Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Zamorin-1 E
Zamorin-1 E
Etymology
The title zamorin first appears in the writings of Ibn Battuta in 1342.[14] In the Portuguese Book of Duarte
Barbosa (c. 1516), the title of the ruler of Calicut is given as çamidre or zomodri, derived from the local
Malayalam sāmūtiri. In Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II in 16th century CE, the
word is pronounced as Sāmuri.[2] This was once thought to be derived from Sanskrit samudra ("sea") and
have the meaning "lord of the sea". In fact, the term derives from Sanskrit svami and sri (which in combined
form becomes tiri),[15] which Krishna Iyer glosses as "emperor". He gives the complete title as Svami Tiri
Tirumulapad ("august emperor").[14]
The Zamorins used the title Punturakkon or Punthurakon
(Victor/Lord of Punthura?) in inscriptions from c. 1100, Mangalore
Karimpuzha
Ponnani Palghat
Perumpadappu
Dindigul
Pappinivattom
Cranganore
Pallipuram
Thrikkavil Kovilakam in Ponnani served as a second Cochin
Edapally
Diamper
home for the Zamorins of Calicut.[5][17] Other secondary
seats of the Zamorin of Calicut, all established at much Alleppey
later time, were Trichur (Thrissur) and Cranganore Porca
Anjengo
Calicut. The Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of
Colachel
his revenues by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Cape
Comorin
Smaller ports in the kingdom were Puthuppattanam Major locations associated with the history of the
(Kottakkal), Parappanangadi, Tanur (Tanore), Ponnani Kingdom of Calicut
(Ponani), Chetuva (Chetwai) and Kodungallur
(Cranganore). The port of Beypore served as a
ship building center.[5][17]
Calicut
The port at Calicut held the superior
economic and political position in
Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi
and Kannur (Cannanore) were
commercially confined to secondary
roles.[7] Travellers have called the city
by different names – variations of the
Malayalam name. The travellers from
Middle-East called it "Kalikooth",
Tamils called the city "Kallikkottai", for
the Chinese it was "Kalifo" or "Quli".[18] Thali Temple (1901), Calicut
In the Middle Ages, Calicut was
dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role
as the major trading point of Asian spices.[19] The Chinese and Middle-Eastern interests in
Malabar, the political ambition of the newly emergent rulers, i.e., the Zamorins, and the decline
of port Kodungallur (c. 1341 AD[7]), etc. boosted the prosperity of the port.[13] The rise of
Calicut, both the port and the state, seems to have taken place only after the 13th century
AD.[18]
Calicut, despite being located at a geographically inconvenient spot, owed much of its
prosperity to the economic policies of the Zamorins of Calicut.[18][20]
Trade at port Calicut was managed by
the Muslim port commissioner known
as the Shah Bandar Koya. The port
commissioner supervised the customs
on the behalf of the king, fixed the
prices of the commodities and
collected the share to the Calicut
treasury.[17]
The name of the famous fine variety of
cotton cloth called calico is also
thought to have derived from Calicut.[5]
Panthalayini Kollam
Also known as "Fandarina" (Ibn Thali Temple, present day, Kozhikode
Batutah), and "Shaojunan" (Daoyi
Zgilue).[21]
Located north of Calicut, close to a bay. The geographical location is ideal for the wintering of
ships during the annual monsoon rains.[22]
Presence of Chetti, Arab and Jewish merchants among others.[23]
In the royal family, thalis of the princesses were usually tied by Kshatriyas from Kodungallur chief's family,
which the Zamorin recognised as more ancient and therefore higher rank. The women's sambandham partners
were Nambudiri Brahmins or Kshatriyas.[25][26] Royal men married Samantan or other Nair women.
