Professional Documents
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Appropriate Technology - Learning From One Another
Appropriate Technology - Learning From One Another
Appropriate Technology - Learning From One Another
Jesse Margolus
Tara Nakashima
Chantal Orr
Table of Contents
Overview of EcoVillage...................................................................................................................... 11
Limitations………………………………………………………………………………………………...20
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………..........21
Bibliography………………………...……………………………………………………………………..23
2
Introducing Appropriate Technology:
The concept of Appropriate Technology (AT) stemmed from the work of British
economist Dr. Fritz Schumacher in the 1970s. Appropriate technology is a grass roots approach
to technology that builds a strong sense of community and encompasses benefits that span across
social, environmental, cultural, economic, and spiritual facets. Appropriate technology is not a
one size fits all approach, but rather adapts to best fit the community in which it is developed.
Appropriate technology best fits with the community it serves because it is created by the people
to meet a need. Therefore, the communities are placed at the centre of decision making and
create technologies that will best serve their communities in the long term.
In order to fully understand the importance of our topic it is also significant to define
how sustainability is being measured for the purposes of our paper. Sustainability is the balance
of social, economic, environmental, cultural and spiritual values in the long-term on a holistic
and cumulative level. For the purposes of this paper our definition of sustainability is embedded
self-sufficient, egalitarian societies meeting specific community needs in the long-term using
local inputs. These communities offer quality of opportunity to diverse needs allowing members
to live and work now and in the future, while preserving the natural environment and creating
social harmony.
To begin our paper the importance of appropriate technology will be explained followed
by a framework to evaluate case studies. Upon case study analysis, benefits and challenges will
be addressed to give an understanding of how AT operates in countries with diverse values and
3
The Importance of Appropriate Technology:
Appropriate technology is important due to its holistic nature. Firstly, it permits local
needs to be met more effectively through community involvement, and for this reason it tends to
be aligned with local values and traditions.1 Secondly, AT utilizes human labour by developing
tools rather than machines.1 This enables people to self-organize without complicated
era of expensive and environmentally harmful energy, allowing greater local industry
participation and implementation of local resources, both human and material.1 Fourthly, AT
reinforces local control which provides a cushion against the effects of outside economic
changes. Finally, it establishes a self-sustaining skill base and reduces economic, social and
political dependency between individuals, regions and nations.1 AT recognizes the will of local
people to act on their own behalves, and is a technology made by and for the people. The
benefits of AT can be realized in both Northern and Southern countries, and plays an
restructured version of Wicklein’s evaluation is described below and later utilized to provide
insight into case studies from the North and South. Since no evaluation is perfect, one of the
criteria, the image of modernity was taken out as it undermines the importance of retaining
tradition within a community and buys into the modernity theory. Our version of Wicklein’s
1
"Appropriate Technology Sourcebook." Welcome to Village Earth: The Consortium for Sustainable Village -
Based Development. Web. <http://www.villageearth.org/pages/Appropriate_Technology/
ATSourcebook/Introduction.php>. (accessed November 2, 2009)
4
1. Ability of technology to stand alone without additional support systems2
2. Individual versus collective technology, with regard to which one the culture values2
3. Cost of technology which takes into account full costs to social, economic, and
environmental impacts2
4. The risk factor including internal risks, that relate to the fit in local production systems
and external risks, which relate to the needed support systems2
5. Evolutionary capacity of technology, with regard to its capability of being reconfigured
to grow with the society it benefits, whereby solving different problems that the
community encounters2
6. Single-purpose versus multi-purpose technology, where the latter refers to technology
that has the ability to complete different tasks at the same time.2
AT has not always been the conventional wisdom, especially in regards to southern countries.
As Murphy et al. state, “In the past, the term AT generally referred to technologies used in
developing nations” aimed to alleviate poverty.3 Concentrating on the water sanitation sector,
this section will describe the changing perception of technologies in the south and examine the
All the basic requirements of a community relate to clean water, but access to water is
disparate in southern countries. “Around 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have safe drinking
2
Wicklein, Robert. "Designing for appropriate technology in developing countries." Technology in Society Journal
20, no. 3 (1998): 371 - 375, <www.sciencedirect.com/science>. (accessed October 20, 2009)
3
Murphy, H., Edward McBean, Khosrow Farahbakhsh, "Appropriate Technology: A Comprehensive Approach for
Water and Sanitation in the Developing World," Technology in Science 31 (2009): 158.
