61

CHAPTER TWO

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PENTECOSTALISM IN INDIA

2.0. Introduction

In this chapter the researcher has surveyed very briefly the history of

Pentecostalism in the different parts of the world with its attendant features and

characteristics. The present chapter helps us to locate the state of Christianity in India

in general and about Pentecostalism its origin, growth and development in the

different parts of India and in particular about Pentecostalism with its attendant

features and characteristics. The quest for identity is a subject for research within the

church in India. Therefore, it is imperative to study the identity of Indian Pentecostals

as well. Thus, in line with this research concern the present chapter investigates the

historical context and identity of Indian Pentecostalism. This chapter identifies the

indigenous forms of charismatic uprising in India before te coming of western forms

of Pentecostalism in the Indian shores. The chapter further traces the trajectory of

Indian Pentecostalism highlighting the important key figures, movements and issues

which arose within Indian Pentecostalism in general and in South Indian

Pentecostalism in particular.

2.1. Pre-Pentecostal Christianity in India

An understanding of Christianity in India before the occurrence of the

Pentecostal revival in the nation is essential for identifying Indian Pentecostalism. As

J. Massey observes, history has great significance in understanding identity as

‘historical roots can provide the clue to the lost identity ....’1 However, an extensive

1
James Massey, Roots: A Concise History of Dalits, (Delhi: ISPCK, 1994), p.2.
 62

approach to Indian Church history is beyond the scope of this study. Therefore, a brief

survey is conducted with the aim of understanding the Indian Christian tradition and

other developments that remain as antecedents of Indian Pentecostalism.

2.1.1. Early Christianity

It is important to note that Christianity in India has a non-western origin.

There is a strong tradition which claims that India came under the influence of the

message of Jesus long before Westerners reached the subcontinent. Christians in India

believe that their history is as old as the history of Christianity itself.

There is a well-established ancient Christian tradition that St. Thomas, one of

the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ, came to south India in AD 52, and preached the

gospel even to the high caste Brahmins, and as a result formed seven churches. In

addition to many later sources, most scholars refer to the Acts of Judas Thomas, an

apocryphal work in the Syriac language, dated to the fourth century, as the earliest

document which mentions St. Thomas and his preaching in India. Nevertheless,

drawing inferences from the same work, there is a north Indian tradition about the

apostolate of St. Thomas that he also preached in north-west India.2 Although there

are arguments against such an early origin of Christianity in India, based on the

absence of more reliable historical sources, A. Mingana presents evidence for the

presence of Christianity in the area surrounding old India to the north-west, west and

south-west, where there were bishops as early AD 225. Therefore, he argues that it is

‘improbable to suppose that there was no Christian community in India … before the

second half of the fourth century.’3 As Frykenberg observes, whatever be the place or

2
A. Mingana, The Early Spread of Christianity in India, (Manchester: University Press, 1926), p.76.
3
Ibid.,
 63

date accepted for the St. Thomas arrival, the undeniable fact is that ‘forms of

Christian presence and tradition became established’ in India ‘during the earliest

centuries of Christian era.’4

The local Christian communities (St. Thomas Christians) have their own oral

and literary traditions and other well-structured documents that mention the Apostle

Thomas’ arrival, preaching and martyrdom in India. It is important to understand that

the real question is not related to the early presence of Christianity in India, but rather

to the identity of Thomas.

2.1.2. Eastern Mission- Persia and Syria Migration

There are strong traditions that claim there were migrations of Christians from

West Asian countries from the fourth century. It is believed that there was an exodus

of Christians from Persia to India in the fourth century and later in the seventh

century. Consequently, active contact with Syria was maintained, and thus Indian

Christians had bishops from western Asia until the coming of the Portuguese in the

fifteenth century.

From the very beginning, the Syriac heritage has been a source of inspiration

and prestige for the Thomas Christians, who themselves were known as Syrian

Christians. Thus, when the Portuguese came to India towards the close of the fifteenth

century, they found a powerful Indian Christian community, which traced their origin

to Apostle Thomas. It is significant to note that many key leaders as well as followers

of early Pentecostalism, especially in south India, came from this Syrian community

of Christians. They are still proud of the ancient Syrian-Christian tradition and the

non-western origin of Christianity in India.

4
Robert Eric Frykenberg (Ed.), ‘Christians in India: An Historical Overview of their Complex
Origins,’ in Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication since 1500,
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), p. 34.
 64

2.1.3. Western Mission

It was the arrival of the Portuguese from the close of the fifteenth century that

brough Indian Christianity into a strong relationship with western Christianity. As

George rightly comments, their arrival ‘changed the face of Indian history as well as

the history of Christianity.’5

The foreigners thought that the local Christians were imperfect and ‘needed

teaching, instruction and perfecting.’6The Portuguese Catholics even began to object

to the Malayalam (language of the state of Kerala) and Syriac theology and liturgy.

The Syrian Christians found themselves falling slowly under the control of the Pope,

and subsequently there was a mounting tension. Because they were forced to accept

Portuguese domination, the relation of the Indian Church with the eastern Syrian

Church of Persia was terminated, and Thomas Christians were brought under the

jurisdiction of the Portuguese Padroado.7

However, Roman Catholic ascendancy was challenged, and eventually a revolt

was initiated by the Syrian Church against the Catholics, with most Syrian Christians

returning to their older tradition and affiliation with the Patriarch of Antioch. On 22

May 1653, Thomas Christians for the first time installed their own High Metran, and

thus, Parambil Tumi (Archdeacon Thomas) became India’s first indigenous

archbishop, taking the title Mar Thoma.8

Catholic growth in Portuguese India was not limited to the high-caste Syrian

Thomas Christians, but moved north from Kerala to Goa. Catholic missionary

5
George, Pentecostal Beginnings in Travancore, p. 222.
6
Mundadan, History of Christianity in India, p. 282
7
A. Mathias Mundadan, Indian Christians Search for Identity and Struggle for Autonomy,
(Bangalore, India: Dharmaram, 1984), p.31.
8
Frykenberg, ‘Christians in India,’ p.42.
 65

achievements were largely a result of the work of great Jesuit missionaries like St.

Francis Xavier, who established Catholic Christianity among the low-caste people of

fishing villages in the southeast and southwest coasts of India, and Robert de Nobili,

who began to work among the Brahmins of Madurai in Tamilnadu. Thus, by the

beginning of the eighteenth century, the Catholic Christianity was well established in

India. However, Christianity was barely visible and showed few signs of growth in

north India, where the population were Hindus, with Muslim rulers.9

2.1.4. Missionary Movement

The missionary spirit of the eighteenth and nineteenth century was a major

factor behind the later Pentecostal revival. In its special issue on Pentecostalism, the

editor of comments that Indian Pentecostal historiography must consider the work of

mission agencies in India as ‘the increased missionary fervor of the period was

important for the spread of Pentecostalism in India.’10

Protestant Christianity was established in India only in the beginning of the

eighteenth century through the coming of several missionaries from the West. The

German Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Pluetschau of the Danish-Halle

Mission came to Tranquebar, India in 1706 as the first Protestant missionaries to

India. One of the remarkable contributions of their mission activity was Ziegenbalg’s

translation of the New Testament into the Tamil language, the first Indian language

into which the Bible was translated.

9
Samuel Hugh Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, 1500-1900, (New York: Orbis Books,
2005), vol.2, pp. 23-26.
10
Chief Editor, ‘Editorial- Pentecostalism- Dharma Deepika, A South Asian Journal of Missiological
Research, (Chennai, July-December 2002), p. 2.
 66

The Moravian Missions were involved in forming small cells within the

churches to enrich the spiritual life of the congregations through Bible study, prayer

and evangelism.11 Robert Clive’s reorganization of the East India Company laid the

foundation for the revitalization of the English chaplaincies, as well as Protestantism,

throughout India. David Brown, Claudius Buchanan and Henry Martyn were some of

the most distinguished evangelical chaplains.12 Calcutta replaced Tranquebar as the

centre of Protestant missionary expansion. The formation of the Society for the

Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) by the Anglicans further accelerated

missionary work in India. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) was founded in

1799, and it became a leading missionary organization in India. Similarly, the London

Missionary Society (LMS) established a number of centers in South India in the 19th

century.

The coming of the Baptist missionary William Carey in 1793 is an important

chapter in Indian missionary history. With the arrival of his colleagues, William Ward

and Joshua Marshman in 1799, they became known as the Serampore Trio, and the

Serampore Mission stimulated the rapid growth of Protestant missions due to its

contribution towards literature, education and evangelism. The East India Company

revised its charter in 1813, and thus gave freedom for Christian mission in India, and

subsequently India saw an increase of missionaries in the nineteenth century. Several

English missionary organizations like the CMS, LMS and SPG (Society for the

Propagation of the Gospel) were active in south India in the 19th century. CMS

interacted actively with the Syrian Christian churches, and consequently influenced

them greatly.

