1 Analysis the different tools of production quality management

Introduction

Quality means customer needs is to be satisfied. Failure to maintain an adequate quality

standard can therefore be unsuccessful. But maintaining an adequate standard of quality also
costs effort. From the first investigation to find out what the potential customer for a new
product really wants, through the processes of design, specification, controlled manufacture
and sale. There are a number of factors on which quality fitness of garment industry is based
such as - performance, reliability, durability, visual and perceived quality of the garment.
Quality needs to be defined in terms of a particular framework of cost.

What is Quality Control in Textiles

Quality control is a set of steps or guidelines designed to guarantee that a product or service
meets certain performance standards. The goal of quality control is to ensure that an item
meets the needs and specifications of the consumer population. Good quality control also
helps a company to more efficiently navigate manufacturing and production processes to cut
down on mistakes and waste and maximize profit.

In the textile industry, quality control is not much different than the standard definition
provided here. It is a program put into place from the very beginning of the textile
manufacturing process, starting from the sourcing of raw fibers to the final stages of garment
production.

Aim of Production Management

I’d like to outline the six primary objectives of production management, and why they relate
to any given business field above. The point of this is to give everyone a clear and
unquestioning understanding of production management, and to bring home the fact that even
if they’re not accustomed to the term, it’s closer to their professional life than they might
realize starting out.

Production of goods and services within the parameters of manufacturing cost and
minimum possible resource consumption: The first objective is to produce a great product
or service without costing more than is estimated and allowed, and consuming resources the
most efficiently. Anyone working in accounting or budgeting, as well as anyone working
with refining, managing or improving production processes or service rendering works very
closely with the prime objective of production management.

Master of Business Administration (MBA) in Product & Fashion Merchandising

Ensuring the proper quality of goods and services per regulations: This is the second
objective, and while it’s similar to the first, it’s about quality assurance. Any group working
in customer service/support, as well as research and development, customer experience or
similar fields contributes to this. They do so by hearing input from users who will be a
window on how good a product or service is, in the wild, as well as researching how to
improve the product or service to meet these standards if anything falls short.

Production within timelines: Meeting schedules for production of goods and services per
the standards of quality, and at the budget allotted is the third objective, and it’s one of the
harder ones to manage. Anyone working within management within the company pretty
much dedicates themselves, through their leadership within their department, to ensure that
these goals are met.

Ensuring minimal use of resources: This one sounds repetitive to me, considering the first
objective actually kind of states this, but we’re going by the clinical definition which does
indeed itemize this separately. That’s ok, because it gives me a chance to point out that
anyone who balances overhead, dedication of man power, costs and resources contributes to
this aspect of production management quite heavily.

Maximization of manpower utilization: This is another aspect where everyone in

management, team leadership or similar positions are integral components. This is actually
different from resources despite man power being a resource. This is all about utilization of
manpower to its fullest means ensuring that all skills available in all people involved are
tapped to their fullest potential.

Ensuring efficiency by reducing redundancy of tasks: This basically means eliminating

unnecessary steps, or reworking any given process or procedure to ensure that the minimal
amount of work and time is being consumed. This must be maintained while also ensuring
that the above criteria of maximum utilization of manpower, minimum resource consumption,
proper standards of quality and maximum expediency are met. Leadership, again, is directly
involved in this, no matter the role nor department.
Benefits of 6 QC Tools

The 6 QC tools are structured and fundamental instruments that help businesses improve their
management and production process for achieving enhanced product quality. From assessing
and examining the production process, identification of key challenges and problems to
controlling the fluctuation present in the product quality and providing solutions for
prevention of defects in future, the easy to understand and implement, 6 QC tools are very
effective. Some of the major business benefits of 6 QC tools are listed below.