5
water while 2.6 billion do not have access to basic sanitation”.4 During the 1960s, engineers
believed sophisticated technology was the answer, however they have all been mainly
abandoned. The Water Decade, launched in the 1980s by the United Nations, took on a
participatory approach and focused on the entire community, especially women, “the drawers of
water and guardians of family health”.5 Slow sand filters are popular around the world, however
once the water is above a certain turbidity they quickly clog. Without being developed to meet
local needs and conditions what may be a successful AT in one location is not necessarily in
another.
imposing itself and is adaptable, responsive and flexible. It can also be described as fluid for it is
not too rigorously bounded.6 The latest model (type ‘B’) is an adapted version of the original
built in 1933 by Tommy Murgatroyd. Although it has increased its efficiency over the years by
lifting water from further depths with fewer strokes, at first glance it does not seem exceptionally
different from other lever pumps (figure 1). Its uniqueness is encompassed in its durability
(some that were installed in the 1930s are still in use), assembly technique, water purification
4
The United Nations (UN) 2007. The millennium development goals report 2007. Available from:
http://www.un.org/millenniungoals/pdf/mdg2007.pdf; 2007.
5
Bell, Morag & Richard Franceys, "Improving Human Welfare through Appropriate Technology: Government
Responsibility, Citizen Duty or Customer Choice," Soc. Sci. Med. 40/9 (1995): 1171.
6
ibid.
6
E. coli contaminated water has been a severe problem in Zimbabwe villages but can be
reduced to safe levels by properly installing the ZBP. Delivered with a detailed set of
illustrations (as many villagers cannot read), it explains that it must be situated at least 30 meters
from latrines and cattle kraals and what materials to create the base out of (all locally found).
Determining the location and drilling the hole are the first stages and this is where many other
NGOs often drill in location based on geological surveys, but as de Laet and Mol note,
although the well is closer in proximity and produces clean water “you may see a path traced out
in the sand that leads around it. The village women do not want to use the well, if it has been
bored without consulting the nganga (water diviner) or was put into operation without consent,
the well is dead.”7 Therefore it is always together with the water diviner that the village chooses
the site. Drilling is done with a “tubewell drilling device” which is also lent to the village
(figure2). The entire community is able to participate in the process as “village women push the
iron crossbar to drive the auger into the ground, while village men sit on the bar to weigh it
down”.8 Manufactured locally, spare parts can be normally be obtained and pieces of old tires
can be used to replace the normally leather seal. Village adaptations of part replacements have
been noted during site visits and have been incorporated into the design creating a two-way
learning process.
7
de Laet, Marianne & Annemarie Mol, "The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid Technology," Social
Studies of Science 30 (April 2000): 234.
8
ibid, 233.
7
Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Challenges and Barriers
The ZMB has become the national standard “Designed for Villagers to Maintain
Themselves!”9 and over 30,000 have been installed in rural areas. Although its design for
simplicity is crucial, composed out of a steel pump stand, wooden block level, and a pump head,
arguably more important is its reparability and maintenance. Normally when valves and seals
need to be replaced in hydraulic pumps the components often cannot be reassembled by the
community. The ZBP’s latest design has incorporated this concern and has altered the hydraulic
parts and expanded the cylinder resulting in an easier task for two men.
Costs remain to be a challenge. The government has principally covered the initial cost
of the pumps; however maintenance and training costs remain high. Some components may not
be easily found and would need to be imported from the manufacturer. Furthermore, as
demonstration and oral explanation are usually the most effective in the assembly and use of the
Once in operation, the ZBP is not dependant on external agencies and is largely self-
ZBP “requires a community to maintain it” and can hardly be separated from its maintenance
programme.10 Without proper construction and maintenance E.coli may seep into the filtered
water. This may appear as a typical challenge at first glance; however it relies on a much more
9
de Laet, Marianne & Annemarie Mol, "The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid Technology," Social
Studies of Science 30 (April 2000): 234.
