GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 1

Chapter
1
1.1

Geothermal Basics
The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). So, geothermal
energy is heat from within the Earth. We can recover this heat as steam or hot water and use it to
heat buildings or generate electricity.
Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the heat is continuously produced
inside the Earth.
Geothermal Energy Is Generated Deep Inside the Earth

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Geothermal energy is generated in the Earth's core. Temperatures hotter than the sun's surface are
continuously produced inside the Earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles, a process that
happens in all rocks. The Earth has a number of different layers:
The core itself has two layers: a solid iron core and an outer core made of very hot melted rock,
called magma.
The mantle surrounds the core and is about 1,800 miles thick. It is made up of magma and rock.
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, the land that forms the continents and ocean floors.
It can be 3 to 5 miles thick under the oceans and 15 to 35 miles thick on the continents.

The Earth's crust is broken into pieces called plates. Magma comes close to the Earth's surface
near the edges of these plates. This is where volcanoes occur. The lava that erupts from
volcanoes is partly magma. Deep underground, the rocks and water absorb the heat from this
magma. The temperature of the rocks and water gets hotter and hotter as you go deeper
underground.
People around the world use geothermal energy to heat their homes and to produce electricity by
digging deep wells and pumping the heated underground water or steam to the surface. We can
also make use of the stable temperatures near the surface of the Earth to heat and cool buildings.

1.2 Where Geothermal Energy is Found

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The ring of fire goes around the edges of the Pacific. The map shows that volcanic activity
occurs around the Pacific rim.
Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called geothermal reservoirs. Most
geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues showing above ground. But
geothermal energy sometimes finds its way to the surface in the form of:
Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released)
Hot springs
Geysers
Most Geothermal Resources Are Near Plate Boundaries
The most active geothermal resources are usually found along major plate boundaries where
earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs
in an area called the Ring of Fire. This area encircles the Pacific Ocean.
U.S. Geothermal Resource Map

Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

When magma comes close to the surface, it heats ground water found trapped in porous rock or
water running along fractured rock surfaces and faults. These features are called hydrothermal.
They have two common ingredients: water (hydro) and heat (thermal).
U.S. Geothermal Is Mostly in the West
Most of the geothermal reservoirs in the United States are located in the western States and
Hawaii. California generates the most electricity from geothermal energy. "The Geysers" dry
steam reservoir in northern California is the largest known dry steam field in the world and has
been producing electricity since 1960.

1.3 History:

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In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as a
generating source. Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4
July 1904 in Larderello Italy. It successfully lit four light bulbs.[ Later, in 1911, the world's first
commercial geothermal power plant was built there. Experimental generators were built in
Beppu, Japan and the Geysers California, in the 1920s, but Italy was the world's only industrial
producer of geothermal electricity until 1958.
n 1958, New Zealand became the second major industrial producer of geothermal electricity
when its Wairakei station was commissioned. Wairakei was the first plant to use flash steam
technology.
In 1960 Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric
power plant in the United States at The Geysers in California. The original turbine lasted for
more than 30 years and produced 11MW net power
The binary cycle power plant was first demonstrated in 1967 in Russia and later introduced to the
USA in 1981 This technology allows the use of much lower temperature resources than were
previously recoverable. In 2006, a binary cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, came
on-line, producing electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57°C
Geothermal electric plants have until recently been built exclusively where high temperature
geothermal resources are available near the surface. The development of binary cycle power
plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology may enable enhanced
geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range. Demonstration projects are
operational in Landau-Pfalz, Germany, and Soultz-sous-Forêts, France, while an earlier
effort in Basel, Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration
projects are under construction in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States
of America
The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric plants is low, around 10-23%,because
geothermal fluids are at a low temperature compared to steam from boilers. By the laws of
thermodynamics this low temperature limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting
useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used
directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency
of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but
it does factor into the viability of the plant. In order to produce more energy than the pumps
consume, electricity generation requires high temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat
cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for
example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been
demonstrated. The global average was 73% in 2005h

1.4 Use of Geothermal Energy

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Some applications of geothermal energy use the Earth's temperatures near the surface, while
others require drilling miles into the Earth. The three main uses of geothermal energy are:
Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from springs or reservoirs near the surface.
Electricity generation power plants require water or steam at very high temperature (300° to
700°F). Geothermal power plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are located
within a mile or two of the surface.
Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperatures near the Earth's surface to
control building temperatures above ground.

1.5 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy

There have been direct uses of hot water as an energy source since ancient times. Ancient
Romans, Chinese, and Native American cultures used hot mineral springs for bathing, cooking,
and heating. Today, many hot springs are still used for bathing, and many people believe the hot,
mineral-rich waters have natural healing powers.
After bathing, the most common direct use of geothermal energy is for heating buildings through
district heating systems. Hot water near the Earth's surface can be piped directly into buildings
and industries for heat. A district heating system provides heat for 95% of the buildings in
Reykjavik, Iceland.
Industrial applications of geothermal energy include food dehydration, gold mining, and milk
pasteurizing. Dehydration, or the drying of vegetable and fruit products, is the most common
industrial use of geothermal energy.
The United States Is the Leader in Geothermal Power Generation
The United States leads the world in electricity generation with geothermal power. In 2008, U.S.
geothermal power plants produced 14.86 billion kilowatt-hours, or 0.4% of total U.S. electricity
generation. Seven States have geothermal power plants:
California has 34 geothermal power plants, which produce almost 90% of U.S. geothermal
electricity. Nevada has 16 geothermal power plants. Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, and Utah each
have one geothermal plant.

Chapter 2

2.1 A Geothermic Power Station

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Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources that have two common ingredients: water
(hydro) and heat (thermal). Geothermal plants require high temperature (300°F to 700°F)
hydrothermal resources that may come from either dry steam wells or hot water wells. We can
use these resources by drilling wells into the Earth and piping the steam or hot water to the
surface. Geothermal wells are one to two miles deep.
Types of Geothermal Plants
There are three basic types of geothermal power plants:
Dry steam plants
Flash steam plants
Binary cycle power plants
Dry steam plants. Produce energy directly from the steam generated underground. In this case we
do not need additional boilers and boiler fuels because the steam (and no water) directly fill up
the wells, passing through a rock catcher and directly operate the turbines. The using of such
type is not popular because the natural dry steam hydrothermal reservoirs are very rare.
This was the original, and the least common type of geothermal power plant, utilizing the dry
steam straight from the production well, drilled into the geothermal reservoir. The high pressure
dry steam passes up the production well and through a rock catcher; a series of mesh filters
which catch any rocks, stones or other debris, which would damage the turbine blades. The
steam then passes through a steam turbine that drives an electrical generator, which produces
electricity for the grid.
The steam exits the LP stage of the turbine and into the turbine condenser, that is under a
vacuum. From here the condensate is pumped through a series of scrubbing towers that remove
any residual non-condensable gasses. The condensate is then pumped to the water cooling
towers, where it is cooled, with any remaining incondensable gasses re-circulated to the
scrubbers before being re-injected with the cooled condensate down the injection well into the
geothermal reservoir.