 Provides a more structured path for problem-solving and quality improvement

 Easy to understand as well as implement yet extremely effective

 A scientific and logical approach for problem-solving

 Follows the 80/20 rule i.e. gain 80% result with 20% efforts

 Improve the quality of product and services

 Helps in identifying and analyzing problems during the process

 Fishbone training aides in root cause analysis and problem-solving

 Encourages team spirit and fosters a healthy culture

 Identifies roots cause and solve it permanently

 Enhance customer experience and customer satisfaction

Management tools for Quality Control

In below I describe most use six management tools for quality control-

GPQ

The full form of “GPQ” is the “Guideline for Production and Quality” Control. Quality
required to be implemented in the Garment Factory through GPQ. Usually, GPQ acts as the
helping hand of the buyer QC. Moreover, best product quality and final inspection confirmed
by GPQ. In a factory there are many buyers each buyer has a different GPQ.
In below I mention GPQ for H&M’s buyer:
  Sample procedure
 Color
 How to measure
 Lighting
 Fabric & yarn
 Trimming
 Production
 Finishing
 Packing
 Inspection

What are the things that a GPQ must know?

The work of GPQ revolves around garment inspection and reporting. So he/she must have a
very good idea about:

 Measurements of a garment.
 All the types of measurements (like- measuring from high shoulder point or center
back in case of a shirt).
 Preparing a proper measurement report.
 All the accessories needed for the garments.
 All the potential styling mistakes.
 Preparing a proper inline report.
 Trim card making.
 Regular follow-up of Production and finishing activities.
 Managing buying QC (Quality Controller)

What are the qualifications of a GPQ?

 Graduate in any discipline (preferably textile).

 Fluent in English.

 Very clear concept about different types of garment measurements.

 Good idea about different inspection systems (like- 4 point system).

 Good idea about measurement tape.

  Know how to check and report garment measurements properly (method will vary
depending on the factory).

 Must have a good idea about different garment accessories and where to use which
accessory.

 Know how to make s trim card.

 How how to properly check the quality of the garment.

 Must know how to prepare a production progress report and follow up production
regularly.

What is the designation of GPQ?

Generally, in a factory, GPQ has below job positions. But it may vary depending on the
company.

1. GPQ manager

2. Assistant GPQ manager

3. Executive GPQ

4. GPQ officer
5. GPQ in charge

6. Senior GPQ
7. GPQ
SOP

An SOP (or standard operating procedure) is a set of super clear, written directions for how to
complete complex routine tasks.In other words, it’s the agreed-upon way that your company
does something. And it’s official enough that you wrote it down. SOP can be defined as a
step- by-step written procedure about how to do a job that gives the desired result and
maintains consistency in results. SOP can also be defined as a checklist for the user (operator)
who is going to do a particular job. An SOP is a sure success method of doing a job.
More than just written instructions SOP can be also made using illustrations and flow charts.
For some processes factory only needs to provide detailed instructions to perform a task,
where some processes required instruction as well as decision making based on the result of
intermediate steps.

Remember Two Things when Develop an SOP for Apparel Industry

1. Make it Concise: Proper Description must be given to clarify the process or working
procedure.
2. Make it as written and as well as visual: Use easy language so that workers can
understand and side by side hang a flow chart also to make it visual.

List of SOP Needed for Garments Quality

Listed SOP hyperlinked with needed SOP, we can read by following the topic.

1. Fabrics inspection SOP

2. Shade band procedure
3. Fabrics process before cutting
4. Trim and accessories inspection SOP
5. Garments pattern making SOP
6. Fabrics relaxation, spreading and cutting procedure SOP
7. Sewing quality procedure
8. Garment’s measurement Control SOP
9. Needle controlling SOP
10. Sharp edge controlling SOP
11. Buttons pull test SOP
12. Button pinch setting SOP
13. Metal detection SOP
14. Mold prevention SOP
 15. Finishing SOP
16. Quality control manual or SOP
17. CAD Room SOP in Garments Industry
18. Embroidery process SOP in Garments Manufacturing
19. Finished Garments Warehouse procedure

Benefits of Using Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) in Apparel Industry

1. Ensure Standardized in Operation

2. Provide Standard Guidelines
3. Easy to Understand the Process and Adaptation
4. Fastness in Operation
5. Ensure Consistency of Output
6. Helps to solve the basic problem and take effective actions
7. Reduce wastage of materials

3 Best SOP formats

Your company should have standardized (no pun intended) ways of formatting all your
company’s standardized operating procedures. This will keep confusion down and make your
how-to easier to put into play. Chances are good that your company already has this – even if
you’re calling it something else! And while these are great to have on hand, you should also
be flexible when it comes to formatting. After all, you can’t teach addition the same way you
teach derivatives. So why would you present your complex processes and straightforward
protocols the same way?