10
ibid, 245.
8
significant point: the community must firstly affirm itself as a community.11 From here the
community is able to organize itself, and carry the responsibilities needed for the pump to be
successful. Many outsiders, including the government, fail to recognize that villages are not
always homogenous entities and try to determine the ideal community size per pump. As de
Laet and Mol rebut, the community with a well functioning pump is not pre-given in this
numbered fashion. Evidently very small communities may find the maintenance too demanding
and large communities may lose their sense of ownership, but aside from these rudimentary
concepts the village unit is constantly evolving and difficult to determine. Although Morgan has
found that by distributing one to serve five families, fitting with the extended family system in
Zimbabwe, successful private ownership has sometimes evolved over collective responsibility.
What may seem as an amazingly appropriate technology on one scale must be critically
analyzed on another. When considering other purification methods, such as Pritchard's Lifesaver
bottle (figure 3), its outcomes can be considered startlingly different. On one hand it provides
safe drinking water to thousands of people but on the other it can be seen as assuming a “single
model of development to which everyone aspires to”.12 The latter view follows that since
women, for example, would enrol less time in collecting water “new opportunities would be
available to engage in more productive tasks and to contribute directly to economic growth”.13
11
de Laet, Marianne & Annemarie Mol, "The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid Technology," Social
Studies of Science 30 (April 2000): 245.
12
Bell, Morag & Richard Franceys, "Improving Human Welfare through Appropriate Technology: Government
Responsibility, Citizen Duty or Customer Choice," Soc. Sci. Med. 40/9 (1995): 1172.
13
ibid, 1171.
9
cultural cohesiveness, and self-reliance and can be criticized as being, once again, a northern
technology imposed on the south. Alternatively, its appropriateness allows people to remain in
their villages, rather than traveling to the nearest towns to collect imported water, often spreading
appropriate. The majority of all the aspects of the ZBP revolve around the collective
community, from the initial nganga consultation, to the assembly, to the formulated bolts that do
not have to be tightened so often. “The village has joint ownership and collective responsibility”
making the already locally manufactured, resilient, and effective technology furthermore
appropriate.14
replacement components in some areas and the initial training needed. Socially and
environmentally the ZBP has very few harmful externalities, and has a large evolutionary
capacity as communities have proven to adapt the pumps to fit their needs. An internal risk is
the commitment of the community to embrace the pump because without proper maintenance the
Although the ZBP may be seen as a single-purpose technology to providing safe water, it
is arguably a multi-purpose technology. As the inventors refuse to take out a patent on the ZBP,
14
de Laet, Marianne & Annemarie Mol, "The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid Technology," Social
Studies of Science 30 (April 2000): 234.
10
the ownership is granted to 'the people' the ZBP not only brings healthier, and more sustainable a
technologies such as Canada. This section of the paper provides examples of AT from the North,
citing one from Canada and one from the United States. This section will describe each
technology; the benefits and challenges associated with that technology, and will link the
Overview of EcoVillage
The first example of AT from the north is EcoVillage, a small community in the
Cowichan valley dedicated to becoming self sustained. EcoVillage hopes to act as a blueprint for
other communities to become change agents and begin implementing sustainable projects that
benefit their community. EcoVillage uses AT in a variety of ways, from agriculture practices to
residential infrastructure.
For the purposes of this paper, we will focus on infrastructure and food practices,
permaculture, EcoVillage has been hugely successful in natural building. The builders look at the
process through a different lens, and recognize how nature already has much of what they need.
For example, their learning centre was built with a mix of straw bale and cob, natural plasters,
15
de Laet, Marianne & Annemarie Mol, "The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid Technology," Social
Studies of Science 30 (April 2000): 250.
