UNIT -4

RADAR
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR:
 RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. It means gathering information about distant
objects (targets) by sending Electromagnetic (EM) waves to them and there by analyzing the
reflected waves (echo signals), Higher frequencies produce the best echoes, make it possible to
detect even small targets and permit the use of small antennas.
 Radar can detect static or mobile objects and is the most effective method of guiding the pilot with
regard to the location in space and also for warning the approach of enemy plane for similar purposes
(Early warning radars). The radiated energy on being received back at the radar station gives the
information about the location of the target.
 The location of the target includes range, angle and velocity parameters. The range is the distance of
the target from the radar station. The angle could be azimuth (horizontal) or elevation (vertical) for
static radars and velocity for moving targets. With the help of the radar systems, the range, the
direction and the velocity of a moving object can be detected.
 Therefore, RADAR is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of the distant objects
such as aircrafts, ships, space crafts, vehicles, peoples etc. It is the power eye that has the capability
to detect the targets under difficult conditions such as rain, fog, snow, day and Night. Radar use of
electromagnetic wave with wavelengths in the radio wave portion of the spectrum.
 It detects • Location. • Range (Distance). • Direction. • Velocity and • Movement of distant targets
(such as ships, air crafts, space crafts, vehicles, Peoples and Natural environment) by sending
electromagnetic waves towards the targets and receives echoes from the targets.
Advantages:
1. It acts as a powerful eye that is capable to detect the target under difficult conditions such as rain,
fog, darkness, clouds etc.
2. They can determine the range (Distance) and angle i.e. the location of target very easily.
Limitations:
1. Radars cannot resolve in detail like the human eye, especially at short distances.
2. They cannot recognize the color of the target.
3. It cannot see the targets hidden in water at long range.
Applications:
1. Radar altimeters for determining the height of plane above ground.
2. Air craft control
3. To guide the space vehicles for safe landing on moon.
4. To detect and track satellites.
5. Police radars for directing and detecting speeding vehicles.
6. Radars for determining the speed of moving targets.
7. Detecting and ranging of enemy targets even at night.
4.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF RADAR:
RADAR stands for radio detection and ranging. It is an electromagnetic system used for the detection of
location, range (distance), direction and velocity of the distant targets.
It consists of: 1.Transmitter 2.Duplexer 3.Antenna 4.Receiver 5.Display
1. Transmitter:
 It generates high power signals at microwave frequency range.
 The generated high power signals (EM signal) are radiated into space by using an antenna through
Duplexer. RADAR transmitter produces and EM signal to send it towards the target for detection.
2. Duplexer:
 It is a switch which connects the transmitter or receiver to the Antenna alternately.
The functions of duplexer are
 To isolate the transmitter and receiver during transmission and reception
  To protect the receiver from high power transmitter.

Fig: Basic radar system

3. Antenna:
 The electromagnetic signal generated by transmitter is radiated into space by using antenna.
 These EM waves go towards the target and reflected back towards the radar antenna. These reflected
signals are called “echo signals”.
 Same antenna can be used for transmitting and receiving purpose.
4. Receiver
 The reflected signals (echo signals) collected by the RADAR antenna are delivered to the receiver
through duplexer. In the receiver, the received signals are amplified and processed to detect the
presence of the target and determine its location.
5. Display
 It is designed to present the received information.
 Ex: Radar displays - A-scope - B-scope - Plan-position — Indicator (PP1) etc.
Depending on the antenna radars are two types 1. Bistatic radar 2. Monostatic radar
Monostatic radar:

Fig: Block diagram of mono-static radar

 A single antenna is used for both transmission and reception is called mono-static radar.
Bi-static radar:
 The transmitter transmits electromagnetic radiation generated by a magnetron oscillator. A portion of
the transmitted signal is intercepted by the target and is reradiated in all directions.
 The receiver antenna collects the returned echo signal and delivers to the receiver where it is
processed to detect the presence of the target.
 Fig: Block diagram of Bi-static radar
4.2 FREE SPACE RADAR RANGE EQUATION:
 The radar range equation relates the range of radar to the characteristics of Transmitter, Receiver,
antenna, target and the environment (medium).
RADAR Range is used for
1. Determining the maximum range at which any target can detect.
2. Understanding the factors affecting of Radar performance.
3. Design of RADAR system.