Here are the 3 best ways to format your standard operating procedure (and when to use each
one):

Step-by-step format

Like cooking a recipe, step-by-step formatting takes a 1, 2, 3 approach to standard operating

procedures! Breaking routine SOPs into numbered (if order matters) or bulleted (if it doesn’t
matter) steps, this format makes simple tasks easy to follow. The person using the SOP just
has to go down the list. Each step should be its own action, written as a clear and
concise
sentence. For example, for washing your hands, one step might be to “scrub both sides of each
hand with soap.” And another might be to “rinse for 30 seconds with warm water.”

Hierarchical format

Instead of diving right into the how-tos like the step-by-step format, this format uses a top-
down approach. This allows you to break down more complex processes.

Starting with looking at the big process picture, the hierarchical SOPs zoom in to look at the
nitty-gritty details.
For example, a restaurant SOP would overview their “all employees must wash hands
policy.” Then, it would dive into how you should wash your hands, where the sinks are, or
how often.

In most cases, you can follow a pretty simple formula for this:
1. Outline the policy (the “why” for what comes next)

2. Share your procedures (how to comply)

3. Tell them any need-to-knows (set them up for success)

4. Get the documents in order (make things legit)

Flow-chart format

Similar to a choose your own adventure, the flow chart format leads you through what to do
based on the given circumstances.

Not all processes are going to be as simple as you run through a list of action items.
Sometimes, there are still variables that you need to take into account.

By giving a canned response to possible variables, this format standardizes when exactly you
should do what. And takes into accounts that depending on what else is happening, not every
step might need to happen.

For example, if you’re supposed to wash your hands every time you enter the kitchen, but
you washed them within the last 2 minutes – you might not need to wash your hands.
How to write an SOP

Ironically enough, there’s no official SOP for writing a standard operating procedure. And a
lot of the times companies over-complicate how they go about it. But we like to keep things
as simple as possible here at Trainual. So, we’ve trademarked our very own 4-step process for
SOP writing that anyone (and we mean anyone) can put to use.

Step 1: Do it

You can’t write an SOP teaching someone else how to do something that you don’t know
how to do yourself – it’s just a fact. So, we always recommend documenting what’s on your
plate first. (When you have the Do It, Document It, Delegate It process down, you can teach
other people how to write SOPs. Then, they can create standard operating procedures for
what’s on their plate!) Choose anything on your plate that you do routinely. Make sure it’s
something that has a best, safest, or required way of doing it.

Step 2: Document it

In as much detail as possible, write how someone would do the task. (Hint: It should be
exactly how you just did it!) The goal is to document the SOP super clearly so anyone on
your team can do it! This includes the who, what, where, and why – on top of just the how-to.
Otherwise, you might leave space for interpretation, which could change the outcome.

Step 3: Delegate it

At this point, we should be able to delegate the task confidently! Choose someone on your
team who is unfamiliar with the task. Ideally, this is a team member who has never done it
before and has minimal background knowledge. If they can do it, anyone can (and that’s the
goal)! Assign the task to them with only the SOP as a guide – no added directions. Then, let
them run with it. If the SOP is documented clearly, they should be able to complete the task
and get the desired results. No further questions or clarification needed – just the SOP. But if
they do need some help (this is usually the case for the first few drafts) – take it at face value.
What are they asking you questions about? Chances are good that their questions are
naturally trying to fill the gap they found in the SOP – even if they don’t know what that gap
is.
So, rather than giving them the answer, focus on identifying the gap. Then, make the changes
directly to the SOP – and have them try again. Repeat this step until the delegated person can
complete the task using only the SOP