11
Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, p. 243.
12
Ibid. pp. 244-45.
 67

According to A.C. George, CMS played an important role in changing the face

of Christianity in south India, especially Kerala, and later there were spiritual

awakenings among these Syrian Christians.13

Chart: 2:1 Pace of Pentecostalism

2.2. Precursor of the Pentecostal Revival

These missionary endeavors created many ripples in the spiritual life of Indian

Christians, which in turn produced an atmosphere conducive for revival. Here we

identify some of the most significant factors that can be considered as antecedents to

Pentecostal revivals in India.

It seems that there was a spiritual vacuum in the church in India before the

revival. G.V. Job described the dismal spiritual condition of the Indian church.14

According to Job, the church was in need of ‘a definite spiritual lead,’ and he asked,

‘Who can give these to India except those whose minds are disciplined in the

teachings of Jesus and whose hearts are inspired by a glowing vision of His

13
George, Pentecostal Beginnings in Travancore, p. 219.
14
G.V. Job, Rethinking Christianity in India, (Madras: A.N. Sudarsanan. 1938), pp.15-16.
 68

Kingdom?’15 This dead spirituality is the chief reason, according to George, why

many Christians at the beginning of the twentieth century embraced Pentecostalism,

when it came with a living spirituality.16

The availability of Scripture in indigenous languages was another important

factor in the pre-Pentecostal era of Indian Christianity. The Bible was translated into

many local languages before Pentecostalism came to India, and many of the

researchers into the Pentecostal revival in various places identify this as an important

factor behind this revival.

While both George17 and Mathew emphasize the value of the translation of the

Bible in the early Indian revivals, both in Tamilnadu and Kerala, Snaitang observes

that Bible translation by the Welsh missionaries had an important role in the revival in

Northeast India.18

2.2.1. Precursors to Modern Pentecostalism in India

Strong evidence from the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveal Pentecost-

like Spirit outpourings in India, similar yet prior to the Topeka or Azusa revivals

(1901-1906).Taking these into account, Asian scholars prefer a separate and

simultaneous rather than a succession theory for global Pentecostalism. 19 Pentecostal

experiences and manifestations of gifts have occurred in India before missionaries

15
Ibid.,
16
George, ‘Pentecostal Beginnings in Travancore,’pp. 220-24.
17
George, ‘Pentecostal Beginnings in Travancore, p.219.
18
O.L. Snaitang, ‘The Indigenous Pentecostal Movement in Northeast India,’ Dharma Deepika Vol 6,
NO. 2 (Chennai, July-December, 2002), p. 6.
19
Michael Bergunder, Construction of Indian Pentecostalism, pp.130-151.
 69

from Azusa arrived in 1907 and without the direct influence of western missions.

Thus, this study challenges a purely Americo-centric historiography.

The Indian Pentecostal movement started when local Christians received and

then spread what came to be called `the Pentecostal experience'. 20 Visitations of the

Spirit were refreshing and empowering experiences and fed the recipients into a

movement that gained momentum as a part of the 1905 `evangelical awakenings in

India'.21

Indian believers understood their encounters with the Spirit as divine

providence. God was favorably responding to their prayers and crisis situation. As a

result, the sovereign Spirit was received as a gracious gift and the movement

considered `indigenous' in its origin.

Jayaraj notes that the concept `indigenization', although first used as an

adjective, in missiology points to the fact that `a particular Church [movement]

originates, grows and lives in a particular context without the influence of foreign

agency or an alien influence'22. The researcher wishes to show how Indian Christians

became the targets of these outpourings of God's Spirit. When in expectant prayer the

Spirit is received with humility, he comes with enabling charismata a life

transforming experience Pentecostals realized mediates a power that enables

forgiveness, healing, reconciliation and mission.

This research will briefly discuss three famous samples of pre-Azusa revivals

to draw out salient charismatic elements for holistic mission.

20
Donald Gelpi, Pentecostalism A Theological Viewpoint, (New York: Paulist, 1971), p.21.
21
Edwin Orr, Evangelical Awakenings, (Delhi: CLS, 1970), p.72.
22
Daniel Jeyaraj, Indigenous Christianity, p.2.
 70

2.2.1.1. Tirunelveli Mission

Church historians acknowledge that, `the most prominent revivals of the

nineteenth century characterized by charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit occurred in

India'.23 On 4 March 1860, a Spirit outpouring occurred in Tirunelveli. J. C.

Aroolappen, a native Anglican CMS catechist, mentored by Albert Groves and Karl

Rhenius for a pietistic and apostolic mission, directed the revival that broke out.

Aroolappen with his congregation had been praying for a deeper experience of God

and a life of Christian purity, when the Spirit descended upon them. The CMS

missionary Dibbs was an eyewitness to this event. 24

Experiences of the Holy Spirit intensified the believer's desire to know Christ

in the Bible, denounce all known sin, and mobilize prayer and to evangelize the lost.

Yet, the remarkable features of the revival were the ecstatic and physical phenomena

such as shaking, falling and spectacular manifestations: tongues, interpretation,

prophecy and healing. From the experienced presence and power of the divine Spirit,

spiritual authority of the (human) offices of prophet and apostle were affirmed and

reinstated. Along with `charismatic speech' there were prophetic revelations and

healing prayer.25

Hoerschelmann in his study of Charismatic Gurus considers this prophetic

vision and interpretation, a `clear evidence of tongues'. Though the prophecy failed

bringing ill repute and criticism from the Anglican clergy, the `Pentecostal experience'

and Pentecost-like charismata were recorded as authentic and their impact was

remarkable. Ad hoc groups of `Pentecostal' evangelists, women and men in prayer-

23
Hedlund, Indigenous Pentecostalism in India', Asian and Pentecostal, 2003, p.157,
24
Ashton Dibbs, Report in Indian Witness, (Church Missionary Record, Aug. 1860).
25
Ma and Menzies (Eds.)., Pentecostalism in Context, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997),
pp. 317-336.
 71

bands, travelled `in faith', i. e. without regular financial support and from 1873-1881

propagated the `full gospel'.

2.2.1.1.1. Revivalism

Revival preachers, in Aroolappen's footsteps, travelled across Travancore

influencing CMS and Syrian congregations up to the Malabar Coast. In this way a

`Pentecostal' experience was already a familiar reality and power yearned after by

Indians, 30 years before the Azusa Revival. Importantly, `prayer for the sick' and

`concern for the poor' marked these charismatic ministries and despite extremes,

McGee, Yung and other scholars view Aroolappen's prophetic ministry as the first

record of `Pentecost in India'.26 If is true, then, its significance for global

Pentecostalism is plain: `The appearance of the gifts of the Spirit in the ministry of

Aroolappen clearly indicated an open-ended expectation of the miraculous, based on

27
expectancy of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit as predicted for the end times' .

Here, no `white missionary' was present nor foreign funds involved. Miracles were

not sought after but `followed those who believed'. Therefore, the earliest expressions

of Indian Pentecostalism were `charismatic' and culturally attuned. The `sign' gifts

produced an apostolic or guru like authority (divine sanction) and unction (ritual

power) for evangelism and mission.

2.2.1.1.2. Revitalization in Mission

During the `pentecostal' outpourings that ensued, God was also experienced by

communities and in a cosmic way. Local believers saw the Spirit as life-giver and

26
G. H. Lang, The History and Diaries of an Indian Christian: John Christian Aroolappen,
(London: Robinson, 1939), p. 158.
27
McGee and S. Burgees, `India', p. 118.
 72

liberator from all forces of evil- spiritual, emotional, physical and socio-political. The

first `sure sign' of genuine renewal was that the caste-lines among those Spirit

baptized were erased as there was neither Dalit nor Syrian Christian but `pentecostals'

immersed in one reconciling Spirit, a conviction that deeply affected their outlook and

whole-life discipleship. Their worship directly involved natives and created national

leaders who became chief architects, representative voices and authoritative agents for

social change in the dawning era of missions, expedited with `pentecostal' power.

This gave Indian Pentecostals a new identity and a strong sense of belonging and

ownership of the movement in `God's own country'. It also produced across caste and

social status a new sense of responsibility to `do' evangelism with a new authority.

This Spirit-empowered movement can be seen as `indigenous' insofar as it was

an autonomous Indian initiative.28 The national co-workers did not utilize western

ideas, methods or overseas funds, thus giving the revival its own identity and

credibility. Its character mirrored local cultural expressions of worship that aimed to

encourage lay participation of women and men.

2.2.1.1.3. Mukti Mission: the Origin of Modern Pentecostalism

In June 1905, the most outstanding Pentecostal phenomenon occurred at the

Mukti Mission in Kedagaon near Pune, which Pentecostals generally concur as the

origin of 20th century Pentecostalism in India, perhaps South Asia. 29 Pandita

Sarasvati Ramabai, a high caste and well-educated Brahman widow, was moved to

care for the orphans and neglected widows during the 1877 famine that struck India.

