01-Basic Probability Theory

26-Dec-15
Basic Concepts of Probability Theory

Addis Ababa Science & Technology University
Outline
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Introduction
Sample Space and Events
Basic Set Operations
Axioms and Properties of Probability
Probability and Random Process (EEEg-2114)
Conditional Probability
Independence of Events
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Probability Theory
Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 2
Introduction Sample Space and Events

Events can in general be classified as: i. Random Experiment
• Random-the event may or may not occur
A random experiment is an experiment in which the outcome
• Certain- the occurrence of the event is inevitable
varies in an unpredictable manner when the experiment is
• Impossible-the event will never occur
repeated under the same conditions.
Probability is the study of randomness and uncertainty.
Examples:
Probability theory provides powerful tools to explain, model • Tossing a coin
and design real world physical systems with some degree of • Rolling a die
uncertainty. • Picking a card from a deck
Some application areas of probability theory include: ii. Sample Space
• Data communication systems
The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a
• Wireless communication systems
random experiment.
• Control systems, etc…
Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 3 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 4
1
26-Dec-15
Sample Space and Events Cont’d…. Sample Space and Events Cont’d….
The sample space is denoted by Ω and the possible outcomes ii. Some possible events
are represented by ω i An event of obtaining even numbers
Ω = {ω1 , ω 2 , ......ω n } A = { 2 , 4, 6 }
iii. Event An event of obtaining numbers less than 4

An event is any subset of the sample of the sample space, Ω B = {1 , 2, 3 }
Events can be represented by A, B, C, …… Example-2:

Example-1: Consider a random experiment of flipping a fair coin twice.
Consider a random experiment of rolling a die once. i. Sample space
i. Sample Space Ω = { HH , HT, TH, TT }
Ω = {1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
Sample Space and Events Cont’d…. Basic Set Operations

We can combine events using set operations to obtain other
ii. Some possible events
events.
An event of getting exactly one head
1. Union
A = { HT , TH }
The union of two events A and B is defined as the set of outcomes
An event of getting at least one tail that are either in A or B or both and is denoted by A U B .
B = { HT , TH, TT }
A U B = {ω : ω ∈ A or ω ∈ B} ⇔ A U B = {ω : ω ∈ A ∨ ω ∈ B}
An event of getting at most one tail Ω
C = { HH , HT , TH } A B
E F
A∪B
2
26-Dec-15
Basic Set Operations Cont’d….. Basic Set Operations Cont’d…..

2. Intersection 3. Complement
The intersection of two events A and B is defined as the set of The complement of an event A is defined as the set of all
outcomes that are common to both A and B and is denoted by outcomes that are not in A and is denoted by A .
A I B.
A = {ω : ω ∈ Ω and ω ∉ A} ⇔ A = {ω : ω ∈ Ω ∧ ω ∉ A}
A I B = {ω : ω ∈ A and ω ∈ B} ⇔ A I B = {ω : ω ∈ A ∧ ω ∈ B}
Ω
Ω
EA A
A B
A∩B
Basic Set Operations Cont’d…..

Some Properties of Set Operations
4. Mutually Exclusive (Disjoint) Events
1. Elementary Properties
Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive or disjoint i. Ω = Φ v. A U A = Ω
if A and B have no elements in common, i.e., A I B = Φ ii. Φ = Ω vi. A I A = Φ
iii. Ω U A = Ω vii. A = A
iv. Ω I A = A
A B
2. Commutative Properties
AU B = BU A
A∩ B = φ AI B = BI A
3. Associative Properties
5. Equal Events
A U (B U C ) = ( A U B) U C
Two events A and B are said to equal if they contain the same A I (B I C ) = ( A I B) I C
outcomes and is denoted by A=B.
3
26-Dec-15
Some Properties of Set Operations Cont’d….. Axioms and Properties of Probability

