Unit – III (Magnetic Materials (PART-II))

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A Brief Introduction to Magnetic Materials

 The material which can be easily magnetized is called magnetic materials.

 They create a magnetic field in the surrounding space when they are magnetized.
 The methods of information storage and retrieval are based on magnetic storage techniques.
 The magnetic materials are classified broadly into three groups such as diamagnetic,
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. Based on how the material gets magnetized and
demagnetized, it is also classified as soft and hard magnetic materials.
Fundamental Definitions

Magnetic dipoles

When the two opposite poles of a magnet are separated by a suitable distance, it constitutes a
dipole and the magnet is said to be a magnetic dipole. The distance of separation between these
two poles is the length of the magnet (l).

Magnetic dipole moment (𝛼)

It is defined as the product of magnetic pole strength (m) and the length of the magnet (l).

𝛼 = 𝑚. 𝑙

Suppose a current of i ampere is passed through a coil of wire and A be the area of cross-section
of the wire, then the magnetic dipole moment (𝛼) is defined as the product of current and area
of cross-section (A).

𝛼 = 𝑖. 𝐴

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Torque

Suppose a magnet or magnetic material is suspended freely in a magnetic field. The magnet
experiences a torque and hence it will rotate and rest at some position.

The torque () experienced by the magnet is given by, 𝜏 = 𝛼⃗ × 𝐵⃗

Where 𝛼⃗ is the magnetic moment and 𝐵⃗ is the magnetic flux density

Torque due to attractive force Torque due to repulsive force

Magnetic lines of forces

The magnetic field or magnetic field strength can be understood by drawing magnetic lines of
force. The magnetic lines of force originate from the north pole and end at the south pole. It is
also called magnetic flux ().

The magnetic lines passing The material allows the magnetic The material repels the
from north to south pole lines of forces to pass through it magnetic lines of forces

Magnetic field strength (H)

The magnetic field strength is the force (F) experienced by a unit North Pole placed in the
magnetic field region.

Magnetic field strength is given by 𝐻 = Where m is the magnetic pole strength.

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Magnetization (M)

The magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside the material is called magnetization.
Since the magnetization is induced by the field, we may assume that M is proportional to H.

i.e. 𝑀∝𝐻

Or 𝑀 =𝜒𝐻

Where χ is the magnetic susceptibility

Magnetic Susceptibility (𝝌)

The magnetic susceptibility of a material is a measure of the material's ability to be magnetized

easily. It is defined as the ratio of magnetization produced in the material to the applied
magnetic field.

It is expressed as 𝜒=

Magnetic flux density (B)

The magnetic flux (𝜑) passing through the unit area of cross-section (A) is known as the
magnetic flux density.

Magnetic flux density is given by 𝐵 =

Relationship between B, H, and M

When a magnetic material is kept in a magnetic field, two types of induction arise; one due to
the magnetizing field (H) and the other as a consequence of the magnetization (M) within itself.

Magnetic flux density is also given by 𝐵 = 𝜇 (𝐻 + 𝑀)

Where 𝜇 is the permeability of free space.

𝐵 = 𝜇 (𝐻 + 𝜒𝐻)

𝐵 = 𝜇 (1 + 𝜒)𝐻

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Magnetic permeability (𝜇)

It is a measure of the maximum extent to which the material can be magnetized. It is the ratio
of Magnetic flux density (B) and the applied field intensity (H)

𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻

Relationship between B, 𝜇, and H

𝐵 =𝜇𝐻

Therefore, the magnetic induction in the air can be written as,

𝐵 =𝜇 𝐻

Relative permeability (𝜇r)

Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the permeability of a medium to the permeability
of free space.

𝜇 𝐵
𝜇 = =
𝜇 𝐵

Relationship between 𝜇r and 𝜒

𝐵 𝜇 (1 + 𝜒)𝐻
𝜇 = = = (1 + 𝜒)
𝐵 𝜇 𝐻

𝜇 = (1 + 𝜒)

Bohr magneton (𝛽)

The magnetic moment is expressed in the unit of A.m2. Since the magnetic moment of an
atomic particle is very low, it is represented by another unit known as Bohr magneton, the
value of one Bohr magneton is given by

𝑒ℎ
1 𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛(𝛽) = = 9.27 × 10 𝐴. 𝑚
4𝜋𝑚

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Classification of Magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are classified into three groups based on their magnitude and sign of
relative permeability (𝜇r).

 Diamagnetic materials: 𝜇 <1

 Paramagnetic materials: 𝜇 >1

 Ferromagnetic materials: 𝜇 ≫1

Diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials exhibit negative susceptibility. The relative permeability of diamagnetic

materials is slightly less than unity. It is due to the non-cooperative behavior of orbiting
electrons when exposed to an applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances are composed of
atoms that have no net magnetic moments (i.e., all the orbital shells are filled and there are no
unpaired electrons). However, when it is exposed to a field, a negative magnetization is
produced and thus the susceptibility is negative.

