Khristine Khate O.

Mendez

1.How do we apply electrochemistry in a. technology b. Chemical kinetics

Answer:

a. For example in technology is batteries. Batteries are galvanic cells, or a series of cells, that produce an
electric current. When cells are combined into batteries, the potential of the battery is an integer
multiple of the potential of a single cell. There are two basic types of batteries: primary and secondary.
Primary batteries are “single use” and cannot be recharged. Dry cells and (most) alkaline batteries are
examples of primary batteries. The second type is rechargeable and is called a secondary battery.
Examples of secondary batteries include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), lead acid, and lithium ion batteries. Fuel
cells are similar to batteries in that they generate an electrical current, but require continuous addition
of fuel and oxidizer. The hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen from the air to produce water,
and is generally more efficient than internal combustion engines.

b. Chemical Kinetics help us understand the human body (enzymes as catalysts - a part of biochemistry),
our effects on the environment (CFCs), and how the better utilize reactions.

Chemical kinetics (also known as reaction kinetics) is the study of rates of chemical reactions. The
Collision Theory states that two things are necessary for a reaction to occur:

(i) Physical contact must occur

(ii) The orientation of the particles must be favourable

This essentially means the particles must collide with enough energy and that the particles must be in a
certain position.

The amount of energy required for a reaction to occur the called the Activation Energy. This amount of
energy can be reduced by using catalysts, and thus increases the rate of reaction through providing
alternate reaction pathways.

Understanding rates of reactions allows us to better utilize reactions for our intended purposes. This
goes alongside the idea of equilibrium. The better we understand the way reactions work, the more
effectively we will be able to utilize them.

A very common example is the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. This is a very slow reaction,
meaning hydrogen peroxide is generally quite stable (which is why we can easily find it in drugstores).
When it decomposes, it produces oxygen gas and water. Now, if you add potassium permanganate, it
will greatly speed up the reaction. An enzyme called catalase (which is found in potatoes and liver cells)
can also be used to catalyse this reaction.

By using a catalyst, we can quickly break down hydrogen peroxide (which is toxic to us) in the liver. The
products (water and oxygen) are safe for use in the body. Without this catalyst, we would likely become
very sick/die from the presence of hydrogen peroxide in our bodies. This is just one example of how
understanding how chemical reactions work and what affects the rates of reactions help us.

Chemical kinetics also helps us understand how we can change the rates of reaction. For example,
higher temperatures tend to speed up reactions because there are more effective collisions (collisions at
higher energies) because the particles have higher kinetic energies.

This means if we wanted to speed up the reaction, in most cases (unless we are talking about an
equilibrium reaction), increasing the temperature can help. If I needed to complete a reaction to turn
methane and oxygen into water and carbon dioxide, I would be better off doing the reaction at room
temperature than at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit, if you’re from America) as I would get a
faster rate of reaction.

Understanding catalysts also allow us to understand and reverse the harmful things we do to the
environment. For example, the decomposition of ozone (O3) is catalyzed by chlorine atoms in a gaseous
state. The ozone layer in the Earth’s stratosphere absorbs over 95% of UV rays, protecting us from
harmful radiation and allowing us to exist on Earth (UV rays are associated with an increased risk of skin
cancers and cataracts). So naturally, we want to avoid depleting it. The issue is that chlorine atoms are
produced in the reaction of chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) with UV light. CFCs were previously used in AC
units, refrigerators, and aerosols. An example of a CFC is CF2Cl2, which breaks into CF2CL * and CL *
(The * stands for a free radical/unpaired electron). Because of our knowledge of catalysts (which is a
part of chemical kinetics), we have stopped using CFCs and opt for more environmentally friendly
options.

2. What is electrical conductivity , how are ions transported in electrolyte solution, and the
electrochemical equilibrium.