4. Distributive Properties
Probability is a rule that assigns a number to each event A in the
A U (B I C ) = ( A U B) I ( A U C )
A I (B U C ) = ( A I B) U ( A I C ) sample space, Ω.
5. DeMorgan’s Rules In short , the probability of any event A is given by
( A U B) = A I B n( A)
P( A) =
( A I B) = A U B n (Ω )
where
The union and intersection operations can be repeated for an n( A) - is the number of elements in the event A
arbitrary number of events as follows. n(Ω) - is the number of elements in the sample space Ω
n
UA i = A1 U A2 U .... U An
i =1
n
IA i = A1 I A2 I ... I An
i =1
Axioms and Properties of Probability Cont’d….. Axioms and Properties of Probability Cont’d…..
The probability of an event A is a real number which satisfies the 3. Probability of the union of two mutually exclusive (disjoint)
following axioms. events is the sum of the probability of the events, i.e.,
1. Probability is a non-negative number, i.e., If A I B = Φ, then P( A U B ) = P( A) + P( B)
P ( A) ≥ 0 We can generalize axiom (3) for n pairwise mutually
2. Probability of the whole set is unity, i.e., exclusive (disjoint) events.
P ( Ω) = 1 If A1, A2, A3, …, An is a sequence of n pairwise mutually
From axioms (1) and (2), we obtain exclusive (disjoint) events in the sample space Ω such that
Ai I Aj = Φ, for i ≠ j, then
0 ≤ P( A) ≤ 1
 n  n
P U Ai  = ∑ P( Ai )
 i =1  i =1
4
26-Dec-15
By using the above probability axioms, other useful We can decompose the events A, B and AUB as unions of
properties of probability can be obtained. mutually exclusive (disjoint) events as follows.
1. P ( A) = 1 − P ( A)
Proof: A B
A I A = Φ ⇒ P( A U A) = P( A) + P ( A), but A U A = Ω
⇒ P(Ω) = P ( A) + P( A), P (Ω) = P( A U A)
⇒ 1 = P ( A) + P( A), P (Ω) = 1
∴ P ( A) = 1 − P ( A)
AI B AI B AI B
We can see that A I B, A I B and A I B are disjoint events.

From the above Venn diagram, we can write the following

2. P ( A U B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A I B )
relations.
i. A = ( A I B) U ( A I B) ii . B = ( A I B) U ( A I B)
Proof:
⇒ P ( A) = P ( A I B ) + P ( A I B ) ⇒ P(B) = P( A I B) + P( A I B)
⇒ P( A I B) = P(B) − P( A I B) P ( A U B ) = P ( A) + P ( A I B )
⇒ P ( A I B ) = P ( A) − P ( A I B )
But, P ( A I B ) = P ( B ) − P ( A I B )
iv . A U B = B U ( A I B) ∴ P ( A U B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A I B )
iii . A U B = A U (A I B)
⇒ P( A U B) = P(B) + P( A I B)
⇒ P ( A U B ) = P ( A) + P ( A I B )
We can generalize the above property for three events A, B and C
v. A U B = ( A I B) U ( A I B) U ( A I B) as follows.
⇒ P( A U B) = P( A I B) + P( A I B) + P( A I B)
P ( A U B U C ) = P( A) + P ( B ) + P (C ) − P ( A I B) − P( A I C ) − P ( B I C )
+ P( A I B I C )
5
26-Dec-15
Example-1:
For n events A1, A2, A3,…,An the above property can be
A box contains 10 identical balls numbered 0, 1, 2,…,9. A single
generalized as:
ball is selected from the box at random. Consider the following
 n  n n
P U Ai  = ∑ P ( A j ) − ∑ P ( A j I Ak ) + .... + ( −1) n P ( A1 I A2 I ... I An ) events.
 i =1  j =1 j <k
A: number of ball selected is odd
3. P ( A U B ) ≤ P ( A) + P ( B )
B: number of ball selected is multiple of 3
Proof:
C: number of ball selected is less than 5
P ( A U B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A I B )
Find the following probabilities.
But, P ( A I B ) ≥ 0
∴ P ( A U B ) ≤ P ( A) + P ( B ) a. P( A) d. P ( A I B)
b. P( B ) e. P ( A U B U C )
c. P (C )
Axioms and Properties of Probability Cont’d…..