Zamorin's consort was dignified by the title "Naittiyar".[27]
The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in premodern Kerala was known as the swaroopam. The rulers
of Calicut belonged to "Nediyirippu swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance. The eldest
male member of Nediyirippu swaroopam became the Zamorin of Calicut. There was a set pattern of
succession, indicated by sthanams in the royal line. Five sthanams were defined in Calicut. These positions
were based on the chronological seniority of the incumbent in the different thavazhis of the swaroopam and
constituted what is called in the records as "kuruvazhcha". Unlike in the case of Cochin (Kochi), there was no
rotation of position among the thavazhis. Thus no particular thavazhi enjoyed any privilege or precedence in
the matter of succession, as the only criterion for succession was seniority of age.[13]
Five sthanams existed in Calicut, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior
members of the three kovilakams of the family.[5]
The senior female member of the whole Zamorin family, the Valiya Thamburatti, also enjoyed a sthanam with
separate property known as the Ambadi Kovilakam.[5] Women were not allowed to be the ruler of Calicut,
and the oldest male member traced the female becomes the next Zamorin.[5]
A panorama of port Calicut, shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged,
sparsely populated interior (Georg Braun and Franz Hogenbergs atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572).
History
Brahmanic legends such as the Keralolpathi (compiled in its final form c. 17th - 18 century) and the Calicut
Granthavari recount the events leading to establishment of the state of Calicut.[5]
There were two brothers belonging to the Eradi ruling
family at Nediyiruppu. The brothers Manichan and
Vikraman were the most trusted warriors in the militia of
the Kodungallur Cheras.[28][29] They distinguished
themselves in the battles against the foreigners. However,
during the partition of Chera kingdom, the Chera
monarch failed to allocate any land to Nediyiruppu.
Filled with guilt, the king later gave an unwanted piece
of marshy tract of land called Kozhikode to the younger
brother Vikraman (the elder brother died in the battle).
The king also gifted his personal sword and his favourite
prayer conch – both broken – to him and told him to
occupy as much as land as he could with all his might.
The Chera king granted the Eradi warrior, as a
So the Eradis conquered neighbouring kingdoms and
mark of favour, a small tract of land ("Kozhikode
created a large state for themselves. As a token of their and Chullikkadu").
respect to the Chera king, they adopted the logo of two
crossed swords, with a broken conch in the middle and a
lighted lamp above it.[5][16]
Rulers of Eranadu
India in early 1320 CE. Note that most of the parts
Historical records regarding the origin of the Zamorin of of present-day state of Kerala was under the
Calicut are obscure. However, it is generally agreed influence of the Zamorin of Kozhikode.
among historians the Eradis were originally the
autonomous rulers of Eralnadu/Eranadu region of the
Kodungallur Chera kingdom.[5][1][16] The Kodungallur Chera kingdom was a congeries of chiefdoms, which
were ruled by local chiefs. The office of the chief/senior prince of Eranad (Eralanadu Utaya) is assumed to be
the hereditary.[5][1] The earliest reference to the chief and chiefdom of Eranad is the Cochin Jewish copper
plate (c. 1000 AD). Old Malayalam inscriptions name two titles for the rulers of Eranad - Manvepala
Manaviyata ( c. 11 century) and Manavikrama (c. 12th century). In the later period, Manavikrama, Manaveda
and Viraraya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Zamorin always being
known as Manavikrama. Historians assume that Manaveda might be a corruption of the old Malayalam title
"Manaviyata".[16] Scholars tentatively identify Manaviyata and Manavikrama with the titles of the elder and
younger brothers of the famous origin legend.[16]
The strength of the "Hundred Organisation" of the senior prince of Eranadu was "Six Hundred". Hundred
organisations with same capacity are also found in Ramavalanadu, Valluvanadu, Kizhmalanadu, and Venadu.
Scholars comes across only one nadu with a stronger force, namely Kurumpuranadu, with a force of Seven
Hundred although many lesser ones with Five Hundred of Purakizhanadu, Three Hundred of Nantuzhanadu,
etc., are available.[5][1]
The following table shows available inscriptions mentioning the rulers of Eranad.
