The Global Economy

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION - refers to the expanding interdependence of the world economies to the
growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide
and rapid spread of technologies. Example: Philippine’s trading partnership with China, the United
States, and Australia.

International Monetary Fund

International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards "economic globalization" as a historical process

representing the result of human innovation and technological progress.

ACTORS THAT FACILITATE ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

Nation- States

⮚ Imposes Tax and Tariffs on Trade

International Monetary System

⮚ Refers to internationally agreed rules, conventions, and institutions for facilitating

international trade, investments and flow of capital among nation-states.

International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)

⮚ Refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on
issues of common interest.

 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

⮚ Private organizations that carry out campaigning in development work

⮚ Gold Standard

⮚ Bretton Wood System

⮚ European Monetary System

International Economic and Financial Organizations.

⮚ provide the structure and funding for many unilateral and multilateral development projects
Media

⮚  As the world becomes ever more complex and interconnected, access to information must play
an increasingly central role in every problem facing development specialists. 

Multilateral Development Banks

⮚ Multilateral development banks are international financial institutions owned by countries.

Trans-National Corporations (TNCs)

⮚ Transnational Corporations exert a great deal of power in the globalized world economy. Many
corporations are richer and more powerful than the states that seek to regulate them. 

THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

After the two world wars, world leaders sought to create a global economic system that would ensure a
longer-lasting global peace .

Britain would systems was largely influenced by the ideas of British economist John Maynard Keynes .

Keynes believe that economic crisis occur not when a country does not have enough money, but when
money is not being spent and, thereby not moving.

Modern World System

• Established by: Immanuel Wallerstein

• This was an attempt to explain and correct the inadequacies of global systems in a global
scale.

• The modern world-system is structured politically as an interstate system- a system of

competing and allying states. The Modern world-system is now a global economy with a
global political system ( the modern interstate system). It is also including all the cultural
aspects and interaction networks of the human population of the Earth.

Three Assumptions of the Modern World System:

1. The Social System: consists of cultural, political and economical

2. The World Economy: assumes that the world is divided into three main zones (Core, Semi-
Periphery and Periphery)
 3. The Interpretation: understood in state-strength a cultural integration.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

1. We being workers from a country that belongs to the periphery of World Economy can provide
cheap labor of work force, That is why a lot of work are provided to us from first world countries
or those belonging from the Core like from US, UK, Canada etc.

2. We easily are provided aids whenever there are economic turmoils.

3. Materials provided by us are cheaper as compared from countries from the semi- periphery or
the core. Due to this cheaper raw materials means more profit for manufacturers or Business
owners from core countries

Disadvantages:

1. Jobs are not available for all only the privileged ones that were able to attend HS/ college or are
licensed professionals.

2. Literacy rate is very low that is why not all people are able to have a decent paying job.

3. Economic budget is being dragged to helping the  less fortunate people.

GLOBAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION - is an arrangement among nations that includes the elimination of
trade barriers and agrees on fiscal policies. The goals and objectives are to create or establish a free
trade area where it tends to increase international trade among group of countries and achieving an
economic union.  Also, to share common market where there are no restrictions on immigration and
cross-border investment.

Global economic integration contributes to a development of a country and enhances a living standard
because there are some advantages, and it falls to 3 categories:

⮚ Trade benefits, it leads to a reduction in the cost of trade, improved availability of goods and
services and increased consumer power of the member nations.

⮚ Employment, the market expansion, technology sharing, and cross-border investment tends to
improve employment opportunities.

⮚ Political cooperation, it can be improving because of the stronger economic ties which provide
incentive to resolve conflicts peacefully and lead to greater stability
Market Integration

The International Financial Institutions (IFIs) play a major role in global economy. It helps to support and
improve our economy's growth and living standards.

Bretton Woods Institutions:

-Internal Monetary Fund (IMF)

- World Bank

- General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades

International Monetary Fund - designed to provide short-term loans to aid countries facing balance-of-
payments deficit.

World Bank - -created to grant long-term loans for the economic development of less developed
countries and the reconstruction of war-torn countries in Europe.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades - is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall
purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or
quotas.

"A brief history of global market integration in the twentieth century global corporations"

Before we discuss the Market Integration in 20th century, let us take a glimpse of what happened way
back 12,000 years ago.

Economic Revolution:

✓ Agricultural Revolution

✓ - People learn how to domesticate plants and animals.

✓ - Farming helped the societies surpluses.

✓ - This led to major development like permanent of settlements, trade networks and popular
growth.
 Industrial Revolution

✓ - With the rise of industrial came new tools like steam engine, manufacturing and mass
production.

✓ - They began working as a wage laborers and becoming more specialized in their skills.

✓ - Productivity went up and people had access to a wider variety of goods due to mass
production.

Information Technology
- Computers and other technologies are beginning to replace many jobs because of automation or
outsourcing jobs offshore.

Market Integration in 20th century

✓ The international economic integration achieved during the 19th century was largely
unraveled in the twentieth by two world war and the great depression.