 If the power of a radar transmitter is denoted by Pt and if an isotropic antenna (one which radiates
power uniformly in all directions is used), then the power density at a distance R from the radar is
equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface area of sphere of radius R as shown by fig.
i.e., Power density at a distance R from an isotropic source,
Radiated Power Pt
Power density ═ ═ watts/m2 (1.1)
Surface Area 4 π R2

 Radars usually employ directive antennas to direct the transmitted power Pt into some particular
direction. Then the power density at a distance R and gain is given by
Pt G t
Power density of the directive antenna =
2
2 watts/m (1.2)
4π R
Where = transmitting powerGt = Gain of the transmitting antenna
R = distance of the target from the transmitting antenna.
 The target intercepts a portion of the incident power & radiates it in various directions. A measure of
the amount of incident power intercepted by the target & reradiated back in the direction of radar is
denoted as the radar cross-section of target (σ).
The total power intercepted by a target having an area ‘σ’ is,

Pt G t
σ = 4π R
.σ
2
2
watts/m (1.3)

 Where σ is also defined as the area of the target as seen by the radar. It has units of area in m 2. σ is a
characteristic of a particular target & is a measure of its size & shape. The power density of echo
signal at radar station is
P t Gt . σ 1 PGσ
2
. 2
= t t 2 2 Watts (1.4)
4 π R 4 π R (4 π R )
  The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the effective area of the receiving antenna
is denoted by Ae, the power Pr received by the radar is given by,
PtGt σ Ae
Pr¿ (4 π R 2)2 watts (1.5)

Maximum Radar Range (Rmax): It is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected. It occurs
when the received echo signal power Pr just equals the minimum detectable signal (Smin).
i.e., when Pr= Smin, R= Rmax and when substituted in Eq 1.5 we get,
Pt G t σ Ae
¿ S
min ( 4 π )2 R 4
max
1
Pt G t σ A e
Rmax¿ (4 π) S [ 2
min
] 4
(1.6)

G r λ2
From antenna theory, we know that Ae ═
4π
Where, λ=wavelength of radiated energy ,
Ae = capture area or effective area of receiving antenna
G r =receiver gain
Smin= minimum detectable signal
Rmax=maximum Radar Range
Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmitter & receiver, the above expression for A e can
be substituted in Rmax relation (1.7).Then
1
G r λ2

[ ]
4
P .G .σ .
Rmax¿ t t 4 π
( 4 π)2 S min

If G = Gt ¿ Gr
1
P t G 2 . λ2 . σ
Rmax¿ [ (4 π )3 . Smin ] (1.7)
4

4 π Ae
Also, G═ λ2
1
Pt A 2e . σ
Rmax ¿
4 πλ 2 Smin [ ] (1.8)
4

Equations 1.7 & 1.8 are the two alternative forms of maximum radar range equation.

4.3 Factors affecting range of a radar:

1 1 1
Pt G t σ A e P t G 2 . λ2 . σ Pt A 2e . σ
Rmax ¿ [ (4 π)2 S min ] (1.6), R [
4
max ¿
(4 π )3 . Smin ] 4
(1.7), Rmax ¿ [ 4 πλ 2 Smin ] 4
(1.8)

As seen by the relation for Rmax (Eq 1.6, 1.7, 1.8), it is readily observed that Rmax depends upon
 1. The transmitted pulse power Pt,
2. Frequency of the transmitted signal (λ=c / f),
3. Capture area of the antenna,
4. Cross sectional area of the Target (σ ) ,
5. Minimum received signal Pr(min).
1) Transmitted pulse power Pt :-The maximum range is directly proportional to the fourth root of the peak
transmitted pulse power.
1
Rmax∝(Pt ) 4
If radar range is to be doubled, we have to increase the transmitter power 16 times. Eventually, such a
power increase obviously becomes uneconomical in any particular radar system
2) Frequency:-The range of radar is inversely proportional to the square root of frequency.
Rmax∝ or Rmax∝1 / √ f
 The range of the radar is increased twice when the frequency is increased by four times.