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2.2 Flash steam plants

Flash steam plants take high-pressure hot water from deep inside the Earth and convert it to
steam to drive the generator turbines. When the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected
back into the ground to be used over and over again. Most geothermal power plants are flash
steam plants
This type of plant injects water and condensate into the geothermal reservoir through the
injection well that forces water at a high temperature (360°F) up through the production well.
From the production well it is pumped through a series of pressure vessels which being at a
lower internal pressure than the hot geothermal fluid, causes the water to flash off into low,
medium and high pressure steam. The steam then passes through the steam turbine, condensing

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and being treated as per a dry steam plant, returning to the geothermal reservoir along with the
non-condensable gasses through the injection well.

2.3Binary cycle power plants

Binary cycle power plants transfer the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid. The heat
causes the second liquid to turn to steam which is used to drive a generator turbine. it is
employed when the hydrothermal resource is with lower temperature (100 F). The hot water is
passed to a heat exchanger where it is compound with secondary liquid with lower boiling point
(hydrocarbon like isobutene or izopentane). This mixture vapor and its steam run the turbine.
The waste mixture is recycled trough the heat exchanger. The geothermal fluid is condensed and
it is returned to the hydrothermal resource. Since the most resources are with lower temperature
the binary steam power plants are more common.

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Chapter 3
3.1 Geothermal Heat Pumps
A geothermal heat pump or ground source heat pump (GSHP) is a central heating and/or cooling
system that pumps heat to or from the ground. It uses the earth as a heat source (in the winter) or
a heat sink (in the summer). This design takes advantage of the moderate temperatures in the
ground to boost efficiency and reduce the operational costs of heating and cooling systems, and
may be combined with solar heating to form a geosolar system with even greater efficiency.
Geothermal heat pumps are also known by a variety of other names, including geoexchange,
earth-coupled, earth energy or water-source heat pumps. The engineering and scientific
communities prefer the terms "geoexchange" or "ground source heat pumps" to avoid confusion
with traditional geothermal power, which uses a high temperature heat source to generate
electricity. Ground source heat pumps harvest a combination of geothermal energy (from the
earth's core) and solar energy (heat absorbed at the earth's surface) when heating, but work
against these heat sources when used for air conditioning.
Depending on latitude, the upper 3 meters (9.8 ft) of Earth's surface maintains a nearly constant
temperature between 10 and 16 °C (50 and 60 °F). Like a refrigerator or air conditioner, these
systems use a heat pump to force the transfer of heat from there. Heat pumps can transfer heat
from a cool space to a warm space, against the natural direction of flow, or they can enhance the
natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool one. The core of the heat pump is a loop of
refrigerant pumped through a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle that moves heat. Heat
pumps are always more efficient at heating than pure electric heaters, even when extracting heat
from cold winter air. But unlike an air-source heat pump, which transfers heat to or from the
outside air, a ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the ground. This is much more
energy-efficient because underground temperatures are more stable than air temperatures through
the year. Seasonal variations drop off with depth and disappear below seven meters due to
thermal inertia. Like a cave, the shallow ground temperature is warmer than the air above during
the winter and cooler than the air in the summer. A ground source heat pump extracts ground heat
in the winter (for heating) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer (for cooling).
Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only, heating or cooling, depending on
climate.
The geothermal pump systems reach fairly high Coefficient of performance (Cop), 3-6, on the
coldest of winter nights, compared to 1.75-2.5 for air-source heat pumps on cool days. Ground
source heat pumps (GSHPs) are among the most energy efficient technologies for providing
HVAC and water heating. Actual Cop of a geothermal system which includes the power required
to circulate the fluid through the underground tubes can be lower than 2.5. The setup costs are
higher than for conventional systems, but the difference is usually returned in energy savings in 3
to 10 years. System life is estimated at 25 years for inside components and 50+ years for the
ground loop. As of 2004, there are over a million units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of
thermal capacity, with an annual growth rate of 10%.

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3.2 Using the Earth's Constant Temperatures for Heating and Cooling
While temperatures above ground change a lot from day to day and season to season,
temperatures 10 feet below the Earth's surface hold nearly constant between 50° and 60°F. For
most areas, this means that soil temperatures are usually warmer than the air in winter and cooler
than the air in summer. Geothermal heat pumps use the Earth's constant temperatures to heat and
cool buildings. They transfer heat from the ground (or water) into buildings in winter and reverse
the process in the summer.
Geothermal Heat Pumps Are Energy Efficient and Cost Effective
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), geothermal heat pumps are the
most energy efficient, environmentally clean, and cost effective systems for temperature control.
Although most homes still use traditional furnaces and air conditioners, geothermal heat pumps
are becoming more popular. In recent years, the U.S. Department of Energy and the EPA have
partnered with industry to promote the use of geothermal heat pumps.

3.4 Geothermal Energy & the Environment

The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how it is being used. Direct use and
heating applications have almost no negative impact on the environment.
Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

Geothermal Power Plants Have Low Emission Levels

Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to generate electricity, so their emission levels are very
low. They release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions of a fossil fuel plant. Geothermal
plants use scrubber systems to clean the air of hydrogen sulfide that is naturally found in the
steam and hot water.
Geothermal plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds than are emitted by fossil
fuel plants. After the steam and water from a geothermal reservoir have been used, they are
injected back into the Earth.
Many Geothermal Features Are National Treasures
Geothermal features in national parks, such as geysers and fumaroles in Yellowstone National
Park, are protected by law, to prevent them from being disturbed.

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Chapter 4
Geothermal heating - Advantages
4.1 ADVANTEGES:-
The advantages of geothermal systems boil down to efficiency advantages, reliability and safety
advantages, flexibility and convenience, renewable energy advantages, and financial advantages
Geothermal energy or geothermal power is in fact Earth's thermal energy that is generated by
heat stored beneath the Earth's surface. Since geothermal power has great potential, we'll take a
look here at its main advantages and disadvantages when used for heating.
Probably the biggest advantages of geothermal heating are low heating costs (cost savings can be
as much as 80% over the fossil fuels) and it also uses significantly less electricity than standard
heating systems. Geothermal heating uses Earth's heat which is a renewable energy source.
When it comes to efficiency geothermal energy is 48% more efficient than gas furnaces and even
75% more efficient than oil furnaces. There are also very low levels (sometimes none) of the air
pollutants and greenhouse gases making it from this point of view as highly ecologically
acceptable solution.
Not only that geothermal heating system heats the house but it cools it as well and operates very
quietly. There is also uniform heating meaning there's no cold and hot spots and of course there
are no furnaces or chimney to clean after. Maintenance of geothermal heating system is also very
cheap since it requires only changing the heat pump unit’s air filter. Geothermal heating system
can be also introduced into the existing home, especially if there's forced air duct system and its
underground piping has lifetime of over 50 years. When a power station harnesses geothermal
power in the correct manner, there are no by products, which are harmful to the environment.
Environmentalists should be happy about that!
There is also no consumption of any type of fossil fuels. In addition, geothermal energy does not
output any type of greenhouse effect. After the construction of a geothermal power plant, there is
little maintenance to contend with. In terms of energy consumption, a geothermal power plant is
self-sufficient.
Another advantage to geothermal energy is that the power plants do not have to be huge which is
great for protecting the natural environment