Axioms and Properties of Probability Cont’d…..
Thus, probabilities of the given events are given by:
Solution:
n( A) 5 1 n( A I B) 2 1
The sample space and the events are given by: a. P ( A) = = = d . P ( A I B) = = =
n(Ω) 10 2 n( Ω) 10 5
Ω = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} n( B ) 3 n( A U B U C ) 9
b. P ( B ) = = e. P( A U B U C ) = =
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} A I B = {3, 9} n(Ω) 10 n ( Ω) 10
B = {3, 6, 9} A U B U C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9} n(C ) 5 1
c. P (C ) = = =
The number of elements in the sample space and events are: n(Ω) 10 2
Example-2:
n(Ω) = 10 n(C ) = 5
n( A) = 5 n( A I B) = 2 Given P ( A) = 0.9, P ( B ) = 0.8 and P ( A I B ) = 0.75, find :
n( B) = 3 n( A U B U C ) = 9 a. P ( A U B ) c. P ( A I B ) e. P ( A U B )
b. P ( A I B ) d . P( A U B) f . P ( B)
6
26-Dec-15
Solution: Exercise:
a. P( A U B) = P( A) + P(B) − P( A I B) d . P( A U B) = P( A I B) = 1 − P( A I B) 1. If A I B = Φ, then show that P( A) ≤ P( B).
⇒ P( A U B) = 0.9 + 0.8 − 0.75 ⇒ P( A U B) = 1 − 0.75 2. If P( A) = P( B) = P( A I B), then show that
∴P( AU B) = 0.95 ∴ P( A U B) = 0.25
P[( A I B) U ( A I B)] = 0.
b. P( A I B) = P( A) − P( A I B) e. P( AU B) = 1− P( A) + P( AI B) 3. If P( A) = P( B) = 1, then show that P( A I B) = 1.
⇒ P( A U B) = 0.9 − 0.75 ⇒ P( A U B) = 1− 0.9 + 0.75 4. If P( A) = 0.9 and P( B) = 0.8, then show that P ( A I B) ≥ 0.7
∴P( A U B) = 0.15 ∴P( AU B) = 0.85
c. P( A I B) = P( A U B) = 1 − P( A U B) f . P ( B) = 1 − P( B)
⇒ P( A I B) = 1 − 0.95 ⇒ P( B) = 1 − 0.8
∴ P( A U B) = 0.05 ∴ P ( B ) = 0.2
Conditional Probability Conditional Probability Cont’d…….

The conditional probability of an event A given B, denoted by Then using equation (3), we will get
P(A/B), is defined as:
P( B / A) P( A) P( A / B) P( B)
P( A / B) = OR P( B / A) = (4)
P( A I B) P( B) P( A)
P( A / B) = , P( B) > 0 (1)
P( B )
We know that
Similarly, the conditional probability of an event B given A, P( B) = P( A I B) + P( A I B)
denoted by P(B/A), is given by ⇒ P( B) = P( B / A) P( A) + P( B / A) P( A) (5)
P( A I B) Substituting equation (5) into equation (4), we will get
P( A / B) = , P( B) > 0 (2)
P( B )
P ( B / A) P( A)
P( A / B) = (6)
From equations (1) and (2), we will get P( B / A) P( A) + P( B / A) P( A)
P( A I B) = P( A / B) P( B) = P( B / A) P( A) (3)
7
26-Dec-15
Conditional Probability Cont’d……. Conditional Probability Cont’d…….