World War I brought the liberal economic order of the late 19th century to an abrupt end; 1914 clearly
marked a dramatic and discontinuous break in the past

✓ Import shares fell only marginally in Britain during the war. In France, the import share rose
from 20% before the war to 36.7% during it; again exports fell sharply.

✓ Export ratios rose in neutral economies such as in Sweden, Japan and North America., where
grain production expanded sharply during the war to meet allied demand.

✓ The absence of European manufactured exports on world market stimulated the expansion of
industrial capacity, above all in the United States and Japan, but also ni countries such as
India, Australia, and Latin America

✓ The end war did not imply an end to protection. Different tariff acts and restrictions are made.

✓ The great depression was of course a major reason for the adaptation of severe protection,
and not just in periphery.

✓ Beginning in 1932 , there were several sign that at least some countries were trying to
moderate, if not reserve, the increase in protectionism of the previous year and two.

✓ Post war economic reintegration was supported by the several factors, both technological
and political.

GLOBAL CORPORATION
 • What is Global Corporation?

■  A global corporation, also known as a global company, is coined from the base term
‘global’, which means all around the world.

■  Global Corporation operate in two or more countries and may face many challenges in
their quest to capture value in the global market.

Attributes of Global Corporation

Value Opportunity to expand

- High-growth companies view international markets as untapped markets full of potential.

Understand Different Cultures

- American companies that have a strong presence internationally often have a founder or leading
executive on their team who is from a foreign country or a first-generation American. These executives’
worldly experience helps prioritize global market and answer any unknowns.

Turbo-charged by the Internet

- Companies that invest in the Internet and produce web-based products are more likely to grow
globally because there is less money involved in their international expansion.

Carefully Chosen International Partners

- Choosing the right partner to help you grow your company in other countries is vital. Without
the right people to vouch for you in that country and build trust with consumers, becoming the market
leader could be close to impossible.

Measure Success

- When expanding to other countries it is important to keep track of the success and make sure it
is worth the company’s resources.

Think Globally

- The most essential characteristic of any successful international business is implementing a

global way of thinking. If this is the main thought process behind a company’s decisions, the rest of their
international marketing strategies can be implemented with ease.

The Global Interstate System

Global Interstate System is the whole system of human interactions. The modern world-system is
structured politically as an interstate system – a system of competing and allying states. Political
Scientists commonly call this the international system, and it is the main focus of the field of
International Relations.

- John Caser (2019)

Introduction

In a world where there is anarchy, where no overpowering state-like entity imposes rules and order, it is
imperative that the nation state impose sovereign power within its domain. The global system is
anarchic, and this necessities global governance to maintain international peace and security.

Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world's economies,
cultures, and populations brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services technology, and
flows of investment, people and information.

Effects of Globalization on Government

Reduction of economic independence.

 The increasing market size with the effects of Absolute or Comparative Advantages in
manufacturing creates the need to specialize in narrow product production or service areas to
be able to compete successfully.

Eliminate the barriers of nations and disparate governments.

 It has been defined in many ways, globalization is generally recognized as the fading or complete
disappearance of economic, social, and cultural borders between nation-states.

Globalization also creates a sense of interdependence among nations, which could create an imbalance
of power among nations of different economic strengths. Through various economic imbalances, these
interactions may lead to diminished roles for some states and exalted roles for others.

Globalization restrains governments by inducing increased budgetary pressure.

 As a consequence, governments shift their expenditures in favour of transfers and subsidies and
away from capital expenditures. (According to disciplining hypothesis)

Institutions that Govern International Relations

According to the lecture of Anbreen (2013) in International Relations, international institutions make an
important role in contemporary international relations. They govern most of the interactions in the
system level, and known to outlaw some traditional institutions and practices of international relations.

GENERALIST INTER-STATE ORGANIZATIONS:

1. United Nations

 The United Nations (UN) is an international organization that is considered as the most
prominent international institution which organizational structure is followed by many legal
institutions.

 The United Nations (U.N.) is a global diplomatic and political organization dedicated to
international peace and stability. The U.N. was officially established in 1945 following the
horrific events of World War II when international leaders proposed creating a new global
organization to maintain peace and avoid the abuses of war. The U.N. initially had just 51
member states; today, the organization, which is headquartered in New York City, has 193
members.

United Nation’s Four Main Purposes:

1. Maintain International Peace and security

2. Develop friendly relations among nations

3. Achieve International Cooperation in solving international problems

4. Be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends

2. Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

An international organization consisting of 57 member states that attempts to be the collective voice of
the Muslim World (Ummah). This organization also attempts to safeguard the interests and ensure the
progress and well-being of Muslims

The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is the second-largest inter-governmental organization in

the world after the United Nations. It was founded by a charter in 1969, following decades of
deliberation by Muslim scholars and statesmen around the idea of forming a global Islamic organization

The Organization was established upon a decision of the historical summit which took place in Rabat,
Kingdom of Morocco on 12th Rajab 1389 Hijra (25 September 1969) following the criminal arson of Al-
Aqsa Mosque in occupied Jerusalem.
"Fires still engulfing Al-Aqsa Mosque: Palestinians" by Abdel Raouf Arnaout.