Inscription[30] Year Notes
An old Malayalam royal charter in
Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts. Among
others, the chief of Eralanadu, Eralanadu
Utaya "Manavepala Mana Viyatan", is a
signatory in the charter.[16]
There is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led
to the establishment of Eradi's rule over Calicut, their later seat. Some
historians are of the view that the Eradi was in fact a favourite of the
Pepper
last Kodungallur Chera king as he was at the forefront of the battles
with the Chola–Pandya forces in south Kerala. The Eradi seems to
have led the Chera army to victory. The king therefore granted him, as
a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast Calicut in
addition to his hereditary possessions [Eralanadu province]. The
Eradis subsequently moved their seat to the coastal "marshy lands"
and established the city of Calicut.[16]
The power balance in Kerala changed as Eralnadu rulers developed the port at Calicut. The Zamorin became
one of the most powerful chiefs in Kerala.[5] In some of his military campaigns – such as that into Valluvanadu
– the ruler received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors.[13] It seems that the
Muslim judge of Calicut offered all help in "money and material" to the Zamorin to strike at Thirunavaya.[5]
Smaller chiefdoms south of Calicut – Beypore, Chaliyam, Parappanadu and Tanur (Vettam) – soon had to
submit and became their feudatories one by one. The rulers of Payyormala, Kurumbranadu, and other Nair
chiefs on the suburbs of Calicut also acknowledged the supremacy of Calicut. There were battles between
Calicut and Kurumbranadu for a coastal region called Payyanadu. Payyanadu was a part of Kurumbranadu in
early times, and was eventually given as a "royal gift" to Calicut. Calicut easily overran the Kurumbranadu
warriors in the battle and Kurumbranadu had to sue for peace by surrendering Valisseri.[5]
The ruler of Calicut next turned his attention to the valley of Perar.
Large parts of the valley was then ruled by Valluvakkonathiri, the
ancient hereditary chief of Valluvanadu. The principal objective of
Calicut was the capture the sacred settlement of Thirunavaya. Soon
the Zamorins found themselves intervened in the so-called
kurmatsaram between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur.
In the most recent event, the Nambudiris from Thirumanasseri Nadu
had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of
Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu came to help the Chovvaram and
raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by
its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri
appealed to the ruler of Calicut for help, and promised to cede the port
of Ponnani to Calicut as the price for his protection. Calicut, looking
for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer.[5]
The capture of Thirunavaya was not the end of Calicut's expansion into Valluvanadu. The Zamorin continued
surges over on Valluvanadu. Malappuram, Nilambur, Vallappanattukara and Manjeri were easily occupied. He
encountered stiff resistance in some places and the fights went on in a protracted and sporadic fashion for a
long time. Further assaults in the east against Valluvanadu were neither prolonged nor difficult for Calicut.[5]
The battles along the western borders of Valluvanadu were bitter, for they were marked by treachery and
crime. Panthalur and Ten Kalams came under Calicut only after a protracted struggle. The assassination of a
minister of Calicut by the chief minister of Valluvanadu while visiting Venkatakkotta in Valluvanadu sparked
the battle, which dragged on for almost a decade. At last the Valluvanadu minister was captured by Zamorin's
warriors and executed at Padapparambu, and his province (Ten Kalams, including Kottakkal and Panthalur)
were occupied by the Zamorin. The Kizhakke Kovilakam Munalappadu, who took a leading part in this
campaign, received half of the newly captured province from Zamorin as a gift. The loss of this fiercely loyal
chief minister was the greatest blow to Valluvanadu after the loss of Tirunavaya and Ponnani.[5]
Expansions to Kochi
Calicut subjugated large parts of the state of Kochi in the subsequent years. The family feud between the elder
and younger branches of the ruling family of Kochi was exploited by the Zamorin of Calicut. The intervention
was initiated as Calicut’s help was sought against the ruling younger branch. The rulers of Kodungallur,
Idappalli, Airur, Sarkkara, Patinjattedam [Thrissur] and Chittur supported or joined Calicut forces in this
occupation of Kochi. Some of these were the vassals of Kochi. The Kochi chief was defeated in a battle at
Thrissur and his palace was occupied. But, the defeated chief escaped to further south. Pursuing the chief to
south, the Calicut forces under Zamorin penetrated and occupied the town of Kochi. Unable to withstand the
attacks, Kochi finally accepted Calicut's rule. The prince from the elder branch was installed on the throne of
Kochi as vassal.[5]
The battles against Kochi were followed by a battle against Palakkad and the expansion to Naduvattom by a
Calicut prince. Kollengode of Venganadu Nambitis was also put under the sway of Calicut during the time.
