UNIT 1 A INTERFERNCE

Principle of superposition
Two or more waves can traverse the same space independently of one another. In the region
where they meet, the resultant displacement of the particles of the medium is the algebraic sum of
their displacements due to individual waves alone. This process of vector addition of the
displacements of a particle is called the principle of superposition.
Principle of superposition is valid when the equations describing the wave motion are
linear i.e., when the wave amplitudes are small. If the equations describing the wave motion are
not linear, superposition principle fails. Shock waves produced by violent explosions do not obey
the principle of superposition since the equation describing the wave motion is quadratic.
Using the superposition principle it is possible to analyze a complicated wave motion as a
combination of simple waves. It is thus possible to represent a periodic pulse 𝑦 𝑡 as
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵2 cos 2𝜔𝑡+.....

where 𝜔 gives the angular frequency of the pulse, A's and B's are constants. This expression is
called the Fourier series. If the motion is not periodic, the above sum is replaced by an integral
called the Fourier integral.

INTERFERENCE
Two waves of the same frequency travelling approximately in the same direction with constant
phase difference can combine to give rise to redistribution of energy in the form of maxima and
minima. This type of redistribution of energy due to superposition is called interference. The
series of alternate maxima and minima is called an interference pattern. If the two waves are in
phase with each other, they combine to double the amplitude. Then they are said to be interfering
constructively . If they are out of phase by 180 degrees one wave cancels the effect of the other
resulting in destructive interference. So the intensity is maximum at some places and zero or
minimum at some other places. When two light beams satisfying certain conditions super impose
together then there will be a distribution of intensity of light such that in some regions the
resultant is more than the sum of the individual intensities and in some regions the resultant
intensity is less than the either of the intensities of the two beams or even zero. This is called the
interference of light.

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Relation between the Phase difference and the Path difference:

(i) How to get Path difference x for a known Phase difference of 𝜙

A Phase difference of 2𝜋 corresponds to a Path difference of 𝜆
A Phase difference of 𝜙 corresponds to how much Path difference?

Phase difference Path difference

2𝜋 ------------------> 𝜆
𝜆
𝜙 -----------------> Path difference 𝑥 = 2𝜋 (𝜙)

(ii) How to get Phase difference 𝜙 for a known path difference of x

A Path difference of 𝜆 corresponds to a Path difference of 2𝜋
A Path difference of 𝜙 corresponds to how much Path difference?

Path difference Phase difference

𝜆 -------------------> 2𝜋
2𝜋
x ------------------->Phase difference 𝜙 = (𝑥)
𝜆

The regions where the resultant intensity is maximum are called the bright fringes and the light
beams are said to interfere constructively. The regions where the resultant intensity is minimum
or zero are called the dark fringes and the light beams are said to interfere destructively. The
important condition for observing interference of light is that the light beams must be coherent
i.e., the light waves in both the beams must have the same wave length or frequency, and
constant phase difference.

Conditions for Maxima and minima (or for Bright and Dark fringes)

(i) In terms of the Phase difference:

For coherent light beams, in the region where the phase difference, ∅ , is zero or an even
multiple of 𝜋 i.e., 2n𝜋 where n = 0,1,2,3etc., the light waves interfere constructively and we get
maximum intensity (or a bright fringe).

When the phase difference in the interfering light waves in the two beams is equal to an odd
multiple of 𝜋 i.e., if ∅ = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 ..etc., the two light waves are said to
interfere destructively and we get minimum intensity (or a dark fringe)

(ii) In terms of the Path difference:

If the light beams are travelling different distances as they superpose on one another, the
condition for maximum (or bright fringe ) can be expressed in the following way.

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When the path difference between the interfering light waves is equal to zero or an integral
multiple of the wave length of light, 𝜆 , i.e., when the path difference = 𝑛𝜆 where 𝑛 =0,1,2,3,
etc., the light waves interfere constructively and we get maximum intensity (or a bright fringe).
When the path difference between the light waves is an odd multiple of half the wave length of
𝜆
light i.e., if the path difference = (2n+1)2 where n=0,1,2,3 etc... we get minimum intensity( or a
dark fringe).