She was a follower of Jesus marked by a sacrificial spirit and passion for social

28
M. Hodges, The Indigenous Church, (Springfield: Gospel Pub, 1953). p.44.
29
D. Jeyaraj (Ed.)., ‘Pentecostalism, 2002.
 73

justice. Ramabai started Mukti, a `place of deliverance', literally salvation, as an

institution to demonstrate compassion.30 Here, women received care, practical help

and put their faith in Christ.

Ramabai attended the Keswick Convention in 1898, and the 1904 Welsh

revival, where Bible expositions stressed themes such as holiness, the higher life and

fullness of the Spirit for personal sanctification and missionary empowerment. 31 In

1905, the Welsh Presbyterian churches in Khasi Hills, northeast India experienced

revivals which inspired Ramabai to begin `prayer circles'. Several hundred enlisted to

plead with God for blessings and the evangelization of India. On 29 June 1905,

around 3: 30 a.m., a volunteer had an extraordinary experience. Her roommates felt

she was enveloped with fire as she was Spirit baptized. The next day, as Ramabai

concluded her Bible lesson a fresh outpouring broke out.

From Mukti a revival of prayer spread to the surrounding villages, then

nationwide. Although not under the `Pentecostal' banner, news of Indians being Spirit

baptized by fire, reached places as far as Chile and the USA. Alfred Garr, the first

white person to be baptized under Seymour's ministry at Azusa, visited Mukti in

1907. Ramabai's colleague Minnie Abrams, an American Methodist, saw the `burning'

experience as a baptism by Jesus' Spirit and a refining fire that satisfied the residents'

plight in the aftermath of the 1896 famine and plague. 32 At Mukti there were

spectacular signs -visions, dreams, prophecy, a few healings and clear testimonies of

`miracles' of divine providence in answer to simple prayers of faith. Dried up water

30
R. Kumar, The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women's Rights and
Feminism in India 1800-1990, (1993), p.122.
31
Brynmor Jones, Voices of the Welsh Revival, (Bridgend: Evangelical Press of Wales), 1995. p.12.
32
Minnie Abrams, The Baptism of the Holy Spirit & Fire, (Kedagaon: Mukti Pub, 1906), p.123.
 74

wells were filled, food and rations were supplied from unknown sources, and their

daily needs were met.

Although Ramabai herself did not speak in tongues, recent research reveals

that Pentecostal churches were established as an outcome of the revival. 33 Yet,

Ramabai shunned the slightest showmanship or publicity and separated her work from

the `increasingly denominational character' of the purely `Pentecostal power' approach

to ministry.34

Keith White's research establishes that the `real miracles' at Mukti were lives

that were changed. Experiences of the Spirit produced a greater discipline in prayer

and Bible study, zeal for godly living and to share Christ35. `Prayer bands' went

spreading the revival fires and `bodily healings were one among the many signs that

followed ordinary believers who prayed for the sick and allowed God be God'.

The Mukti mission produced a revival that touched the nominal Christianity in

its time. Mukti `sisters and brothers' seek to demonstrate a credible form of

evangelical, charismatic faith that 'correlates expectant prayers with spiritual power

that results in public service'.

2.2.1.1.4. Dohnavur Mission

Another revival on account of expectant prayer occurred at Dohnavur in South

India. In 1895, Amy Carmichael came to India supported by the Keswick committee.

She remained single, totally dedicating herself to fight the ritual abuse of girls as

33
Allan Anderson, Spreading Fires: The Missionary Nature of Early Pentecostalism, (London: SCM,
2007).p.23.
34
Orr, Evangelical Awakenings, p. 88-94.
35
Keith White, Pandita Ramabai (1858-1922): A Re-evaluation of Her Life and Work, (University of
Wales, April 2003).
 75

temple prostitutes (devadasis). She learned Tamil from Thomas Walker of Tirunelveli

and her girls at the fellowship fondly addressed her as Amma (mother). On 22

October 1905, a Spirit-outpouring created sounds like a rushing wind as on Pentecost

(Acts 2).Phenomena similar to Mukti were sensed, except there were no tongues.

Here, Christ's real presence was experienced, as one girl put it: `Jesus visited

Dohnavur'. Carmichael could not explain how the Tamils in the chapel normally `so

solid and unemotional' were rapturous in praise and prostrate on the floor crying out

to God that, `the heathen rushed' and watched them in wonder through the windows.36

While the sick were prayed for and health significantly improved, no special

miracle healings were recorded. Soon a `hurricane of prayer' from Dohnavur joined

the pattern for revival: forsaking sin and burdened to care for those suffering, who in

turn, joined in and spread the revival. Carmichael's active spirituality in the Indian

culture illustrates a Pentecostal piety.

Amy, known as `the Ramabai of the south', adopted a holistic approach to

care. She reckoned, `one cannot save souls alone as souls are more or less securely

fastened to bodies'. In her dress, Tamil language, food habits and lifestyle, she was

committed to indigenization and her social action in India for child protection,

education and the emancipation of women remain invaluable.37 The above

forerunners of Pentecostalism manifest a genuine renewal by the Spirit not because of

their religious experience, certainly not for their ability to speak in tongues, for such

things are all too easily counterfeited, but because of their devotion to Jesus as Lord

and their practice of love.

36
Orr, The Evangelical Awakening, p. 92.
37
Ponraj, Pioneers, pp. 123-125.
 76

2.3. The Origin of Pentecostalism in India

The ‘multiple Jerusalems theory’ leads us to understand that Indian

Pentecostalism is the outcome of many indigenous revivals in several parts of the

subcontinent. A number of revivals took place with Pentecostal characteristics in

various places years before western Pentecostalism had reached India. However, it

seems that the story of many such revivals is yet to be told. Orr recorded many such

indigenous revivals in India.38

According to him, the most distinctive feature of these revivals was that they

were ‘not the stirring among European missionaries and civilians, rather the outbreak

of revivals among indigenous Christians….’39

The following is an attempt to identify a few of these revivals from diverse

parts of the subcontinent. However, this is not an exhaustive description, rather an

overview to show that there were revivals with Pentecostal characteristics occurring

all over the country.

2.3.1. South India

People movements occur because people are motivated and mobilized by

some means to change for what is better for them or for their group's wellbeing. 40

New religious movements provide the needed convictions and new directions with

organizational networks to achieve common goals.41 The factors that was contributed

38
Orr, Evangelical Awakenings in Southern Asia, p.59.
39
Orr, Evangelical Awakenings in Southern Asia, p.59.
40
Desrochers, Wielenga and Patel, Social Movements, (Bangalore: Centre for Social Change, 1991),
p. 123.
41
John Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995). p.57.
 77

to the rise of the Indian Pentecostal movement to show ways in which it radically re-

formed the nature of South Indian Christianity.

In 2000, half of all Indian Christians were Charismatics making it remarkably

the fifth largest concentration worldwide.42 The four southern states: Tamilnadu,

Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra house two thirds of all the Christians. In the light of

the research that has been done so far, the revival in the Tirunelveli district of

Tamilnadu state in South India under the leadership of a local evangelist Aroolappen

in 1860 is the oldest revival in India with Pentecostal characteristics. Aroolappen had

been trained as an Anglican catechist, and was ordained by Rhenius, a Prussian

Lutheran minister sent out as a missionary to Tirunelveli by the CMS, who

emphasized self-support and self-propagation for the Indian churches. He was

described as ‘one of the ablest, most clear-sighted and practical, and most zealous

missionaries that India has ever seen,’ and is referred to as the ‘Apostle to

Tirunelveli.’43

Later, Aroolappen was greatly influenced by A.N. Groves, an independent

missionary from England who embraced the millennial eschatology of the Plymouth

Brethren.44 However, the revival that took place during his ministry received no

influences from western missionaries. As McGee rightly observes, from the beginning

‘the revival took an indigenous course.’45 Aroolappen began his missionary activities

in a village called Christian Peta in Tirunelveli in 1840, and consequently a Brethren

42
S. Burgess Ranks, “Indian Pentecostals Faith, behind Brazil, USA, China and Nigeria,”
`Pentecostalism in India: An Overview', AJPS, 2001, p. 85.
43
Robert E. Frykenberg, ‘Historical Introduction,’ in Tirunelveli’s Evangelical Christians: Two
Centuries of Family Vamsavazhi Traditions, ed. and trans. David Packiamuthu and Sarojini
Packiamuthu (Bangalore: SAIACS Press, 2003), p. xxix.
44
McGee, Pentecostal Phenomena, p.113.
45
Ibid.,
 78

congregation was formed in 1842. Having learned of the visitation of God in the

United States, England and Ulster in 1857-59, Aroolappen began to pray for a

movement of the Spirit in India, and consequently an outpouring of the Holy Spirit

occurred in 1860.

G.H. Lang’s report, based on Aroolappen’s diary, shows that like other

Pentecostal revivals there were months of preparation, which included prolonged

prayer, preaching on holiness, weeping and confession of sins before the actual

outpouring of the Spirit. Aroolappen’s diary has details of the outbreak of the Spirit

revival.