3) Capture area of the antenna:-The max range is proportional to the square root of the capture area of the
antenna.
R ∝ ( Ae )1/2
4) Target Cross sectional area (σ ):-The radar cross section of a target is the area of the target as seen by
radar. It is defined as the ratio of the power reflected back by the target towards the source per unit solid
angle to the total incident power density on the target.
Target Cross sectional area (σ )

 It is a characteristic of a particular target & is a measure of its size, shape & composition.
(or)
 The maximum range is directly proportional to the fourth root of the radar cross section of a target.
1
Rmax∝(σ ) 4

5) Minimum received signal (Pr(min) :- The minimum detectable signal at the receiver P r(min) , sets a limit on
the receiver sensitivity i.e. the noise figure of the radar receiver is a factor that is to be controlled for
obtaining a larger Rmax.
(Or)
The maximum range is inversely proportional to the fourth root of the Minimum received signal.
1
Rmax∝(1/ Pr ) 4
6) Wave length: RADAR range is inversely proportional to the square root of the wavelength.
1
R ∝ (1/ λ2 ) 4 ; R ∝ ¿) 1/2
❑

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RADARS:

 1. Pulsed RADAR:
It transmits a high power and high frequency electromagnetic waves in the form of pulses. It is used to
find distance (range) and direction. The range or distance to the target is determined by measuring the time
(t) taken by the pulse travel to the target and return to the Radar station since EM waves travel with the
Velocity of light, the range for stationary target is given by

2R = C T ; R = CT/ 2

Where 2R = Total distance (2 way) between radar and target.

T = Time taken by EM wave to cover a distance of 2R.
C = Velocity of light

Fig: Pulsed radar Fig : Pulsed radar sine wave

2) Search RADAR (Surveillance):

Fig: Antenna beamwidth and search volume

 The search radars scan the radiation beam continuously over a specified volume in space for
searching the target.
 The search radars determine range, angular position and velocity.
 It provides large beam widths.
 The search volume is indicated by ‘θ’
1. Tracking Radars:
 The tracking radar detects, determines the location and tracks the moving targets.
 If the directon of the target and reference direction is not ssame then there will be angular error. If
the angular error signal is applied to a servo control system then it will move the axis of the radar
antenna towards the direction of the target. Both the axis of radar antenna and the direction of target
will coincide when the angular error is zero.
 There exist a feedback mechanism in tracking radar which works until the angular error becomes
zero.
 Fig: Tracking radar