The severe and frequent battles with Valluvanadu by Calicut continued. But even after the loss of his superior
ally Kochi, Valluvanadu did not submit to Calicut. The ruler of Calicut followed a custom of settling Muslim
families and the families of other Hindu generals who had allegiance to him, in the captured areas of
Valluvanadu. Calicut occupied Valluvanadu (now shrunk to Attappadi valley, parts of Mannarkkad,
Ottappalam and Perinthalmanna) but could not make much progress into its hinterland.[5]
Calicut was also successful in bringing the polity of Kolathunadu (Cannanore) under their control. During his
expansions, the Zamorin occupied Pantalayini Kollam as a preliminary advance to Kolathunadu. Kolathiri
immediately sent ambassadors to submit to whatever terms Calicut might dictate. Kolathunadu transferred the
regions already occupied to Calicut and certain Hindu temple rights. The stories about the origin of the
Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara) are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the
Zamorin swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in Kolathunadu
(Cannanore) – one of the Zamorin's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolathu prince with this princess the
Kadathanadu ruling family was born. The name Kadathanadu refers to as the passing way between
Kolathunadu and Calicut.[37] Some land and Hindu temple rights were transferred to Calicut during a visit to
Kollam by a ruler of the Calicut.[38]
Vijayanagara conquests
Deva Raya II (1424–1446 AD), king of
the Vijayanagara Empire, conquered the
whole of present-day Kerala state in the
15th century. He defeated (1443) rulers
of Venadu (Kollam, Quilon), as well as
Calicut. Fernão Nunes says that the
Zamorin and even the kings of Burma
ruling at Pegu and Tenasserim paid
tribute to the king of Vijayanagara
Empire. Later Calicut and Venadu seems
to have rebelled against their
Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya
II quelled the rebellion.
An embassy from the Zamorin of Calicut, in which the chief envoy was a Persian-speaking Muslim, came to
the Timurid court of Mirza Shahrukh at Herat in the 15th century. Some Herat officials had, some years earlier,
on their return journey from the Sultanate of Bengal, been stranded at port Calicut, and on this occasion had
been received by the Zamorin of Calicut. Impressed by the description of the Timurid influence, the Zamorin
decided to send his own embassy to Herat.[39]
Abdur Razzaq, an employ of Shahrukh, was soon engaged on a mission to Calicut (November 1442 – April
1443). He carried a series of presents from Herat, including a horse, a pelisse, headgear and ceremonial robes.
"As for duties [at Calicut], at one-fortieth, and that too, only on sales, they are even lower that at Hormuz [in
the Persian Gulf]", says Abdur Razzaq.[39]
While in Calicut, Razzaq was invited by the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II to his court. The envoy arrived
from the Vijayanagara king had "asked" the Zamorin to send the Herat envoy on to his court. He also says the
king of Vijayanagara does not possess "jurisdiction" over the kingdom of Calicut, but the Zamorin was
apparently "still in great awe of the Vijayanagar king".[39]
The few remnants of the Chinese trade can be seen in and around the present city of Calicut. This include a
Silk Street, Chinese Fort ("Chinakotta"), Chinese Settlement ("Chinachery" in Kappad), and Chinese Mosque
("Chinapalli" in Panthalayini Kollam).[18][40][48]
The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval
defense of the Indian coast.[56] Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by
Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-
century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of
Kerala to be authored by a Keralite.[57][58][59] It is written in Arabic
and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the
navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from
1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast.
It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has
been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.
[62]
A Dutch fleet under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived in Calicut in November 1604. It marked the
beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Calicut on 11 November 1604.
By this time the kingdom and the port of Calicut was much reduced in importance, which was also the first
treaty that the Dutch East India Company made with an Indian ruler.[9][54] The treaty provided for a mutual
alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was
given facilities for trade at Calicut and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.