Classification of Interference methods

(techniques for producing interference of light):
To produce a pair of coherent beams of light, two techniques are used. The first one is the
division of wavefront and the second one is the division of amplitude.
(1) Division of wavefront :
The incident wavefront is divided into two parts by using the phenomenon of reflection,
refraction or diffraction. These two parts travel unequal distances and reunite at a small angle to
produce interference fringes. In this case point sources of light should be used. The waves will
spread out by diffraction at the point sources.
Young's double slit experiment, Fresnel's Bi-prism, Lloyd's mirror etc., are examples for this
method.
(2) Division of amplitude :
The amplitude of incoming beam is divided into two parts either by partial reflection or
refraction. These two parts reunite after travelling along different paths and produce interference
fringes. In this case extended sources of light should be used. Thin film interference such as
Newton's rings, Michelson's interferometer etc., come under this method.

Essential conditions for producing interference.

(1) Conditions for sustained interference :
(a) The two sources should be coherent. Sources derived from a single source are in phase with
each other or maintain a constant phase difference. Coherent beams of light produce a steady
interference pattern.
(b) The two interfering waves must be of the same wavelength and periodic time and propagate
approximately in the same direction.

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(2) Conditions for good observation :We know from the Young's double slit experiment that the
𝜆𝐷
fringe width 𝛽 is given by the relation 𝛽 = 𝑑

(a) The separation between the two sources 𝑑 should be small. Large separation leads to smaller
fringe width with loss of visibility.
(b) The distance between the sources and screen 𝐷 should be large. If this distance is small then
the fringe width will be very small and the fringes will not be separately visible.
(c) The background should be dark. If the source is not strong, the fringes happen to have low
intensity losing clarity against bright background.

(3) Conditions for good contrast :

(a) The two sources should be very narrow. A broad source may be thought of as a group of
sources with different frequencies  wavelengths so that superposition of light from any pair can't
give an interference pattern.
(b) The sources should be monochromatic. The fringe width  depends upon the wavelength of
light. If the source is monochromatic,  will be constant and hence fringes of good intensity can
be observed. If the source used is emitting white light, it is equivalent to an infinite number of
monochromatic sources. This results in overlapping of fringes due to different wavelengths, and
thus only a few coloured fringes with poor contrast are visible. When the path difference is
large, it results in uniform illumination.
(c) The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be preferably equal. If 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are the
amplitudes of the interfering beams, then Intensity of maxima is(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2 and Intensity of
minima is (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2 . If the difference between the amplitudes 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 is very large, then the
intensity of minima will be practically the same as that of the maxima and hence the contrast
will be poor. For a good contrast 𝑎1 ≈ 𝑎2 so that the minima have a low intensity.

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 Coherent light sources.(Coherence)
Two light waves with the same wave length, same frequency, same time period and zero or
constant phase difference between them are said to be coherent waves. The light waves are
highly coherent if they maintain (1) Temporal coherence and (2) Spatial coherence.
Temporal coherence: Temporal coherence is also called as longitudinal coherence. Let a point
source of quasi monochromatic light source S emit light
in all directions. Let us consider light travelling along
the line SP1P2. The phase relationship between the
points P1 and P2 depends on the distance P1P2 and the
coherence length of the light beam . The electric fields
at P1 and P2 will be correlated in phase when a single
wave train extends over greater length than the distance
P1P2, that is if the distance P1P2 is less than the coherence length lcoh . The waves are correlated in
their rising and falling and they will preserve a constant phase difference.
The points P1 and P2would not have any phase relationship if the longitudinal distance P1P2 is
greater than lcoh since in such a case many wave trains would span the distance. It means different
independent wave trains would be at P1 and P2 at any instant and therefore the phase at the two
points would be independent of each other . The degree to which the correlation exists is known
as the amount of longitudinal coherence. Temporal coherence is a measure of the
Monochromaticity of a wave
Spatial coherence: Spatial coherence is also called lateral or transverse coherence. Spatial
coherence refers to the continuity and uniformity of a wave in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. If the phase difference for any two fixed points in a plane normal to the
wave propagation does not vary with time, then the wave is said to exhibit spatial coherence .
Again looking at the point source S , S P1=SP3 and therefore the fields at points P1 and P3 would
have the same phase . Thus an ideal point source exhibits spatial coherence as the waves produced
by it are likely to have the same phase at points in space, which are equidistant from the source.
The spatial coherence is a measure of the divergence of the light beam.