When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetization vector M is in the
opposite direction to the applied field.

Plot between M and H Plot between 𝜒 and T

M versus H plot indicates that when the field is zero the magnetization is zero. The slope of
the plot gives magnetic susceptibility and the magnetization is a linear function of H.

𝜒 versus T plot indicates that diamagnetic materials are independent of temperature.

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Examples:

• Superconducting materials
• the covalent metals such as Si, Ge, diamond
• other metals such as copper, silver, gold
• Alkali halides
• Certain organic Polymers

Paramagnetic materials

The paramagnetic materials exhibit positive magnetic susceptibility. The relative permeability
is slightly greater than unity. This class of materials has unpaired electrons in partially filled
orbitals. But the magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of an external
magnetic field. In the presence of a field, there is a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic
moments in the direction of the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive
susceptibility. When a paramagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetization
vector M is in the direction of the applied field.

Plot between M and H Plot between 𝜒 and T

In paramagnetic materials, when the field is zero, the magnetization is zero as like
diamagnetism. The magnetization is a linear function of H and the slope between any two
points in the straight line gives the value of magnetic susceptibility.

The increases in temperature of a paramagnetic material reduce the magnetization and finally
it destroys the alignment of dipoles with the applied field.

For paramagnetic materials, 𝜒∝

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or 𝜒=

where C is a Curie constant

Examples:

• Mercury
• Gaseous and liquid oxygen
• Fe at high temperature
• Copper chloride
• Fe3O4 at high temperature
• Platinum

Ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials have permanent dipole moments as like paramagnetic materials. Its
magnetic susceptibility is positive and 𝜇r value is large. The magnetic dipoles are aligned
parallel to each other even in the absence of a magnetic field. It is due to the interactions
produced by electronic exchange forces. Due to parallel alignment of magnetic dipoles, if a
small value of the magnetic field is applied, a large value of magnetization is produced.

The magnetization in a ferromagnetic material is non-linear and it becomes saturated if a

large value of the magnetic field is applied.

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Ferromagnetic materials exhibit two different properties.

It behaves as a ferromagnetic below a certain temperature known as ferromagnetic curie

temperature (𝜃f).

It behaves as a paramagnetic above the 𝜃f

For a Ferromagnetic material, the susceptibility value is given by

𝜒
𝜒= when T < 𝜃f

Ferro Paramagnetic
When T = 𝜃f , the value of magnetization tends to infinity.

Examples: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, steel

𝜃f 𝜃p
T

Antiferromagnetic materials Plot between 𝜒 and T

In an antiferromagnetic material, the dipoles of the same magnitudes are aligned antiparallel.
The antiparallel alignment of the dipole is due to quantum mechanical exchange forces.
Antiferromagnetic materials have a positive value of susceptibility, but it is small. The
antiferromagnetic materials do not have magnetization in the absence of the magnetic field.
Because, in the absence of a magnetic field, the magnetization produced by one dipole is
canceled by the other.

The antiferromagnetism occurs in the materials only below a certain temperature called Neel
Temperature (𝜃N). Above the Neel temperature, the material will behave as a paramagnetic
material.

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For antiferromagnetic material, the susceptibility value is given by

𝜒= when T < 𝜃N Anti

Paramagnetic
Ferro

Examples: MnO, NiO, MnF2, etc.,

-𝜃 𝜃N
T
Plot between 𝜒 and T

Ferrimagnetic materials

In a ferrimagnetic material, the magnetic dipoles are aligned antiparallel but they have different
magnitudes. Hence, they have magnetization even in the absence of the magnetic field. The
susceptibility value is positive. The ferrimagnetism occurs only at a certain temperature called
as Curie temperature. When a large value of the magnetic field is applied, the magnetization of
the materials gets saturated. But the saturation magnetization in these materials is not as high
as for the ferromagnetic materials.

The saturation magnetization decreases with the increasing temperature. At Curie temperature,
magnetization vanishes completely. Above the Curie temperature, it behaves as a paramagnetic
material.

Examples: Fe3O4 (ferrous ferrites)

Hysteresis property of Ferromagnetic material

Ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis properties. If the magnetic field (H) is increased
gradually, the flux density (B) increases and it becomes maximum. The maximum value of
flux density is called saturated flux density (Bsat). If the field is decreased, the ferromagnetic
material is found to have flux density even though the applied field becomes zero (H=0). The
property of ferromagnetic materials retaining magnetization after the external field is removed
is called hysteresis. In other words, the hysteresis may be defined as the difference in the
changes of magnetization behind the variations of the magnetic field. A measure of the
magnetic flux density remaining in the material (residual magnetism) when the magnetic field

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is removed is known as retentivity. The magnetization corresponding to the zero magnetic
fields is known as spontaneous magnetization.