11
EcoVillage also has a large community garden where they grow a huge variety of food
and even rear their own organic pork. Members of the community use traditional crop rotation
methods and animals, such as ducks, control the pest problem. In addition, they recycle
cardboard boxes and layer them in the soil to provide plants with nitrogen and other vital
nutrients.
Benefits of EcoVillage
This section will describe the benefits derived from the use of local resources in building
and food production, and how these play an undoubted role in EcoVillage’s community
sustainability. Residents have been utilizing local materials to produce buildings; some of these
materials include recycled products and commercial waste. For example, scrap lumber that does
not meet industry standards is often used. This lumber usually comes from local mills and is
considered scrap due to its odd size or different colouring. Also Styrofoam blocks, which are
often abandoned on construction sites and in other industrial areas, are incorporated into the
foundation and walls of buildings. This prevents the blocks from sitting in landfills for thousands
Through creativity and environmental awareness, residents at EcoVillage have been able
to create infrastructure that has a small environmental footprint and is cost effective to build.
These building processes have also given the community a sense of pride and public recognition
minimizing their reliance on outside food sources and focusing on producing as much food
possible themselves. They do this by utilizing labour intensive traditional crop rotation methods
12
to deliver diverse and organic food to the community. Their traditional methods of agriculture
produce nutrient rich soil and pest free plants. By focusing a large part of their efforts towards
local food production, EcoVillage is sustained with a seasonal, stable, healthy food source.
The locally grown food reduces reliance on imports which have: large carbon footprints,
create mass deforestation, and support global inequality. Local food production also provides
social benefits as it encourages cross village participation, provides hands-on learning, and gives
community members a deep rooted sense of appreciation for their food. As shown in these
examples, the use of local materials has provided EcoVillage with cost savings, positive
legal constraints on a variety of issues such as safety. The heavy bureaucracy of legalities
weighed down on the community and slowed the building process on several occasions.
Secondly, the villagers struggled with the balance between collective and the individual. Since
North America is characterized by paternalism and individualism, it was tough for some of the
people to go against traditional culture and accept the notion of “for the common good”.
entrepreneur Adam Boesel opened the first Green Microgym in Portland, Oregon. The gym is
unique, creating its own energy through members' workouts. The 2,800-square-foot gym has
similar equipment found in gyms of comparable size. 16 However, the gym’s tread mills have
energy efficient motors that use 30% less power than normal machines. 16 Also, several spin
13
bikes, that don’t use electricity, produce 200 to 600 watts of energy an hour. 16 All of the energy
is captured in a battery that feeds the gyms electricity needs. The gym also has cork flooring,
energy efficient ceiling fans, and solar power awnings. Furthermore, the gym uses second hand
equipment and has no showers. In the near future, Adam wants the gym to become completely
self sustained and plans to do so by improving on the equipment technologies and looking at new
community. Green Microgym’s most obvious benefits are environmental. Energy that would
have otherwise dissipated uselessly is now being captured to power the gym. Energy efficient
machines and retrofitting of existing infrastructure have created space with a low carbon
footprint and costs savings for the owners. The gym uses 60% less energy than comparable gyms
of its size, which has been huge achievement for Green Microgym and attracted potent media
exposure.17
The gym has positively impacted its own community in a variety of ways. First, the gym
acts as a hub for social interaction, where members often engage in meaningful conversation and
share knowledge of green issues and initiatives. Many of the gym’s members are from the
surrounding area, due to its proximity to members’ homes, which makes the gym have a truly
16
Wood, S. Portal Gym Will Run on Peddle Power: Oregon Environmental News (2008).
http://www.oregonlive.com/environment/index.ssf/2008/08/portland_gym_will_run_on_ pedal.html (accessed
November 12, 2009).
17
Green Microgym. Our Green Advantage. http://thegreenmicrogym.com/about-2/our-green- advantage/
(accessed November 15, 2009).