4.2 Efficiency advantages of geothermal systems

Geothermal heating systems can extract up to six times the heat energy they use in electrical
energy. In other words, compared to electrical heating, they are at least three and up to six times
more efficient.
Geothermal heating systems use far less electricity than traditional electric heating systems - as
little as one sixth as much.
Savings in heating mode can be up to 3/4 of the cost of electrical heating, and savings in cooling
mode can be up to 1/4 to 1/2 of the costs of running a traditional air conditioner. When you factor
in virtually free hot water, the overall efficiency can be even higher.
A 1500 square foot house equipped with a geothermal heating and cooling system costs $30 to
$50 per month to heat or cool in most US climates.
Reliability and safety advantages of geothermal systems
Geothermal heating and cooling systems have few moving parts, so they are highly reliable.
Failures are rare and minimal maintenance is required, other than regular forced air system

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maintenance (fan, filters) and some maintenance on the water loop in open loop systems due to
mineral and sediment in the water.
Unlike central air conditioning systems, geothermal cooling systems have no parts outside. There
is no wear and tear on an outdoor condenser. You do not need to worry about leaves, plants, or
dirt getting onto the condenser fan. There is no risk of vandalism.
Geothermal heating systems can last far longer than most heating systems. The polyethylene pipe
in most loop fields typically has a 25 or 50 year warranty and estimates are that it can last up to
200 years.
A geothermal heating and hot water system eliminates the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning
associated with natural gas heating and hot water. The risk of fires is also much lower than in a
house equipped with a gas furnace and/or gas water heater.
Flexibility and convenience advantages of geothermal systems
Geothermal heat pumps can be set up to supply hot water as well as space heating and cooling.
In some cases (for example, with a de-super-heater that extracts heat out of the system when you
are cooling your home), the hot water comes at no additional energy cost. Otherwise geothermal
hot water can cost just pennies a day.
Geothermal heating systems can easily be extended to heat a pool, since they can heat water as
well as heat and cool your home.
Geothermal heating and cooling systems create no noise outside the home, and almost no noise
inside either.
The hardware for heating and cooling within your house requires less space than a conventional
furnace or air conditioner (or combination furnace and air conditioner), so your equipment room
can be greatly scaled down in size.

Renewable energy advantages of geothermal systems

Geothermal is a renewable source of energy for heating, cooling, and air conditioning. There is
no pollution caused by home geothermal systems; even in an open loop water system that is
properly designed, the small amount of heat extracted from your home during the hot weather
cooling system is not enough to cause any adverse effects on flora or fauna.
If you buy your electricity from a green electricity supplier, you can heat and cool your home
without creating any greenhouse gas emissions.
Geothermal heating and cooling systems do not contribute to global warming. Even with a
conversion from a forced air natural gas heating system, to a geothermal heating system where
the electricity is generated from coal, net CO2 emissions go down. See more on the CO2
emissions of geothermal heating and cooling below.
Financial advantages of geothermal
Although geothermal systems can cost several times what a conventional system costs, payback
can be within 2-10 years according to some estimates. Obviously, the payback period depends on
installation costs, which vary greatly by area, as well as on energy costs, which vary over time.
Remember when calculating your payback (how long it takes for the energy savings to pay for
the more expensive system) that energy costs keep going up faster than we expect.
Installations in the US may be eligible for up to a $300 Federal Energy Tax Credit as well as a
tax credit of up to $2,000 through the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of October 2008.

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Chapter 5
5.1 Geothermal heating Disadvantages
The disadvantages of geothermal systems are up-front costs, disturbances to your land during
installation, environmental risks of direct exchange systems, legal conformance risks relating to
open loop systems, and maintenance issues relating to open loop systems.
There are several disadvantages to geothermal energy. First, you cannot just build a geothermal
power plant in some vacant land plot somewhere. The area where a geothermal energy power
plant would be built should consist of those suitable hot rocks at just the right depth for drilling.
In addition, the type of rock must be easy to drill into. It is important to take care of a geothermal
site because if the holes were drilled improperly, then potentially harmful minerals and gas could
escape from underground. These hazardous materials are nearly impossible to get rid of properly.
Pollution may occur due to improper drilling at geothermal stations. Unbelievably, it is also
possible for a specific geothermal area to run dry or lose steam.
Main disadvantages of geothermal heating are very high installation costs and its positioning,
since it requires big yard for horizontal installation and a bedrock-free ground for vertical
installation or a well or pond. The Department of Energy estimates that the installation cost on a
retrofit can be recouped in two to ten years and sometimes as some experts say payback can be
even more than 20 years long.
Installation of geothermal system can be also quite tricky so it's needed (and very much
suggested) to hire a certified installer which of course costs more than regular installation and
installation in cities is sometimes not possible because of small lots and more often than not
geothermal units are not compatible with the existing heating units such as radiators.
There's also the fact that geothermal energy isn't 100 percent clean energy source because of the
geothermal pumps. Geothermal pumps are using coal based electricity and coal isn't ecologically
acceptable fuel since it releases carbon dioxide that causes the global warming.
So here are the advantages and disadvantages of geothermal heating and basically if you can
afford it go with it despite the high initial costs and the long-term payback because its advantages
outweigh its bad sides. This particularly applies to the low heating costs and excellent efficiency
of geothermal heating systems. Installation cost disadvantages of geothermal systems
These systems can be very expensive to install. Price estimates for total systems for a typical US
home range from $5,000 to $20,000 (there are wide variations in estimates from different
sources). There may be other energy efficiency upgrades you can do in your home that cost a
similar amount but have as great or greater an impact on your energy bill over the next twenty
years. If you live in a leaky, poorly insulated house, you may be better off spending that kind of
money on better insulation and draft sealing, energy efficient windows and doors, and other
upgrades that reduce the amount of energy required to heat and cool your home. In fact, it's a
good idea to do this first even if you do install a geothermal system, since you can install a
smaller geothermal system if you reduce the heating and cooling load through efficiency
upgrades.

5.2Installation disturbance disadvantages of geothermal systems

Because horizontal systems are the most cost effective, and because of the extensive trenching
required for horizontal systems, most geothermal installations require some level of disturbance
of the land around your home. Even open loop systems and closed loop pond or lake systems
require some trenching to keep the water loop pipes buried below the frost line.