Step 4: Refine

We’ve heard a lot of people voice that once their SOPs are written, they’re afraid to change
the process. But to be completely frank, that only holds your business back! Your company is
always going to be evolving how it does things – finding bigger and better ways to get things
done. So rather than fighting what your SOPs could be, why not just keep them up to date?
(We’ll let you in on a secret – getting your SOPs ready to roll out is the hardest part! Now
that you’re here, it’s all about keeping them updated with the latest information.) But before
you say that this feels like mission impossible, know that it doesn’t all have to fall all on you!
Try having everyone on your team own a few SOPs. For example, whoever is in charge of
your Product team might be in charge of the SOP for rolling new features out to your users.
Then, set a recurring task every few weeks for everyone to read through the SOPs they own
and make any updates (about once a quarter works best). We like to put this event directly on
everyone’s calendar to keep people accountable. That way, your SOPs are always fresh, and
there are no excuses like I forgot or didn’t know.

Statistical quality control (SQC) Introduction

The SQC technique is considered to be a management tool like cost accounting, time and
motion study and budget control. Its contribution lies in improving the product quality and in
reducing cost. A statistical approach to the behavior of the variable quality is a pre-requisite
to the adoption of SQC technique and this is done by drawing and analyzing sample at
regular interval of time or space or any production sequence. If a large number of sample is
taken, the results can be grouped in the form of a frequency distribution or histogram. If a
production process is subjected to systematic variation only, then the frequency distribution
invariably depicts a predictable pattern. Collection of data on quality characteristics of coal
samples could lead to a sampling distribution with a mathematical basis which can be related
to the underlining distribution of the production process. Statisticians have developed
formulae mentioned earlier for describing pattern of variation exhibited by quality
characteristics
normally encountered in any production process. Some fundamental statistical parameters are
computed from the data to represent the distribution. The common parameters are –

(a) for central tendency, i.e., the value of the variable around which the individual values are
scattered, is the arithmetic mean (x), and
(b) for measures of dispersion, i.e., the measure of degree of variation of individual value
from the arithmetic mean is the “standard deviation” (s), standard error (x), range (R), and
mean range (R).

The property of the normal distribution that 95% of its area lies between the arithmetic mean
and ±2 standard deviation that 99% lies between the arithmetic mean and ±3 standard
deviation, is of paramount importance to a SQC unit. In order to adopt SQC technique in any
industry (e.g. coal industry), the operating engineers and technicians must have the technical
knowledge and familiarity with the conditions under which coal is produced. There must be a
record of quality assessment by collecting samples at regular intervals. Calculation of
statistical parameters mentioned above from the recent available data should then be done.
The record is to be maintained on – (a) actual measurement of quality characteristics (e.g. ash
content is case of coal), (b) number of samples collected at each time and (c) frequency of
sampling, (d) lot size etc.

Different types of control charts

We shall consider control charts for continuous variable only. There are generally three types
of control chart used – (a) X and R chart, (b) X and S chart, and (c) for X or for R or s alone.

Starting SQC scheme

Following steps have to be gone through before adopting SQC in any industry:

(i) Choice of quality characteristics.

(ii) Specification, if any, of the quality characteristics.
(iii) A laying out of data sheet – for individual observation and for statistical
parameters.
(iv) Sampling and inspection – Select “n” number of samples (in case of coal more
than two from a lot) in sequence of time or space, and test each sample for chosen
quality characteristics; record the “n” observed data in the sequence in which they
are selected.
 (v) Lay-out the form for control chart record on a standard cross-section or graph
paper (preferably in millimeter graph paper) and spaces for recording quality
characteristics, specified maximum and minimum limits and consignment/lot
number should be provided. The control chart consists of a “central line” (CL)
denoting average value of the characteristics and two control limits on either side
of central line which are called “upper control limit” (UCL) and “lower control
limit” (LCL). The control limits are computed from probability distribution of the
statistical parameters.
(vi) A horizontal scale for data and time of collection of samples may also be
provided.
(vii) Two vertical scales on the left hand margin of the paper – one near top for plotting
x and one below for plotting R is to be used.
(viii) Plotting of values of X, R, etc. are then done in a sequential manner

Cause and effect diagram

Cause and effect diagram was created by Kaoru Ishikawa for the identification of potential
cause (factors) leading to an effect (problem). It is mostly used to map out the potential
factors for the quality defect which is leading to an overall effect. Each cause or reason for
imperfection is a source of variation. Causes are usually grouped into major categories to
identify and classify these sources of variation.