According to him, from the fourth of May ‘the Holy Ghost was poured out

openly and wonderfully’ upon the congregations.46 There were visible manifestations

of the Spirit, such as speaking in tongues, interpretations, visions, prophecies, bodily

shaking, people falling down, weeping and intense conviction of sin. 47Aroolappen

states that although ‘some tried to quench the Spirit’ the work of the Holy Spirit

continued even in other nearby villages, and people began to speak in tongues,

interpret and prophesy48

This revival lasted for five years and made some lasting contributions. Dev

considers that the greatest contribution of the revival was that Aroolappen’s church

became a missionary church. McGee quotes the report of Ashton Dibb, a CMS

missionary and an observer of the revival, that the baptism of the Holy Spirit filled the

46
Ibid, p.143.
47
Lang, History and Diaries, pp.143-46.
48
Ibid., 145.
 79

members of Aroolappen’s church ‘with a holy enthusiasm; and caused them to go

everywhere preaching the gospel, in demonstration of the Spirit and of power.’49

The evangelists from his church travelled by faith, without salary or support,

and set their own itineraries. As a result, conversion of many non-Christians took

place, and western missionaries were amazed. Another significant contribution was

that women were actively involved both in the revival as well as in the subsequent

evangelistic work.

One of the most far-reaching contributions was that the awakening began to

spread to the nearby state of Travancore (present-day Kerala). George’s study

describes the extensive implications of this revival in Tamil Nadu as well as kerala 50

Furthermore, there were three indigenous revivals in Kerala in the years 1873,

1895 and 1908, prior to the coming of western Pentecostal missionaries. In all three

revivals people were filled with the Holy Spirit, and had the experience of speaking in

tongues and other Spirit manifestations such as healings and visions. 51

K.E. Abraham states in his autobiography that as a nine year old boy he

participated in the 1908 revival and witnessed the power of God manifested in many

people, but he did not realize what it was. According to him, this revival took place

before Berg came to India in 1908 as a Pentecostal. The people did not have the

scriptural knowledge to understand this experience in terms of Holy Spirit baptism,

accompanied by speaking in tongues, until Berg arrived from North America.

However, Abraham did not regard these revivals as having any root in

western Pentecostalism. Even while referring to his own Pentecostal experience, he

49
McGee, Pentecostal Phenomena and Revivals, p.113.
50
George, Beginnings in Travancore. p.116.
51
George, Pentecostal Beginnings in India, p.43.
 80

insisted that it was two months after his experience of the Holy Spirit baptism that he

came into contact with Cook, the American Pentecostal missionary. The Kerala

revivals were the outcome of the activities of indigenous evangelists from Tamilnadu.

The Tirunelveli awakening had produced many revival preachers, and several of

them, including Aroolappen himself, travelled to Kerala to preach the revival

message. Apart from Aroolappen, Ammal Vedanayagam and David also travelled

through various places, and preached in many Syrian churches, awakening in people a

desire for a deeper personal Christian life.52 According to Orr, the Kerala awakening

was marked by intense sorrow for sin, spiritual renewal in the lives of Christians,

increased sale of the scriptures, and the promotion of evangelism.53

T.G. Ommen, a pioneer Pentecostal leader in Kerala and an outstanding

leader of IPC in its early years, believed that the false prophecy regarding the second

coming of Christ by both Koodarapallil Thommen and Justus Joseph adversely

affected the revival movement in Kerala.

On the other hand, both McGee and Dev suggest that severe criticism of the

revival by foreign missionaries was the chief reason for the decline of the revival in

Tamilnadu.54 According to Dev, the exercise of spiritual gifts was restricted in the

Brethren church after the death of Aroolappen. He argues that it was in the Brethren

church that the revival began in India for the first time, and had they preserved and

propagated the 1860s revival experience there would not have been either a

Pentecostal or a Charismatic Movement, as the Brethren Movement was strong

enough to include the characteristics of both the Movements. Thus, the Brethren

52
George, Trailblazers for God, p.31.
53
Orr, Evangelical Awakenings in Southern Asia, p.62.
54
McGee, Pentecostal Phenomena, p.113.
 81

Movement missed the opportunity to be the ‘care-takers’ of the greatest revival in

Indian history.

Chart: 2:2 Faces of South Indian Pentecostalism

2.4. Growth in South Indian Pentecostalism

There were also, however, earlier precedents in South India both in Tamil Nadu

and in Kerala. Historian Gary McGee states that “the most prominent revivals of the

nineteenth century characterized by the charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit occurred

in India.”55

Pentecostalism in South Asia, then, is significantly indigenous in origin. “The

Pentecostal movement that created ripples in South India began as an indigenous

55
A. C. George, “Pentecostal Beginnings in Travancore, South India,” Asian Journal of Pentecostal
Studies (2001), pp. 215-37.
 82

movement. It was not until later revival movements in the West impacted this

indigenous movement.”56

Because of different perspectives regarding the origin of Pentecostalism in

Kerala, a rethinking and study is necessitated today. In 1909, George Burg, the first

Pentecostal missionary reached Kerala and conducted few meetings. 57

There have been many revivals; Kerala had also experienced such a

phenomenon. By the coming of the missionaries in the nineteenth century, the soil

had been prepared for a mighty revival. One of the features of the revival in Kerala

was it came from outside. Varughese observes that the first revival preacher who

came to Kerala was John Arulappan, from Tamil Nadu.58

Later revivalists like V.D.David, Vidhuvankuttyachen and Thangaiah

Athisayam were also from Tamil Nadu. During his visits in 1853 and 1859,

Arulappan led wonderful spiritual awakenings in Kerala. Along with David, George

Graph from Australia also visited Kerala. Saju points out that during their meeting

people experienced deep penetration of the Word and the Spirit.59 However, “by this

time the Pentecostal revival became common in different parts of the State.”60 Here he

may be talking about the revival and Pentecostal experience not the Church.

Stephen says that, “the revival in Kerala and the subsequent Pentecostal

awakening was a liberative movement as it was a protest against the theology and

practice of the Episcopal Churches.”61 So his claim of Syrian revival as a cause of

56
George, “Pentecostal Beginnings in Travancore, South India,” p. 220.
57
Ibid. p. 220.
58
Ibid.,
59
Saju, p. 28.
60
Saju, p. 29.
61
Ibid. p. 33.
 83

Pentecostal origin cannot be approved. Undoubtedly, Pentecostalism was the result of

awakening. However, the claim of the Syrian revival influence as one of the causes

should be examined.

Pastor Joseph totally disapproves this claim of Syrian revival and says that it is

a false propaganda. He adds, “Till recent past, the public opinion in Kerala was that,

Pentecostal means a Dalit Christian.” For instance, Puthen Kulangara Skariah, from

Karickode, Kottayam District, Kerala, adopted the Pentecostal faith from a Syrian

background, he was alienated from the family and they nicknamed him “Pulayan

Skariah.”

Another instance is, Pastor E.V. Joseph, a former minister of the Church of

God in India, left the Jacobite Church and accepted the Pentecostal fellowship; he was

called “Pulayan Avatha.”62 Pastor K.C. John, the General Secretary of Indian

Pentecostal Church, Kerala State has acknowledged that “it was Pastor K.E.

Abraham, the founder of IPC, has contributed a Syrian colour to Pentecostalism”.

K.E. Abraham in his biography recorded his bitter experience with the Brethren.

After his Baptism in the Holy Spirit experience, the Brethren Church that had been

constructed on his own land, a few yards away from his house, denied him the

privilege of worship in the same Church. Abraham describes it as a heart-breaking

experience. This is the case of a former Brethren believer who accepted the

Pentecostal faith.

Pastor Joseph mentioned a classical example covering the same attitude.

Robert F. Cook, the founder of Pentecostal Churches in Kerala had a Syrian cook,

62
ibid. p. 220.
 84

Oommechen, Brethren Church member.63 Every Sunday morning after serving food

to the missionary, Oommechen went to worship in his Brethren Church because it was

disgrace to him, to worship with the slave people in the missionary’s Church.

K.V. Simon, a most prominent Brethren teacher in Kerala had very critically

underestimated the experience of speaking in tongues and considered it as heretical.

Therefore, the history written in favor of the revival of these traditional Churches and

the Brethren movement, eclipse the true history of the Pentecostal origin in Kerala,

Samkutty says, “Though in the initial stage the Brethren fellowships welcomed

Pentecostal missionaries to preach among them, soon they changed their stand

because of the speaking in tongues experience.64 So Brethren contribution is also a

doubtful factor.

This necessitates a keen examination on the history of Kerala Pentecostals.

Burg’s ministry at Thuvayoor Kollam District led an independent prayer group under

the leadership of Paruthippara Oommechen, to adopt the Pentecostal teaching. Burg

conducted meetings in several parts of Central Travancore and attracted many people

to his fold. Mathai Upadeshi and an active worker of the Church Missionary Society,

Dr. Oommen Mathai accepted the doctrines of Burg and were baptized at Bangalore. 65

Miss. Bouncil and Miss. Ante Winkle, these missionaries came down to

Travancore to associate with Burg and later joined with Mathai Upadeshi and worked

in these places. However, these native converts very zealously proclaimed their

63
Robert F. Cook, Half a Century of Divine Leading. (Chengannor: Church of God Press, 1938),
p.101.

64
Samuel kutty, Place and Contribution, p. 68.
65
Ibid.,
 85

Pentecostal message in different parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu but could not

establish a single Pentecostal Church anywhere.