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The installation type that causes the most disruption to your landscape is a horizontal installation,
either in standard loops or in a Slinky configuration. This is because of the long, wide, and deep
(4-6 feet) trench that needs to be dug to accommodate the heat bed. If you have a vacant lot and
are building a new home, this type of installation is more cost effective and you may not mind
the disturbance to soil and the possible damage to tree roots of surrounding trees.
If you are concerned about damaging the landscape or flora of your property, a vertical
installation is more appropriate. Vertical installations require minimal disturbance to your
landscaping other than a clear access path for the bore drilling equipment to the heat bed, and
space to temporarily store for the bore holes and the material removed from the bore holes.
However, vertical installations are typically much more expensive than horizontal installations
because of the cost of drilling several hundred feet underground.
Environmental disadvantages of geothermal systems using direct exchange (DX)
Direct exchange geothermal systems are the cheapest to install and some installers claim they are
the most efficient. In a direct exchange system, a single loop circulates a refrigerant such as that
used in an air conditioner or refrigerator between the heat pump in your house and the
geothermal sink or source under ground. There are two problems with direct exchange systems.
First, they use copper pipes to circulate the refrigerant, and copper pipes buried under ground can
easily corrode over time, leading to leaks that are hard to locate and almost impossible to fix.
Second, they use up to 100 times more ozone-depleting CFCs or HCFCs than a double loop
system, because the liquid circulating in the geothermal heat source or sink is a refrigerant. (In a
double loop system, virtually all of the liquid circulates in the geothermal loop, not the
refrigerant loop, and this liquid is a benign blend of water and antifreeze.) So if you install a
direct exchange system you run the risk of a short-lived heat exchange system, and of releasing
vast amounts of ozone-depleting chemicals into the atmosphere.
Building a new home
The perfect time to install a geothermal heating and cooling system is when you're building a
new home. There are two major types of geothermal installations: horizontal and vertical.
In horizontal installations, the geothermal pipes are placed underground on a horizontal plane
through your yard, in a network of trenches dug in your yard. The pipes are buried deep enough -
usually six feet or more - that there's little risk of damaging the pipes if you are digging after the
house is finished, unless you're out there with your back hoe!
Vertical installations are more suitable where you have limited yard space, or where you don't
want to dig a lot of trenches, for example if you want to protect trees or other natural features of
the landscape. The problem with vertical installations is that they are considerably more
expensive to install, because of the deep drilling involved.
You need to replace your existing heating or cooling system
You may need to replace your existing heating or cooling system because it uses too much
energy, or because it's so old the maintenance costs are escalating. If you need to replace both
your heating and cooling systems, geothermal is a great option because you can replace two
existing, inefficient or failure-prone systems with a single new one.
When you do a payback analysis on geothermal, it always helps the geothermal side's case if you
would otherwise have to buy a new furnace and/or air conditioner in the new future. It is much
harder to justify a geothermal heating and cooling system when your current system is working
just fine. If the system works well but is energy-inefficient, then your payback analysis should
include a full life cycle cost for both a more traditional replacement system (e.g. forced air

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natural gas system and traditional central air conditioner) and for a geothermal heating and
cooling system. Remember that geothermal systems have lower maintenance costs and lower
energy costs once installed.
You want the most energy efficient home heating and cooling system, at any cost
If you have relatively speaking unlimited financial resources and want the most energy efficient
home heating and cooling system at any cost, geothermal heating and cooling is the way to go. If
you make your home extremely energy efficient in terms of passive lighting, heating and
cooling, using the most energy efficient lights and appliances, and installing solar electricity for
homes or wind generation capacity, you may be able to install a geothermal heating and cooling
system and make your home entirely self-sufficient in energy.
CO2 emissions of geothermal heating and cooling systems
Does a geothermal heating and cooling system contribute to global warming?
It's true that you don't use any natural gas to run your geothermal system. But you do use
electricity. Where is that electricity coming from? If it's coming from a coal-fired or natural-gas
fired power plant, the generation of that electricity still contributes to global warming - but less
so than heating with natural gas or cooling with central or room air conditioners. Let's consider
this scenario:
You currently heat with gas, using an 80% efficient gas furnace.
You switch to a geothermal heat pump, which produces 4 units of heat per 1 unit of electricity
The gas you no longer use is now used to generate the electricity to run your heat pump. Gas
electrical turbines operate at about a 40% efficiency, meaning 60% of the energy in the burning
gas is lost as heat.
You were getting 80% of the gas energy as heat with your gas furnace. You are now getting 40%
of the gas energy as electricity from the natural gas generator. That 40% is then extracting 4 units
of heat from the ground for each unit of electricity. So your net is 40% X 4, or 1.6 units of heat
energy per unit of natural gas. Since originally you were producing 0.8 units of heat energy, you
have effectively cut your CO2 emissions in half even assuming the same fossil fuel is used to
generate your electricity as was used for your furnace. Of course, if you switch to a Green
electricity supplier at the same time that you switch to geothermal, you'll not only eliminate all
CO2 emissions from your heating and air conditioning system, but you'll probably still wind up
saving on your monthly bills even with the premium green electricity suppliers charge for their
fossil-fuel-free electricity.
5.3 Alternative uses for Geothermal Energy
Besides power resources, geothermal energy can be harnessed for other means as well. Thanks to
geothermal water, there are natural hot springs all over the world and many people enjoy the
warm waters and its restorative effects. Geothermal water can also be beneficial for growing
agricultural products in a greenhouse within a cold or icy climate. Geothermal waters can be
harnessed to create space heating in buildings or even to keep streets and sidewalks warm
enough to prevent icing over. Several cities have actually used geothermal energy in this unique
manner.
Because geothermal energy is reliable and renewable, this alternative power source will start to
enjoy more growth. However, just remember that geothermal energy will not necessarily be
available in many areas due to its volatile needs. Areas like California, Iceland, Hawaii and Japan
are just a few places where geothermal energy is being used, many due to earthquakes and the
underground volcanic activity.

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The biggest disadvantages of building a geothermal energy plant is the time it takes to
exploration the perfect land. While exploring the suitable place, researchers will do a land
survey, which may take several years to complete. Thus if a company wishes to build a plant, it
may have to wait for several years before the researchers reply whether the land is suitable or
not. Moreover, most companies that order surveys are often disappointed, as the land they were
interested is incapable of supporting a geothermal energy plant. In order to extract the heat
required, we have to find certain hot spots within the earths crust, which are quite common
around volcanoes and fault lines, which are obviously very difficult places to build a geothermal
energy plant. However, there are certain land areas that may have the sufficient hot rocks to heat
up the water to generate power. Some great spots have been found in New Zealand, Iceland,
Norway and Sweden.
Some common questions that are answered in a survey include; whether the rock is soft enough
to drill through, do the rocks contain sufficient heat, will the heat be sustainable for a significant
amount of time, and lastly, is the environment fit for a power plant? If most of these answers are
positive, then a more in depth survey is conducted.
One of the other biggest disadvantage of geothermal energy extraction is that many times, a site
that constantly produces steam and turns it into power for many years, may suddenly stop
producing steam. This is possible to last for around 10 years in some cases.
The constructors should also be aware of the harmful gases that can escape from deep within the
earth, through the holes drilled by the constructors. Disposing of the gas can be very tricky and
the developers should take measures to do it safely.
Geothermal heat is mostly available miles beneath the earth's surface, and it's often hard to find
suitable locations for geothermal power plants. Those who are interested in building geothermal
plants may find out that the land may not be able to support a geothermal power plant. There are
many factors that need to be considered before a geothermal power plant is built. Rocks must be
soft enough to drill through and must contain sufficient heat. It's also important that this heat is
sustainable for a long period of time and that the environment where drilling is going to be done
is fit for a power plant.
Putting up a geothermal power plant to make use of geothermal energy for electricity can also
have negative effects on land stability. Although geothermal sites can provide energy enough for
electricity that will last several decades, these locations may also cool down. This is why only a
small part of the world makes use of geothermal power for electricity. Those who want to use
geothermal energy can just opt for the installation of geothermal heat pumps for their property.
The drain on the earth's resources is one of the largest disadvantages of geothermal energy. Once
the heat source starts to cool down, there is no way to reverse it. Although these types of energy
plants can provide stable energy for an extended period of time, there is a definite end date. In
order to replace that energy source, a new location would need to be identified and a new plant
built.