The first part of the tool requires identification of the problem and the factors leading to that
problem. Also, sub-factors are determined if need be by making the factors as a group of
subfactors. Then the diagram is drawn with the problem in the centre and the factors affecting
it as its root branching out. This creates a highly effective visualization to see all the causes
simultaneously and work on them in accordance with their importance.

There are many chronic problems found in garment manufacturing. You can reduce the
occurrence of such chronic quality issues by finding the root causes of the problem. And the
root cause can be found through the fishbone diagram.
 Figure - Cause and Effect Diagram

Cause and Effect Sequence Relationship

The most important consideration in the construction of a cause-effect diagram is a clear

understanding of the cause-effect relationship. When one has completed the diagram, one
should be able to start at any endpoint and read the diagram as follows (using Figure 29 as an
example): “Snow causes the road to be slippery. The slippery road causes loss of control of
the car.” Alternatively, one can start with the phenomenon being explained and read it
backward like this: “Control of the car was lost because the road was slippery. The road was
slippery because it had snow.” In a properly constructed diagram, reading any of the branches
in this way should make good sense. We may not have evidence on which cause was actually
the culprit, but the statement should make good logical sense.

All possible sources of causation need to be considered. There are at least four classes of
causes that may apply to any problem:
 1. Objects such as machines and material
2. Conditions such as motivations, temperature, or level of demand
3. Timed sequence in the process such as time of day or sequence in production
4. The effects associated with place such as a particular production line, the loading
dock, the distributor, or a particular branch office.

These are what, why, when, and where of cause and effect and should always be asked. In
addition to the 4 W’s (what, why, when, and where), teams that use cause-effect diagrams
have developed two other lists that help them remember to consider these several classes of
possible causes for a problem. These lists are characterized as the 5 M’s in manufacturing and
the 5 P’s in services, as follows:

1. Manpower: People (employees)

2. Materials: Provisions (supplies)
3. Methods: Procedures
4. Machines: Place (environment)
5. Measurements: Patrons (customers)

People have found the W’s, M’s, and P’s helpful aids in remembering to consider a full range
of possible causes. There is, however, no particular magic in the specific words, and they do
not all apply in all cases. You may find one of these lists helpful or develop your own. The
important point is to consider all possible sources of causation by posing a number of
questions such as, “What procedures do we have that might cause this problem?”

Key Strengths of the Cause-and-Effect Diagram Tool

The major advantage of this tool lies in the fact that it focuses the attention of all the people
involved with on the specific problem at hand in a structured, systematic way. It encourages
innovative thinking and still keeps the team on track in an orderly way. The 5 Whys can be
applied to the brainstormed theories to get to suspected root causes.

The second key strength of this tool is that its graphic representation allows very complex
situations to be presented, showing clear relationships between elements. When a problem is
potentially affected by complex interactions among many causes, the cause-effect diagram
provides the means of documenting and organizing them all.
For the same reason, the C-E diagram has a tremendous capability of communicating to others.

How to Construct a Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Getting Ready

Construct a cause-effect diagram when you have reached the point of developing theories to
guide the characterize step. The knowledge to be used to construct the cause-effect diagram
comes from the people familiar with the problem and from data that has been gathered up to
that point.

Some of the power in a cause-effect diagram is in its visual impact. Observing a few simple
rules below will enhance that impact.

Step 1: Define the Effect

Define clearly the effect or symptom for which the causes must be identified. The “effect”
must be defined in writing. For additional clarity, it may be advisable to spell out what is
included and what is excluded.

