al.
increased the probing density at the edge of the free form surface to reduce the
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

influence of a zero curvature assumption at the boundary. Medland et al. suggest a

similar procedure in which probe points along two adjacent features are made closer
together towards the expectedlpredicted feature transition.
A scanning routine for free form surfaces may be created off line o r created
dynamically as scanning takes place. Chen et al. (1992) described predictive algo-
rithms for placement of probing points when scanning such surfaces. Two conditions
for accurate digitization were noted: (I) that the measuring probe contacts normal to
the component surface and (2) that a sufficient number of measurement points are
taken. Two ways to achieve the first were reported, the use of probes that detect the
contact point and hence surface normal and also the use of the original C A D model to
generate the probe path. On-line measured data was used to predict the surface form,
and hence contact points and normal of the surface being scanned. The sampling rate
was adjusted dynamically based upon actual changes in the curvature of the curve.
These algorithms increased the scanning density where the surfaces experienced large
rates of change (see Fig. 6 ) . The same technique was used by Jennings and Cho & Kim
who also proposed a 'region selection ratio' as a mechanism to control the spread of
inspection points over the surface which could otherwise be concentrated in areas of
high curvature leaving large, slightly curved, areas unprobed.
Kanai et a / . used an integrated CMM/NC programming system to locate probing
points in such a way as to detect expected inaccuracies from the machining process,
for example surface waviness when face milling.
Medeiros et al. presented an interesting off-line programming technique with a
hand-held stylus equipped with position and orientation sensors. This was used to
mimic the desired motion of the CMM, the operator using the stylus to teach in
probing points, probe orientation and via points away from the CMM.

4.3.3. Sequence of probing

The probing points on a given feature can usually be probed in any sequence.
Likewise, the sequence of inspection of features is only constrained by the require-
ment to inspect datum features first. It is therefore possible to minimise the overall
inspection time by selecting an optimum sequence of execution of features and feature
probing sequences.
Merat and Radack (1992) determine the sequence of probing for the set of points
related to a feature by starting from an arbitrary point and moving to the nearest
unprobed point on the current feature. The same technique was used by Cho and Kim
when scanning free form surfaces and extended by introducing the concept grouping
 probing points into subregions and completing scanning on a region by region basis.
Subregions were defined using a simple grid. Walker and Wallis (1992) introduced the
idea o f a cost function proportional to the weighted distance between the points being
considered; the weighting accounts for different axis of the C M M taking different
times to move the same distance. The same technique was used to select the next
I'enture to inspect. Similar strategies can be applied to minimise number of component
set ups, tool changes etc.

4.3.4. CINSI~ avoidance arid clash detection/evusion

A CMM can be regarded as a Cartesian robot whose end effector is the probe tip.
The aim of inspection planning is to generate a collision free path through all
inspection points. Two methodologies to achieve this are possible; clash avoidance
and clash detection/evasion.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

In clash avoidance schemes, clash situations are avoided when defining a probe
path. In clash evasion schemes candidate probe paths are checked for clash situations
which, if found, are corrected (Udupa). In both situations it is important to know the
distance between objects during relative movement as well as the extent of a clash if it
should occur. Dong and Yuan (1993) identify a variety of techniques for calculating
the distance between two objects including geometric transforms and hamming nets.
Merat and Radack (1992) used pre-calculated configuration spaces (Lozano-Perez
and Wesley 1979) for probing a feature with given CMM/probe combinations. As the
configuration space for a component is the union of the configuration spaces of its
individual features, they were able to generate a component configuration space. This
was then used with a minimum path algorithm to derive allowable paths within the
configuration space.
Yau and Menq (1991, 1992) consider the avoidance of clash by selection of
alternative probe orientations. The idea of a local accessibility cone developed by
Spyridi and Requicha (1990) was modified to take account of only those points being
inspected rather than the entire surface of the feature. From the candidate orienta-
tions found, the probe orientations which allow access to the inspection points can be
determined. A heuristic method was used to select a probe orientation that does not
chsh with the component during approach to these points.
Walker and Wallis (1992) used the technique of shrinking the model of the probe
tip (or any other part of the probe model) to a point and growing the model of the
component being inspected by a corresponding amount. If the probe tip centre lies
inside the grown component a t any time then a clash situation exists. This is a
technique well known in the robot path planning community (Dong and Yuan 1993,