2.4.1. Robert F. Cook and South Indian Pentecostalism

Though the spirit of Pentecostalism sparkled in different parts of the country,

Robert F. Cook was the person who, according to Samuelkutty, shaped it in Kerala. 66

Cook was brought up in a pious Baptist lay preacher’s family. Cook was dedicated to

the service of the Lord by his father, at the age of fourteen, after his personal

conformation.67 He was active in the ministries of the Church, youth meetings and

open-air services. Many sick people were healed through his prayer including his

father.68 He started his evangelistic meetings right inside the Church and eight people

were saved.69 Later, he was endued with the power of God with speaking in tongues,

and interpretation. While he was attending the First world-wide Pentecostal Camp at

Chicago, Illinois, in 1912, he was conformed in calling to serve the Lord in India, by

the testimony of a missionary from India, and a vision confirmed it.70 This vision was

related to the work among the brown-skinned people in India. In October 1913, he

landed on Indian soil. After a brief stay at Ootacamund, they moved to Bangalore.

In 1914 January, Cook reached Kerala. They conducted meetings at

Kottarakkara, Adoor, and Thuvayoor. Due to the First World War, Cook had to

remain in Bangalore for security reasons. After the War, Cook had to join with a

foreign agency because of political compulsions. Therefore, in 1919, Cook associated

66
Samuelkutty, Place and Contribution, p. 68.
67
Ibid. p. 68.
68
Ibid. p.11.
69
Ibid. p. 68.
70
Ibid. pp. 15-16.
 86

with the Assemblies of God purely for political reason. In actual fact he was an

independent missionary in India and suffered in manifold ways for the sake of the

gospel. Since 1921, Cook and his second wife, Mrs. Bertha Fox settled in

Travancore.71 Because of his burning desire to evangelize Kerala and his limited

access to the people, Cook started a Bible training program at his residence in

Kottarakkara in 1922 he trained local men and sent them to the mission field.

However, his ministry was mainly among the subalterns and they supported his

missionary endeavor.

Since he was confirmed about his mission field in India, he always was willing

to associate with any one of his faith. Pastor Cook was concerned to work among the

poor. He remained faithful to his call to minister to the poor. 72 It is understood that

Cook always identified with the poor and needy and the outcastes always considered

him as an angel of God to them. He included adequate representation to the Dalit

leaders and pastors like M.M.John and P.C.Samuel were members of the Church

Councils.73 It must be noticed that though Cook mentioned the names of many Syrian

leaders, one question is, he hardly mentioned any Dalit convert. Cook lived as simply

as his people did in the congregation. He always had only one pair of pants mostly

torn and stitched and he accommodated any situation for his stay and food.74 Cook

introduced many new missionary methods to Indian church. He initiated Bible

Training program, which was the first of its kind in Kerala. His love for the deserted

orphans and widows was another example. He has contributed certain unique

71
Philip, Cook, pp. 78-79.
72
Ibid.,p. 34.
73
Samuelkutty, Place and Contribution, p. 71.
74
Philip, Cook, pp. 42-44.
 87

practices to Pentecostalism such as reciting raktham jaim, victory in the blood of

Jesus, beating the drum in the Church worship, may be associated with the Dalit style

of worship, namely, walking in line towards the river for baptism while singing and

proclaiming Bible verses. As in the case of Seymour, Kerala Pentecostalism is

founded upon the teachings and practices of Cook. He could be known as the father

of Kerala Pentecostalism. Therefore, Pentecostalism in Kerala is formulated with the

ministry of Cook. As it is already mentioned, the ministry of Cook was predominantly

among the lower castes, including the first founded Church at Thuvayoor.

2.5. Fibrous Roots of the South Indian Pentecostalism

By the middle of year 2000, Pentecostalism in India has grown to

approximately 33.5 million strong, ranking fifth in the world (behind Brazil, the

United States, China, and Nigeria) for total numbers in the renewal. Included in this

total are 1,253,041 classical Pentecostals; 5,032,741 Charismatics; and 27,234,219

Neocharismatics.75It will examine pre-twentieth century examples of Pentecostalism

in India, followed by a brief overview of the emergence of the classical

Pentecostalism, the Charismatic and the Neocharismatic movements, together with

four illustrative case studies illustrative of the several waves of the Indian renewal.

2.5.1. Classical Pentecostalism

The first two have links with the classical pentecostalism: the Assemblies of

God (AG, Springfield), and the Church of God (CG, Cleveland) and the third and

forth are `indigenous' groups are represented by the Ceylon Pentecostal Mission

75
D. Barrett, G. Kurian, and T.Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia, (New York: Oxford

University Press, 2000).

 88

(CPM) that in 1984 became The Pentecostal Mission (TPM) and Indian Pentecostal

Church (IPC) variety of non-American, though western, influences helped shape the

`complex network' now referred to as Indian Pentecostalism.76

2.5.1.1. The South Indian Assemblies of God (SIAG)

The first AG missionary to South India was Mary Weems Chapman who had

served in Africa. Chapman was an itinerant minister between Bombay-Pune in the

north and Bangalore-Madras in the south77. 94 In 1915, with Madras as her

operational base she was instrumental in establishing a Pentecostal ministry. In 1922,

Spencer May, a Welsh missionary joined her and published the first Indian

Pentecostal Magazine, Pentecostal Trumpet.78 Given the marginalisation of women

and considering the impact of the printed page, the Chapman-May team must to be

placed alongside Berg and Cook, and the entire foursome regarded as `Pioneers of

Indian Pentecostalism'.

Burgess commenting on the SLAG ministry writes: `Early Pentecostal

missionaries in South India focussed most of their attention on evangelistic work and

on training of Indian national evangelists and pastors'. 79 Chapman and Cook's

colleagues were Indian leaders like A. C Samuel, the superintendent of the AG and K.

E. Abraham who later founded the Indian Pentecostal Church (IPC). With power

healing as the mission strategy, Cook built a team of national co-workers with A. K.

76
T. B. Barrett of Norway and Karin and Ida Nilson of Sweden; Bergunder, Constructing Indian

Pentecostalism Issues on Methodology and Representation, pp. 138-139.

77
Pulikottil, Emergence pp. 50-52.
78
Burgess, `Pentecostalism in India', p. 90.
79
Ibid', p. 92.
 89

Varghese, K. E. Abraham, A. C. Samuel, A. J. John, T. M. Varghese, P. V. John,

Panthelam Matthai, who `became outstanding leaders of Pentecostal groups later'. 80

2.5.1.2. The Church of God in India (CGI)

The Church of God group was a precursor to American Pentecostalism. Its

history dates back to the 1886 meeting in Barney Creek, Tennessee. Tomlinson

recollects its modest beginnings and notes the role miracle healings played in its

growth.81 11° Yet, it was not until 11 January 1907, at its Second Annual Assembly at

Union Grove, Cleveland, the name `Church of God' was adopted and member

applicants were required to accept the doctrine of divine healing, with other

Pentecostal distinctive like Spirit baptism with tongues and fuller sanctification

subsequent to conversion.

In 1912, George Berg met Robert Cook at a convention in the USA. In

obedience to a call, the next year the Cooks arrived in India as independent

missionaries but joined the AG in Bangalore. Berg had mentored several native

leaders from the Brethren assemblies like Cumine, Ummachan, Mammen and

Matthai. Sadly Berg could not collaborate with Cook. Cook went on furlough but in

1929 returned with a clear vision to plant Pentecostal churches in South India. In

1936, having been befriended by J. H. Ingram, a CG, (Cleveland) minister, Cook left

the AG and joined the CG, now called the Full Gospel Church of God. The formation

of the Church of God in India (CGI) is credited to Cook's initiatives since his revival

80
George, Trailblazers for God, p. 40.
81
A. J. Tomlinson, `Brief History of the Church now recogniseda s the Church of God, p.7f.
 90

meetings, especially around Kerala produced a number of vibrant assemblies that

were by confession `Pentecostal'82. "

As work progressed (1940-1970) the CGI in several cities established prayer

houses, congregations, Bible schools and undertook humanitarian activities.