The Dutch, some fifteen years after the Zamorin first asked for help, had promised much and delivered almost
nothing. The Zamorin finally turned to the English.[54] In September 1610, the English factors at Mocha were
approached by the head of the Mappilas there to their shipping in the region from the Portuguese fleets.[54]
The arrival of British in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of
Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.[9] It was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe
went to visit Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, as British envoy.[9] The British concluded a treaty of trade
(1616) under which, among others, the English were to assist Calicut in expelling the Portuguese from Fort
Kochi and Fort Cranganore. The English set up a factory at Calicut, and a factor, George Woolman, is sent
there with a stock of presents. But the Zamorin soon found the English as unreliable as the Dutch where
military aid was concerned. The factory was wound up in March, 1617.[37][54]
Later in 1661, Calicut joined a coalition led by the Dutch to defeat the Portuguese and Kochi and conducted a
number of successful campaigns. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the
powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.[11] As a result of the Kew Letters, the
Dutch settlements on the Malabar Coast were surrendered to the British in 1795 in order to prevent them being
overrun by the French. Dutch Malabar remained with the British after the conclusion of the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty of 1814, which traded the colony with Bangka Island.
Lord Cornwallis invited the Kerala chiefs to join him in 1790, promising to render them in future entirely
independent of Mysore and to retain them upon reasonable terms under the protection of the company. Prince
Ravi Varma met General Meadows at Trichinopoly and settled with him the terms of the Calicut's cooperation.
After the Third Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the company by the Treaty
of Seringapatam.[13]
In the settlement negotiations with the Joint Commission in 1792, the Zamorin proved recalcitrant. To pressure
him, a portion of his former territories (Payyanadu, Payyormala, Kizhakkumpuram, Vadakkampuram and
Pulavayi) was leased to the ruler of Kurumburanadu as manager for the East India Company. Finally, after
prolonged negotiations, the hereditary territory of the Zamorin, together with the coin mint and the sea
customs, was leased back to him. He was also temporarily given jurisdiction over the petty rulers and, as a
mark of the Zamorin's exceptional position in Malabar, the revenue fixed for Beypore, Parappanadu and
Vettattunadu was to be paid through him. As previously noted, these tax-payment and jurisdictional
arrangements were terminated later and the Zamorin of Calicut became a mere pensioned landlord receiving
the "malikhana". On 1 July 1800, Malabar was transferred to the Madras Presidency. On 15 November 1806
the agreement upon which rested the future political relations between the Zamorin of Calicut and the English
was executed.[5][13]
Governance
According to historian M. G. Raghava Varier, at the peak of their reign, the Zamorin's ruled over a region from
Kollam to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy).[4][54][13] The hereditary local chiefs, more or less independent in
their region, acknowledged the over-lordship of the Zamorin in Calicut. The local magnates - conferred with
privileges and titles by the Zamorin -
were more dependent on Calicut. In
times of battles the chiefs and magnates
provided the warriors to the Zamorin and
were protected in turn when an enemy
made encroachment to their
dominions. [13]
Apart from the southern half of Kurumburanadu, Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu,
Venkadakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarakkadu, Karimpuzha, Nedunganadu, Naduvattom,
Kollangode, Koduvayur, and Mankara the kingdom of Kozhikode included the following territories as
tributary polities: Kottayam, Payyormala, Pulavayi, Tanore, Chaliyam, Beypore, Parappanadu, Thirunavaya,
Thalapalli-Kakkad, Thalapalli-Punnathoor, Chittoor, Chavakkad, Kavalappara, Edappally, Patinjattedam,
Cranganore, Kollengodu, Cochin and all of its vassal polities, Paravur, Purakkad, Vadakkumkur, Tekkumkur,
Kayamkulam and Quilon.[5]
The kingdom only included the following territories during the late 18th century:[5]
The Zamorin was assisted in the work of government in Calicut by four hereditary chief ministers called