Chapter 6
How much does a geothermal power plant cost

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According to studies, an economically competitive geothermal power plant can cost as low as
$3400 per kilowatt installed. (1) While the cost of a new geothermal power plant is higher than
that of a comparable natural gas facility, in the long run the two are similar over time. This is
because natural gas construction costs account for only one third of the total price of the facility,
while the cost of the fuel at a natural gas facility represents two thirds of the cost. The initial
construction costs of a geothermal facility, in contrast, represent two thirds or more of total costs.
So although initial investment is high for geothermal, natural gas and geothermal are still
economically comparable over a long term.
California Energy Commission (CEC) 2007 estimates place the levelized (2) generation costs for
a 50 MW geothermal binary plant at $92 per megawatt hour (3) and for a 50 MW dual flash
geothermal plant at $88 per megawatt hour, which over the lifetime of the plant can be
competitive with a variety of technologies, including natural gas. (4) According to the CEC
report, natural gas costs $101 per megawatt hour for a 500 MW combined cycle power plant and
$586 per megawatt hour for a 100 MW simple cycle plant. On average the cost for new
geothermal projects ranged from 6 tp 8 cents per kilowatt hour according to a 2006 report,
including the production tax credit. (5) But, it should be noted that the cost for individual
geothermal projects can vary significantly based upon a series of factors discussed below, and
that costs for all power projects change over time with economic conditions."However, it must
be remembered that a major impact on geothermal power cost is the local, regional, national, and
global competition for commodities such as steel, cement, and construction equipment.
Geothermal power is competing against other renewable and non-renewable power development,
building construction, road and infrastructure improvements, and all other projects that use the
same commodities and services. Until equipment and plant inventories rise to meet the increase
in demand for these commodities and services, project developers can expect the costs to rise
well above the background inflation level." Costs for geothermal generation at some facilities
have decreased to half the original price per kilowatt hour of power in 1980 , compared to when
the first independent geothermal plants were installed. (10) Their cost falling at a faster rate than
coal over this same period. The current price for extensions onto existing projects can be
competitive with polluting coal-fired plants. While geothermal’s costs have steadily decreased
throughout the years, those of natural gas have increased, often experiencing boom and bust type
cycles that can negatively impact the economy.
California Energy Commission (CEC) analysis examines what it estimates are the cost of
different technologies based upon “levelized cost” which includes both capital and fuel costs.
Their study places geothermal energy at a lower levelized cost ($/MWh) than many other types
of merchant owned power plants including: Natural Gas Combined-Cycle, Wind, Biomass
Combustion, Nuclear, Solar Thermal, and Photovoltaic. Many industry experts agree that
geothermal is one of only a few alternative technologies that will compete economically with
polluting technologies in the near term—even without considering the additional benefits of
geothermal production

Chapter 7
7.1 What factors influence the cost of a geothermal power plant
There are many factors that influence the cost of a geothermal power plant. In general,
geothermal plants are affected by the cost of steel, other metals and labor, which are universal to
the power industry. However, drilling costs may vary as well. Geothermal projects are site-

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specific, thus the costs to connect to the electric grid vary from project to project. Also, whether
the project is the first in a particular area or reservoir impacts both risks and costs. The
acquisition and leasing of land also varies, because to fully explore a geothermal resource a
developer is required to lease the rights to 2,000 acres or more. Challenges to leasing and
permitting vary from project to project; especially on federal lands. These factors include:
• Size of the plant
• Power plant technology
• Knowledge of the resource
• Temperature of the resource
• Chemistry of the geothermal water
• Resource depth and permeability
• Environmental policies
• Tax incentives
• Markets
• Financing options and cost
• Time delays
7.2 What types of jobs are created by the geothermal sector, and how long will they last
According to an employment study, an overwhelming majority of geothermal jobs (86%) are full
time, permanent positions. Geothermal provides quality wages to people living in depressed
economic communities and provides a stable source of employment.
Geothermal provides long-term income for people with a diversity of job skills. People directly
employed by the sector include welders, mechanics, pipe fitters, plumbers, machinists,
electricians, carpenters, construction and drilling equipment operators and excavators, surveyors,
architects and designers, geologists, hydrologists, electrical, mechanical, and structural
engineers, HVAC technicians, food processing specialists, aquaculture and horticulture
specialists, resort managers, spa developers, researchers, and government employees.
7.3 How many people currently work in the U.S. geothermal industry
In answering this question, most organizations focus upon the total number of direct and indirect
jobs created by their industry. For geothermal, direct jobs relate to the construction and
maintenance of geothermal power plants, while indirect jobs provide goods and services to the
industries directly involved in power plant construction or operation and maintenance. The
number of indirect jobs within a particular sector is largely theoretical, and changes according to
the preferred method of analysis. So while indirect impacts should certainly be considered—any
investment in a particular sector of the economy will impact other sectors—it is also important to
distinguish between these two types of employment impacts.
Power plant or direct employment was estimated to be 4,583 full-time positions.As the report
notes, “Employment in the industry is probably at a historic low since power plant construction
has been minimal between 1993 and 2004 as state and federal policies underwent significant
changes. Also, because federal research support is at a historically low level, associated research
employment is low.”Based upon our 2004 analysis, GEA estimates that the geothermal industry
directly employed about 25,000 people in 2008. This is roughly 9,000 direct jobs in operating,
construction and manufacturing and an additional 16,000 indirect and supporting jobs.
7.4 How many jobs will be supported by the geothermal industry in the future?
Many new projects are under development and will likely come on line within the next few
years, which will significantly expand geothermal employment. According to a report by the

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Western Governors Association (WGA), development of near-term geothermal potential of 5,600

MW of geothermal energy would result in the creation of almost 100,000 jobs. The chart below
summarizes that estimate of geothermal employment potential.
Geothermal energy provides low cost, reliable, environmentally friendly fuel; supplies thousands
of quality jobs; boosts rural economies; increases tax bases; reduces foreign oil imports;
stabilizes prices; and diversifies the fuel supply.
Unlike coal and natural gas, geothermal incurs no “hidden costs” such as land degradation, high
air emissions, forced extinction and destruction of animals and plants, and health impacts to
humans.
According to a 2006 GEA publication, "besides the costs expended through the development and
construction of a power plant, geothermal developers often make significant contributions to the
communities in which they are located, as well as to the local, state, and federal governments
under whose jurisdiction they operate. Some contributions come as royalties or taxes, which are
mandated by the government, while some come voluntarily from the geothermal company.”
In addition, wages paid to geothermal employees often circulate back through the community.
For an example, if New Mexico brought 80 MW of geothermal power on line it would contribute
340 full time jobs/1,280 person*yrs and $1.2 billion economic output over a 30 year period
Geothermal power plants can be a tourist draw when students, scientists, or interested individuals
visit the site of a power plant, thereby bringing business to the local community. This not only
occurs in the U.S. but also in other countries like Iceland. Iceland is unique in that geothermal
contributes 26 % of the country's total energy supply through five geothermal power plants.
Because of geothermal energy's impact on the country it is not rare for tourism companies to
advertise tours of the plants as well as a visit to Iceland's largest tourist destination, the Blue
Lagoon, which is a geothermal spa located in southwestern Iceland