Although 52 years have passed since extremist Australian tourist Denis Michael Rohan set fire to East
Jerusalem's Al-Aqsa mosque, Palestinians say the flames are still engulfing the flashpoint site.

The 1969 fire has destroyed nearly a third of the al-Qiblah mosque, including the 1,000-year-old
priceless wood and ivory pulpit of conqueror Saladin.

The blaze also destroyed the mihrab (prayer niche) of Muslim caliph Omar bin al-Khattab, the decorated
interior, and the gilded wooden dome.

"Muslims around the world still remember the horrific fire of Al-Aqsa mosque by criminal (Denis Michael
Rohan) and other criminals, who were not revealed," the Islamic Supreme Committee in Jerusalem said
in a statement on Wednesday.

The committee held Israel, which has occupied the West Bank, where the Al-Aqsa Mosque is located, in
1967, for the fire.

"Fires are still engulfing in Al-Aqsa in the form of racist incursions by extremist Jewish groups backed by
the Israeli government and army and the excavations that threaten the foundations of the mosque," it
said.

In response to the arson attack, Islamic countries founded the umbrella Organization of the Islamic
Conference, now the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), during their summit in Morocco which
was convened a month after the attack.

On September 15, 1969, the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution 271, which grieved at
the extensive damage caused by the fire and condemned Israel for failing to respect UN resolutions.

Rohan was arrested two days after the arson attack. Israeli authorities said that he was suffering from
severe mental illness and later expelled him to Australia.

For Muslims, Al-Aqsa represents the world's third holiest site. Jews, for their part, refer to the area as
the "Temple Mount," claiming it was the site of two Jewish temples in ancient times.

Purpose of Organisation Islamic Cooperation:

Organisation Islamic Cooperation aims to preserve Islamic values, safeguard and defend the national
sovereignty and independence of member states and to contribute to international peace and security.

Other Generalist Interstate Organizations:

• African Union
  is a continental body consisting of the 55 member states that make up the countries of the
African Continent. It was officially launched in 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of
African Unity.

African Union Aims to:

•Achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and their the people

•Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its Member States;

•Accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent;

•Promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its peoples;

•Encourage international cooperation

•Promote peace, security, and stability on the continent;

•Promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance

• Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASEAN Aims to:

• to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through
joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a
prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations

•to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the
relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations
Charter

▸ In 1976, the members signed the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, which
emphasizes mutual respect and non-interference in other countries affairs.

The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia declared that in their relations with
one another, the High Contracting Parties should be guided by the following fundamental
principles:

▸ Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national
identity of all nations;

▸ The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference,
subversion, or coercion;
 ▸ Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;

▸ Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;

▸ Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and

▸ Effective cooperation among themselves.

• Arab League

 The Arab League, officially the League of Arab States, is a union of Arabic-speaking
African and Asian countries. It was formed in Cairo in 1945 to promote the independence,
sovereignty, affairs, and interests of its 22 member countries and 5 observers.

 The 22 members of the Arab League as of 2021 are Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt,
Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The five observers
are Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Venezuela.

 They are all predominantly Muslim, Arabic-speaking countries, but Egypt and Saudi Arabia are
considered the dominant players in the League. Through agreements for joint defense,
economic cooperation, and free trade, among others, the league helps its member countries to
coordinate government and cultural programs to facilitate cooperation and limit conflict.

 The League Council is the highest body of the Arab League and is composed of representatives
of member states, typically foreign ministers, their representatives, or permanent delegates.
Each member state has one vote.

Purpose of Arab League:.

The Arab League's state purpose is to seek close cooperation among its members on matters of common
interest—specifically, economics, communication, culture, nationality, social
welfare, and health; to strengthen ties, improve communication, and promote common
interest among Arabic-speaking nations

• Commonwealth of Independent States

 is a regional intergovernmental organisation formed in 1991, and currently composed of

Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Ukraine.

 Areas of cooperation for CIS members include economy, finance, security, humanitarian issues,
legal matters, exchange of scientific and technical information, and inter-regional and cross-
border issues.
  Cybersecurity and cybercrime issues are also in the attention of CIS member states, who have
agreed on a framework of cooperation on combating crimes committed through information
technologies, and adopted an agreement on cooperation in the field of ensuring information
security.

Aims of Commonwealth of Independent States:

 to facilitate and strengthen cooperation among its member states in the political, economic,
ecological, humanitarian, cultural, and other fields.

 to support the economic and social development of member states within a common economic
space

 to ensure human rights and fundamental freedoms in accordance with universally recognized
principles

 to facilitate cooperation among member states in ensuring international peace and security

 to promote peaceful settlement of disputes and conflicts between member states

• European Union

 is a coalition of 27 European countries, designed to tear down trade, economic and social
barriers and promote flourishing in these areas.

 Established in 1993, the European Union's headquarters are currently located in Brussels,
Belgium.