2. Continuous Wave Radars:

Fig: CW radar
 It transmits continuous electromagnetic waves and receives reflected echo signals from the objects.
 CW radar operation is based concept of "Doppler effect".
 Hence it is so called as CW Doppler Radar.
Where f(t) = transmitting signal frequency ; f (r) = received signal frequency ; f(d) = Doppler frequency
4.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PULSED RADAR:
The block diagram of the pulsed radar as shown in Fig.
 Trigger Source: It provides pulses for the modulator. It is also called as synchronizer
 Pulse Modulator: This is used to switch OFF and ON to produce high frequency rectangular pulses.
It provides rectangular pulses which acts as the supply voltage to output tube. High frequency
generator produces high frequency pulses, are transmitted at regular intervals.
 Output tube: It can be magnetron or reflex klystron or TWT as per requirement. If an amplifier is
used, a source of microwave is also required.
 Antenna: The output of the high frequency oscillator is pulse modulated sine Wave carrier, and then it
travels via a "Duplexer" to the antenna signal. Antenna usually parabolic reflector antenna is used for both
transmission and reception.
 Duplexer: It consists two gas discharge tubes or fast RF switches namely Anti Transmit Receiver
(ATR) tube and Transmit-Receiver (TR) tube. It permits the same antenna to use used for both
transmission and reception. It protects the receiver from the damage caused by high power of the
transmitter.
 Receiver: It is usually a super hetrodyne receiver type, whose function is to detect the desired echo
signals in the presence of noise, interference and clutter.
 The receiver in pulsed radar consists of the RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, IF amplifier,
detector, video amplifier and radar display.
 Fig: Block diagram of Pulsed radar system
Low noise RF Amplifier: It is the first stage of the receiver. It amplifies the received signal to Low desired
level. This is done by a TWT amplifier or parametric amplifier.
Mixer and Local Oscillator: These convert RF signal output from RF amplifier to low Frequency levels
called Intermediate Frequency (IF). Thus in a mixer stage the carrier frequency reduced.
IF Amplifier: It consists of cascade of tuned amplifiers and provides high gain. IF range is 30 MHz or 60
MHz.
Detector: It demodulates the signals coming from the IF amplifier and its output is given to the video
amplifier. Generally schottky barrier diode is used for demodulating received echo signals.
Video Amplifier: The output of the detector is amplified by video amplifier to specified level.
Display: The output of the video amplifier is given to the display unit. It provides visual information. It can
be CRT. The synchronizing pulses by the trigger source are given to the display.
Eg: - A-scope, B-scope, PP1 etc.
4.6Advantages AND Disadvantages of Pulsed Radar:
Advantages of Pulsed Radar:
1. It is simple in design and operation.
2. No need for accurate synchronization.
3. Range can be increased by increasing transmitted power or by increasing diameter of parabolic
reflector of antenna.
Disadvantages of Pulsed Radar System:
1. It cannot measure the velocity of moving target but only call measure range.
2. Clutters can cause several problems.
3. Moving target cannot be detected.
4.7 NEED OF DUPLEXER:
It is a microwave equivalent of Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch. It permits the same antenna to be
used for both transmission and reception.
• It isolates the transmitter while receiving and isolates receiver while transmitting.
• It protects the receiver from the high power transmitter.
 Fig : Branch type Duplexer
Operation:
1. During the Transmission:
 When transmitter is ON, the TR and ATR tubes ionized due to large power of the transmitter.
 TR tube acts as a short circuited at the receiver line and open circuited at the transmission line and
ATR tube acts as open circuited at the Transmission line, so the transmitted power reaches the
antenna but it doesn't enter into the receiver.

Fig: During transmission the transmitted signal reaches the antenna

2. During Reception:
 The ATR tube acts as a short circuited across the transmission line and TR tube acts as as open
circuited. So the echo signals coming from the receiving antenna travel towards the receiver but not
goes to transmitter.

Fig: During reception the received signal reaches the receiver

4.8 LIST THE DISPLAYS OF RADARS:
• The device used to display the RADAR information is known as a radar indicator or radar display.
There are two types of display modulated systems used in radar displays. They are (i) Deflection
modulated display. (ii) Intensity modulated display.
Deflection Modulated Display: In this a target is indicated by the deflection of the electron beam. Ex: - A-
scope display
Intensity Modulated display: In this a target is indicated by the intensity of the electron beam. Ex: - B-
scope, C-scope, D-scope, E-scope, PPI etc.
Types of Radar Displays (Indicators):

A-Scope: It is a two dimensional radar display. The horizontal and vertical axis represents the range and
echo signal strength of the target.
B-Scope: It is intensity modulated display. Horizontal and vertical axis represents the azimuth angle and
range of the target.
C-Scope: It is intensity modulated display. Horizontal and vertical axis represents the azimuth angle and
elevation angle of the target.
RHI ( Range Height Indicator) : It is a radar display , which uses intensity modulation. The horizontal and
vertical axis represents the range and height of the target.
PPI ( plan position indicator ) : It is a radar display , which uses intensity modulation. The horizontal and
vertical axis represents the azimuth angle and range of the target
4.9 Block Diagram of Continuous Wave Radar:
PRINCIPLE OF CW (CONTINUOUS WAVE) RADAR
 It uses the Doppler Effect to detect frequency change caused by a moving target and displays this as
a relative velocity.
 The transmitted energy being continuous duplexer is replaced by a circulator. Circulator provides
isolation between transmitter and receiver.
 The continuous wave radar transmitter oscillator generates a frequency ft and it is transmitted in free
space and after identifying the moving target it produces the reflected echo signal frequency as ft ±
fd heterodyned with locally generated transmitted signal f(t) inside a mixer.
  The output of detector frequency as fd is given to the Doppler amplifier.
 The purpose of Doppler amplifier is to eliminate the echoes from the stationary targets and
amplifying only echoes from moving targets.
 The target information is displayed on an indicator.
 The indicator displays the velocity of the target is given by
2 vr
fd = λ
fd = Doppler shift frequency.
Vr = Relative velocity of the target with respect to radar
λ= Wavelength of the transmitted wave
Operation:

Fig: Block diagram of continuous wave radar

 CW transmitter produces continuous wave with frequency of ft. This signal is radiated towards the
target by using transmitting antenna.
 The transmitted signal (ft) and IF oscillator frequency (fi) are mixed up in transmitter mixer to
produce sum frequency ft+fi.
 The receiving echo signal (ft ± fd) and transmitted mixer output (ft+fi) are mixed up in the receiver
mixer to produce ft+fd
 i.e., fi+ft—ft ± fd = fi+ft-ft+fd= fi+fd
 The receiver mixer output is amplified by using IF amplifier. The IF amplifier output is demodulated
in the detector to produce Doppler frequency (fd).
 It eliminates the echoes from stationary targets and to amplify the Doppler echo signal (fd).
 The amplified Doppler frequency (fd) is displayed as the velocity of the target in Kmph or miles per
hour.
Advantages of CW Radar: 1. Accurate measurement of relative velocity of the target
2. Simple circuit.
3. Low power consumption.
4. Size of the equipment is smaller than that of the pulsed radar.
5. It is used at low transmitting power
Disadvantages of CW radar:
1 It doesn't give information about range.
2. If there are large numbers of targets, it does not give accurate results.
Applications of CW Radar: 1. It is used to measure the speed of automobiles, guided missiles, cricket and
tennis balls etc.
2. It is used to measure the speed of the aircraft.
3. Police radars.
4. It is used to determine whether the target is approaching or moving away
4.10 Doppler Effect:
• When the target is stationary, a frequency of received echo signal is constant. However, when the target is
moving, the frequency of received echo signal is found to be different from the transmitted frequency.
• If the target is moving towards the RADAR, the received signal frequency is increased (fr = ft + fd).
• If the target is moving away from the RADAR, the received signal frequency is decreased (fr = ft-fd).
• If the target is moving towards the radar of moving away from the radar, there exists, a "frequency shift" in
the received echo signals.

Fig: Doppler Effect

Doppler Effect Definition: The frequency shift in the received echo signal in the radar due to the moving
target is known as "Doppler effect".
The Doppler frequency shift (fd) is given by
2 vr
fd =
λ
fd = Doppler shift frequency.
Vr = Relative velocity of the target with respect to radar
λ= Wavelength of the transmitted wave
Derivation:
 If R is the distance of the target from radar station, the number of wave lengths contained in the two
way path is 2R / λ.
 Where λ is the wave length of the transmitted signal since one wave length corresponds to a phase
shift of 2π radians then the total phase shift Ø = 2π * 2R / λ .= 4 π R / λ
 If the target is in motion R and Ø are continuously changing
 A change in Ø with respect to time is equal to frequency. The Doppler angular frequency Wd is
given by
Wd = 2π fd
fd = 1/ 2π (dØ /dt) = 1/2π d/ dt [ 4πR/λ]
fd = 1/2π * 4π/λ [ dR/ dt]
2 vr
fd=
λ
4.11BLOCK DIAGRAM of MTI RADAR:
The Doppler Effect can be utilized in a pulsed radar system by combining a special delay line technique.
The system can be made to determine target velocity and to distinguish moving targets from stationary
targets. This improved system is called a moving target indicator radar system.
PRINCIPLE:
When it is desired to remove the clutter due to stationary targets, MTI radar is employed. The basic
principle of MTI radar is to compare a set of received echoes with those received during the previous sweep
and canceling out those whose phase has remained unchanged. Moving targets will give change of phase
and are not cancelled.
Thus clutters due to stationary targets both manmade and natural are removed from the display and
this allows easier detection of moving targets.
Operation:
1. The block diagram shows two mixers, the input to mixer-1 is from two oscillators namely STALO
(Stable Local OsCilla0 and COHO (coherent Oscillator). The output of the mixer-1 is sum of
frequencies produced by two oscillators that is (f0 + fc).
2. The mixer-1 output is amplified for providing a high pulse by using multi cavity klystron amplifier.
This transmitter pulse is then radiated into space by using a Duplexer.
3. The echo pulse from the target (due to the transmitted pulse) is received by the MTI radar antenna. If
the echo is due to the moving target, the echo pulse undergoes a Doppler shift.
4. The received echo signal (f0 + fc) ± fd and the STALO output fo are then passed through the mixer-2
to produce difference frequency fc ± fd at its output.
5. Therefore mixer-1 produces sum frequency and mixer-2 produces a difference frequency
6. This difference frequency fc ± fd is amplified by an IF amplifier and is given to the phase detector.
7. The detector compares the IF signal with the reference signal from the COHO, frequency produced
by COHO is same as the IF frequency and hence called Coherent frequency. The detector provides
an output depending upon the phase difference between these two signals.
8. The phase detector gives output for both fixed and moving targets. The Doppler shift causes this
variation in the phase difference.
9. The detector output goes to the delay line and also amplifier-1. The delayed output is amplified by
the amplifier-2 and at the same time, the un-delayed output of the detector is amplified by the
amplifier-1.
10. The amplifier-1 and amplifier-2 outputs are given to the subtracting circuit, in this the echoes of
constant phase due to the stationary targets are cancelled out but the echoes of changing phase due to
the moving targets are not cancelled.
11. As a result the subtractor output for moving targets is available for display the limitation of MTI
radar is blind speed. This can be avoided by varying pulse repetition frequency.
 Fig: Block diagram of MTI radar