Target Point

Start Point

Figure 7. Clash evasion using a heuristic search for surface edges

 Integration of design and inspection sysrems - a lirerature review 1235

Lozano-Perez and Wesley 1979). A Clash was subsequently avoided by using a

heuristic search technique to locate a point on the edge of the surface to be avoided
which was closest to the destination point with a transit point being created which is
offset from this edge point (see Fig. 7).
Yau and Menq (1991, 1992) used a heuristic method for clash detection and
correction. In this work, the probe tip was taken to be a point and the CMM was
assumed to move with straight line path segments. A clash situation occurred if the
line representing the movement of the tip intersected the component surface. This idea
was extended to include modelling of the stem of the C M M probe as a line, (which
becomes a face when the stylus moves along a straight line path) and the column as a
cylinder, (with a swept volume approximated to a box). A clash situation was known
to have occurred when the stem 'face' or any face of the column 'box' intersects the
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

component. A heuristic method was then used to modify the probe path by the
placement of additional transit points if a clash situation was discovered; however no
details were given.

4.3.5. Generation of DMIS programmes

A final stage is for the validated inspection paths to be output in a format
acceptable for the C M M to be used. This format could be the CMMs native
programming language or the dimensional measuring interface standard (DMIS).
Pham et 01. 1991 described a knowledge based expert system to provide a generic link
from inspection planning systems to a CMM. Through a dialogue with the user, the
expert system was given information relating to the format of the input data file and
subsequently generated a pre-processor to convert an inspection plan inro neutral
data format ( N D F - a n equivalent of DMIS).

4.4. Evaluarion
4.4.1. Random and deterministic measurement errors
In order to evaluate the raw data from the C M , it has to be known that this raw
data itself accurately represents the measured points. Deterministic errors can be
compensated for by correcting the measured probe points with a mathematical model
of the C M M developed by either measuring a testpiece with known geometry, for
example a three dimensional ball plate, or by measuring individual geometric
parameters using a n independent measurement technique such as laser interferome-
try. These are known as artefact testing and parametric calibration respectively. A
total of 21 dimensional errors can be identified in a CMM: three scale errors, vertical
and horizontal straightness, three angular errors per axis, and three squareness errors.
These techniques can improve accuracy by a factor of ten (Kunzmann and WLldele
1988, Elshennawy and Harn).

4.4.2. Conversion of raw data points 10 acrual geometry

A C M M , like many other methods of inspection, only generates samples of data
points on an individual component. There are currently no standards or obvious
interpretations of this measurement data, which is regarded by many as a significant
problem. However, formal algorithms for the evaluation of point data, based upon
functional tolerancing rather than ease of computation, are being developed (Etesami
and Qiao, Caskey et al. 1991, Zhang and Roy). It must also be noted that analysis
software is itself a potential source of error (Kunzmann and Waldele 1988).
 1236 D. I. Legge

4.4.3. Location of the component on the C M M

For inspection components with well defined datum's, for example three planar
surfaces, three points can be measured on a primary plane, two on a secondary plane
and one on a tertiary plane. This is sometimes known as the 3-2-1 method. Yau and
Menq (1991, 1992) reiterate the commonly used 'localization' algorithm which
minimises the sum of the squared distances between a probed point a t a known
location and the corresponding points on the C A D model and from this data derive a
transformation matrix for the component with respect to its nominal location.
Further points can be fitted to the model using this matrix. Although the component
has been mathematically oriented to the original C A D geometry, this localization is
itself influenced by manufacturing inaccuracies and the sequence in which the datum
surfaces are evaluated. A similar technique was also used by Ristic (1994) to localize
free form surfaces to improve the accuracy of laser scanning. This was described as
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

'pre-localization'.
Localization errors can also be corrected by other means. Yau and Menq
(1991, 1992) proposed a statistical method of separating random errors, i.e. resulting
from the measurement itself o r from errors, from deterministic errors, i.e. resulting
from the mislocation of the component, when measuring surfaces of a known
form.