 In the post-World War II world, the European Union has sought to bolster the individual and
collective economic and social well being of the countries involved, as well as establish a
cohesive global marketplace that promotes trade and other social values.

 Still, the European Union functions by a three-pronged governing system including a council, a
parliament, and a commission, and uses a common currency called the euro.

Purpose of European Union:

To promote peace, establish a unified economic and monetary system, promote inclusion and combat
discrimination, break down barriers to trade and borders, encourage technological and scientific
developments, champion environmental protection, and, among others, promote goals like a
competitive global market and social progress.

Economic Institutions
• Asian Development Bank

• African Development Bank

• Bank of International Settlements

• Inter-American Development Bank

• International Monetary Fund

International Legal Bodies

Human Rights:

• European Court of Human Rights

• Human Rights Committee

• Inter-American Court of Human Rights

• International Criminal Court

• International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

Legal:

• African Court of Justice

• European Court of Justice

• International Court of Justice

• International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

Regional Security Arrangements:

• Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific

• GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development

• Maritime Security Regime

• Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

Internationalism vs Globalism
The appropriate image for internationalism is a map of the world or a traditional globe where the
different countries appear in different colors, each one bordered by a solid black line.

The appropriate image for globalism is the photo of Earth from space where there are no national
boundaries and the unity and solitariness of the planet in space are most evident.

 Internationalism

The belief in cooperation between nations for the common good.

 Globalism

The belief of socio economic system dedicated to free trade and free access to markets.

1. Personal Identity

 In the age of internationalism people regard themselves as definitely members of one country,
but have come to be aware that their country exists in a world where there are other countries
with which cooperation is possible in many circumstances.

 In the age of globalism people think of themselves primarily as members of humanity on the
planet Earth, and only secondarily as citizens of this or that country.

2. Language Use

 With internationalism one accepts the situation that different nations and different nationalities
often use different languages and that communication may require interpreters and translators,
possibly assisted now by various kinds of modern technology.  

 In the case of globalism there must be one common language for all Earthlings, [5] not only to
facilitate communication but also to promote global solidarity. We cannot ignore the connection
between identity and language use.

3. People’s Loyalty

 In internationalism the primary loyalty of individuals is still to the national governments.

 In globalism the primary loyalty of individuals would be to a global government.

The Globalization of Religion

Globalization is the networking and expansion of once local products, beliefs, and practices into
universal products, beliefs and practices often through technology

Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and world views that establishes symbols that
relate humanity to spirituality and to moral values

The most known religions across the world are:

CHRISTIANITY

HINDUISM

ISLAM

BUDDHISM

Religion has entered the “ information age” and has globalized at accelerating rates, in the methods
religions use for teaching and in belief systems

Tools of uniting people all over the world on religious basis:

 Books

 Movies

 Cell phone apps

 Social networks

 Charity funds

 Special internet sites

 Religious schools

Religion epitomizes the definition of globalization due to the fact that it can be spread more efficiently
than ever before through the use of different technological tool

Small religious movements are also spreading thanks to the celebrities following and advertising them
Tom Cruise and Scientology

Kaballah with Madonna, Britney Spears, Demi Moore and others

Expansion of terrorism on religious basis

 Videos and audios in the Internet of sermons read by missionaries which contain exremist ideas,
call for crimes, murders, terrorist attacks

 The possibility of communicating with anyone across the world and sharing ideas provoke the
spread of terrorists and expansion of their band

 Religious communities also directly oppose repression and promote peace and reconciliation.
Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict situations, serve as a communication
link between opposing sides, and provide training in peacemaking methodologies (Smock, 2008)

 The role of religion in globalization and its relationship with conflict and global peace is
increasingly acknowledged but remain disputed

 Religion and conflict often lead to the conclusion that religion can play a role in both raising and
lowering levels of violent conflict. In other words, Religion can be both as a “divider” (a source of
conflict) and a “connector” (a source of peace). More specifically, religious interpretations can
directly induce or exacerbate conflict in a number of ways (Patterson, 2010)

 Differing belief systems maybe a source of conflict, or shared ideas, or values may be the basis
for common ground.

 Religious Beliefs are capable of motivating individuals and group to mobilize to achieve political
goals and consequently, suppress mass actions as a tool of repression.( Haynes, 2006)

CONCLUSION

 Globalization has a great impact on religion. As people and cultures move across the globe, as
ideas are mobilized and transported by media technology, the religious globalization will go on
and on.

 It has its pro and cons. People should cope with the flow of info and choose their own and
peaceful way.

THE GLOBAL CITY

What is Global City?