Summary of Western States' Near-Term Geothermal Potential and Resulting Employment

and Economic Contribution
Direct and Indirect and Induced
New Power
Employment 30 Year Economic
Capacity
(Power Plant Jobs/Construction & Output (nominal) +
(MWs)
Manufacturing Employment)**
California 2,400 10,200 ft jobs/38,400 person*yrs $36 billion
Nevada 1,500 6,375 ft jobs/24,000 person*yrs $22.5 billion
Oregon 380 1,615 ft jobs/6,080 person*yrs $5.7 billion
Washington 50 212 ft jobs/800 person*yrs $749 million
Alaska 25 106 ft jobs/400 person*yrs $375 million
Arizona 20 85 ft jobs/320 person*yrs $300 million
Colorado 20 85 ft jobs/320 person*yrs $300 million
Hawaii 70 298 ft jobs/1,120 person*yrs $1 billion
Idaho 860 3,655 ft jobs/13,760 person*yrs $12.9 billion
New Mexico 80 340 ft jobs/1,280 person*yrs $1.2 billion
Utah 230 978 ft jobs/3,680 person*yrs $3.4 billion

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Wyoming ,
Montana ,
Potential Exists;
Texas ,
Resource not
Kansas , Not Studied Not Studied
studied in WGA
Nebraska ,
Report
South Dakota ,
North Dakota
Total Western 84,410,046,000.00
23,949 fulltime jobs/90,160
States Almost 85 billion dollars
5,635 MW person*years of construction and
(additional to to the U.S. economy over
manufacturing employment
current) 30 years
** Power plant jobs are the direct, indirect and induced full-time jobs (ft jobs) created by
reaching the full power production capacity indicated. Construction and manufacturing jobs are
the direct, indirect and induced jobs necessary to build and supply the power plants at the full
power capacity indicated. Construction and manufacturing jobs are expressed as full-time
positions for one year (person*years), however these jobs will be spread out over several years
depending upon the development time frame for new projects. Direct employment results in 1.7
full time positions and 6.4 person*years per megawatt. Induced and indirect impacts were
calculated assuming a 2.5% multiplier; for a total direct, indirect, and induced employment
impact of 4.25 full time positions and 16 person*years per megawatt.

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Chapter 8
Geothermal Energy and the Environment
8.1Applicable Environmental Regulations . An Overview
To understand geothermal energy and its impact on the environment, a brief overview of
applicable regulations is necessary. Many regulations, such as the Clean Air Act (CAA),apply to
all sources of emissions, including emissions from renewable technologies such as geothermal.
These environmental regulations dictate specific levels of allowable air emissions, how permits
can be issued, what sorts of environmental reviews must take place, and what land types may be
approved for development. Development of any kind will impact the environment, and thus must
follow specific regulations.
Clean Air Act Regulations
Several pollutants discussed in the subsequent section of this paper are regulated under the Clean
Air Act (CAA) as criteria pollutants. A criteria pollutant is a principal pollutant identified as most
harmful to people and the environment. The Clean Air Act sets National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) to regulate emissions of criteria pollutants on a federal level. The six
criteria pollutants regulated by NAAQS are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate
matter, ozone, and sulfur dioxides. States containing nonattainment areas. Geographic areas that
do not meet NAAQS standards are required to develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP), a
strategy to meet NAAQ standards at the local and state level. States and tribes are responsible for
meeting NAAQS standards under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversight. State
and local governments issue most of the air permits required by Title V of the Clean Air Act.
These air permits include enforceable air emissions limitations and standards as established by
the state or local government. Title V permits are issued to certain air pollution sources after they
have begun to operate. In certain circumstances, for example on tribal lands, EPA may issue Title
V permits as needed. EPA permits do not supersede state permits but rather serve areas not under
traditional state and local government jurisdictions.All emitting facilities must comply with
federal emission standards under sections 111 and 112 of the Clean Air Act. Under section 111,
sources built after September 18, 1978 are subject to particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and
nitrogen oxides standards established by the new source performance standards (NSPS), while
those built before 1978 are not subject to federal regulation unless significant renovations occur
at the facility. The uncertainty of what constitutes a significant renovation or modification to a
power plant has been the subject of recent controversy. Under section 112, "major" industrial
facilities that emit one or more of 188 listed hazardous air pollutants, or air toxics, must be EPA
regulated. EPA defines .air toxics. as those pollutants that are known or suspected of causing
cancer or other serious health effects, such as developmental effects or birth defects.Because
geothermal power plants emit pollutants at lower levels than those regulated by the Clean Air
Act, they do not face the same constraints as new fossil fuel facilities seeking air and operating
permits from state governments.In California, the state with more geothermal electricity
generation than any other area of the world, ambient air quality standards are stricter than
national standards. Air districts in California with geothermal electricity production are required
to comply with those strict air quality standards. Details about California air regulations are
provided by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) and are web-accessible.

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8.2Additional Regulations
Under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), any geothermal project selling power to a
federal entity, moving power over a federal transmission line, or using federal funding or federal
land must undergo an environmental analysis in order to determine potential environment
impact. Power plants constructed on private or state lands are usually subject to similar state
requirements. Depending upon the conclusions reached by the environmental review, additional
studies, public hearings and documentation may be required before construction can begin. Any
significant environmental impacts identified in an Environmental Assessment (EA) or
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) must be accompanied by a plan for monitored mitigation
measures.Other environmental regulations that address geothermal development include the
Clean Water Act, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permitting Program
(NPDES), the Safe Drinking Water Act (Underground Injection Control Regulations),
heResource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), the Toxic Substance Control
Act,theNoiseControl Act, the Endangered Species Act, the Archaeological Resource
ProtectionAct, Hazardous Waste and Materials Regulations, the Occupational Health and Safety
Act, and the Indian Religious Freedom Act. The federal regulatory agencies involved in the
geothermal development process include the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the Forest
Service, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), and the Fish and

8.3Air Emissions
Geothermal power plants release very few air emissions because they do not burn fuel like fossil
fuel plants. Most fossil fuel power plant emissions are either a product of fuel combustion or a
waste-product from that process. Geothermal plants avoid both environmental impacts associated
with burning fuels as well as those associated with transporting and processing fuel sources.
Geothermal plants emit only trace amounts of nitrogen oxides, almost no sulfur dioxide or
particulate matter, and small amounts of carbon dioxide. The primary pollutant some geothermal
plants must sometimes abate is hydrogen sulfide, which is naturally present in many subsurface
geothermal reservoirs. With the use of advanced abatement equipment, however, emissions of
hydrogen sulfide are regularly maintained below even California state standards. It is important
to note that air emissions from all power plants. Including but not limited to geothermal. Come
from a variety of sources. For example, additional fossil fuel emissions, which come from the
transportation of fuel to the power plant, are often omitted from emissions data. Unfortunately,
air emissions comparisons are sometimes misleading, because the emissions data from a
geothermal plant typically includes all emission sources from the well field through the power
plant. A better comparison would include the complete range of emissions from fossil fuel plants.
The lack of such data means that the comparisons that follow generally overstate the comparative
emissions from geothermal power, and while this analytical problem cannot be resolved within
the confines of this paper, it should be noted by the reader. Average life cycle emissions at coal
facilities are substantially higher than their average operational emissions, Operational emissions
do not consider the effects of coal mining, transport, construction, and decommissioning. Life
cycle emissions from geothermal facilities, in contrast, generally remain in the same range as
operational emissions.
8.4 Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are often colorless and odorless, or reddish brown as nitrogen
Dioxide. Nitrogen oxides form during high temperature combustion processes from the