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 Thin-film interference
Thin film interference is an example of interference by division of amplitude. The striking colours
of soap bubbles, oil slicks, peacock feathers, throats of humming birds, Newton's rings,
interference patterns in Michelson interferometer are some examples of thin film interference.
The condition of coherence is satisfied in thin film interference because the rays are derived from
the same ray incident on the film. A thin film has two surfaces, the upper surface and the lower
surface of the film. The rays reflected or transmitted from these surfaces participate in the
interference process. The interfering waves combine either to enhance or to suppress certain
colours in the spectrum of the incident sun light. This selective enhancement or suppression of
selected wavelengths has several applications.

Interference from Thin films

The figure shows a film of uniform thickness t, index of refraction 𝜇. Let light be incident at A.
Part of the light is reflected towards B and the other part is transmitted in to the film and got
reflected at C and emerges at D and is parallel to the first part. The condition of coherence is
satisfied here because rays 1 and 2 are derived from a single incident ray. At normal incidence,
the path difference ∆𝑥 between rays 1 and 2 is twice the optical thickness of the film.

𝛥𝑥 = 2µ𝑡 where µ is the refractive index of the film.

At oblique incidence, the optical path differnce is

∆𝑥 = 𝜇 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 − 𝐴𝐵 ----------------> (1)

From the figure ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = 90 − 𝑖 and ∠𝐵𝐷𝐴 = 𝑖

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
In the Δ𝑙𝑒 ABD, sin 𝑖 = 𝐴𝐷 = 2𝐴𝐸 since 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸𝐷 ;

Hence 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐴𝐸 sin 𝑖----------->(2)

𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
In the Δ𝑙𝑒 AEC, tan 𝑟 = i.e., tan 𝑟 =
𝐸𝐶 𝑡

∴ 𝐴𝐸 = 𝑡 tan 𝑟--------(3)

Hence 𝐴𝐵 = 2(𝑡 tan 𝑟) sin i from (2) and (3)

sini
∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝑡 tan 𝑟 𝜇 sin r since 𝜇 = sin r

𝐴𝐵 = 2𝜇𝑡 tan 𝑟 sin r ------------->(4)

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 𝐶𝐸 𝑡 𝑡
In the Δ𝑙𝑒 AEC cos 𝑟 = 𝐴𝐶 cos 𝑟 = 𝐴𝐶 ∴ 𝐴𝐶 = cos 𝑟
2𝑡
and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 so 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 2𝐴𝐶 = cos 𝑟 --------------->(5)

From (1) i.e., ∆𝑥 = 𝜇 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 − 𝐴𝐵

2𝑡
∆𝑥 = 𝜇 − 2𝜇𝑡 tan 𝑟 sin r from (5) and (4)
cos 𝑟
1 sin 𝑟 2𝜇𝑡
∆𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡(cos 𝑟 − cos 𝑟 sin 𝑟) = cos 𝑟 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟)
2μt
so ∆x = cos r cos 2 r i.e ∆𝑥 = 2μt cos r ------------>(6)

where μ is the refractive index of the medium between the surfaces.

However, this is only the apparent path differnce. To calculate the real path difference, we should
also consider the change in phase brought in by reflection. According to electromagnetic theory of
light, whenever reflection occurs at an interface backed by a denser medium, a phase Change of
𝜆
𝜋 or a path difference of is additionally introduced in the reflected componet. Hence the actual
2
𝜆
path difference, Δ𝑥 = 2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 ------------------(7)

Hence, the condition for maxima for the thin film to appear bright is
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 = 𝑚𝜆 or 2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 − = (2𝑚 − 1) 2
2
𝜆
2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑚 − 1) 2 , where m=0,1,2 --------------(8)

And, the condition for minima for the thin film to appear dark is
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑟 + 2 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2 or

2μ𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 where m = 0, 1, 2, 3 -------------(9)

If the film is viewed in the transmitted light, it is easy to derive the conditions for maxima
and minima following similar geometry.
The condition for maxima in this case is 2μ𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 and
𝜆
The condition for minima is 2μ𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2

One can't observe any interference pattern in thick films. For observing the interference
pattern, the thickness of the film should be comparable with the wavelength of light.