"Sarvadhi Karyakkar" and number of ministers called "Karyakkar" and "Polttis". The Karyakkar were
appointed and removed by the Zamorin. Adhikaris, Thalachennavars, Achanmar and temple functionaries also
belonged to the Polttis.[5] There were ritual specialists like Hindu priests of the palaces, astrologers etc. as well
as various occupational groups like physicians, weavers, and militiamen all of whom were attached to the
royal establishment.[5]
Sarvadhi Karyakkar
Mangattachan - the prime minister
Tinayancheri Elayatu
Dharmothu Panikkar - the instructor-in-arms who commanded the Calicut forces
Varakkal Paranambi - treasury and accounts
Ramachan nedungadi
Shahbandar Koya
Although the Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of his revenue from taxing the Indian Ocean spice trade,
but he still did not run a fully developed mercantilist state. The Zamorins left trade in the hands of Paradesi
(Middle Eastern) and Kerala Muslims.[61]
Shahbandar Koya (sometimes Khwaja, popularly known as the "Koya of Kozhikode") was a privileged
administrative position in Calicut.[60] The Shahbandar was the second most important official in most Asian
polities after the ruler.[72] Trade at the port of Calicut was controlled by this Muslim merchant-cum-port
commissioner. He supervised customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities, and
collected the share to the treasury. As the farmer of customs he also had right collect brokerage and poll tax at
the port.[17]
According to tradition, it was a merchant from Muscat, Oman who induced to the Zamorin to the conquer
Valluvanadu. The Koya was subsequently appointed as the "Shahbandar" by the Zamorin of Calicut. He is
also given "all the privileges and dignities of a Nair chief, jurisdiction over all the Muslims residing in the
bazaar of Calicut, the right to receive a present from the Ilavar (the Tiyyar), the Kammalar (the smiths,
carpenters, stone workers etc.) and the Mukkuvar whenever the Zamorin conferred any honours on them on
ceremonial occasions".[17]
The Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of his revenues by taxing spice trade.[50][73] Trade – both coastal
and overseas – was dominated the Muslims, though Jews, Chettis from Coromandel Coast, and Vanias from
Gujarat all traded in and from Calicut. The Muslim traders included natives (Mappilas and Marakkars) as well
as Muslims from the Middle East. The foreigners dominated the lucrative Indian Ocean spice trade.[54][74]
The goods carried across the Arabian Sea included spices – pepper, ginger and cardamom – and trans-shipped
textiles, and coconut products. The import into Calicut consisted of gold and copper, silver, horses (Kannur
especially), silk, various aromatics, and other minor items.[54] The Indian coastal trade network encompassed
commodities such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and rice. Rice was a major import item into
the kingdom of Calicut from Canara and Coromandel Coast.[54] Low-value but high-volume trade in
foodstuffs that passed through the Gulf of Mannar was also handled by the native Muslims from Malabar
Coast. The local people were suppliers and consumers of goods in Kozhikde ports.[74]
Dominant
Maritime corridor Nature
community
West Asia – Malabar Coast (Red International Muslims from the
Sea, and the Persian Gulf) / overseas Middle East
East Asia – Malabar Coast (Pegu, Native Muslims
International
Mergui, and Melaka in Myanmar (Mappilas and
/ overseas
and Malaysia and points east) Marakkars)
Native Muslims
East Coast of India – Malabar Coast (Mappilas and
(Canara, Coromandel Coast and Domestic / Marakkars), and
Bay of Bengal shores) and Maldives, coastal Chettis from
and Ceylon Coromandel
Coast[7]
Muslims, and
Domestic /
Gujarat – Malabar Coast Vanias from
coastal
Gujarat
Domestic / Muslims –
Malabar coastal
coastal Mappilas
The coins minted in Calicut included Panam (made of gold), Taram (made of silver) and Kasu (made of
copper). The officer in-charge of the mint was called the "Goldsmith of Manavikraman". The royal mint was
destroyed in 1766.[5]
16 Kasu = 1 Taram[5]
16 Tarams = 1 Panam[5]
Coins in circulation in the pre-Portuguese kingdom of Calicut included gold coins called Pagoda/Pratapa,
silver Tangas of Gujarat, of Bijapur, of Vijayanagara and the Larines of Persia, Xerafins of Cairo, the Venetian
and the Genoan ducats.[7] Other coins in circulation in the kingdom of Calicut - in sometime or other -
included Riyal ("Irayal"), Dirhma ("Drama"), Rupee ("Uruppika"), Rasi ("Rachi"), and Venadu Chakram.