If the effect is too general a statement, it will be interpreted quite differently by the various
people involved. The contributions will then tend to be diffuse rather than focused. They may
bring in considerations that are irrelevant to the problem at hand. For example, “Too many

customer complaints are being received by the Customer Service Department” is probably
too vague. Spend more time on the analysis of the symptoms so that the specific problem
for
investigation can be stated more like, “The number of customer complaints about
overbooking of flights has doubled in the last year.”

Step 2: Place the Effect

Place the effect or symptom at the right, enclosed in a box. Draw the central spine as a thicker
line pointing to it.

Step 3: Identify Possible Causes

Use brainstorming or a rational step-by-step approach to identify the possible causes. There
are two possible approaches to obtaining contributions for the causes to be placed on the
diagram: brainstorming and a rational step-by-step approach. You, the team or its leadership
will need to make a choice based on an assessment of readiness.

Brainstorming would normally be indicated for a team with a few individuals who are likely
to dominate the conversation in a destructive manner or for a team with a few individuals
who are likely to be excessively reserved and not make contributions. Also, brainstorming
may be best in dealing with highly unusual problems where there will be a premium on
creativity.

If one uses brainstorming to identify possible causes, then once the brainstorming is
completed, process the ideas generated into the structured order of a cause-effect diagram.
This processing will take place in much the same way as described below for the step-by-step
procedure, except that the primary source of ideas for inserting in the diagram will come from
the list already generated in brainstorming rather than directly from the team members.

If the team members are prepared to work in that environment, a step-by-step approach will
usually produce a final product in less time, and the quality of the proposed causal
relationships will normally be better.

In the step-by-step procedure, begin by identifying the major causes or classes of causes that
will be placed in the boxes at the ends of the main spines coming off the central spine of the
diagram.
It may helpful to start with some simple mnemonic lists of possible major areas as a reminder
of the many possible sources of causative factors. These lists are characterized as the 5 M’s in
manufacturing and the 5 P’s in services, and are as follows:

1. Manpower: People (employees)

2. Materials: Provisions (supplies)
3. Methods: Procedures
4. Machines: Place (environment)
5. Measurements: Patrons (customers)

The 4 W’s can also be used as important guides to a full exploration of the possibilities:

1. What
2. Why
3. When
4. Where

These are just helpful places to start. Start with one of these sets of categories and, after a
while, rearrange the results into another set of major areas that fit its particular problem more
appropriately.

After identifying the major causes, select one of them and work on it systematically,
identifying as many causes of the major cause as possible. Take each of these “secondary”
causes and ask whether there are any relevant causes for each of them.

Continue to move systematically down the causal chain within each major or secondary cause
until that one is exhausted before moving on to the next one. Ideas may surface that should
apply to an area already completed. Be sure to backtrack and add the new idea.

Step 4: Place the Major Causes

Each of the major causes (not less than two and normally not more than six) should be
worded in a box and connected with the central spine by a line at an angle of about 70
degrees. Here, as well as in subsequent steps, it has proved useful to use adhesive notes to
post the individual main and subsidiary causes about the main spine. Since these notes can be
easily attached and
moved, it will make the process more flexible and the result easier for the participants to
visualize.

Step 5 (Part A): Add Causes to Main Area

Add causes for each main area. Each factor that is a cause of a main area is placed at the end
of a line that is drawn so that it connects with the appropriate main area line and is parallel
with

the central spine. Figure 37 shows how to display a number of possible causes of problems
arising from an engine, which is a main area for some larger symptom that is being explained.
C-E diagrams are generally easier to read and appear more visually pleasing if the text is
placed at the end of the line as in Figure 37. Other users have placed the text on the line like
Figure
38. Text on the line tends to be harder to use and read, especially as more levels of subsidiary
causes are added.

Step 5 (Part B): Less Desirable Placement

Step 6 (Part A): Add Subsidiary Causes for Each Cause

Add subsidiary causes for each cause already entered. Each of these causes is placed at the
end of a line which is drawn (1) to connect with the line associated with the factor that it
causes and (2) parallel with either the main area line or the central spine. Figure 39 is an
amplification of the portion of a C-E diagram introduced in Step 5. Note how the governor
and throttle have
been added as possible causes of the wrong speed of the engine. Throttle malfunction may
result from either of two causes: Faulty calibration or defective linkage.