`Demoniacs were released, divine healings took place, and the word of this group

spread'. During this expansion stage the CG sent C. E. French, Dora Mayers and

William Pospisil, competent missioners to consolidate the work. After studying the

CGI's healing praxis Pospisil compiled their beliefs in a document called Scriptural

Divine Healing that the CGI's Indian leadership published in 1959 at its Chenganur

press, Kerala. Having interacted with CGI leaders at Faith Theological Seminary

(Manakkala) and Bethel Bible College,Punalur,

2.6. Indigenous Pentecostals

2.6. 1. The Indian Pentecostal Church of God (IPC)

One of the local preachers who served with Robert Cook was K. E. Abraham

who became founder of the Indian Pentecostal Church of God, a major indigenous

Pentecostal denomination from which have sprung numbers of other independent

movements. IPC is the largest indigenous Pentecostal movement in India and

continues to grow at the rate of one new church per week. In 1997, there were more

than 3000 local churches in India including 1700 in Kerala, 700 in Andhra, 210 in

Tamil Nadu, 70 in Karnataka, and smaller numbers in other states in North India and

the North East.83 The IPC is an important expression of Christian nationalism in India

82
Charles W. Conn, 'Indian Flashback', Where the Saints Have Trod: A History of the Church of God

Mission, (Cleveland: Pathway, 1959), pp. 219-225.

83
Sara Abraham, A Critical Evaluation of the Indian Pentecostal Church of God: Its Origin and
Development in Kerala, (M.Th. thesis, Serampore University, 1990). p.15.
 91

prior to India’s Independence. K. E. Abraham believed that ministry could progress

better without foreign missionary domination, viz., self-supporting churches should be

led by self-sacrificing national ministers; leadership should be in the hands of local

Christians; local churches should manage their own affairs and hold their own

property as independent Christian churches in an independent India. The IPC thus

challenged the Assemblies of God and the Church of God, which were of missionary

origins in India.

From these origins have emerged numerous Pentecostal movements. One

example is the Sharon Fellowship Church (SFC) and its institutions based at

Thiruvalla, begun by P. J. Thomas after he separated from the IPC in 1953. Today

SFC has more than 90,000 members and 450 congregations in Kerala and 350 outside

Kerala.

In Central India, the Pentecostal Church at Itarsi sponsors the Central India

Bible College, founded in 1962 by Kurien Thomas, directed today by Matthew

Thomas. The related Fellowship of the Pentecostal Churches of God in India,

established in 1966, reports more than 500 workers in 13 fields of service throughout

North and South India. This Fellowship is an example of one of the many ministries

to have emerged from the IPC.

These are but a few of the many Pentecostal denominations in India. The first

major scholarly study of South Indian Pentecostalism touches the history of all known

Pentecostal bodies in South India including those of indigenous origins as well as

those of international (foreign missionary) extraction. Bergunder lists a total of 71

Pentecostal bodies in the four southern states.

 92

2.6.2. The Ceylon Pentecostal Mission (CPM)

The origins of Pentecostalism in Sri Lanka are closely related to developments

in India. The earliest Pentecostal missionaries were not related to any denomination

but served as independent Christian workers. The most prominent among them was a

woman, Anna Lewini, from Denmark who first arrived in Colombo in 1919, returned

to Denmark in 1920, then came again to Sri Lanka where she remained for more than

three decades. In 1922, she rented a hall a Borella which became the first assembly of

Pentecostal Christians in Sri Lanka known as Glad Tidings Hall. In 1927, the name

was changed to Colombo Gospel Tabernacle.84 “Anna Lewini was the real founder of

Pentecostalism in Sri Lanka.”85Another figure, however, was to be more prominent,

because Anna Lewini deliberately chose a secondary position. “She labored and

founded the mission. Then she prayed for a man to arrive to take over the leadership.

When the person arrived she willingly handed over the ministry to that person.”86

Walter H. Clifford was that person who arrived from India to serve from 1924 to 1948

as an Assemblies of God missionary in Sri Lanka.87 Clifford’s ministry and influence

were extensive. He not only laid solid foundations for the Assemblies of God, but also

influenced other denominations.

84
G. P. V. Somaratna, Origins of the Pentecostal Mission in Sri Lanka, (Nugegoda: Margaya Fellowship,

1996), pp. 12, 16, 18.

85
G. P. V. Somaratna, Walter H. Clifford: Apostle of Pentecostalism in Sri Lanka, (Nugegoda: Margaya

Fellowship, 1997), p. 23.

86
Somaratna, Walter H. Clifford, p. 23.

87
Ibid. p. 25.
 93

According to historian Somaratna, “The Ceylon Pentecostal Mission owes its

origin to the ministry of Walter Clifford.” 88 The CPM began as a breakaway group in

1923 led by Alwin R. de Alwis and Pastor Paul. The CPM espoused an ascetic

approach to spirituality. Ministers were not to marry and they should wear white.

They disdained the use of medicine and gave central importance to the doctrine of the

second coming of Christ. Somaratna observes that testimonies of miraculous healing

attracted Buddhists and Hindus, and the wearing of white was appropriate culturally

in Sri Lanka, where Buddhist devotees wore white to visit the temples. The CPM also

instituted indigenous forms of worship.89

The CPM, despite its name, did not remain confined to Sri Lanka but spread to

other countries including South India, the birth place of Pastor Paul. He was originally

known as Ramankutty, born in 1881 to Hindu parents in the village of Engadiyur in

Trichur District, Kerala.90 Ramankutty’s first contact with Christianity was at

Colombo where he had a vision of the Lord Jesus Christ, which caused him to begin

secretly to pray and meditate on Jesus.91 In 1902 Ramankutty openly confessed Jesus

as Lord, was baptized and given the Christian name “Paul.”

His ministry developed gradually. It was reported that a leper, over whom Paul

prayed, was cured, and a person declared dead was brought to life. People were

attracted to his new fellowship called the Ceylon Pentecostal Mission. Among those

88
Ibid.,

89
Somaratna, Origins of the Pentecostal Mission in Sri Lanka, pp. 34-35, 40-41.

90
Paul C. Martin, “A Brief History of the Ceylon Pentecostal Mission” (a paper presented at the

Hyderabad Conference on Indigenous Christian Movements in India, October 27-31, 1998). Asian

Journal of Pentecostal Studies 8:1 (2005). p.78.

91
Ibid. p. 8.
 94

who joined was a college lecturer, Alwin R.de Alwis. Under the leadership of Pastor

Paul and Bro. Alwin, the CPM ministry spread beyond Colombo to Tamil Nadu and

Kerala, then to other countries.92

The CPM laid the foundation for other Pentecostal ministries, not only in Sri

Lanka and India but beyond. Today, says Paul C. Martin, the CPM under various

names, is one of the largest Pentecostal movements in the world with branches in

several countries. While exact membership figures are not yet available, here are 848

branches worldwide (including 708 in India) and about 3984 full-time ministers

presided over by chief pastor C. K. Lazarus.93 In addition, there are numbers of

independent assemblies and movements which have severed connections with the

CPM. Some of these are prominent, such as the Apostolic Christian Assembly in

Tamil Nadu, founded by G. Sundram, led today by Sam Sundaram and others

2.6.3. Apostolic Christian Assembly

Madras and Tamil Nadu have experienced numerous break-away movement

and independent church activities. Caplan makes the interesting observation that

“theologians display an almost palpable reluctance to engage the beliefs and practices

of ordinary Hindus” whereas it is this folk religion perspective which is address by the

popular Christianity which is prevalent today in a large number of Pentecostal and

other South Indian independent churches.94

The Apostolic Christian assembly is one of the prominent indigenous Church

bodies of Madras. (Chennai). ACA was founded as an autonomous Pentecostal

church in Madras city by the late Pastor G.Sundram. Worship is bilingual in Tamil

92
Ibid., .
93
Ibid. pp. 5, 12.
94
Lionel Caplan, “Popular Christianty in Urban south India”1983, p.44.
 95

and English, Much of the worship is devoted to congregation singing, an intense

personal experience of the grace of God and personal testimonies. Pastor Sundaram

was identifies as a religious guru. “Pastor Sundram has little churchly authority in

from familiar to Western Christians, but the fascination of the congregation with his

saintliness and their willingness to accord him authority over their daily lives is a

pattern that has a strong tradition in Tamil religious history.” 95

In his study of South Indian charismatic Leaders, Hoerschelmann was

impressed the simply life-style and genuine character of the Patriarch who “practices

what he preacher.”96 Sundram’s theology is centered in Christ and the Holy Spirit.

“The order of salvation begins with a deep awareness of sin, progresses to a

confession of sin, rebirth, and baptism by immersion and finally anointing by the

Holy Spirit as the experience of accepting and being accepted by Christ.97 Salvation is

an experienced event with a particular time and place. Christ is God incarnate whose

shed blood cleanses from sin, weakness, sickness and bad luck.98

ACA today is led by Senior Pastor K. Sam Sundaram who was ordained by

Pastor G. Sundaram. It is ordained that in mid-1993 the main church at

Purasavakkam had membership of 15, 000 which had increased to 20,000 by the end

of the 2010. ACA represents a broad cross section of society, rich as well as poor,

educated and illiterate. The church engages in a wide range of the activities including

relief and welfare ministries, developmental projects, church planting, evangelist

outreach and conventions. a number of schools and four children’s home are

maintained .ACA is a vibrant model of a South Indian indigenous Pentecostalism .

