12 Sensors, Nanoscience, Biomedical Engineering, and Instruments Measurand Painary Iniernedate output ak Tanaausten P| Hansdueton 7% Signal FIGURE 1.1 Sensor block diagram. Many sensors employ multiple transduction mechanisms in order to produce an clectzonic output in sponse to the measurand, Passive transduction mechanisms require input power in order to produce a usable ousput signal. diagram, indicating the measurand and associated input signal, the primary and intermediate transduction mechanisms, and the electronic output signal. Some transducers are auto-generators or active, where a usable ‘output signal, often electeonic, is created directly in response to the measurand. However, many other types of transducers are modulators or passive, where an auxiliary energy source is used to transform the generated response to an electronic output signal. For example, the piezoresistor is a passive sensor. Itis a resistor that ‘changes its resistance value when it is mechanically deformed or strained, In order to measure this change, it is necessary to attach a voltage or current source, Table 1.1 is a six-by-six matrix of some of the more commonly ‘employed physical and chemical transduction mechanisms for sensing. Many of the effects listed are described {in more detail elsewhere in this handbook ‘Today, sensors are most often classified by the type of measurand, i., physical, chemical, or biological. Thisisa ‘much simpler means of classification than by transduction mechanism or output signal (c.g, digital or analog), since many sensors use multiple transduction mechanisms and the output signal can always be processed, conditioned, or converted by a circuit so as to cloud the definition of output, A description of each class and ‘examples are given in the following sections. The last section introduces microsensors and some examples In choosing a particular sensor for a given application, there are many factors to be considered. ‘These factors or specifications can be divided into three major categories: environmental factors, economic factors, and sensor characteristics, The most commonly encountered factors are listed in Table 1.2, although not all of them may be pertinent to a particular application, Most of the environmental factors determine the packaging of the sensor, meaning the encapsulation and insulation required to protect or isolate components from the environment, the input/output leads, connectors, and cabling. The economic factors determine the ‘manufacturing method and type of materials used to make the sensor and to some extent the quality of the ‘materials. For example, a very expensive sensor may be cost effective if itis used repeatedly or for very long periods of time. However, a disposable sensor like that used for early pregnancy testing should be inexpensive and may only need to function accurately for a few minutes. The sensor characteristics of the sensor are usually the specifications of primary concern, The most important parameters are sensitivity, stability, and repeatability. Normally, a sensor is only useful if all three of these parameters are tightly specified for a given range of measurand values and time of operation. For example, a highly sensitive device is not useful if its output signal drifts greatly during the measurement time and the data obtained may not be reliable if the ‘measurement is not repeatable. Other sensor characteristics, such as selectivity and linearity, can often be compensated for by using additional, independent sensors or by signal conditioning circuits. For example, ‘most sensors will respond to temperature in addition to their primary measurand, since most transduction mechanisms are temperature dependent. Therefore, temperature compensation is usually required if the sensor is to be used in an environment where temperature is not controlled. Physical Sensors Physical measurands include temperature, strain, force, pressure, displacement, position, velocity, acceleration, optical radiation, sound, flow rate, viscosity, and electromagnetic fields. Referring to Table 1.1, all but those