 ◦ also known by other terminologies as "alpha city" or " world center" is a city regarded as a
primary node in the global economic network (Alderson and Beckfield, 2004)

◦ Global City pertains to an urban center that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that
deserves as a hub within a globalized economic system.(Brenner 1998)

◦ is a significant production point of specialized financial and producer services that make the
globalized economy run (Renn,2112)

◦ The use of global city was popularized by Saskia Sassen

- a global city expect, in her 1991 work entitled " The Global City: New York, London and Tokyo

◦ Global cities are also locations for outsourcing of important functions, like;
- Accounting
- Information
- Communication Services

Attributes of Global City

◦ ECONOMIC POWER

◦ ECONOMIC OPPURTUNITIES

◦ ECONOMIC COMPETITIVENESS

◦ CENTER OF AUTHORITY

◦ POLITICAL INFLUENCE

◦ CENTER OF HIGHER LEARNING AND CULTURE

◦ CENTER OF AUTHORITY
-State power.

◦ POLITICAL INFLUENCE

• Powerful political hubs exert influence on their own countries as well on international affairs.

◦
• Example: Jakarta, Indonesia the main headquarters of Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN).
Characteristics

Although criteria are variable and fluid, typical characteristics of world cities are:

1. A variety of international financial services, notably in finance, insurance, real estate, banking,
accountancy, and marketing

2. Headquarters of several multinational corporations

3. The existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and major financial institutions

4. Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area

5. Major manufacturing centres with port and container facilities

6. Considerable decision-making power on a daily basis and at a global level

7. Centres of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture, and politics
8. Centres of media and communications for global networks
9. Dominance of the national region with great international significance

10. High percentage of residents employed in the services sector and information sector

11. High-quality educational institutions, including renowned universities, international student

attendance, and research facilities
12 Multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical, and entertainment
facilities in the country
13. High diversity in language, culture, religion, and ideologies

How Cities Serve as an Engines of Globalization

• Global cities serve as central places where the work of globalization gets done.

• The characteristics of cities and their surrounding regions, in turns, help shape globalization.

• They function at much better than before.

- Improved technologies enable much faster transportation of people, goods and instantaneous
transmission of information.

• Globalization operates on a much larger scale, leaving few people unaffected and making its
influence felt in even the most remote places.
 • The dynamic and often unmediated interaction between numerous global actors create a new
level of complexity for the relationships between policy and practice.

• The scope of global connections is much broader and has multiple dimensions including
economic, technological, political, legal, social and cultural, among others, each of which has
multiple facets.

- These linkages have proliferated to involve multiple, independence flows of a greater variety
of goods, services, people, capital, information and diseases.

GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHHY

DEMOGRAPHY

Demography is the statistical study of human populations. It includes the study of the size, structure,
and distributions of different populations and changes in them in response to birth, migration,aging,
and death. It also includes the analysis of the relationships between economic, social, cultural, and
biological process influencing a population.(CROSSMAN, 2017)

Demography is very useful for understanding social and economic problems and identifying
potential solutions. Demographers are engaged in social planning, market research, insurance
forecasting, labor market analysis, economic development and so on.( StockholmUniversity n.d)

The theory of demographic transition as it affects global population

Theory of Demographic Transition

 is a theory that throws light on changes in birth rate and death rate and consequently on the
growth-rate of population.

 Along with the economic development, tendencies of birth-rate and death rate are different.
Because of it, growth rate of population is also different.

Demographic Transition

 Demographic Transition refers to a population cycle that begins with a fall in the death rate,
continues with a phase of rapid population growth and concludes with a decline in the birth
rate.
Demographic Transition Model

 The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is based on historical population trends of two
demographic characteristics – birth rate and death rate – to suggest that a country’s total
population growth rate cycles through stages as that country develops economically.

 Each stage is characterized by a specific relationship between birth rate (number of annual
births per one thousand people) and death rate (number of annual deaths per one thousand
people).

 As these rates change in relation to each other, their produced impact greatly affects a country’s
total population.

 Within the model, a country will progress over time from one stage to the next as certain social
and economic forces act upon the birth and death rates.

 Every country can be placed within the DTM, but not every stage of the model has a country
that meets its specific definition.

What are the stages of the Demographic Transition Model?

Stage 1

 This stage has been called high population growth potential stage.

 In Stage 1, which applied to most of the world before the Industrial Revolution, both birth rates
and death rates are high.

 As a result, population size remains fairly constant but can have major swings with events such
as wars or pandemics.

Stage 2

 It is called the stage of Population Explosion.

 In Stage 2, the introduction of modern medicine lowers death rates, especially among children,
while birth rates remain high; the result is rapid population growth.

 Many of the least developed countries today are in Stage 2.

Stage 3

 It is called the stage of Pulation Growth Starts to Level Off.

 In this stage, birth rate as compared to the death rate declines more rapidly. As a result,
population grows at a diminishing rate.
  This stage witnesses a fall in the birth rate while the death rate stays constant because it has
already declined to the lowest minimum. Birth rate declines due to the impact of economic
development, changed social attitudes and increased facilities for family planning. Population
continues to grow fast because death rate stops falling whereas birth rate though declining but
remains higher than death rate.

 Most developing countries are in Stage 3.

Stage 4

 It is called the stage of stationary population. Birth and death rates are both low, stabilizing the
population.

 These countries tend to have stronger economies, higher levels of education, better healthcare,
a higher proportion of working women, and a fertility rate hovering around two children per
woman.