Venadu coins - it seems - came to circulation after the Mysorean interlude.[13]
Rasi later gave way to the Kaliyuga Rayan Panam. Of Kaliyuga Rayan Panam there were two varieties. One
of these (issued by Kannur) was afterwards imitated by the Zamorin called Virarayan Putiya Panam, to
distinguish it from the coin of Kannur, which then became Pazhaya Panam. The four Pazhaya Panams made a
Rupee while three and half Putiya Panams equalled a Rupee.[13]
Military
Calicut's attitude towards the vanquished chiefs and
European governors was generally marked by
moderation. The whole conquered area was not ruled
directly from Calicut but was ruled by a Calicut official
(general, minister or Eradi prince). Sometimes, its
former rulers allowed to rule as a vassal or feudatory.[5]
The use of firearms and balls had been known before the advent of the Portuguese. As gunpowder and shot
made by the natives were poor quality, Calicut later employed the Europeans to manufacture them. The
Mappilas formed the main corps of musketeers, led by Thinayancheri Elayathu.[5]
Kunjali Marakkars
The Kunjali Marakkars effectively functioned the naval commanders of the Calicut Zamorin in the 16th
century. The Mappila seamen were famous for their naval guerrilla warfare and hand-to-hand fighting on
board.[5] The Mappila vessels, small, lightly armed, and highly mobile, were a major threat to the Portuguese
shipping all along the Indian west coast.[61] But the Mappila artillery was inferior, and the vessels were
incapable of large scale joint/organised operations.[5] Merchants drew Mappila corsairs and used them to
transport the spices past Portuguese blockades.[52]
Historians speculate that the Marakkars were primarily suppliers of food materials from the ports of the
Coromandel Coast and spices from interior Kerala and Sri Lanka.[75] Some assume that the Marakkars, before
the beginning of the hostilities with the Portuguese, were traders of rice from Konkan.[60][76] One Ismail
Marakkar seems to be a prominent rice trader in Kochi.[60] During the early years of Portuguese presence in
Kerala the native Muslim merchants of Kochi - such as Cherina/Karine Mecar (Karim Marakkar), Mamale
(Muhammed) Marakkar, Mitos Marakkarm, Nino Marakkar, Ali Apule, Coje Mappila and Abraham Mappila
etc. - acted as spice suppliers for them.[76] The Marakkars also supplied food materials for the Portuguese
settlements in Kerala. Mamale Marakkar of Cochin was the richest man in the country.[75] These traders, along
with the other big Mappila, and Syrian Christian merchants, also acted as brokers and intermediaries in the
purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.[53]
It was the commercial Interests of the Portuguese private traders in Cochin that came into the conflict with
Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayar traders.[77] By the 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese
and the Mappilas, in southern India and in western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.[78][77][53] After
a series of naval battles, the once powerful Chinna Kutti Ali was forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese
in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the Muslim judge of Kannur Abu Bakr Ali
(1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas.[79][53] By the end of the 16th century, the
Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar IV was defeated and
killed, with the help of the Zamorin, in c. 1600 AD.[80] Even after the execution of Marakkar IV, the title of
the Kunjali Marakkar continued to exist for almost century.[60]
The following is a list of rulers of Calicut from "The Zamorins of Calicut" (1938) by K. V. Krishna Iyer. The
first column (No.) gives the number of the Zamorin reckoned from the founder of the ruling family, based
upon de Couto's assumption that there had been 98 Zamorins before the Zamorin reigning in 1610.[81]
First dynasty
The original seat of the aristocratic clan was Nediyiruppu and the head of the house was known as
Nediyiruppu Mutta Eradi, a title enjoyed by the fifth in rank from the Zamorin. Under the Kodungallur Chera
rulers the Mutta Eradi governed Ernad with the title of "Ernad Utaiyar". Later the clan abandoned its ancestral
house and transferred its residence to the present day Kozhikode.[81]
No. of
Name Reign Important events
Zamorin
Mana
The legendary founder of
1 Vikrama N/A
the ruling family.
(Manikkan)
Kozhikode city is
27 8 years
established
1339– Ibn Battuta at Kozhikode
65
1347 (1342–1347)
1402– Ma Huan at Kozhikode
73
1410 (1403)
The visits of Abdur Razzak
1442–
78 (1442) and Niccolò de'
1450
Conti (1444)
Mana
1466– Athanasius Nikitin (1468–
81 Vikrama
1474 1474) visits Kozhikode. Zamorin of Calicut (1868–1892). In
the Great
1766 Haider Ali of Mysore defeated
1474–
82 Mana Veda the Zamorin of Calicut – an English
1482
East India Company dependant at
1495– The arrival of Vasco da the time – and absorbed Malabar
84
1500 Gama (1498) district to his state. After the Third
1500– The occupations of Kochi Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar
85 was placed under the control of the
1513 (1503–1504)
company. Later the status of the
Treaty with Portuguese Zamorins as independent rulers was
1513– (1513), and the erection of changed to that of pensioners of the
86
1522 the Portuguese fort at
company.