14
local feel. There is a major emphasis on supporting local businesses, for example, the gym
supports local artists by showcasing their artwork throughout the gym. Moreover, the gym has
built in mechanisms for helping local business. For instance, once a member has produced a
certain level of energy, they receive certificates for other local businesses. Finally, the gym
positively impacts peoples’ lives by contributing to their overall health and well-being.
usage of fossil fuels. Many people feel they can get a great physical workout by going outside or
doing body exercises, like yoga, in their own homes. Also, some customers complain about the
zero shower policy, stating it is unrealistic to expect people to forgo showers after the gym.
Finally, some complain that the gym’s membership fee is too expensive, making it inaccessible
appropriateness of the technology for EcoVillage and the Green Microgym. The former met
many aspects of the evaluation criteria for this framework. This is mainly because EcoVillage
has become relatively self-sustaining with little reliance on outside systems, adhering to
Wicklein’s first principle, especially with regards to food production, which also shows a low
external risk factor. The food production and building technologies reflect the collective culture
of the village, which rests on the foundation of shared ownership and responsibility. EcoVillage
18
Silverberg, D. Portland Fitness Center First U.S. Gym to Convert Human Energy to Electricity (2008).
http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/259787 (accessed November 13, 2009).
15
has been extremely resourceful in order to minimize costs associated with food production and
building. For example, the food is sustainably grown by the villagers and members build with
Overall, Microgym ranked fairly low on this evaluation scale due to a variety of reasons.
Microgym has a strong reliance on outside support systems for the production of its exercise
machines, since the raw materials and components are sourced from overseas.17 There are also
high costs associated with the use of the machine which are reflected in the gym membership
fee.
However, Green Microgym met some of the evaluation criteria. The exercise machines
are a multi-purpose technology as they contribute to the well-being of users through exercising,
while creating energy to power a percentage of the gym. The technology is reflective of the local
individualistic culture. For example, there is no shared learning, ownership, or responsibility for
the machines, resulting in a complete disconnect between the users and the technology, whereby
appropriate in the sense that it fits with the individualistic culture, this does not mean that the
culture is sustainable or values the importance of a self reliant community and therefore is
Although the machines do not have the capacity to expand with society, the idea of
harnessing energy from physical activity is more capable of evolving with the society that it
benefits. For example, in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong some disco clubs, traditionally
16
huge consumers of power, have been able to use the energy produced from dancing to power a
Our Findings
In examining the cases above, significant contrasts were noticed when comparing
appropriate technology used in the south versus the north. As appropriate technology is
extremely context specific, it is obvious that the technology varies greatly between the north and
south. This section will explore the differences of the AT with respect to community interaction,
pillars for AT in the South. The ZBP is an excellent example of community buy-in, which is
needed in order for community members to embrace and use the pumps. Furthermore, local
participation ensures the technologies will be better suited to the needs of those using it. This
decision making, implementation, and maintenance know-how was not as strongly present in the
case of Green Microgym. The gym’s customers have no sense of ownership attached to the
machines. This is partly because they have no incentive or inclination to assemble and maintain
them, and they were not directly involved with the technology’s implementation. Eco-Village
falls between ZBP and Green Microgym because those present in the community continuously
participate in all aspects of the building, farming, and teaching. However due to high turnover of
19
Steere, M. Are We Heading for a Human Powered Future? CNN.
http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/08/01/Human.power/index.html (accessed November 10, 2009).
17
The knowledge transfer of technology to the community is fundamental in the south. The
locals must be taught skills to operate and repair the technology, otherwise it will become
dysfunctional or deteriorate. Parts must be sourced locally and replaced without external aid.
Overall, the technology transfer in the south is more important than the technology itself.
Conversely, the exercise machines at Green Microgym do not require knowledge transfer and are
heavily dependent on external sourcing. Although the customers have a general idea of how the
machines operate and the environmental benefits obtained, if a treadmill breaks, the customers
Gender issues were surprisingly important in regards to water sanitation technology in the
south and virtually nonexistent in the north. Because many of the activities performed by
women, such as water collection, are affected by newly introduced technologies, they must be
suitable to meet women’s needs. If the women are not able to leave their homes, are less
educated, or need their husband’s consent to learn about the technology, its success will be
considerably limited. An example is the solar cooker which did not take into account women’s
technology, was the necessity for the ZBP to be flexible and adaptable to each unique
community it served. Although the pumps were the same in size and functionality, the location,
assembly of the base, and maintenance were all decided and organized by and for the
20
Murphy, H., Edward McBean, Khosrow Farahbakhsh, "Appropriate Technology: A Comprehensive Approach for
Water and Sanitation in the Developing World," Technology in Science 31 (2009): 162.