 Most developed countries are in Stage 4.

Stage 5

 It is called the stage of Further Changes in Birth Rates.

 A possible Stage 5 would include countries in which fertility rates have fallen significantly below
replacement level (2 children) and the elderly population is greater than the youthful
population.
Limitations of the Demographic Transition Model

 Like any model, there will be outliers and exceptions to the rule and the Demographic Transition
Model is no different. Additionally, there are things the DTM cannot reveal: the impact of other
demographic variables such as migration, are not considered, nor does the model predict how
long a country will be in each stage. But even so, the relationship between birth rate and death
rate is an important concept when discussing population and any patterns, such as those
provided by the DTM, that aid in understanding are helpful.

GLOBAL MIGRATION

What is Migration?

• Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. Migration can be within a
country or between countries. Migration can be permanent, temporary or seasonal.

There is a two types of migration

• Internal migration: moving within a state, country, or continent.

• External migration: moving to a different state, country, or continent.

What is Emigrant and Immigrant?

• Emigration: leaving one country to move to another.

• Immigration: moving into a new country.

Reasons for Global Migration

For the last twenty-five years, the rate of Global migration has been rapidly increasing, from 175 million
in 1995 to 272 million in 2019 which equal to 3.5% of the worlds total population. Out of this population
of migrants, 52% are males and 48% are females and of which most are in working age.

The following are the factors as to why these migrants flew to other countries for migration:

• Political - Civil strife, wars and the need for asylum.

• Economic - In search for better opportunities.

• Environment - Disaster driven migrations.

• Social Factors - moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or
friends.
 • Cultural factor - include quests for education or religious freedom. People may also
move to areas that have already been settled by others from their culture.

Push-Pull Factors of Migration

• This model differentiates between push factors that drive people to leave home from pull
factors that attract migrants to a new location.

• Push factors are negative aspects of the sending country, while pull factors are positive aspects
of the receiving country.

• Push factors drive migrants out of their countries of origin, while pull factors are responsible for
dictating where these travelers end up.

Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include:

• Lack of economic opportunities

• Lack of safety

• High criminality

• Crop failure

• Drought

• Flooding

• Poverty

• War

Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include:

• Higher employment

• More wealth

• Better services

• Good climate

• Safer, less criminality

• Political stability

• More fertile land

 • Lower risk from natural hazards

Trends of Global Migration

The number of international migrants worldwide has continued to grow over the past seventeen
years. According to data shown in the UN Migration, there are approximately 258 million migrants
during 2017. High-income countries host almost two-thirds out of 258 million international migrants.
Also, more than sixty percent of all international migrants worldwide live in Asia or Europe.
Furthermore, other aspects of migrants will be presented below.

The data that will be shown is organized along with key migration themes and based largely on
data taken from Global Migration Data Portal – IOM’s one-stop-shop for international migration data.

MIGRANT POPULATION (STOCKS)

• 258 Million international migrants were counted globally in 2017 – people residing in a
country other than their country of birth. This represented 3.4% of the world’s total
population.

MIGRANT FLOWS

• 5 Million foreign-born entered OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development) countries in 2016.

LABOUR MIGRANTS

• 150.3 Million migrant workers were counted globally in 2015.

INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

• 4.8 Million International students were counted in 2016, up from 2 million in 2000.

Migration and Globalization

• Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another. It can either be
permanent, temporary, or seasonal. This usually happens for a range of reasons such as
economic, social, political, or environmental.

• Globalization is described as the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures,

and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and
flows of investment, people and information.

• To ease of travel, technologically means of transportation and communication has definitely

become an impetus to migrate especially with push and pull factors seemingly overwhelming
and hard to resist. On the other hand, the intermixing and conglomeration of people of various
 races and nationalities has pushed the bounds of the nation state towards becoming more
dynamic imbued with a truly global appeal. The development that several industrial countries
experience and continue to experience may have been spurred by trade liberalization and
increased economic integration (Espisova and Ray, 2009).

• States have often firmly resisted applying similar deregulatory policies to the international
movement of the people, yet the latest tally of global migrants pegged at 258 million shows that
migration is showing no signs of slowing down.

• As well as encouraging migration, globalization also produces countervailing forces.

• Job movements from developed nations to the developing world mitigate certain economic
factors leading to migration. In other words, in a global economy, jobs can move to potential
migrants instead of migrants moving to potential jobs (Givens and Luedtke, 2004).

First Hand Knowledge of the Experiences of OFWs: The Rustico Lacostales Case

Rustico Lacostales

OFW stranded for 25 years in Saudi Arabia

Challenges and Prospects

Most experts predict a continued rise in international migration during the coming decade. In
addition to the economic and cultural issues facing countries dealing with mass migration, persistent
migration streams will bring new problems in the years ahead. Meanwhile, growing world economic
disparity will serve to intensify push and pull factors. Example of these challenges are as follows:

• Human Trafficking is one of the predominant international issues and an involuntary form of
migration. UN defines it as "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of
persons, employing the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud,
of deception, of the abuse of power or a position of vulnerability or the giving or receiving of
payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for
exploitation" (UNODCorg)

• Terrorism – According to Enders, Gaibulloev, and Sandler (2011), terrorism can be defined as
‘[…] the premeditated use or threat to use violence by individuals or subnational groups against
noncombatants to obtain a political or social objective through the intimidation of a large
audience beyond that of the immediate victims’.