Electrical conductivity is the measure of the amount of electrical current a material can carry or it's
ability to carry a current. When electrodes are placed in an electrolyte solution and a voltage is applied,
the electrolyte will conduct electricity. Lone electrons cannot usually pass through the electrolyte;
instead, a chemical reaction occurs at the cathode that consumes electrons from the anode. Another
reaction occurs at the anode, producing electrons that are eventually transferred to the cathode. As a
result, a negative charge cloud develops in the electrolyte around the cathode, and a positive charge
develops around the anode. The ions in theelectrolyte neutralize these charges, enabling the electrons
to keep flowing and the reactions to continue.

An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move
across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts, the chemical gradient, or difference in solute
concentration across a membrane, and the electrical gradient, or difference in charge across a
membrane. When there are unequal concentrations of an ion across a permeable membrane, the ion
will move across the membrane from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower
concentration through simple diffusion. Ions also carry an electric charge that forms an electric potential
across a membrane. If there is an unequal distribution of charges across the membrane, then the
difference in electric potential generates a force that drives ion diffusion until the charges are balanced
on both sides of the membrane.

3. What is quantum chemistry?

Answer:

Quantum chemistry is the application of quantum mechanical principles and equations to the study of
molecules. In order to understand matter at its most fundamental level, we must use quantum
mechanical models and methods. There are two aspects of quantum mechanics that make it different
from previous models of matter. The first is the concept of wave-particle duality; that is, the notion that
we need to think of very small objects (such as electrons) as having characteristics of both particles and
waves. Second, quantum mechanical models correctly predict that the energy of atoms and molecules is
always quantized, meaning that they may have only specific amounts of energy. Quantum chemical
theories allow us to explain the structure of the periodic table, and quantum chemical calculations allow
us to accurately predict the structures of molecules and the spectroscopic behavior of atoms and
molecules.

4. What is mean by chemical analytics ( potentiometric measurements for the concentration of charged
particles ) . Illustrate and show examples

In potentiometry we measure the potential of an electrochemical cell under static conditions. Because
no current—or only a negligible current—flows through the electrochemical cell, its composition
remains unchanged.

A schematic diagram of a typical potentiometric electrochemical cell is shown in the illustration below.
The electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells, each containing an electrode immersed in a solution
of ions whose activities determine the electrode’s potential. A salt bridge containing an inert electrolyte,
such as KCl, connects the two half-cells. The ends of the salt bridge are fixed with porous frits, allowing
the electrolyte’s ions to move freely between the half-cells and the salt bridge. This movement of ions in
the salt bridge completes the electrical circuit.
5. Explain the wave character of matter or the wave.particle dualism.

Answer:

The evidence for the description of light as waves was well established at the turn of the century when
the photoelectric effect introduced firm evidence of a particle nature as well. On the other hand, the
particle properties of electrons was well documented when the DeBroglie hypothesis and the
subsequent experiments by Davisson and Germer established the wave nature of the electron.

Wave-particle duality is a theory which describes that light has both wave and particle nature. The key
difference between wave and particle nature of light is that the wave nature of light explains that light
can behave as an electromagnetic wave, whereas the particle nature of light explains that light consists
of particles called photons.

Moreover, according to the scientists, Francesco Maria Grimaldi and Sir Isaac Newton, who first noted
these two natures of light, Francesco Maria Grimaldi observed the diffraction of light and stated that
light has behaviour of waves, while Sir Isaac Newton found that when a prism splits sunlight into
different colours, the periphery of the shadows created was extremely sharp and clear which led him to
state the particle nature of light.

6 . Calculate the wavelength for the following case 1 neutrons thermally excited at T =500Degrees Kelvin
2 electrons accelerated by a voltage of 50 volts

Answer:

First part

Energy of neutron (E)= 3kT/2 = 1/2mv2

V = (3kT/m)1/2

Wavelength of the neutron = h/mv = h/(3mkT)1/2

m = mass of neutron = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

h = Plank constant = 6.627 x 10-34 JS

k = Boltzman constant = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1

Putting these values, wave length of neutron at 500K is = 1.127 x 10-10 m

Second part

Charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Mass of the electron (m) = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Kinetic energy of the electron (E)= 1.6 x 10-19 x 50 x 1000 J = 8 x 10-15 Jk