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Oxidation of nitrogen in the air. Motor vehicles are the major source of these pollutants, followed
by industrial fuel-burning sources such as fossil fuel-fired power plants. Fossil fuel-fired power
plants are responsible for 23 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions

Nitrogen oxides contribute to smog formation, acid rain, water quality deterioration, global
warming, and visibility impairment. Health effects include lung irritation and respiratory
ailments such as infections, coughing, chest pain, and breathing difficulty. Geothermal energy
produced in the United States, when compared to coal, offsets approximately 32 thousand tons of
nitrogen oxide emissions each year. This is substantial considering that even brief exposure to
high levels of nitrogen oxides may cause human respiratory problems, and airborne levels of
nitrogen oxides above the EPA established average allowable concentration of 0.053 parts per
million48 can cause ecosystem damage. Nitrogen dioxide is a federally regulated criteria
pollutant. Power plants built after September 17, 1978 must comply with federal nitrogen oxide
standards; those built before may be subject to state or local standards. Because geothermal
power plants do not burn fuel, they emit very low levels of nitrogen oxides. In most cases,
geothermal facilities emit no nitrogen oxides at all. The small amounts of nitrogen oxides
released by some geothermal facilities result from the combustion of hydrogen sulfide.
Geothermal plants are generally required by law (with some variation from state to state) to
maintain hydrogen sulfide abatement systems that capture hydrogen sulfide emissions and either
burn the gas or convert it to elemental sulfur. During combustion, small amounts of nitrogen
oxides are sometimes formed, but these amounts are miniscule. Average nitrogen oxide
emissions are zero,

8.5 Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless gas that is harmless in small quantities, but is often
regarded as an .annoyance. due to its distinctive .rotten-egg. smell. Hydrogen sulfide can be
lethal in high doses. Natural sources of hydrogen sulfide include volcanic gases, petroleum
deposits, natural gas, geothermal fluids, hot springs, and fumaroles. Hydrogen sulfide may also
form from the decomposition of sewage and animal manure, and can be emitted from sewage
treatment facilities, aquaculture facilities, pulp and paper mills, petroleum refineries, composting
facilities, dairies, and animal feedlot operations. Individuals living near a gas and oil drilling
operation may be exposed to higher levels of hydrogen sulfide.Anthropogenic (manmade)
sources of hydrogen sulfide account for approximately 5 percent of total hydrogen sulfide
emissions. Health impacts from high concentrations include Hydrogen sulfide remains in the
atmosphere for about 18 hours. Though hydrogen sulfide is not a criteria pollutant, it is listed as
a .regulated air pollutant.. Hydrogen sulfide remains the pollutant generally considered to be of
greatest concern for the geothermal community. However, it is now routinely abated at
geothermal power plants. The two most commonly used vent gas hydrogen sulfide abatement
systems are the Stratford and LO-CAT. Both systems convert over 99.9 percent of the hydrogen
sulfide from geothermal no condensable gases to elemental sulfur, which can then be used as a
soil amendment and fertilizer feedstock. The cost to transport and sell the sulfur as a soil
amendment is about equal to the revenue gained from the transaction. As a result of abatement
measures, geothermal steam- and flash-type power plants produce only minimal hydrogen
sulfide emissions. Hydrogen sulfide emissions from California geothermal plants are reported as
below the limits set by all California air pollution control districts. This is significant,
considering that California’s clean air standards tend to be more restrictive than federal

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standards. Binary and flash/binary combined cycle geothermal power plants do not emit any
hydrogen sulfide at all.In terms of dry gas by volume, a California study cites, as an example,
that hydrogen sulfide could comprise around 1 percent of no condensable dry gas emitted by a
given geothermal power plant. Considering all types of geothermal plants, that translates into an
overall average of about 0.187 lbs per megawatt hour.Since 1976, hydrogen sulfide emissions
from geothermal sources have declined from 1,900 lbs/hr to 200 lbs/hr or less, although
geothermal power production has increased from 500 megawatts (MW) to over 2,000 MW.
8.6 Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide belongs to the family of SOx gases that form when fuel containing sulfur (mainly
coal and oil) is burned at power plants. Fossil fuel-fired power plants are responsible for 67
percent of the nation’s sulfur dioxide emissions. High concentrations of sulfur dioxide can
produce temporary breathing impairment for asthmatic children and adults who are active
outdoors. Health impacts from short-term exposures included nausea, headache, and eye
irritation; extremely high levels can result in death. wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of
breath, aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease, and respiratory illness. Sulfur oxide
emissions injure vegetation, damage freshwater lake and stream ecosystems, decrease species
variety and abundance, and create hazy conditions.
There are both short- and long-term primary NAAQS for sulfur dioxide. The short term (24-
hour) and secondary (3-hour) standards are not to be exceeded more than once per year. The
current regulations were finalized in 1972. While geothermal plants do not emit sulfur dioxide
directly, once hydrogen sulfide is released as a gas into the atmosphere, it spreads into the air and
eventually changes into sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid. Therefore, any sulfur dioxide emissions
associated with geothermal energy derive from hydrogen sulfide emissions. When comparing
geothermal energy to coal, the average geothermal generation of 15 billion kilowatt hours avoids
the potential release of 78 thousand tons of sulfur oxides per year.

8.7 Particulate Matter

Particulate matter (PM) is a broad term for a range of substances that exist as discrete particles.
Particulate matter includes liquid droplets or particles from smoke, dust, or fly ash. .Primary.
particles such as soot or smoke come from a variety of sources where fuel is burned, including
fossil fuel power plants and vehicles. .Secondary. Particles form when gases of burned fuel react
with water vapor and sunlight. Secondary particulate matter can be formed by NOx, SOx, and
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Large particulates in the form of soot or smoke can be
detected by the naked eye, while small particulates (PM2.5) require a microscope for viewing.
PM10 refers to all particulates less than or equal to 10 microns in diameter of particulate mass
per volume of air. Particulate matter is emitted through the full process of fossil fuel electricity
production, particularly coal mining. Health effects from particulate matter include eye irritation,
asthma, bronchitis, lung damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning, and cardiovascular
complications. Particulate matter contributes to atmospheric deposition, visibility impairment,
and aesthetic damage. Power plants built after September 17, 1978 must comply with federal
PM10 standards; those built before that date may be subject to state or local standards.
Although coal and oil plants produce hundreds of short tons on an annual basis (where one short
ton equals 2,000 pounds), geothermal plants emit almost no particulate matter. Water-cooled
geothermal plants do emit small amounts of particulate matter from the cooling tower when
steam condensate is evaporated as part of the cooling cycle. However, the amount of particulate
matter given off from the cooling tower is quite small when compared to coal or oil plants which

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have burning processes in combination with cooling towers. In a study of California geothermal
plants, PM10 is reported as zero. It is estimated that geothermal energy produced in the United
States offsets 17 thousand tons of particulate matter each year when compared to coal
production.