Similarly, Let B be any event in Ω as shown below.
P ( A / B ) P( B) .....
P( B / A) = (7) A2
P( A / B) P( B ) + P( A / B) P( B) A1 An −1
Equations (6) and (7) are known as Baye’s Rule. B

Baye’s Rule can be extended for n events as follows.
A3 ..... An
Let events A1, A2, A3, …, An be pairwise mutually exclusive
(disjoint ) events and their union be the sample space Ω, i.e.
n B = B I ( A1 U A2 U .... U An )
Ai I A j = Φ and UA =Ω ⇒ B = ( B I A1 ) U ( B I A2 ) U ... U ( B I An )
i
i =1
 n  n
⇒ P U Ai  = ∑ P ( Ai ) But, Ai I A j = Φ ⇒ ( B I Ai ) I ( B I A j ) = Φ
 i =1  i =1
Conditional Probability Cont’d……. Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

Example-1:
The events B I Ai and B I A j are mutually exclusive events.
Show that P( A / B) = 1 − P( A / B)
⇒ P ( B) = P( B I A1 ) + P( B I A2 ) + ... + P( B I An )
⇒ P ( B) = P( B / A1 ) P( A1 ) + P( B / A2 ) P( A2 ) + ... + P( B / An ) P( An ) (8) Solution:

In short, P( B ) = P( A I B ) + P( A I B)
n n
P ( B) = ∑ P ( B I Ai ) = ∑ P ( B / Ai ) P ( Ai ) (9) ⇒ P( B ) = P( A / B ) P( B) + P( A / B ) P ( B)
i =1 i =1
Dividing both sides by P( B ), we obtain
Then using equation (4), we will obtain
1 = P( A / B ) + P ( A/B)
P( B / Ai ) P( Ai )
P( Ai / B) = n
(10)
∑ P( B / A ) P( A )
i i
∴ P( A/B ) = 1 − P ( A / B)
i =1
8
26-Dec-15
Conditional Probability Cont’d….. Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

Example-2: Example-3:
Let A and B be two events such that P(A)=x, P(B)=y and
P(B/A)=z. Find the following probabilities in terms of x, y and z. A box contains two black and three white balls. Two balls are
a. P ( A / B ) selected at random from the box without replacement. Find the
b. P ( A U B ) probability that
c. P ( A / B )
a. both balls are black
Solution:
P ( A I B ) = P ( B / A) P ( A) = xz b. the second ball is white
P ( A I B) xz
a. P ( A / B ) = = Solution:
P( B) y
b. P ( A U B ) = P ( A I B) = 1 − P ( A I B ) = 1 − xz First let us define the events as follows:
P ( A I B) P ( B) − P ( A I B) xz
c. P ( A / B ) = = = 1− B1 : the outcome in the first selection is a black ball
P( B) P( B ) y

Example-4:
B2 : the outcome in the second selection is a black ball
Box A contains 100 bulbs of which 10% are defective. Box B
W1 : the outcome in the first selection is a white ball
contains 200 bulbs of which 5% are defective. A bulb is
W2 : the outcome in the second selection is a black ball
picked from a randomly selected box.
P ( B1 ) = 2 / 5 P ( B2 / B1 ) = 1 / 4 P (W2 / B1 ) = 3 / 4
P (W1 ) = 3 / 5 P ( B2 / W1 ) = 2 / 4 P (W2 / W1 ) = 2 / 4 a. Find the probability that the bulb is defective
a. P ( B 1 I B 2 ) = P ( B 2 / B 1 ) P ( B 1 ) = (1 / 4 )( 2 / 5 ) b. Assuming that the bulb is defective, find the probability