To bring the material back to zero magnetization, a magnetic field in the opposite
direction (a reverse magnetic field) has to be applied. The magnetic field strength required to
destroy the residual magnetism in the material is known as coercivity or coercive field. If the
field is further applied in the reverse direction, the flux density will become minimum. There
is no further decrease in flux density beyond Bmin. Now if the field is gradually increased, the
ferromagnetic material traces a closed path known as hysteresis loop or B-H curve.

For reference only:

Hysteresis Loop:

The magnetization of the material measured in terms of magnetic flux density (B) when plotted
against the external applied magnetic field intensity (H) will trace out a loop. This is called the
hysteresis loop.

Retentivity or Remanence:

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The retentivity of a material is a measure of the magnetic flux density remaining in the material
(residual magnetism) when the magnetic field is removed.

Coercivity or the coercive force:

The coercivity is a measure of the magnetic field strength required to destroy the residual
magnetism in the material.

Weiss theory of Ferromagnetism

Weiss, in 1907 proposed two concepts to explain the properties of ferromagnetic materials.
They are

• Internal field concept

• Domain concept

(i) Internal field

When the magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles experience the field due to the
applied field and the field produced by the neighbouring dipoles due to the interactions. The
field produced by the interactions between the adjacent dipoles is known as the internal field.

Internal field is expressed as 𝐻 = 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑀

𝛾 is the internal field constant and M is the magnetization.

The internal field concept explains the spontaneous magnetization of ferromagnetic materials
and the paramagnetic behaviour of ferromagnetic material.

(ii) Domain concept

The domain concept is used to explain the hysteresis property of the ferromagnetic material. A
Ferromagnetic material consists of a large number of localized regions called domains. In such
domains, all the dipoles are aligned in one direction and the dipoles of the adjacent dipoles are
randomly oriented. Hence, the resultant magnetization in the absence of the field is zero. The
adjacent domains are separated by a region called the domain wall or Bloch wall.

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When the field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the domains that are parallel to the field
direction increase in its size whereas the domains that are pointed out in other directions to the
applied field decreases. Finally, it becomes a single domain.

The internal energy of the domain is contributed by

• Magnetostatic energy
• Anisotropy energy
• Domain wall energy
• Magnetostriction energy

Magnetostatic energy

The potential energy stored in a magnetic material is called magnetostatic energy. The potential
energy of this material can be reduced by creating another domain. Consider these two domains
are in an antiparallel direction. The region that separates these two domains is said to be the
domain wall or Bloch wall. Similarly, more number of domains are created by reducing the
magnetostatic energy. Finally, the net magnetization becomes zero when the P.E is minimum.

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Anisotropy energy

The ferromagnetic materials exhibit anisotropy properties. For example, Iron is easily
magnetized along [100] direction. It is difficult to magnetize along [111] direction. To
magnetize iron along [111] direction, one has to spend a larger magnetic field than magnetizing
it along [100] direction. Therefore, the direction [100] is said to be an easy direction, whereas
the [111] direction for iron is said to be the hard direction. Anisotropy energy is the excess
energy required to magnetize a material along a particular direction to its easy direction. For a
nickel, [111] direction is the easy direction, [100] direction is the hard direction, [111] direction
is the medium direction

Bloch Wall energy

Consider a magnetic moment with two domains. Consider that these two domains are
antiparallel with each other. The rotation of the domain will not take place abruptly. The spin
magnetic moments rotate within the domain wall gradually. The exchange force and the
anisotropy energy are responsible for the rotation within the domain wall. The exchange force
requires a very thick domain wall to achieve 180 rotation, whereas the anisotropy energy

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requires a spacing of one atomic scale for the rotation of domains through 180. Therefore, the
domain wall has a thickness of an equilibrium value which minimizes the total potential energy,
which is the sum of the exchange energy and the anisotropy energy. The minimum potential
energy, which determines the domain wall thickness, is known as domain wall energy. The
domain wall thickness for most of the material lies in the order of 200 to 300 Å. The iron has
a domain wall thickness of  0.1 m.

Magnetostriction energy

Consider that a magnetic field is applied to ferromagnetic material along its easy direction.
When a magnetic field is applied to ferromagnetic material along its easy direction, then the
length of the material increases. For iron, [100] direction is the easy direction. If a magnetic
field is applied to iron along [100] direction, the length of the material increases. If the magnetic
field is applied to iron along its transverse direction [010] and [001], then the length of the
material decreases. This phenomenon is known as the magnetostriction effect. The longitudinal
∆
strain is said to be magnetostriction constant. When the material reaches a saturation

magnetization, and then the magnetostriction constant also reaches saturation. The strain
energy associated with material is called magnetostriction energy.