4.4.4. Fitting of inspected points

The use of least squares fitting of inspection data to nominal form features, lines,
circles etc. is extensively used. Yau and Menq (1991, 1992) propose a n 'optimal
match' algorithm to eliminate the offset error between measured and design data by
minimising the squared shortest distances from each point to the nominal feature
geometry. The same technique was used by Medland et al., (Medland and Mullineux
1993).
Jennings also presented a least squares solution for mapping inspected data points
onto nominal geometry. His technique used the measure point and a point projected
onto the nominal feature surface; the measured point assumed to lie on a vector
normal to this nominal feature point (Jennings). It was pointed out that by skewing
the density of the measured data points in a certain area, the fit would be skewed
towards the more densely probed area. This problem was eliminated by the devel-
opment of a geometric tolerancing best fit whereby each feature surface was assigned
a tolerance which was converted into a tolerance band. The inspected data was then
allowed to 'float' until it sat within the tolerance band. A correction matrix for
position and alignment could then be produced. Duffie et a / . (1988) reported 'best
fitting' of sets of data points and error compensation for free form surfaces in
applications such as mould design. This was also reported by Ristic (1994) who
developed algorithms to minimise the time taken to best fit when dealing with large
numbers of data points resulting from data capture by laser scanning. Kawabe et a/.
(1980) used curve fitting, increasing the probing density a t the ends of the curve in
order to reduce the influence of a zero curvature assumption a t the boundary.
The geometry of a planar component feature generated by curve fitting may be
significantly different to that expected from the original C A D model. If this error
is unacceptable Medland et al. suggest a method of sub-division where the
inspected planar curve is divided into two and re-inspected. This procedure
isolates the geometric inaccuracies in the actual component into a specific part of
the curve.
 Integration of design and inspection sys/enls - a literatwe review 1237

f ' ' .y - ? Inspection Condition

Manufactured Surface Relationships

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

Figure 8. Entity attribute relationships.

4.4.5. Graphical feedback

Medland el at. assessed circular features by comparison of nominal features with
actual features in the C A D system; the error in the position and size of the actual
feature being scaled by a factor of 100 to aid visualization. Jennings used a similar
technique, providing graphical feedback of errors through scaled error vectors. This
was also reported by Duffie et at. (1988). Ristic (1994) presented scanned data
graphically with the magnitude of error from nominal being shown in different
colours. Techniques to 'unwrap' scanned surfaces were also presented.
Reynolds (1988) reports a system for feeding back inspection data from aerofoil
sections to a C A D system. Granquist (1993) describes an environment where die
casting moulds are inspected and error reports fed back graphically to the C M M
inspector. Smith (1993) reports similar work with injection moulding dies as does
Duffie. Gupta and Sagar (1993) reported a system for the capture and interpretation
of 3 D point data.

4.4.6. Evaluation of source of errors

Kanai et al., used entity attribute relationships (EARS) to not only attach
tolerance information but also information about the machining processes used to
generate the referenced surfaces. If a feature was out of tolerance the EAR was used
to identify the manufacturing process which caused the error (see Fig. 8). A similar
technique was presented by Danzer (1987).

5. Future developments and conclusions

The techniques for automatic and semi-automatic off-line programing of coordi-
nate measuring machines are well documented and continue to be developed and
incorporated into both research and commercial systems. This development will
continue, probably at a pace driven by market demand rather than knowledge and
availability of techniques.
A significant bottleneck in the automation of inspection planning, along with
many other process planning activities, is lack of availability of computer aided
design (CAD) systems that allow tolerancing of 3 D models and the availability of
neutral interface formats for transfer of this information where it does exist. Whilst
many of the off-line programming systems have bespoke links to market leading C A D
 1238 D. I. Legge

systems, close commercial links to specific software vendors to achieve high levels of
functionality limits user choice and also the entry of new systems t o the market place.
It seems likely that the emerging standard for the exchange of product data
(STEP) will lead to new problems and possibilities for researchers to explore. The
fruits of this work will probably not be seen in commercial systems for several years to
come. Higher levels of automation are likely to be seen in all areas of computer
support for activities in design and manufacturing related areas, it simply remains for
these to be implemented.

Acknowledgements
As this article represents a review of published work it is impossible to include the
most recent developments. Limitations of space also preclude a more detailed analysis
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

of individual aspects of inspection planing, which after all, are dealt with most
thoroughly in the original works. I hope that the researchers and research groups
whose work is mentioned here will bear this in mind when criticising me for the poor
coverage I have given their work.
Acknowledgement is duly given to my co-workers in the Department of Manu-
facturing Engineering at Luled University of Technology and especially t o N U T E K
for funding.