• Increased Racism - Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to
people simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others.
 Racism and discrimination have been used as powerful weapons encouraging fear or hatred of
others in times of conflict and war, and even during economic downturns ( Davies, 2011).

Migration will continue to be a major, unstoppable factor of global life until economic disparities
between sending and receiving states are eliminated. Concerns over undocumented immigration
have been tempered by the need for migrant labor in developed nations. Dealing with both legal
and illegal immigration is one of the pressing issues facing governments and societies across the
world.

Migration is a direct effect of Globalization as a phenomenon

There are various factors that lead people to migrate

Political conflicts and civil strife have caused massive displacement especially among women and
children

Economic migration remains to be the chief reason for people to migrate

Migration brings a host of positive and negative outcomes

Sustainable Development

WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY?

- the term suggests that the essential things in this world need to be maintained, particularly the
natural resources, despite being used by people continuously.

Most definitions of sustainability point out that the term is interwoven with activities pertaining to
globalization and economic development. Sustainability emphasizes the:

• Need for everyone to have an awareness on conserving the natural environment.

• Need for countries to act in concerted fashion in order to address global environmental
issues.

• Destructive effect that the production of material goods and their consumption by
humans can have on the natural surroundings.

Another view explains sustainability as a science. As such, it is considered as the "study

of how natural systems function, remain diverse and produce everything it needs for the
 ecology to remain balance" (Mason, n.d."). When viewed this way, sustainability takes the form
of a broad discipline connected with environmental science but draws on political science,
economics, philosophy, and other social sciences as well as the hard sciences.

The varying definitions of sustainability can also be formed from the perspective of
ordinary individuals or from the formal level of the government. According to the website of
Global Footprints Organization, "sustainability is something everyone can work towards...
whether it is picking up garbage you can see on the street or boycotting a company that
practices environmentally harmful business methods, we all can make a difference" ("What is
sustainability?", 2009).

The United States Environmental Protection Agency elaborates that sustainability is

taken from a simple principle, that is, everything that we need for our survival and well-being
depends, either directly or indirectly, on our natural environment.

Sustainable Development

• Officially introduced to the international community in 1987 with the release of the report
entitled by ‘Our Common Future’ or ‘Brundtland Report by United Nations World Commission
on Environment and Development.

• According to Brundtland Report(41), it is development that meet the needs of the present
without compromising of the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. It consists of
two concepts namely:

1. The concept of needs, in particular, the essential needs of the worlds to poor, to which
overriding priority should be given.

2. The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on
the environment’s ability to meet and future needs.

Agenda 21 for Sustainable Development

• Specifically mentions information, integration and participation as key building to blocks to help
countries achieve development.

• It emphasizes the participation in making decisions is an essential perquisite to attain

sustainable development.

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000, commits world leaders to
combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against
women. It was historic since it is the first ever global strategy with first ever quantifiable targets
agreed upon by all UN members states as well as the major international development institutions
(Woodbridge, 2015; Sachs, 2012).

Accompanying the UN Millennium Declaration were the eight (8) objectives, which would be known
as Millennium Development Goals. Listed below are the eight (8) Millennium Development Goals, as
follows:

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. Achieve universal primary education

3. Promote gender equality and empower women

4. Reduce child mortality

5. Approve maternal health

6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

7. Ensure environmental sustainability

8. Develop a global partnership for development

The United Nations took the lead in defining the future global development framework that would
succeed the MDGs. It did so through a process it called the Post-2015 Development Agenda entitled
“Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (“Chapter 1: Getting to
know the Sustainable Development Goals,” 2015). This 2030 Development Agenda contains 92
paragraphs.

Paragraph 51 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development outlines the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals and the associated 169 targets, as follows:

GOAL 1: No Poverty

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

GOAL 4: Quality Education

GOAL 5: Gender Equality

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

GOAL 13: Climate Action

GOAL 14: Life Below Water

GOAL 15: Life on Land

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

GOAL 17: Partnership to achieve the Goal

 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

 The concept of sustainable development was officially introduced to the international

community in 1987 with the release of the report entitled Our Common Future, commonly
referred to as the Brundtland Report, by the United Nations World Commission on Environment
and Development.

 The Un has taken the lead in ensuring that Sustainability can be obtained thru the SDG’s or
Sustainable Development Goals

GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

“As a citizen of the world, I stand only with the Truth and my conscience is only my letter. This is the
only way to pence and justice on earth. To always do the right thing, be the right person, and stand
with whoever is right always and forever. “

FOOD SECURITY

Concern in food security is articulated in Millennium Development Goals:

#1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Sustainable Development Goals:

#2 No Hunger
 According to Barthwal Datta (2014), the absence of food security will result in the presence of
hunger and malnourishment.