95
Ibid. pp.195-196.
96
Werner Hoeschelmann, “Christian Gurus” (Chennai: Gurukul Publications, 1998), p.118.
97
Ibid. p.100.
98
Ibid. p113.
 96

2.6.4: Madras Pentecostal Assembly

Madras Pentecostal Assembly ministries began as a small Sunday school in

1918. It soon grew into a Church and thus was formed the Madras Pentecostal

Assembly which was registered on August 17th, 1934. The M.P.A Ministries has

since became a multifaceted ministry comprising of Churches, orphan Homes,

Schools, Magazine, and Village Mission. Pastor B. Jacob was the founder of MPA.

John Vasu joined with him to build the kingdom of God.

2.6. 4.1. The life and ministry of John Vasu

John Vasu was a legendary Pentecostal Pastor and a Visionary Leader. He was

one of the pioneering Pentecostal leaders in South India recognized both nationally

and internationally in his generation. John Vasu was born 100 years ago on September

2nd 1909. He became a follower of Jesus Christ at the age of sixteen. He received a

call to ministry through a supernatural experience in which he was taken to heaven.

He obeyed the heavenly vision and entered into full time ministry at the age of

nineteen. He then joined with Pastor B. Jacob to found the Madras Pentecostal

Assembly and later served as its Superintending Pastor. He married Kirubai Conrad

on 6.6.1941 and they had two children. Prabhudoss Vasu and Mrs. Sheila Allwin.

 John Vasu Published one of the first Pentecostal magazines in India in English

and tamil in 1938 called the Balm of Gilead.

 He also started one of the first Pentecostal Bible Colleges in South India in 1950

called the Madras Bible Institute. He labored much to promote unity among

Pastors and churches and formed the first fellowship for the Pentecostal Pastors.

 He served as the first President of the All India Pentecostal Fellowship from 1957

to 1962.
 97

 He served as the first President of the Pentecostal Fellowship Madras from 1956

until his home call in 1962.

 He was the first representative of India in the World Pentecostal Conference

Committee from 1949 until his home call in 1962.

 He was also the Chairman of the historic T. L. Osborn crusade in Madurai in

1961. He was great mentor of young leaders and encouraged them in the ministry

many of whom have become outstanding Christian Leaders today.

 John Vasu was an outstanding preacher of the world of God and was considered a

Prince of Preachers in India in his time.

 Pastor John Vasu cared deeply for the poor and the needy and labored much for

the welfare of the orphans and the widows.

 He took many efforts to establish schools for the education of the deprived and the

downtrodden people of society. He was a man of deep love and humility, soft

spoken and a man of few words. He was a celebrated resident of Chennai well

respected by the society.

 He was appointed as a honorary Magistrate by the Government. He went to be

with the Lord on 7th July 1962 after an untiring ministry of 33 years. His family

has continued to serve the Lord even to the third and fourth generation.

2.6.4.2.The life and ministry of John vasu

His son Prabhudoss Vasu was also a great Pentecostal leader serving the Lord.

Prabhudoss Vasu was born on May 25th 1942 in Rajahmundry Andhra Pradesh. He

was the eldest son of John Vasu and Mrs. Kirubai Vasu, both outstanding Pentecostal

leaders of their generation. He was a talented musician who could play the accordion,

keyboard, guitar and violin. He travelled to many villages, towns and cities, playing
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the accordion and preaching the gospel. At age 23 he was ordained as a Pastor and at

the age of 29 he became the Superintending Pastor of the Madras Pentecostal

Assembly Mission.

 Prabhudoss Vasu was one of the most widely respected Pentecostal Leaders in

India. He took an active part in interdenominational ministries serving as

Secretary to the Pentecostal Fellowship of India (PFI), Vice President of

Pentecostal Press Association of India (PPAI)

 President of Intermission Development Association (IIDA).He was a powerful

preacher and a gifted teacher. His deep exposition of the word of God has won

him acclaim throughout India and many parts of the world.

 Prabhudoss Vasu died on March 3rd 1995 at the age of 52 during the annual

Convention of the Madras Pentecostal Assembly Mission when thousands of

believers and Pastors from all churches of MPA Mission had gathered. Pastor

Prabhudoss Vasu went to be with the Lord after an untiring ministry of 33

years, his son Stanely Vasu is carrying on the ministry of MPA Mission.

2.6.5: Influence of Indian Pentecostal Ministers

Hoerschelmann describes as Christian Gurus and bearers of the Pentecostal

`Four Square formula'.99

2.6. 5.1.Paulaseer Lawrie: Prophetic Healing

Bergunder notes: `It was Paulaseer Lawrie who became the first famous

Indian healing evangelist. From spring 1961 till 1966, Lawrie drew enormous crowds

99
Hoerschelmann, Christian Gurus.. (Jesus: Saviour, Healer, Sanctifier and coming-King, 1998),
p.392.
 99

and it was he who introduced this kind of healing ministry into Indian Christianity. 100

Lawrie was famous for `anointing with oil' and exorcisms `in Jesus' name'.

Reports in his magazine Healing Leaves promoted him `as preacher, healer, and victor

over the devil and his demons'101. 56 His power was believed to come from his

proximity to God. He was linked with Oral Roberts who funded his `Mass Salvation-

Healing Campaigns'. Lawrie claimed he was chosen to usher in the kingdom and

considered William Branham from Chicago as his forerunner. He set up the `Bride

Church', a sectarian group at Manujothi Ashram and shifted his focus from healing to

prophecy.

2.6. 5.2. Sara Navaroji: The Role of Women

People recognize the power of bhajan-like bible songs for indigenous

worship, as an attention-getter and therapy for the broken-hearted. He has been

singularly inspired by Sara Navaroji (CPM): the celestial singer [in whose] meetings,

sermons, prayers, and testimonies pale in comparison to the singing.102 He knows he

is no match to Navaroji: `She has mastered music and composes songs that are

relevant to peoples' needs'.Themes of praise or thanksgiving create an ethos of

acceptance, space for renewal and become a means of comfort. Interestingly, Navaroji

is also a gifted healer and exorcist. She remains single with a simple lifestyle that

denounces `worldliness' and reveals `a mystical, virtually romantic relationship with

Jesus'.103 Subsequently, many women Pentecostal leaders strated to emerege on the

100
Bergunder, `From Pentecostal Healing Evangelist to Kalki Avatar: The Remarkable Life of
Paulaseer Lawrie', Christians and Missionaries in India. (Frykenberg (ed. ), Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2003),p p. 357-375.
101
Hoerschelmann, Christian Gurus, p. 254.
102
Ibid. p.118.
103
Ibid .,p.122
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Indian soil such as Papa Shankar, Padma Mudalliar and pastors wives and women as a

pastor served widely for the growth of Pentecostalism in South India.

2.6.5.2. D.G.S Dhinakaran

Dhinakaran's ministry is popularized through musical albums, some

composed by him. Like Navaroji, he utilises the media of traditional folk culture for

evangelism, to build relationships with seekers and deal with social concerns thereby

giving voice to the voiceless. Healing Through Charismata and Compassion

Dhinakaran's Pentecostal healings are theologically linked to the Spirit's gifts of

power and the grace of compassion. `Presence and manifestation are closely

connected and have loomed largely (rightly so) in Pentecostal theology and

experience'. At the root of the word charisma, plural charismata, is charis meaning

grace. The suffix - ma implies the result of grace. Dhinakaran teaches that since

believers have received grace from God, they have the potential to exhibit any result

of that grace.

However, there are nuanced meanings and ambiguities that arise in trying to

define the concept of `gifts of the Spirit', which he does deal with but simply relates

the term to the `nine gifts' in l Cor. 12: 8-10. One must object to this exclusive linkage

since `charismata' in the Bible is not a technical term referring to one identifiable

entity and the key passages that address its use are neither comprehensive nor

exhaustive

2.6.6. Neocharismatics

By far the largest category within the renewal in India is that of the

Neocharismatics. These are Christian bodies with Pentecostal-like experiences and a

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common emphasis on the Holy Spirit that have no traditional Pentecostal or

Charismatic denominational connections. This is a catch-all category of dozens of

independent, indigenous, post denominational denominations and groups. According

to Roger E.Hedlund, Indian Christians of indigenous origins include members of

tribal communities, converted Dalits or untouchables, as well as converts from much

earlier indigenous Christian churches in India, such as the St. Thomas Christians in

Kerala and Tamil Nadu.10422 By far the largest Renewal group in India is the New

Apostolic Church founded in 1969, with total adherents of 1,448,209. The second

largest, the Independent Pentecostal Church of God or IPC (founded in 1924) has c.

900,000 adherents throughout India and ten other countries. The New Life Fellowship

(founded in 1968) now has approximately 480,000 adherents, and the Manna Full

Gospel churches and ministries founded in 1968 with connections to Portugal) has

275,000. Millions more are Neocharismatics in older independent Christian churches,

such as the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, and the non baptized believers in Christ.