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Weiss theory of Ferromagnetism: Internal field concept

Weiss, in 1907 proposed two concepts to explain the properties of ferromagnetic materials.
They are

• Internal field concept

• Domain concept

(ii) Internal field

When the magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles experience the field due to the
applied field and the field produced by the neighbouring dipoles due to the interactions. The
field produced by the interactions between the adjacent dipoles is known as the internal field.

Internal field is expressed as 𝐻 = 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑀

𝛾 is the internal field constant and M is the magnetization.

The internal field concept explains the spontaneous magnetization of ferromagnetic materials
and the paramagnetic behaviour of ferromagnetic material.

From Langevin’s theory of ferromagnetism, the magnetization

N
𝑀= = -------------(2)

Where 𝛼 is the magnetic moment,

N is the number of dipoles per unit volume
N
C is a curie constant and is given by 𝐶 =

On substituting equation (1) in equation (2), we have,

( )
𝑀= -------------(3)

𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝛾𝑀
𝑀= +
𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝛾𝑀 𝐶𝐻
𝑀− =
𝑇 𝑇

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 𝐶𝛾 𝐶𝐻
𝑀 1− =
𝑇 𝑇

𝐶𝐻
𝑀=
𝐶𝛾
𝑇 1−
𝑇

𝐶𝐻
𝑀=
(𝑇 − 𝐶𝛾)

𝑀= ( )
(4)

Where 𝜃 is the Curie temperature

Susceptibility of the material becomes

𝜒= = ( )
(5)

Equation no (5) gives us the expression for Curie-Weiss Law

Soft Magnetic Materials

The magnetic materials that are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called soft magnetic
materials. The application of a small value of magnetic field produces a large value of
magnetization in it. The required composition of the materials is taken and they are heated
above their melting points and then the liquid solution is cooled slowly. The slow cooling of
the melt makes them too soft and are also free from impurities and defects.

Properties

1. The B-H curve of soft magnetic material is narrow and steep.

2. The hysteresis loop has a small area. Hence, the hysteresis power loss per cycle is
low.
3. The resistivity of the soft magnetic material is very high and hence eddy current loss
is low.
4. The soft magnetic material has high permeability and susceptibility.
5. The soft magnetic material has low coercivity.

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 6. The soft magnetic materials are free from impurities.

Examples of soft magnetic materials and uses

 Silicon Iron (97% Fe and 3% Si): It possesses high resistivity and low eddy current
losses. So, it is widely used in electrical machinery such as transformers.

 Supermalloy (79% Ni, 16% Fe and 5% Mo): It possesses high permeability. It is used
to prepare low loss electrical devices e.g. transformers, magnetic amplifiers.

 Permalloy (78% Ni and 22% Fe): It is used to prepare low loss electrical devices such
as audio transformer, HF transformer, recording heads and filters.

 Glass Metals (Fe-Si-B): It is used to prepare low loss transformer core

 Ferrites (Mn and Mn-Zn ferrite): They have low conductivity and negligible eddy
current losses. They are used in HF transformers and inductors.

Hard Magnetic Materials

The magnetic materials that are difficult to magnetize and demagnetize are called hard
magnetic materials. It requires a large value of the magnetic field to produce saturation
magnetization. Since the coercivity of the hard magnetic material is high, the material needs a
large value of the magnetic field to demagnetize it. The hard magnetic materials are prepared
by heating the material above their melting points and then they are suddenly cooled by
quenching in a liquid. The impurities are purposely added to these materials to make them as
hard as possible.

Properties

1. The B-H curve of hard magnetic material is broad.

2. The area of the hysteresis loop is large and hence the hysteresis loss is high.
3. The hard magnetic materials have relatively large coercivity. So they need a large
value of the magnetic field to demagnetize it.
4. The permeability and susceptibility values are low.

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 5. The eddy current loss is high.
6. The hard magnetic materials have large impurities and lattice defects. They have large
magnetostatic energy.

Examples of hard magnetic materials

NdFeB, Alnico (Fe-Al-Ni-Co-Cu), strontium ferrite, hard particles 𝛾-Fe2O3, Carbon steel,
tungsten steel, chromium steel.

Applications of magnetic materials

• Alnico is used for a wide range of permanent magnet applications.

• Strontium ferrite is used for the preparation of loudspeakers, telephone receiver, dc
motor, starter motor.
• 𝛾-Fe2O3 is used for the magnetic coating in audio and videotapes, floppy disks.
• NdFeB is used for a wide range of applications. Small motors, DC motors MRI body
scanners, etc.,
• Carbon steel is used as magnets for compass needles, latching relay control in the
circuit during power interruptions.
• Tungsten steel is used to prepare dc motors
• Chromium steel is used to prepare the permanent magnets.

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