References
B o s c ~J.,
, 1988, The case for CMMs. Tooling and Producrion, October.
BOSCII,J . , 1989, Planning overview: systems aspects in flexible inspection for automated
manufacturing. A S M E Mur~ufac~urirtg Review, 2(1), March, pp. 26-31.
BOWEN, G. L., and DUNCAN, L. S., Integrafed Metrology System, (Cleveland Ohio: Booz, Allen
& Hamilton).
BROWN, C. W., and GYOROG, D. A,, 1990, Generative inspection process planner for integrated
production. Proceedi~~gs of rhe Winler Annual Meeting of rlte American Society of
Mechanicd Etlgineers, ASME PED, 47, 151 - 162.
CASKEY,G., HARI, Y., HOCKE, R., PALANVELUE, D.. RAJA,J., WILSON, R., CHEN,K., and YANG,
J., 1991, Sampling Techniques for Coordinate Measuring Machines. Proceedings o f t h e
NSF Design and Manufacruring Systems Conference, Austin, Texas.
CHEN,Y. D., TANG,X. J., NI, J., and Wu, S. M., 1992, Automatic digitisation of free form
curves by co-ordinate measuring machines. Proceedings of flte Winrer Annual Meering of
rite Anrerican Society of Mecl~anicalEngineers.
CHO,M. W., and KIM,K., New inspection planing strategy for sculpted surfaces using
coordinate measuring machine. Inrer~tutb~ulJourr~ul of Production Research, 33(2),
427-444.
COWLING. G. J., and MULLINEUX, G., 1989, Toward an Intelligent CAD-CMM Interface.
Engineering w~irlrConrputers, 5 , 133-141.
DANZER, H. H., 1987, Application of 3-dimensional coordinate measuring machines for
problem investigation and upstream quality assurance. Annals ofrhe C I R P , 36(1).
Dimensional Measuring Interface Standard, 1990, ANSI CAM-I 101.
DONG,Z., and YUAN,J., 1993, A formulation for collision identification and distance
calculation in motion planning using neural networks. Inrernarional Journal ofAdvanced
Mo~~ufacturing Technology, 8, 227-234.
DUFFIE,N. A,, Integration of automated inspection and database modification capabilities into
manufacturing systems. PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
DUFFIE,N., FENG,S., and KANN,J., 1988, CAD-directed inspection, error analysis and
manufacturing process compensation using tricubic solid databases. Annals of rhe
CIRP, 37(1).
ELMARAGHY, H. A., and Gu, P. H., 1987, Expert system for inspection planning. Annals ofthe
CIRP, 36(1).
 Inregration o f design a n d inspection s y s t e m s - a literature review 1239

ELSHENNAWY, A. K., and HAM, I., Performance improvement in coordinate measuring

machines by error compensation. Jortrrlal of Mmtufacturing Sj~stems,9(2).
ETESAMI, F., and QIAO,H., Analysis of two-dimensional measurement data for automated
inspection. Journal of Manufactrtring Systems, 9(1).
EVERSHEIM. W., and SCHEENWIND, J., 1993, Computer aided process planning - state of the art
and future development. Robotics and Computer Integrated Mamfacturirlg, 10(1/2), 65-
70.
FARMER, L. E., and SMITH, G., 1991. Integrating CAD and CMM inspection. Proceedings of the
Australian Institute of Engineers International Mechanical Engineeritlg Congress atld
E.rl1ibition - MECH 91.
FOUNDYLLER, C., 1988, Tolerancing: common thread of MCAE. C A E , August.
Future Technology Surveys Inc., 1991, Lilburn, GA.
CALM, J. G., and MERAT,F. L., 1988, The strategic design driven inspection of machined parts.
Proceedings of the IEEE Cotferetlce on Computer Integrated Manufacturing, ISBN 0 8 16
0888 9.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