Keeping the lines parallel makes reading easier and the visual effect more pleasing. Clearly,
when one is actually working on a C-E diagram in a team meeting, one cannot always keep
the lines neat and tidy. In the final documentation, however, it is found that using parallel
lines makes for a more satisfactory diagram. A diagram composed of lines with random
orientation like the following example is harder to read and looks less professional.

Step 6 (Part B): Less Desirable Placement

Step 7: Continue Adding Possible Causes

Continue adding possible causes to the diagram until each branch reaches a root cause. As the
C-E diagram is constructed, team members tend to move back along a chain of events that is
sometimes called the causal chain. Teams move from the ultimate effect they are trying to
explain, to major areas of causation, to causes within each of those areas, to subsidiary causes
of each of those, and so forth. When do they stop? Teams should stop only when the last
cause out at the end of each causal chain is a potential root cause.

A root cause has three characteristics that will help explain when to stop. First, it causes the
event the team had sought after—either directly or through a sequence of intermediate causes
and effects. Second, it is directly controllable. That is, in principle, team members could
intervene to change that cause. In the engine example, we have been using in this section,
speed cannot be controlled directly. Control of speed is dependent on proper functioning of
the throttle and governor, but proper control with the throttle is dependent on correct
calibration and proper functioning of the linkage. The calibration and the linkage can be
controlled. They are root causes.

Third, and finally, as the result of the other two characteristics, if the theory embodied in a
particular entry on the diagram is proved to be true, then the elimination of that potential root
cause will result in the elimination or reduction of the problem effect that we were trying to
explain.
Step 8: Check Logical Validity of Each Causal Chain

Check the logical validity of each causal chain. Once the entire C-E diagram is complete, it is
wise to start with each potential root cause and “read” the diagram forward to the effect being
explained. Be sure that each causal chain makes logical and operational sense. Consider the
following example, which is a portion of a C-E diagram seeking to explain errors in an order-
entry process. One main area of errors concerns errors in the part numbers. Sales
representatives look up the part in a catalog and enter the part number on an order form. The
information from the form is then keyed into a database.

Start with the proposed root cause “keying error.” Then read it as follows: “Keying errors
cause fatigue which causes the wrong part numbers…” Once we try to read the diagram, the
problem becomes clear. Keying errors do not cause fatigue; fatigue causes keying errors, and
the diagram should be reorganized as follows. This redrawn diagram places fatigue, format,
and training as root causes of three different intermediate causes of the wrong part numbers
— misreading the catalog, entering the data on the form improperly, and keying the data
improperly. Because these now trace out logical causal chains, it is easier to devise effective
ways of testing the theories. For example, form formats which cause problems in keying may
differ from those which create problems in the original pencil entry.

The general “lack of training” cause on the original diagram is normally a good danger sign
that the causal chain needs to be checked. Lack of training in reading the catalog will create
reading errors, but if the errors come at the keying stage, no amount of training on use of the
catalog will do any good. Whenever one sees “lack of training” (or lack of anything else for
that matter) on a C-E diagram, one should ask two questions. First, exactly which skill is
training lacking in? And second, how does that lack cause the factor being explained at the
moment? As we saw in our example here, answers to those questions may help identify
missing intermediate causal factor and causal relationships that are stated backward.

Step 9: Check for Completeness

As discussed more fully in the interpretation section, check for the following:

 Main branches with fewer than three causes

 Main branches with substantially fewer causes than most others
 Main branches that go into less detail, with fewer levels of subsidiary causes than
do the others
 Main branches that have substantially more causes than most of the others

The existence of one of these conditions does not automatically mean a defect in the diagram;
it merely suggests that further investigation is warranted. At this point, it is also good to
double check that the 4 W’s, 5 M’s, and/or 5 P’s are considered as appropriate.

When to Use Cause and Effect Diagrams

Formulating Theories

The chief application of the cause-effect diagram is for the orderly arrangement of theories
about the causes of the observed quality problem that the team is assigned to resolve. Once
the theories are well understood and ordered, then the team will use its best collective
judgment to identify those theories which should be tested. The final objective of the
characterize step is the identification of the primary root cause or causes of the team’s
problem.