∴ P ( B 1 I B 2 ) = 1 / 10
that it came from box A.
b. P (W 2 ) = P (W 2 I B 1 ) + P (W 2 I W 1 )
= P (W 2 / B 1 ) P ( B 1 ) + P (W 2 / W 1 ) P (W 1 )
= ( 3 / 4 )( 2 / 5 ) + ( 2 / 4 )( 3 / 5 )
∴ P (W 2 ) = 3 / 5
9
26-Dec-15
Solution: Example-5:
First let us define the events as follows. One bag contains 4 white and 3 black balls and a second bag
A : Box A is selected contains 3 white and 5 black balls. One ball is drawn from the
⇒
P ( A) = P (B ) = 1 / 2
B : Box B is selected P ( D / A ) = 1 / 10 first bag and placed in the second bag unseen and then one ball
D : Bulb is defective P ( D / B ) = 1 / 20
is drawn from the second bag. What is the probability that it is
a. P ( D ) = P ( D / A) P ( A) + P ( D / B ) P ( B )
= (1 / 10 )(1 / 2) + (1 / 20 )(1 / 20 )
a black ball?
∴ P ( D ) = 3 / 40
Solution:
P ( D / A) P ( A) 1 / 20
b. P ( A / D ) = = = (1 / 20 )( 40 / 3)
P( D) 3 / 40 First let us define the events as follows.
∴ P( A / D) = 2 / 3
B1 : black ball is drawn from the first bag
W1 : white ball is drawn from the first bag
Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

Conditional Probability Cont’d…..
B2 : black ball is drawn from the second bag
Exercise:
W2 : white ball is drawn from the second bag
1. For three events A, B and C, show that:
Then, we will have:
a. P[( A I B ) / C ] = P[ A /( B I C )]P ( B / C )
P ( B1 ) = 3 / 7 P ( B2 / B1 ) = 6 / 9 P ( B2 / W1 ) = 5 / 9
b. P ( A I B I C ) = P[ A /( B I C )]P ( B / C ) P (C )
P (W1 ) = 4 / 7 P (W2 / B1 ) = 3 / 9 P (W2 / W1 ) = 4 / 9
2. Box A contains 3 white and 2 red balls while another box B
P ( B2 ) = P ( B2 I B1 ) + P ( B2 I W1 ) contains 2 red and 5 white balls. A ball drawn at random from
⇒ P( B2 ) = P( B2 / B1 ) P ( B1 ) + P ( B2 / W1 ) P(W1 ) one of the boxes turns out to be red. What is the probability that
⇒ P( B2 ) = (6 / 9)(3 / 7) + (5 / 9)(4 / 7) it came from box A?
∴ P ( B2 ) = 28 / 63
10
26-Dec-15
Conditional Probability Cont’d….. Independence of Events
3. In a certain assembly plant, three machine A, B and C make Two events A and B are said to be statistically independent if
30%, 45% and 25% of the products respectively. It is known and only if
that 2%, 3% and 5% of the products made by each machine, P ( A I B ) = P ( A) P (B )
respectively, are defective. Suppose that a finished product is
Similarly, three events A, B and C are said to be statistically
randomly selected.
independent if and only if
a. What is the probability that it is defective?
P ( A I B I C ) = P ( A ) P ( B ) P (C )
b. If the product is known to be defective, what is the
probability that it is made by machine A? Generally, if A1, A2, …, An are a sequence of independent
events, then
 n  n
P I Ai  = ∏ P ( Ai )
 i =1  i =1
Independence of Events Cont’d…… Independence of Events Cont’d……

If A and B are independent, then we have Solution:
i. P ( A / B ) =
P ( A I B ) P ( A) P( B )
= = P ( A) P ( A) = P ( A I B ) + P ( A I B )
P( B) P( B)
⇒ P ( A / B ) = P ( A) ⇒ P ( A I B ) = P ( A) − P ( A I B ) = P ( A) − P ( A) P ( B )
ii. P( B / A) =
P( A I B ) P( A) P ( B )
= = P( B ) ⇒ P ( A I B ) = P ( A)[1 − P ( B )] = P( A) P ( B )
P( A) P ( A)
⇒ P ( B / A) = P ( B ) ∴ By the definition of independent events, A and B are independent.
Example-1: Example-2:
If A and B are independent, then show that A and B are also The probability that a husband and a wife will be alive 20 years
independent. from now are given by 0.8 and 0.9 respectively. Find the
probability that in 20 years
a. both will be alive c. at least one will be alive
b. neither wi ll be alive
11
26-Dec-15
Independence of Events Cont’d…… Independence of Events Cont’d……