GOSSARD, D. C., ZUFFANTE, R. P., and SAKURAI, H., 1988, Representing dimensions, tolerances
and features in MCAE systems. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, March.
GRANQUIST, J., 1993, Closing the Loop of Mold Design, Manufacturing and Inspection.
Americatl Machinist, April.
GUPTA,V. K., and SAGAR,R., 1993, A PC based system integrating CMM and CAD for
automated inspection and reverse engineering. International Journal of Advanced Manu-
facruril~g Technology, 8, 305-310.
HOPP,T. H., 1984, CAD-Directed Inspection. Annals of the CIRP, 33(1).
HUMMEL, K. E., and BROWN, C. W., 1989. The role of features in the implementation of
concurrent product and process design. Proceedings from Winter Meeting of A M S E
Symposium on Concrrrreut Product and Process Design, pp. 1-8.
INGLESBY, T., 1989, CMM in CIM. Muturfacturing Systems, October 1989, 18-25.
IS01 101, Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Svensk Standard, SS I S 0 1101.
JENNINGS, R. M., Feature recognition reduces CMM programming time whilst speeding
analysis. SME Technical Paper MS91-293 119.
JOHNSSON R. H., 1985, Dimensioning and tolerancing final report. CAM-1 Technical Report
R-84-GM-02.2 May.
JUSTER, N. P., 1992, Modelling and representation of dimensions and tolerances. Computer
Aided Design, 24(1), January.
KANAI,S., KISHINAMI, T., KAWAMURA, R., and SAITO,K., The computer aided testing and
diagnostic systems of the manufacturing process using the coordinate measuring
machine. Proceedings of N A M R C XVII, pp. 31 1-318.
KAWABE, S., KIMURA, F., and SATA,T., 1980, Generation of NC commands for sculptured
surface machining from 3-coordinate measuring data. At~nalsof the CIRP, 29(1).
KHOSHNEVIS, B., and YEH,Z., 1992, Automatic measurement planning for coordinate measur-
ing machines. Proceedings of the 8th Intert~utionalConference on CADICAM, Robotics
and Factories of the Future. Metz, France, pp 581-590.
KING,B. J., and NORMAN, P. W., 1992, A STEP in the right direction. Professional Eti,qineering,
November.
KLAGES, E. J., and WILSON, R. M., 1994, APM: an automated inspection programming system.
It~ternationalJournal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 7(6), 365-374.
KUNZMANN, H., and WKLDELE, F., 1988, Performance of CMMs. Annals of the CIRP, 37(2),
633-640.
LEGGE,D. I., and AHMAN, P., Feature probing algorithms used in a semi-automatic CMM
programming system. Technical report, Lulel University of Technology.
LI, R.-K., and ADIGA, S., 1988, Part feature recognition - a vital link in the integration of CAD
and CAM. In Recetlt Developments in Production Research.
LOZANO-PEREZ, T., and WESLEY, M. A,, 1979, An algorithm for planning collision free paths
among polyhedral obstacles. Communications of the A C M , October, 22(10).
MASON,F., 1992, Program your CMM off-line. American Machinist, October.
MEDEIROS, D. J., THOMAS, G., RATKUS,A. B., and CANNON, D., An off-line programming of
coordinate measuring machines using a hand held stylus. Journal of Manufacturing
Systems, 13(6), 401 -41 I.
 D. I . Legge

MEDLANV, A. J., MULLINEUX, G., SINGH, R., and S l m s . E., A Modular Approach to Linking
Computer Aided Design and Automatic lnspection Systems. Department of Manufac-
turing Systems, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK.
MEDlAND, A. J., and MULLINEUX, G., 1993, A constraint approach to feature-based design.
Inrernuriorial Jorrrnul of Computer lnregrared Manufacturing, 6(1&2), 34-38.
MENQ,C. H., WONG,C. L., and YAU,H. T., An intelligent planning environment for automated
dimensional inspection of manufactured parts. Technical report, Engineering Design
Centre for Net Shape Manufacturing, Ohio State University.
MI~NQ C., H., YAU,H. T., and WONG,C. L., 1992, An intelligent planning environment for
automated dimensional inspection using co-ordinate measuring machines. Journal of
Engit~eeringforIri(luslry, 114, May.
MERAT, F. L., RADACK, G. M., ROUMINA, K., and RUEGSEGGER, S., 1991, Automated Inspection
Planning within the Rapid Design System. IEEE, CH 3051-0/91/0000-0042.
MERAT,F. L., and RADACK, G. M., 1992, Automatic Inspection Planning Within a Feature
Rased CAD System. Rohorics und Coriipurer Inregrated Munufacturing, 9(1), 61-69.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