There are also other opportunities for organizing theories. The team may want to know why
some part of the process works better than other parts. For example:

 Why does automobile A obtain ten percent better mileage per gallon than all other
similar vehicles tested?
 Why is the productivity of assembly line B always higher than the productivity of
the other lines?
Designing for Culture

During the Improve step, the cause-effect diagram may also be useful for the team in
considering the cultural impact of its proposed remedy. A cause-effect diagram can
sometimes be helpful in thinking systematically about the resistance that the proposed
solution is likely to meet. If the phenomenon to be explained is resistance to the proposed
remedy, then the team can construct a cause-effect diagram to help identify the most
important resistances it will need to address.

How to Interpret Cause and Effect Diagrams

The cause-effect diagram does not provide an answer to a question, as some other tools do.
Its main value is to serve as a vehicle for producing, in a very focused manner, a list of all
known or suspected causes which potentially contribute to the observed effect. At the time of
generating the cause-effect diagram, it is not usually known whether these causes are
responsible for the effect or not.

A well-prepared cause-effect diagram is a superb vehicle for helping to reach a common

understanding of a complex problem, with all its elements and relationships clearly visible at
whatever level of detail is required. The output of the diagram can be leveraged by
prioritizing potential causes or theories for further investigation.

Pie Chart

A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to
illustrate numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice (and consequently
its central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. While it is named for
its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced, there are variations on the way it can be
presented. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's Statistical
Breviary of 1801.
What It Is Used For
 To show how much of the whole that individual items make up.
When to Use It
 To present data in a report.
 To determine where to focus activities (i.e. on the largest portions of the pie).
Important Notes
 Always start with the biggest slice of the pie and work your way down if making a pie
chart by hand.
 Most spreadsheet packages can create pie charts easily.

Histogram

A histogram is a type of bar chart that visualizes the distribution of numerical data. It groups
numbers into ranges and the height of the bar indicates how many fall into each range. It’s a
powerful quality planning and control tool that helps you understand preventive and
corrective actions.

When to use a histogram

Use a histogram when:

 The data are numerical

 You want to see the shape of the data’s distribution, especially when determining
whether the output of a process is distributed approximately normally
 Analyzing whether a process can meet the customer’s requirements
 Analyzing what the output from a supplier’s process looks like
 Seeing whether a process change has occurred from one time period to another
 Determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are different
 You wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly and easily to others

Uses

 To easily interpret a large amount of data and identify patterns

 To make predictions of process performance
 To identify the different causes of a quality problem
31 Analysis the different tools of production quality management

How to make a histogram

1. Collect data for analysis. Record occurrences of specific ranges using a tally chart
2. Analyze the data at hand and split the data into intervals or bins
3. Count how many values fall into each bin
4. On the graph, indicate the frequency of occurrences for each bin with the area (height)
of the bar.

Histogram analysis

 Before drawing any conclusions from your histogram, be sure that the process was
operating normally during the time period being studied. If any unusual events
affected the process during the time period of the histogram, your analysis of the
histogram shape likely cannot be generalized to all time periods.
 Analyze the meaning of your histogram's shape. Typical histogram shapes and what
they mean are covered below.

Master of Business Administration (MBA) in Product & Fashion Merchandising

32 Analysis the different tools of production quality management

Importance of a Histogram

Creating a histogram provides a visual representation of data distribution. Histograms can

display a large amount of data and the frequency of the data values. The median and
distribution of the data can be determined by a histogram. In addition, it can show any
outliers or gaps in the data.

Conclusion

I have explored all the basic Quality Management and Improvement Tools here in this file.
Each Quality Tool has unique characteristics and benefits for a specific situation and these
tools can be used for problem-solving based on the situation. However, all the quality control
tools cannot be used for problem-solving. Every project manager wishes to deliver the project
with high quality and these seven basic quality management tools will help them in achieving
quality.

Master of Business Administration (MBA) in Product & Fashion Merchandising

References

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