Solution: Solution:
• First let us define the events as follows. a. P(both) = P( H I W ) = P ( H ) P (W )
⇒ P(both) = P( H I W ) = (0.8)(0.9)
H : Husband will be alive
W : Wife will be alive ∴ P(both) = P( H I W ) = 0.72
• Then we will have b. P (neither ) = P( H I W ) = P ( H ) P (W )
P( H ) = 0.8 ⇒ P( H ) = 1 − P( H ) = 1 − 0.8 = 0.2 ⇒ P(neither ) = P ( H I W ) = (0.2)(0.1)

P(W ) = 0.9 ⇒ P(W ) = 1 − P(W ) = 1 − 0.9 = 0.1 ∴ P(neither ) = P ( H I B) = 0.02
• The two events can be considered as independent. c. P (at least one) = 1 − P (neither )
⇒ P (at least one) = 1 − 0.02
∴ P (at least one) = 0.98
Assignment-I Assignment-I
4. The probability that a husband watches a certain television
1. Show that the probability that exactly one of the events A or B
show is 0.4 and the probability that a wife watches the show is
occurs is given by:
0.5. The probability that a husband watches the show given that
P ( A) + P( B) − 2 P( A I B )
his wife does is 0.7. Find the probability that
2. If A and B are mutually exclusive events and P(A)=0.29,
a. both of them watch the show
P(B)=0.43, then find P( A I B).
b. a wife watches the show given that her husband does
3. A box contains 3 double-headed coins, 2 double-tailed coins
c. at least one of them watch the show
and 5 normal coins. A single coin is selected at random from
the box and flipped. 5. In a shooting test, the probability of hitting the target is 1/2 for
A , 2/3 for B and 3/4 for C. If all of them fire at the target, find
a. What is the probability that it shows a head?
the probability that
b. Given that a head is shown, what is the probability that it is
a. none of them hits the target
the normal coin?
b. at most two of them hit the target
12

01-Basic Probability Theory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

01-Basic Probability Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

26-Dec-15

Basic Concepts of Probability Theory

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Probability Theory

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 2

Introduction Sample Space and Events

iii. Event An event of obtaining numbers less than 4

Events can be represented by A, B, C, …… Example-2:

Sample Space and Events Cont’d…. Basic Set Operations

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 7 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 8

Basic Set Operations Cont’d….. Basic Set Operations Cont’d…..

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 9 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 10

Basic Set Operations Cont’d…..

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 11 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 12

Some Properties of Set Operations Cont’d….. Axioms and Properties of Probability

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 13 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 14

We can see that A I B, A I B and A I B are disjoint events.

From the above Venn diagram, we can write the following

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 19 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 20

Axioms and Properties of Probability Cont’d…..

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 23 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 24

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 25 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 26

Conditional Probability Conditional Probability Cont’d…….

Conditional Probability Cont’d……. Conditional Probability Cont’d…….

Equations (6) and (7) are known as Baye’s Rule. B

Conditional Probability Cont’d……. Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

⇒ P ( B) = P( B / A1 ) P( A1 ) + P( B / A2 ) P( A2 ) + ... + P( B / An ) P( An ) (8) Solution:

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 31 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 32

Conditional Probability Cont’d….. Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

Conditional Probability Cont’d….. Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

a. P ( B 1 I B 2 ) = P ( B 2 / B 1 ) P ( B 1 ) = (1 / 4 )( 2 / 5 ) b. Assuming that the bulb is defective, find the probability

Conditional Probability Cont’d….. Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

Conditional Probability Cont’d…..

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 39 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 40

Conditional Probability Cont’d….. Independence of Events

Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 41 Semester-II, 2013/14 By Welelaw Y. 42

Independence of Events Cont’d…… Independence of Events Cont’d……

Independence of Events Cont’d…… Independence of Events Cont’d……

• Then we will have b. P (neither ) = P( H I W ) = P ( H ) P (W )

P( H ) = 0.8 ⇒ P( H ) = 1 − P( H ) = 1 − 0.8 = 0.2 ⇒ P(neither ) = P ( H I W ) = (0.2)(0.1)

You might also like