P A R KH, . D., and M I T C ~ L0. L , R., 1988, CAD based planning and execution of inspection.
Proceerlings of rlre 1988 Computer Society Conference of Contputer Vision und Purrern
Recognirion, 858-863.
PATRICK, L.. 1987, EPS- I an expert programming system for dimensional measuring equipment
programming. Proceedings o f t h e 24th Anrtuul Meeririg and Technical Cotference AIM
Tech '87.
PHAM.D. T.. MARTIN,K. F., and KHOO,L. P., 1991, A knowledge based pre-processor
generator for co-ordinate measuring machines. Internutional Journol of P r o ~ l ~ r c ~ i o r ~
Reseurch, 29(4), 677-694.
RAAB,S., 1994, Coordinate measurements accelerate reverse engineering. Muchine Design
November 21, pp. 50-53.
RAJA,J., and SHETTH, U. P., 1988, Integration of inspection into automated manufacturing
system. In Recent Developn~enrsf ~ Proclrrc~io17
i Research.
RANYAK, P. S., and FRIDSHAL, R., 1988, Features for tolerancing a solid model. Procee(1ings of
rhe 1988 A S M E Interr~otior~ol Compurers in Engineering Cotference.
REIMANN, M. D., and SARKIS, J., An architecture for integrated automated quality control.
Jourr~uIof Mauufucruri~tgSysren~s,12(4).
REQUICHA, A. A. G., and CHAN,S. C., 1986, Representation of geometric features, tolerances
and attributes in solid models based on constructive geometry. IEEE Journal of Robotics
and Autoriic~rion,2(3), September.
REYNOLDS, J., 1988, CAD to CMM link produces precise airfoils. C A E , June.
RISTIC,M., 1994, Integrated modelling and inspection of complex shapes. Proceedings ofrhe
27th Irirer~rarionalSyniposi~rrnon Automotiiv Techuology and Auroriiarion, Aachen.
ROTH-KOCH, S., 1993, Measuring as a C A D application. Interfuces ill Inclusrriul Sysrenisfor
Proclircrion und Engineering.
ROY.U., and LIU,C. R., 1988, Feature based representational scheme of a solid modeller for
providing dimensioning and tolerancing information. Rohorics arid Coniputer Integrored
Munr!/ucturing, 4(3/4).
SALOMONS. 0 . W., V A N HOVTEN, F. J. A. M., and KALS,H. J. J., Review of research in feature-
b ~ s e ddesign. Journal of Munufucruring Sysreriis, 12(2).
SHAW,N. K.. BLOOR,M. S., and DE PENNINGTON, A,, 1989, Product data models. Reseurch in
E~tgineeringDesign, 1, 43-50.
SMITH,L.. 1993, CMM smoothes mold design at Ford. An~ericanMacltinisr, April.
SMOLKY, R., and VRANA, J. J., 1992, CMM: In-process inspection analysis on a CAD system.
Worlrlwide Pussenger Cur Conference.
SOSTAR, A., CO-ordinate Measuring Technique in Quality Assurance. Rohorics arid Conlpurer
Inregrcttecl Munrrfactttring, 4(1/2), 259-265.
SPYRIDI, A. J., and REQUICHA, A. A. G., 1990, Accessibility analysis for the automated
inspection of mechanic:tl parts by coordinate measuring machines. Proceedings of the
IEE Cotfererice on Rohorics crrtd Aurori~ariori.
TANDLER, W., Critical Concepts of High Performance Co-ordinate Measuring Systems, (Red-
wood City, California: Multi-Metrics).
TAYLOR, D. L., Computer Aided Design.
 Integration of design a n d inspection systems -a literature review 1241

TOMIYAMA,T., KIRIYAMA, T., TAKEDA, H., XUE,D., and YOSHIKAWA, H., 1989, MetaModel: a
key to intelligent CAD systems. Research in Engineering Design, 1, pp. 19-34.
UDUPA,S. M., Collision detection and avoidance in computer controlled manipulators.
Proceedings of the 5th M I T International Conference on Artificial Intelligence.
VARDAR, H. O., and Ozsoy, T. M., A method for selecting measurement points on planar faces
of objects with holes. Computers in Engineering, 1, 429-436.
WALKER,I., and WALLIS,A. F., 1992, Application of 3D solid modelling to co-ordinate
measuring inspection. International Journal of Machine Tools Manufacture, 32(1/2), 195-
201.
WANG,N., and Ozsoy, T. M., A scheme to represent features, dimensions and tolerances in
geometric modelling. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 190).
YAU,H.-T., and MENQ,C.-H., 1991, Path planning for automated dimensional inspection using
co-ordinate measuring machines. Proceedings of the 1991 International Conference on
Robotics and Automation, 3, 1934-1939.
YAU,H.-T., and MENQ,C.-H., 1992, An automated dimensional inspection environment for
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:24 10 November 2014

manufactured parts using co-ordinate measuring machines. lnternational Journal of

Production Research, 30(7), 1517-1 536.
YAU, H.-T., and MENQ,C.-H., 1994, Automated CMM path planning for dimensional
inspection of dies and moulds having complex surface. International Journal of Machine
Tools Manufacturing, 35(6), 861-876.
ZHANG, X., and ROY,U., Criteria for establishing datum's in manufactured parts. Journal of
Manufacturing Systems, IZ(1).
ZINK,J., 1987, Linking CAD/CAM Systems to CMMs. Proceedings of the Conference on Test.
Measurement and Inspecrion for Quality Control, Detroit.