Calicut (1514)
1522– The expulsion of
87
1529 Portuguese from Calicut
1529– The building of Portuguese
88
1531 fort at Chaliyam (1531)
1531– Battles with the
89
1540 Portuguese
1540– Treaty with Portuguese
90
1548 (1540)
Adoption of the chief of
1548– Bardela (150) and the
91
1560 battles with the
Portuguese.
1560–
92 Viraraya
1562
The expulsion of the K. C. Manavedan Raja (1932–1937)
Mana 1572–
93 Portuguese from Chaliyam
Vikrama 1574
(1571)
1574– Battles with the
94
1578 Portuguese
1578– The Portuguese allowed a
95
1588 factory at Ponnani (1584)
96 1588– The settlement of the
1597 Portuguese at Calicut
(1591)
1597– Battles with Marakkar
97
1599 (1598–1599)
1599– Capture of Marakkar's
98
1604 stronghold (1600)
Siege of Cannanore
(1604–1617) and treaties
1604–
99 with the Dutch (1604 and
1617
1608) and the English
(1615)
Mana 1617–
100
Vikrama 1627
1627–
101
1630
1630–
102
1637
Mana
Vikrama 1637– The uncle of the author of
103
(Saktan 1648 the Krishnanatakam
Tampuran)
Tiruvonam 1648–
104
Tirunal 1655
1655– The author of the
105 Mana Veda
1658 Krishnanatakam
The expulsion of the
Asvati 1658–
106 Portuguese from
Tirunal 1662
Kodungallur (1662)
The expulsion of
Puratam
107 16621666 Portuguese from Kochi
Tirunal
(1663)
1666–
108 Battles with the Dutch
1668
1668– The destruction of the
109
1671 Cheraman Sword
Uttrattati 1671– Cession of Chetwai to the
110
Tirunal 1684 Dutch
Bharani
The terror of the Dutch.
Tirunal 1684–
111 Two Mamankams (1694
Mana 1705
and 1695)
Vikrama[82]
Adoptions from
Nileswaram 1705–
112 Nileswaram (1706 and
Tirunal 1711
1707)
1711– The Dutch War (1715–
113
1729 1718)
Mana 1729–
114
Vikrama 1741
Note: Italic names only indicate the asterism under which the Zamorin is born
Second Dynasty
It seems that the original ruling family came to an end with the 114th Zamorin of Calicut. The 115th Zamorin,
the first of the second ruling family, was the oldest of the princes adopted from Nileshwaram in 1706.[81]
No. of
Name Reign Important events
Zamorin
Zamorin from Kilakke 1741–
115
Kovilakam 1746
1746–
116 Putiya Kovilakam The Dutch War (1753–1758)
1758
1758– Battles with Travancore and the invasion of Mysore,
117 Kilakke Kovilakam
1766 committed suicide. Annexed by Mysore.
1766–
118 Putiya Kovilakam
1788
M. G. S. Narayanan
See also
Kolathunadu
Kingdom of Cochin (Kochi)
Travancore
Siege of Calicut
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Genevieve Bouchon, Regent of the Sea: Cannanore's Response to Portuguese Expansion,
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K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the Earliest Times to A D 1806. Calicut: Norman
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Further reading
S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar (1942), Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic
Language (https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLangua
ge), University of Madras, retrieved 3 December 2020 (English translation of the original Arabic
version written by Zainudheen Makhdoom in sixteenth century CE)
K. V. Krishna Iyer (1938), Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806 (https://archiv
e.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3379), Norman Printing Bureau, Kozhikode
External links
Columbia University (http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1400_1499/va
scodagama/zamorin/zamorin.html)
History of Calicut at Calicut Press Club (http://calicutpressclub.com/history-of-calicut.htm)
Tali Temple, Calicut (http://www.calicuttalimahakshetra.com/)
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