Nanomaterial Based Environmental Sensors 443

Figure 1. General configuration of biosensors. The biological recognizing element

(enzyme, antibody, receptor, DNA, cell, etc.) is in intimate contact with a physical
transducer that converts the biorecognition process into a measurable signal (electrical,
optical, etc). Catalytic biosensors have enzyme as biorecognition element and affinity
biosensors are based on antibodies, DNA, cells or other type of receptor.

intimate contact with a physical transducer that converts the biorecogni-

tion process into a measurable signal (electrical, optical, and so on) as seen
in Figure 1. Biosensors are commonly classified as immunosensors, enzy-
matic (catalytic), non-enzymatic receptor, whole-cell (microbial sensors)
or nucleic acid (DNA) biosensors, according to the biological recognition
element.
Immunosensors are affinity-based sensors designed to detect the direct
binding of an antibody (Ab) to an antigen (Ag) to form an immunocom-
plex at the transducer surface. Depending on the transducer technology
employed, immunosensors can be divided into three principal classes: opti-
cal, electrochemical and piezoelectrical. They are based on the principles of
solid-phase immunoassays, where the immuno-reagent (Ab or Ag) is immo-
bilized on a solid support, so that the interaction takes place at the solid-
liquid interface.
Antibodies are globular proteins produced by the immune system of
mammals as a defense against foreign agents (antigen, Ag). The struc-
ture of the antibody molecules is usually typified by the immunoglobulin
G (IgG) subclass, which is the most commonly used in immunochemical
application. The IgGs (molecular weight of 150 kDa) are composed of four
polypeptide chains: two identical heavy (H) and two identical light (L)
chains (50 kDa and 23 to 25 kDa, respectively) interlinked by disulphide
bridges (see Figure 2).40 The region that carries the antigen binding sites
is known as the Fab fragment, and the constant (crystallized) region that
is involved in immune regulation is termed Fc. Both H and L chains are