2.7.Pentecostalism in North India:

The Sialkot (Punjab in pre-independent India) revival in 1904 revived the

missionary work in north India. The American missionary John Hyde was working in

Sialkot at the headquarters of the United Presbyterian Mission. He was engaged in

constant and extensive prayer for revival and subsequently became known as ‘Praying

Hyde,’ ‘the Apostle of Prayer’ and ‘the man who never sleeps.’ The revival broke out

early in 1904 in the girl’s school at Sialkot, headed by Mary Campbell, and from there

spread to the nearby theological seminary. According to Basil Miller, public

104
Chief Editor, “Indian Instituted Churches: Indigenous Christianity Indian Style,” Mission Studies,
Vol,16 (January 13, 1999), pp. 26-42.
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confession of sins, holy laughter, dance, clapping of hands, shouting, falling to the

ground, trance-like states, and visions of heaven, angels and Jesus were some of the

major visible manifestations of this revival. 105 While there was no specific record of

speaking in tongues, nowhere is it mentioned that there was no speaking in tongues.

On the other hand, it is said that each year the Sialkot convention witnessed ‘fresh

baptisms of the Spirit unto sanctification, unto prayer, unto praise and service.’ 106 The

Dholka (Gujarat) awakening is another link in the history of Indian revivals,

particularly in the north. According to Advocate P.T. Joseph, the former Dean of

Gujarat Christian Ashram, an outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the boys’ orphanage in

Dholka, near Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 1905, took place simultaneously with the Mukti

Revival.107On the other hand, Orr dates the revival to 1906. There were six hundred

boys in the orphanage, run by the Alliance missionaries, Mr. Mark Fuller and his

wife. Confession of sins and cries of penitence, tongues-speaking and spontaneous

prayer meetings, even at midnight, were some of the significant manifestations of this

revival. Although there is a disagreement in terms of the date, the greatest impact of

this revival was that ‘a wave of evangelism surged’ to the surrounding

villages.108Unfortunately, no primary records of both these revivals are available.

Furthermore, both of them were led by western missionaries, although not directly

linked to North American Pentecostalism.

105
Basil Miller, Praying Hyde: The Story of John Hyde, A Man of Prayer, (Belfast, Northern Ireland:

Ambassador, 2000), p. 47.

106
Miller, Praying Hyde, p.75.
107
P.T. Joseph, ‘Penthecosthu Sathabdhiyum Dholkam Unarvum’ The Centenary of Pentecostalism and
the Dholkam Revival, Good News Weekly, Vol 28, no. 43 (2005), p. 4.
108
Orr, Evangelical Awakening in South Asia, p.148.
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2.8. Central India

The Mukti Revival is the most outstanding among all indigenous revivals in

India. As mentioned earlier in section (4.2.1.2), it took place in 1905 at Pandita

Ramabai Saraswati’s Mukti Mission, founded to care for orphans and widows, in

Kedgaon, near Poona, Maharastra.109 However, Anderson’s study very succinctly

shows that she defended ‘the Indian Pentecostal manifestations including tongues.’110

Among all the revivals in India, the Mukti Revival contributed greatly to both Indian

as well as global Pentecostalism.Anderson identifies four far-reaching

consequences.111 Firstly, Mukti shows that the revival in India preceded and inspired

that of Azusa Street, and that it was a ‘full-grown’ Pentecostal revival. Secondly,

women played a more important role in the Indian revival than in the American one.

Thirdly, Mukti revealed an openness to other Christians, and thus we see ‘an

ecumenicity and inclusiveness’, in sharp contrast to the rigid exclusivism of the

Pentecostal Movement in general. Finally, Mukti became the source of inspiration for

Latin American Pentecostalism.

2.9. North East India

Another revival broke out among the tribal communities in the Khasi and

Jaintia Hills in north east India in the early 1900s. It began with evening prayer

meetings at Mawphlang in the Khasi Hills of central Assam to seek an outpouring of

the Holy Spirit throughout Khasi and the entire world. In 1904, these prayer meetings

became more fervent. However, the real outpouring of the Spirit with visible

manifestations took place in March 1905 during the Presbytery meeting at Pariong in

109
Anderson, Spreading Fires, pp. 77-89.
110
Ibid, pp.83-85.
111
Ibid, pp. 87-89.
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the west Khasi hills, and then spread to Mizoram.112 It is reported that another revival

took place in Calcutta in 1907 with the coming of western Pentecostal missionaries

Alfred and Lilian Garr. Alfred Goodrich Garr was the pastor of the Metropolitan

Holiness Church in Los Angeles. He and his wife Lilian were among the first Azusa

Street missionaries to travel overseas. After their Spirit baptism, and being motivated

by their missionary tongues theology, as discussed earlier, they came to Calcutta in

December 1906.113 In January 1907, they were invited by Pastor C.H. Hook to share

about the Azusa Street Revival, and also to hold services at William Carey’s former

Baptist church in Lal Bazar, Calcutta. They continued their meetings in a large house

at Creek Row, rented by Moorhead, who at the time was Presbyterian secretary of the

YMCA in Ceylon, Sri Lanka. Lilian Garr informed the Azusa Street Mission about

the revival in March 1907 and reported that thirteen or fourteen missionaries and

other workers had received Spirit baptism.114 Moorhead was one of them, and soon he

became an independent Pentecostal missionary. McGee’s study reveals that the

revival manifestations included a deep sense of conviction of sin, public confession of

sin, falling to the floor, howling, shrieking, groaning, praising, holy laughter and

singing in tongues.115 Although Garr insisted on the doctrine of missionary tongues

and tongues as the initial evidence of Spirit baptism, within weeks he had to modify

Parham’s doctrine on the utility of tongues. However, he retained the doctrine of

tongues as the definite sign of Holy Spirit baptism. Among all the Indian revivals, this

is the only revival that is directly connected to the Azusa Street revival, and it was one

112
Orr, Evangelical Awakening in South Asia, pp.112-13.
113
Estrelda Alexander, The Women of Azusa Street, (Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press, 2005), pp. 89-92.
114
Anderson, Spreading Fires, p. 89.
115
McGee, Calcutta Revival, p.128-29.
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of the latest of all the revivals discussed above. However, the most significant fact is

that Calcutta Revival, initiated by the Garrs, was primarily a revival among foreign

missionaries, and the number of participants in the revival was comparatively small,

and had little impact on the Indians, unlike most other revivals.

2.10.Other Indigenous Pentecostal Movement

Other indigenous, Pentecostal experiences occurred like the 1905 revival

among the Khasi Hill tribes of Northeast India that spread to Mizoram. Here also

there were distinct phenomena such as being slain in the Spirit and Pentecostal

churches were established where worship included tongues. Divine healing was

taught and the ministry of exorcism practiced making the ministry strong, viable and

meaningful among the tribal communities.

Summary

The chapter identifies the forms of Pre-Pentecostal Christianity, precursor of

the Pentecostal revival, Christian traditions in the 19th and 20th century.The Chapter

traces the salient features of the institutional Pentecostalism and also of the

contribution of the individuals towards the formation of Pentecostal ethos, spirituality

and theology and therefore helping it to define and formulate its core beliefs and

practices.

Pentecostalism is defined as such not only because of its sheer presence in the

different parts of the globe but because of its embrace of the diverse cultures and

traditions of the people. Pentecostalism denotes the commonalities in features and

practices of the Pentecostal spirituality. This Chapter helps us to identify the structural

aspects of the origin, growth and development of Pentecostalism as well as of the

influence of the charismatic leaders in augmenting the popular form of Christianity.

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The present chapter aided to place the condition of Christianity in India in

general and about Pentecostalism its origin, growth and development in the different

parts of India and in particular about Pentecostalism with its attendant descriptions

and characteristics. In line with this research concern the present chapter investigated

the historical context and identity of Indian Pentecostalism. This chapter identified the

indigenous forms of charismatic uprising in India before the coming of western forms

of Pentecostalism in the Indian subcontinent. The chapter further traced the trajectory

of Indian Pentecostalism highlighting the important key figures, movements and

issues which arose within Indian Pentecostalism in general and in South Indian

Pentecostalism in particular. The present chapter shows that the quest for identity is

one of the concerns of Indian Christianity, including Pentecostals. Pentecostals are an

integral part of Indian Christianity which has had a long history. The Indian Christian

tradition is rooted in Eastern rather than Western Christianity. Although both the

Catholic and the Protestant form of Christianity were brought to India by Westerners

during the fifteenth through eighteenth centuries respectively, India has a strong

tradition of indigenous Christianity, as old as Christianity itself. It is true that the

eighteenth and nineteenth century missionary enterprises created an earnest

missionary passion and zeal among the indigenous population, and this paved the way

for a spiritual awakening. However, the above discussion shows that Pentecostalism

in India is not an imported religious movement; rather it is the product of indigenous

spiritual awakenings that took place in contextual style among local people in several

parts of the nation. The role of natives is commendable and remarkable in the real

expansion of the movement which began to take place through indigenous Pentecostal

churches and workers, who took the movement to various regions of the nation.