4.12 Concept of BLIND SPEED:

BLIND SPEED:
 If the target has uniform velocity, the successive sweeps will have Doppler phase shifts of exactly 2π
(360) radians and the target appear as stationary and give wrong radar indication. The speed
corresponding to this condition is called "blind speed".
Or
 It is also defined as the radial velocity of the target which results in a phase difference of exactly 2π
radians between the successive pulses.
 The blind speed of the target is given by,
nλ
Vb = PRF 2

Where Vb = Blind speed; λ= Wavelength of the transmitted pulse. PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency.
n = any integer (1, 2, 3)
  The blind speed can be avoided by varying PRF (pulse Repetition Frequency)
4.13 APPLICATION OF VARIOUS RADAR SYSTEMS:
1. Pulsed radar: Range detection, deep space probing (Bi-static).
2. MTI radar: To detect moving targets even in the presence of clutter surveillance in ocean,
other tracking applications.
3. Radar beacon: Radar beacons for Air borne applications and Air traffic control.
4. CW radar: Speed measurement of air craft. Automobile speed measurement for traffic
control. To measure the speed of ball in sports .Surveillance and monitoring of movement
of people, vehicles etc.
5. FM CW radar: For measurement of altitude also known as Altimeter.
6. PHASE ARRAY & PLANER ARRAY radar: Multiple target working.
7. SPECIAL radars: There are many variations to suit the requirements some of the
applications are (a) Noncontact measurement of speed and distance in industry and sports.
(b) In oil and gas exploration.
(c) Remote sensing and weather reports.
APPLICATION OF RADAR:
Basically radar applications can be grouped into 3 types.
1. Civilian Applications 2.Military Applications 3.Scientific applications
Civilian Applications
1. Radar altimeters for determining the height if plane above ground.
2. Radar blind lander for aiding air craft to land under poor visibility, at night, under adverse
weather conditions etc.
3. Airborne radar for satellite surveillance.
4. Police radars for directing and detecting speed vehicles.
5. Radars for determining the speed of moving targets, (eg. the speed of cricket ball being
bowled) automobiles, shells, guided missiles etc.
Military Applications
1. Detection and ranging of empty targets even at night.
2. Aiming guns at aircrafts and ships.
3. Bombing aircrafts, ships or cities even during overcast or at night.
4. Early warning regarding approaching aircrafts or ships.
5. Directing guided missiles.
6. Searching for submarines, land masses and buoys.
Scientific applications
1. Study of various planets
2. Tracking & guidance of space probes
3. Microwave spectroscopy