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 wedge shaped thin film
Wedge-film is a film of varying thickness. Such a film can be formed between two glass
plates resting on each other at one end and separated by a thin spacer at the other end. At one end,
the film thickness is zero and progressively increases to a particular value at the other end. θ is
called the wedge angle which is very small.
When the wedge is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light, the rays
reflected from its two surfaces will not be parallel. They appear to diverge from a point near the
film. Both the reflected ray BC and ray BFDE are derived from the same ray AB by division of
amplitude as shown in the Fig.3. Hence the two interfering
rays are coherent. Since the path difference for the rays
reflected from the different sections of the wedge are different
due to variation in film thickness, the film when viewed in the
reflected light will not be uniform in illumination. Alternate
bright and dark fringes parallel to the contact edge of the
wedge are seen on its surface. The fringes are localized at the surface of the film. They are
straight, parallel and equidistant. When the film is viewed in white light, coloured fringes are
observed.
Fringe width in wedge-film interference :
The conditions of maxima and minima when thin films are
viewed in the reflected monochromatic light are
𝜆
2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2 (maxima) and

2μ𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 (minima)
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3…… We apply these conditions to
wedge film interference to obtain an expression for the fringe
width β. Suppose a dark fringe m occurs at A where the film thickness AK = t1 as shown in fig.4
The dark fringe is governed by the relation 2μt1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 . If we consider near normal
incidence in thin air films, Cos r  1 and μ = 1. Hence the equation for dark fringe at A becomes
2t1 = m 𝜆. Let us suppose that the next dark fringe (m+1) occurs at C, where the film thickness
CL=t2 . The condition for the (m+1)th dark fringe is 2t2 = (𝑚 + 1)𝜆.
From the above two equations 2𝑡2 − 2𝑡1 = 𝑚 + 1 𝜆 − 𝑚 𝜆
So 2(𝑡2 − t1 ) = 𝜆

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Hence the difference in film thickness for two adjacent dark fringes
𝑡2 − t1 = BC = λ ⁄ 2 --------------(1)
𝐵𝐶
In the le CAB, tan θ = or BC = AB tan θ. AB is the linear distance between successive
𝐴𝐵

dark fringes and hence it is the fringe width β.

So BC = β tan θ --------------------(2)
𝜆 𝜆
From (1) and (2) β tan θ = or β = 2 tan θ.
2
𝜆
For small values of θ, tan θ θ, θ being expressed in radians. Therefore β = 2θ
𝜆
If films other than air are considered, then β = 2μθ . Thus, we see that for a given wedge angle θ,

β is constant. It means that fringes are equidistant from one another

Wedge angle and thickness of the spacer :The wedge angle θ and the thickness of a spacer like
a paper can be experimentally determined with the help of a travelling microscope. The positions
of dark fringes at two distant points Q and R located at distances x1 and x2 from the apex 0 are
noted (Fig. 5) and the no. of fringes N between Q and R are counted. Let the film thickness at Q
and R be t1 and t2, respectively. Applying the condition for dark fringe at Q we get,
2µ𝑡1 = 𝑚𝜆 ---------------(1)
𝑡
But tan θ = 𝑥1
1

𝑡1 = x1 tan θ ≈ x1 θ as θ is very small

Substituting the value of 𝑡1 in (1)
2µx1 θ = 𝑚λ ------------------> (2)
Similarly for dark fringe at R, we have
𝑡
2µ𝑡2 = 𝑚 + 𝑁 λ and tan θ = 𝑥2
2

so t2 = x2 tan θ ≈ x2 θ
2µ𝑥2 θ = 𝑚 + 𝑁 λ ------------>(3)
Subtracting Eq(2) from Eq(3) we have
2 µ 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 θ = 𝑁λ
𝑁λ
or θ = 2µ 𝑥 -----------------(4)
2 −𝑥 1

𝑡
If t is the thickness of the spacer used to form the wedge, we have tan θ = 𝐿

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 𝑡 = 𝐿 tan θ = 𝐿θ where L is the length of the wedge.
𝐿𝑁λ
∴ 𝑡 = 𝐿θ Hence t= 2µ 𝑥 from equation (4)
2 −𝑥 1

(𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 ) λ𝐿
Since is the fringe width β, we can write t = 2µβ
𝑁
λ𝐿
If the film is air µ = 1 Thickness of the spacer, t = ------------(5)
2β

Newton's Rings
Expressions for the radii of bright and dark rings. (Determination of the wavelength of the
monochromatic source of light (or) Radius of curvature of a convex lens)
Newton's rings are classic example of thin film interference by division of amplitude. The
experimental arrangement for observing Newton's rings is shown in Figure 6. When a plano-
convex lens of long focal length is placed with its convex surface on a plane glass plate, an air
film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two. The film thickness at the point
of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally, and the film is viewed in the
reflected light, concentric bright and darks rings around the point of contact are seen. These
circular fringes were discovered by Newton and are called Newton's rings. When the film is
viewed in the reflected light, dark spot is formed at the point of contact of the lens with the glass
plate. The circular fringes are localized and are of equal thickness and get crowded away from the
point of contact.

The ray diagram in the formation of Newton's rings is shown in Figure 7. The ray is incident
normally on the lens-glass plate system. Ray 1 and Ray 2 are the rays reflected from top and
bottom surface of the air film. Ray 1 undergoes no phase change but ray 2 acquires a phase
change of 𝜋 upon reflection, because it is reflected from air-glass interface. Rays 1 and and 2 are

10
coherent because they are derived from the same incident ray. The conditions for the bright and
dark rings are governed by the following relations:
𝜆
2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2 (Bright fringes) and 2μ𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 (Dark fringes)

For normal incidence cos 𝑟 = 1 and for the air film µ = 1

𝜆
2𝑡 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2 (Bright fringes) and 2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 (Dark fringes)

Dark spot is observed at the point of the contact, O ,of the lens with the glass plate. The air
film at the point of contact is only a few molecules thick and is very small compared to a
wavelength (𝑡 << 𝜆 ) . The path difference introduced between the interfering waves is zero,
i.e, 2t = 0. But the wave reflected from the glass plate suffers a phase change of π which is

equivalent to a path difference of . Consequently, the interfering waves at the centre are out of
2
phase and interfere destructively and produce a dark spot.

Theory of Newton's rings :

In the reflected monochromatic light, Newton's rings are alternate bright and dark circles
with a central dark spot. Refer to Fig. 8. Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens. At Q, let the
thickness of the film PQ = t satisfies the condition for a dark ring to form by interference. Let it be
an mth dark ring with a radius OJ= rm. By the theorem of intersecting chords.
(PE ) (EH) = (OE)  (EM).
But PE = EH = OQ = rm ;
OE = PQ = t and
rm ∗ rm = t(OM − OE) i.e., rm 2 = t 2R − t
So rm 2 = 2Rt − t2
( As 2Rt >> t2, t2 can be neglected). ∴ rm 2 = 2Rt .
So we have r2m = (2t)R---------------------> 1
For dark rings, the governing relation is 2𝑡 = 𝑚 𝜆.

From Equation(1), r2m = (𝑚 𝜆)R 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑚 𝜆R

The diameter of the dark ring is therefore given by 𝐷𝑚 = 2 𝑚 𝜆R .

The radii of the dark rings can be found by taking m = 0, 1, 2, 3…….
It can be seen that 𝑟0 = 0 𝑟1 = 𝜆R , 𝑟2 = 2𝜆R 𝑟3 = 3𝜆R ...... and so on.

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Thus, the radii (also diameters) of the dark rings are proportional to the square root of the natural
numbers.
Considering bright rings, let us suppose that a bright ring is located at the point Q.
The radius of the mth bright ring is given by 𝑟𝑚2 = (2𝑡)𝑅
𝜆
For bright rings, the governing relation is 2𝑡 = 2𝑚 + 1 2

2𝑚 +1 𝜆R 2𝑚 +1 𝜆R
𝑟𝑚2 = or 𝑟𝑚 =
2 2

The radii of different bright rings can be found by putting m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... in the above equation.
𝜆R 3𝜆R 5𝜆R
It is seen that 𝑟0 = 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = ......and so on.
2 2 2