DEFINITION

In 1972-1973, the global food price crises occur. Delegates of 1974 UN World Food Conference
defined Food security as “the availability of at all times of adequate world food supplies of
foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in
production and prices.

According to Varsh (2019), Food security is defined as the availability of food and one’s access to it.
In addition, affordability and nutrition are some factors. The availability of food irrespective of class,
gender, or region is another one. (Chloe, 2020)

3 Paradigm Shift (1st, 2nd and 3rd Paradign Shift)

Maxwell(1996) argues that in the decades of 1970s, 1980s and 1990s these events took place that
shaped the discourse and international agenda on food security.

1st Paradigm Shift (Late 1970s and early 1980s)

1. The academic and policy discourse on food security veered away from the restrictive notion of
food availability and supply as the core concerns of food security.
2. Amartya Syn’s seminal work, Poverty and Famines: An essay on Entitlement and Deprivation
(1982).

2nd Paradigm Shift

The importance of livelihood security as a key household priority and component of food
security.

3rd Paradigm Shift

Moved away from purely calorie-counting approach to food security, to one that incorporates
subjects measures of what it means to be food-secure, including to food that is preferable (Maxwell,
1988, 1996, quoted in Barthwal- Datta, 2014)
CRITISMS IN FOOD SECURITY

 It disregard the power relations embedded in food systems and its emphasis on a trade-based
approach to resolve hunger.
 It fails to tackle “questions about the relations of power that characterize decisions about how
food security should be attained”(ibid:665)
 For example, it does not take into account the fact that the large scale mono cropping of crops
for expo because it favors the consolidation of land in the hands of rich farmers, land owners,
and large private agri-business companies.
 Critics had argued that the push for agricultural trade liberalization and the emergence of the
market-led corporate global food regime, are the groups that are poorest and the most
vulnerable to hunger and malnourishment, and they are the most adversely affected by this.
(Barthwall-Datta, 2014)

TRENDS AND CHALLENGES TO GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

CHALLENGES

1. RISING POPULATION
 There will be 219,000 people at the dinner table tonight who were not there last night,
many of them with empty plates.

2. RISING INCOMES, CHANGING DIETS

 Today, with income rising fast in emerging economies, there are at least 3 billion people
moving up to food chain toward westernized diets. They consume more grain-incentive
livestock and poultry products.
3. FALLING WATER TABLES
 In India some 190 million people are being fed with grain produced by overpumping
groundwater. For China, the number is 130 million. Aquifer depletion now threatens
harvests in the big three grain producers - China, India and United States-that together
produce half of the world’s grain.
4. MORE FOODLESS DAYS
 In Nigeria, 27% of families experience foodless days. In India, it is 24%; in Peru, 14%. The
world is in transition from an era dominated by surpluses to one defined by scarcity. Not
eating at all on some days is how the world’s poorest coping with the doubling of world
grain prices since 2006.
5. SLOWING IRRIGARTION
 Water supply is now the principal constraint on efforts to expand world food
production.
 6. CLIMATE CHANGE
 The generation of farmers now on the land is the first to face manmade climate change.
Agriculture as it exists today developed over 11,000 years of rather remarkable climate
stability. It has evolved to maximize production within that climate system. Now,
suddenly, the climate is changing. With each passing year, the agricultural system is
more and more out of sync with the climate system.

By 2050, the planet is expected to have about 9 billion people, many of whom will live in cities far from
where food is grown. We will need a global food system that can feed all of them in a sustainable way.

TRENDS

1. FOOD IS MORE PLETIFUL AND AFFORDABLE

 Production of the 16 crops that form the building blocks of the global food system has
more than doubled since 1975. As countries and the global food system have
developed, spending on food as a share of total household consumption expenditures
has declined markedly in many countries.
2. LAND USED FOR CROPS IS MORE PRODUCTIVE
 Through improved plant genetics (both conventionally bred and genetically engineered)
and more intense use of fertilizer.
3. FOOD FLOWS TO MEET DEMAND
 Only about 16 % of the world’s food production crosses border, but this is a vital link in
times of local production shortfalls or for countries without abundant agricultural
resources.
4. DEMAND IS INCREASING
 The world’s need for agricultural production (for food, feed and fuel) will continue to
grow along with increasing population, urbanization, and incomes.
5. HUNGER PERSISTS
 Despite progress, more than 800 million people (or about one in eight around the
world) suffer from chronic hunger, not having enough food regularly for an active and
healthy life.
6. MORE EFFICIENCY AND RESILIENCY ARE REQUIRED
 As we move forward, the global food system will need to deliver more calories and
better nutrition at even higher levels of efficiency. It will need to do this while
conserving land, water and energy resources, and adapting to a changing climate.

Saving our planet, lifting people out of poverty, advancing economic growth… these are one and the
same fight. We must connect the dots between climate change, water scarcity, energy shortages, global
health, food security and women’s empowerment. Solutions to one problem must be solutions for all.
-Ban Ki-moon