18
community. Eco-Village also thrives on its flexibility and adaptability to ideas and new
abundant resources.
outweigh the learning from south to north. After conducting a thorough analysis of the case
studies, the latter proved to hold more teachings than the former. Our original assumption was
consistent with the northern definition of appropriate technology, which mainly focuses on
economic and environmental appropriateness. From this lens, we neglected to see the importance
of community social structures, participation, and cultural fit which are learning points flowing
from the south. In a broader context, the south can learn something from the north; development
does not have to mirror the north through hyper-consumption, disconnect from the natural
quantitative development can lead to more harm than good. Listed below are some learning
Firstly, the north can learn more about the importance of community with respect to
community ownership and responsibility. Examples like EcoVillage capture this essence, where
habitants are more engaged and have a sense of belonging to others and the community, further
strengthening interdependence among them. From this stems unparallel cooperation and care for
one another that is sometimes forgotten in the north’s individualistic and closed society.
Secondly, the north can learn about the benefits stemming from a community-focused
approach to technology. This vision of wholeness will not only better meet the needs of those
using the technology, but will allow the technology to evolve with the society. A positive
19
multiplier effect is a further benefit of this combination of social sciences and engineering which
in the north; however, as we have discovered, the technology is only one piece of this puzzle. As
the southern cases have shown, rather than considering the AT as the sole solution, it was
Conclusion
This paper introduced appropriate technology and the importance of its holistic approach
to measure case studies in the north and south was used, and the results produced notable
differences. Our final analysis proved opposite to our original hypothesis as it was discovered
the north could benefit greatly by incorporating key values the south holds around technology.
Providing knowledge and hope to our common future, appropriate technology plays a vital role
Limitations
Although this paper was carefully researched and cited specific examples relevant to
limitations. Firstly, EcoVillage was the only example where the authors were able to do primary
research by visiting the site and participating in an active tour first hand. The two other
examples, Green Microgym and the Zimbabwe Bush Pump, although relevant and intensely
researched, were not scrutinized first hand and relied on the use of secondary data. Secondary
research methods were utilized simply because of the lack of time and resources on behalf of the
20
authors to travel to these places and engage in a participative evaluation. Keeping this in mind,
the authors hope the reader can achieve understanding into the overall purpose that these
examples serve which provides a diversion from theory into practicality. Finally, it is important
to acknowledge that similar cases to examples cited from the north in this paper are happening in
21
22
APPENDIX
Figure 1
Figure 2
23
Figure 3
24
Bibliography
"Appropriate Technology Sourcebook." Welcome to Village Earth: The Consortium for
Sustainable Village - Based Development. Web.
<http://www.villageearth.org/pages/Appropriate_ Technology/
ATSourcebook/Introduction.php>. (accessed November 2, 2009)
Bell, Morag & Richard Franceys. "Improving Human Welfare through Appropriate
Technology: Government Responsibility, Citizen Duty or Customer Choice." Soc. Sci.
Med. 40/9 (1995): 1169-1177.
de Laet, Marianne & Anne-Marie Mol. "The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid
Technology." Social Studies of Science 30 (April 2000): 225-253.
Silverberg, D. Portland Fitness Center First U.S. Gym to Convert Human Energy to Electricity
(2008). http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/259787 (accessed November 13, 2009).
The United Nations (UN) 2007. The millennium development goals report 2007. Available
from: http://www.un.org/millenniungoals/pdf/mdg2007.pdf; 2007.
Wood, S. Portal Gym Will Run on Peddle Power: Oregon Environmental News (2008).
http://www.oregonlive.com/environment/index.ssf/2008/08/portland_gym_will_run_on_
pedal.html (accessed November 12, 2009).
25