8.8 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide, a colorless, odorless gas, is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of
burning fuel. While carbon dioxide emissions are also produced by natural sources, most experts
agree that increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are caused by human fossil fuel
burning. Concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by approximately 20 percent since
1960.66 The increase in carbon dioxide is typically attributed to power plant (primarily coal) and
vehicle emissions, and secondarily to deforestation and land-use change. About 37 percent of
incremental carbon dioxide accumulation is caused by electric power generation, mainly from
fossil fuels.
According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), carbon dioxide accounts for 83
percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. While carbon dioxide does not pose any direct human
health effects. humans exhale carbon dioxide with every breath. Experts generally agree that
global warming poses significant environmental and health impacts, including flood risks, glacial
melting problems, forest fires, increases in sea level, and loss of biodiversity. The Kyoto
Protocol, a document that addresses global warming through legally binding measures, was
adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997 by a number of developed and developing countries. However,
not until the 2004 ratification of the Protocol by the Russian government did Kyoto regulations
go into effect among the majority of the developed countries where legally binding measures are
most prominent. The U.S., however, has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol, and thus U.S. power
plants are not forced to comply with any international carbon dioxide regulations. U.S. power
plants may be subject to state or local regulations, however, and those companies with business
overseas may be affected. Geothermal plants do emit carbon dioxide, but in quantities that are
small compared to fossil fuel-fired emissions. Some geothermal reservoir fluids contain varying
amounts of certain no condensable gases, including carbon dioxide.Geothermal steam is
generally condensed after passing through the turbine. However, the carbon dioxide does not
condense, and passes through the turbine to the exhaust system where it is then released into the
atmosphere through the cooling towers. The amount of carbon dioxide found in geothermal fluid
can vary depending on location, and the amount of carbon dioxide actually released into the
atmosphere can vary depending on plant design. This makes it difficult to generalize about the
amount of carbon dioxide emitted by an .average. geothermal power plant. For example, binary
plants with air cooling are in a closed loop system and emit no carbon dioxide because in this
system the geothermal fluids are never exposed to the atmosphere.Despite these disparities,
geothermal power plants will emit only a small fraction of the carbon dioxide emitted by
traditional power plants on a per-megawatt hour basis. carbon dioxide emissions from the
average geothermal plant compared with fossil fuel plants. No condensable gases such as carbon
dioxide make up less than 5 percent by weight of the steam phase of most geothermal systems.
Of that 5 percent, carbon dioxide typically accounts for 75 percent or more of no condensable
gas by volume. Because of the low level of carbon dioxide emissions, geothermal power
production currently prevents the emission of 22 million tons of carbon dioxide annually when
compared to coal production.

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8.9 Mercury
The majority of mercury emissions derive from natural sources. Mercury occurs naturally in
soils, groundwater, and streams, but human activity can release additional mercury into the air,
water, and soil. Coal-fired power plants are the largest source of additional mercury of any
energy source, because the mercury naturally contained in coal is released during combustion.
Currently, the coal industry contributes 32.7 percent of the nation’s anthropogenic mercury
emissions.
Mercury emissions from coal vary both day to day and from plant to plant. According to a recent
EPRI study, mercury emissions vary significantly over a one month period. Snapshot mercury
emissions information, taken over a 1-2 hour period, does not always accurately reflect long term
mercury emissions. Hourly averages can vary by almost an order of magnitude. In addition,
mercury emissions from certain types of coal plants,such as bituminous plants, tend to be greater
than from other types of coal plants. It is estimated that bituminous plants emit 52 percent of coal
mercury emissions, while lignite coal plants emit only 9 percent. Those plants with emissions
technologies in place, such as combined selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and wet flue gas
desulphurization (FGD), tend to emit the lowest levels of mercury. This means that those plants
built before 1978 that are not subject to Clean Air Act guidelines, and thus function without
emissions control technologies, can emit ten times more mercury than newer, pollution
controlled coal plants. Mercury emissions from power plants pose a significant risk to human
health. When mercury enters water, biological processes transform it to a highly toxic form,
methyl mercury, which builds up in fish and animals that eat fish. People are exposed to mercury
primarily by eating fish or by drinking contaminated water. Mercury is especially harmful to
women: in February 2003, a draft report about mercury contamination noted that eight percent of
women between the ages of 16 and 49 have mercury levels in the blood that could lead to
reduced IQ and motor skills in their offspring. Mercury and mercury compounds are considered
one of 188 Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) and one of 33 urban HAPs under section 112 of the
Clean Air Act. Urban HAPs are considered to present the greatest threat to public health in the
largest number of urban areas. To date, EPA has established National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) for mercury emissions, but these standards only apply to
facilities such as mercury ore processing centers with high concentrations of mercury. Individual
states can mandate specific regulations for individual facilities. In addition, the EPA issued draft
regulations on March 15, 2005, under The Clean Air Mercury Rule, which limits federal mercury
emissions through a market-based regulatory program. Mercury is not present in every
geothermal resource. However, if mercury is present in a geothermal resource, using that
resource for power production could result in mercury emissions, depending upon the technology
used. Because binary plants pass geothermal fluid through a heat exchanger and then return all of
it to the reservoir, binary plants do not emit any mercury. In the United States, The Geysers is the
main geothermal field known to emit small quantities of mercury in the atmosphere. The
Geysers, however, was also m mercury emissions would exist independently of geothermal
development. Within The Geysers, the presence of mercury in the steam varies dramatically, as
around 80 percent of mercury emissions derive from only two facilities. These individual high
mercury facilities are scheduled to install mercury abatement equipment in 2005 that will
significantly reduce the overall geothermal mercury emissions.83 Furthermore, mercury
emissions from The Geysers are below the amount required to trigger a health risk analysis under
existing California regulations governments have also introduced measures to reduce mercury
emissions from other sources. As a result, mercury abatement measures are already in place at

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most geothermal facilities. The abatement measures that reduce mercury also reduce the
emissions of sulfur generated as a byproduct of hydrogen sulfide abatement: after hydrogen
sulfide is removed from geothermal steam, the gas is run through a mercury filter that absorbs
mercury from the gas. In removing mercury, the sulfur that is created from the abatement process
can then be used as an agricultural product. The rate of mercury abatement within a facility,
which varies according to the efficiency of the activated carbon mercury absorber, is typically
near 90 percent, and is always efficient enough to ensure that the sulfur byproduct is not
hazardous. The activated carbon media is changed out periodically and is disposed of as a
hazardous waste.

U.S GOETHERMAL POTENTIAL

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WORLD GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL

NITROGEN OXIDE COMPARISON

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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 29

SULFUR DIOXIDE COMPARISON

PARTICULAR MATTER COMPARISON

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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 30

Installed
geothermal
electric capacity
Country Capacity (MW) Capacity (MW)
2007[19] 2010[42]
USA 2687 3086
Philippines 1969.7 1904
Indonesia 992 1197
Mexico 953 958
Italy 810.5 843
New Zealand 471.6 628
Iceland 421.2 575
Japan 535.2 536
El Salvador 204.2 204
Kenya 128.8 167
Costa Rica 162.5 166
Nicaragua 87.4 88
Russia 79 82
Turkey 38 82
Papua-New Guinea 56 56
Guatemala 53 52
Portugal 23 29
China 27.8 24
France 14.7 16
Ethiopia 7.3 7.3
Germany 8.4 6.6
Austria 1.1 1.4
Australia 0.2 1.1
Thailand 0.3 0.3
TOTAL 9,731.9 10,709.7

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