It is clear that the radii (also diameters) of bright rings are proportional to the square root of the
odd natural numbers.
Determination of wavelength :
The wave length of incident monochromatic light can be determined by forming Newton's
rings and measuring the diameters of the dark rings using travelling microscope.
For the mth dark ring 𝐷𝑚 2 = (2𝑟𝑚 )2 = 4𝑟𝑚2 = 4𝑚 𝜆𝑅 Similarly 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4𝑛 𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑚 2 −𝐷𝑛 2
𝐷𝑚 2 − 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4(𝑚 − 𝑛) 𝜆𝑅 𝜆= 4(𝑚 −𝑛)𝑅

In practice, the diameters of successive dark rings are measured with a travelling
microscope and a plot is drawn between Dm2 and m. The plot is a
straight line as shown in the Figure. The slope of the line gives the
𝐷𝑚 2 −𝐷𝑛 2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
value of . Thus 𝜆 = .
(𝑚 −𝑛) 4𝑅

The radius of curvature R of the lens is measured using a

spherometer and 𝜆 is determined using the above equation.
Determination of the radius of curvature: From the relation 𝐷𝑚 2 − 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝜆𝑅,
𝐷𝑚 2 −𝐷𝑛 2
the radius of curvature is given by 𝑅 = 4(𝑚 −𝑛)𝜆
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
∴𝑅= 4𝜆

So by finding the slope from the observations and knowing the wave length of light 𝜆 we can
determine the radius of curvature of the convex lens.

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 Applications of interference
The applications of interference are wide and varied . Some of them are
(1) Interference is used for making precession measurements. For example the wavelength of
light can be measured using Michelson's interferometer up to an accuracy of eight significant
digits.
(2) The resolution between two closely spaced spectral lines such as D1 and D2 lines of sodium
doublet can be accurately determined.
(3) The refractive indices of liquids and gases can be measured using interference methods.
(4) The length of one meter can be standardized in terms of wavelengths of Cadmium red light. It
was found that one standard meter is equal to 1558163.5 wavelengths of Cadmium red line.
(5) Double slit interference method can be used to determine the angular separation of double
stars and the diameter of fixed stars.
(6) Interference methods are used for measuring small displacements such as those produced by
compression or elongation of metal rods, crystals etc.,
(7) Newton's rings find application in testing the surface finish of lenses and other optical
components used in telescopes and other optical instruments.
(8) Wedge film interference is employed in testing the plainness of glass plates and very thin
metallic plates.
(9) Thin film interference is used to enhance or suppress certain colours in the spectrum of
incident light. The enhancement or suppression of selected wave lengths has many applications.
When light falls on ordinary glass surface about 41% of the incident light is reflected, weakening
the transmitted beam by that amount. This loss of light will be real problem in optical systems
with many components. A thin transparent film deposited on the optical surface can largely
suppress the reflected light by destructive interference (thus by enhancing the transmitted light ).
Such transparent thin film coatings are called anti reflection coatings or AR coatings. Camera
lenses appear slightly bluish because of the presence of such coatings.
(10) Optical interference coatings are electrically non conducting and hence are called dielectric
mirrors.
(11) An interference stack of a number of films with varying thickness and refractive indices can
be designed to give almost desired wavelength profile for a reflected or transmitted light. For
example windows can be provided with coatings that have a high reflectivity in the infrared

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 region, thus admitting the visible component of sun light but reflecting its infrared or heating
component.
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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
UNIT 1A INTERFERENCE
Note: The following double starred questions have the probability of more than 90% of being
asked in the examinations. The single starred questions have the probability of more than 70%
being asked in the examinations. The remaining questions (without any star)may be also asked in
the examinations but the probability is less.
*1 What is interference ?State and explain the principle of Superposition and discuss the conditions
for constructive and destructive interference (or super positions).
**2 Discuss the interference phenomena in thin transparent films and obtain the conditions
for maxima and minima for the reflected light.
3 What is wedge shaped film derive the expression of wedge angle and thickness of a spacer(paper)
**4 What are meant by Newton's Rings. How the Newton's Rings phenomena can be used
to determine the wave length of monochromatic light(or Radius if curvature of a convex lens).
5 What are the important applications of interference of light.
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