Wavelength of the electron = h/(2mE)1/2

h = Plank constant = 6.627 x 10-34 JS

Putting these values, wavelength of the electron = 5.467 x 10-12 m (Answer)

7. What are the mathematical solutions in quantum.mexhanics : particle in a box , harmonic oscillator,
rotator and hydrogen atom

Answer:

The simplest form of the particle in a box model considers a one-dimensional system. Here, the particle
may only move backwards and forwards along a straight line with impenetrable barriers at either end.
The walls of a one-dimensional box may be seen as regions of space with an infinitely large potential
energy. Conversely, the interior of the box has a constant, zero potential energy. This means that no
forces act upon the particle inside the box and it can move freely in that region. However, infinitely large
forces repel the particle if it touches the walls of the box, preventing it from escaping. The potential
energy in this model is given as

where L is the length of the box, xc is

the location of the center of the box and x
is the position of the particle within the
box. Simple cases include the centered box (xc = 0) and the shifted box (xc = L/2).

The Simple Harmonic Oscillator is represented by the equation d2x/dt2=−ω2x . When your write
x(t)=Aeiωt+Be−iωt, A and B in this expression are complex numbers. However, if you assume the
function x(t) is real, then they are related as A¯=B.

This can be seen since x(t)¯=x(t) which gives us A¯=B (since eiωt and e−iωt are orthonormal)

Rewriting the complex exponentials as sine and cosine we get

x(t)=A(cos(ωt)+isin(ωt))+B(cos(ωt)−isin(ωt))=(A+B)cos(ωt)+i(A−B)sin(ωt)

Now as proved before A¯=B and hence (A+B) is real and (A−B) is imaginary and hence we can write
(A+B)=C and i(A−B)=D where C,D are real numbers.

And the solution becomes

x(t)=Ccos(ωt)+Dsin(ωt)

where C,D∈R
the answers given are absolutely fine as they show the way from e±iωt to sin and cos.

It might be even shorter if you use that

sin(x)≡12i(eix−e−ix)

and

cos(x)≡12(eix+e−ix).

This can be interpreted as a definition for the functions or seen from its series definitions.

The Schrödinger equation of the hydrogen atom in polar coordinates is:

−ℏ22μ[1r2∂∂r(r2∂ψ∂r)+1r2sinθ∂∂θ(sinθ∂ψ∂θ)+1r2sin2θ∂2ψ∂ϕ2]−Ze24πϵ0rψ=Eψ

Both LHS and RHS contain a term linear in ψ, so combine: 1r2∂∂r(r2∂ψ∂r)+1r2sinθ∂∂θ(sinθ∂ψ∂θ)

+1r2sin2θ∂2ψ∂ϕ2+2μℏ2(E+Ze24πϵ0r)ψ=0

Using the Separation of Variables idea, we assume a product solution of a radial and an angular function:

ψ(r,θ,ϕ)=R(r)⋅Y(θ,ϕ).

Since Y does not depend on r, we can move it in front of the radial derivative:

∂ψ∂r=∂∂rRY=YdRdr, and, similarly, R does not depend on the angular variables. Thus replace ψ and the
differentials:

Yr2ddr(r2dRdr)+Rr2sinθ∂∂θ(sinθ∂Y∂θ)+Rr2sin2θ∂2Y∂ϕ2+2μℏ2(E+Ze24πϵ0r)RY=0.

Multiply by r2 and divide by RY to separate the radial and angular terms:

1Rddr(r2dRdr)+1Ysinθ∂∂θ(sinθ∂Y∂θ)+1Ysin2θ∂2Y∂ϕ2+2μr2ℏ2(E+Ze24πϵ0r)=0.

The first and fourth terms depend on r only, the middle terms depend on the angles only. They can only
balance each other for all points in space if the radial and angular terms are the same constant but with
opposite sign.

Therefore, we can separate into a radial equation:

ddr(r2dRdr)+2μr2ℏ2(E+Ze24πϵ0r)R−AR=0

and an angular equation:

1sinθ∂∂θ(sinθ∂Y∂θ)+1sin2θ∂2Y∂ϕ2+AY=0,

where A is the separation constant.