FLUID AND THERMAL LAB

Experiment I

Title: Elasticity

a. Young’s modulus

Objective:

to find values of Young’s modulus and torsion (shear) modulus for steel.
To determine the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the given materials.

Theory: If a light bar of breadth b and depth d is placed horizontally on two Knife-edges separated by
a distance L, and a load of mass m, applied at the mid-point of the bar, produces a depression l of the
bar, then Young’s modulus Y of the material of the bar is given by

gL3 m
Y= (1)
4 b d3 l

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity. This is the working formula of the experiment, and is valid
so long as the slope of the bar at any point with respect to the unstrained position is much less than
unity. Here Y is determined by measuring the quantities b, d, Land the mean depression l
corresponding to a load m. If b, d, L and l are measured in cm, m in gm, g is expressed in cm/sec 2, and
then Y is obtained in dyne/cm2.

Equipment:

meter scale, screw gauge, spherometer and slide caliper

Experimental set up:

Procedure:

1. Measure the length of the given bar with a meter scale and place the centre of the bar at the
middle point of the two supports fixed to the table.
2. Place rectangular hook cum hanger at the centre of the scale. Place the spherometer such that
screw of spherometer is on top of the rectangular hook cum hanger.
3. Make the electrical connections as shown in the figure (1) by connecting power supply,
spherometer and galvanometer.
4. Switch on the power supply, adjust the circular scale such that screw of spherometer(S)
touches rectangular hook, indicating deflection in the Galvanometer (G)
 5. Take the initial reading on the spherometer.
6. Hang a weight to the hook and then you notice that galvanometer reading come back to zero
(why?). Again adjust the spherometer such that screw touches the hook and galvanometer
deflects. Take the depression of the bar reading corresponding the weight hanged.
7. Continue the same procedure for all the weights. Avoid back lash error while using
spherometer.
8. Repeat the experiment once again with all the weights
9. Determine the vernier constant of the slide callipers and measure with it the breadth b of the
bar at three different places. Calculate the mean breadth of the bar. Note the zero error, if any,
of the slide callipers and find the correct value of b.
10. Determine the least count of the screw gauge and measure depth d of the bar at a number
of places along the length of the bar. Find the mean value. Note the zero error, if any of the
screw gauge and obtain the correct value of d.
11. Draw a graph with the load m in gm along the X-axis and the corresponding depression l in
cm along the Y-axis and determine the value of Y.

DATA/RESULT:

Table-1

Least count of spherometer

Pitch of the screw p (cm) No. of divisions n on the circular scale Least count
= p/n (cm)
1

Table-2: Load-depression data for chosen length

Distance between the knife-edges L = ……cm

No. of Load spherometer reading Spherometer reading Mean Depre

obs. in for for increasing load reading ssion
(kg) Increasing load (cm)- (cm)- second (cm) l(cm)
first measurement measuremen
Main circul Mai circul
scale ar Total n ar Total
scale
1 (a) 0
2 (b) b-a
3 (c) c-a
Table-3

Vernier Constant (v.c.) of the slide calipers

….. Divisions of the vernier scale = ………… divisions of the main scale.

Value of l smallest main Value of 1vernier division Vernier constant

scale division (l1) n v.c. = (L1-L2) (cm)
L1 = L2(cm)
m

Table-4: Measurement of breadth (b) of the bar by slide calipers

No. Readings (cm) Total Mean b Zero Correct b

of of Reading (cm) error(cm) (cm)
obs. the b(cm)
Main verner
scale

Table-5: Least count (L.C.) of the screw gauge

Pitch of the screw p No. of divisions n on the circular Least count = p/n
(cm) scale (cm)

Table–6: Measurement of depth (d) of the bar by the screw gauge

No. of obs. Readings Total Mean d Zero error Correct d

(cm) of reading (cm) (cm) (cm)
the d (cm)
Mai verner
n
scale
1
2
3

Data analysis:

a) Plot a graph of m verses ΔL and from the slope,

b) calculate a value of Y and using error propagation,
 c) calculate the predicted % error in Y. Compare your value to the accepted value of 200 GN/m2

Ref

https://www.niser.ac.in/sps/sites/default/files/basic_page/first_semester_physics_lab_manual_2015.pd
f

b. Torsional modulus

Objective: to find values of torsion (shear) modulus for steel.

Theory:

Usually the sheer or torsion modulus is measured by applying a torque to one end of the rod which is
fixed at the other end and measuring the angular rotation φ. It can be shown, by using the definition of
shear modulus and integrating, that the torsion modulus is given by:

2lT
M=
r 4 πφ

Where M is the shear modulus

l is the length of the rod

r is the radius of the rod

φ is the angle of twist or rotation in radians

A weight mg will be attached to a wheel of radius R to give a torque τ = mgR and the above equation

2lmgR
then becomes M =
r 4 πφ

Equipment:

Torsion modulus apparatus and torsion rod

Bubble level
 Micrometers

Meter stick

Assorted large and small weights and hangars

Bow calipers

Experimental set up:

Procedure:

1) Adjust the vernier to zero when an initial mass of 200 grams is suspended from the strap. Do
not count this initial weight in your calculations
2) Add masses 0.50kg at a time and record the angle reading after each addition. Do not twist the
rod excessively. Do not exceed a total of 5.0kg
3) Measure the rods length and diameter.
4) Measure the diameter of the wheel on which the masses are hung.
Note that the vernier for measuring the angle is in tenths of a degree
c. Measurement of fluid viscosity

Objectives:
  To measure the viscosity of a sample liquid.

Theory:

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or
tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is “thickness”. Thus, water is “thin”,
having a lower viscosity, while honey is “thick”, having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less
viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity).In general, in any flow, layers move at
different velocities and the fluid’s viscosity arises from the shear stress between the layers that
ultimately opposes any applied force.

In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the strain rate is linear with the
constant of proportionality defined as the viscosity. In the case of a non-Newtonian fluid, the flow
properties cannot be described by a single constant viscosity. Some non-Newtonian fluids thicken
when a shear stress is applied (e.g. corn flour suspensions), whereas some can become runnier under
shear stress (e.g. non-drip paint).Industrially, understanding the viscous properties of liquids is
extremely important and relevant to the transport of fluids as well as to the development and
performance of paints, lubricants and food-stuffs.

A body moving in a fluid feels a frictional force in a direction opposite to its direction of motion. The
magnitude of this force depends on the geometry of the body, its velocity, and the internal friction of
the fluid. A measure for the internal friction is given by the dynamic viscosity η. For a sphere of
radius r moving at velocity v in an infinitely extended fluid of dynamic viscosity η, G.G. Stokes
derived an expression for the frictional force:

F1 = 6 πηr v (1)

If the sphere falls vertically in the fluid, after a time, it will move at a constant velocity v, and all the
forces acting on the sphere will be in equilibrium (Fig. 1): the frictional force F1 which acts upwards,
the buoyancy force F2 which also acts upwards and the downward acting gravitational force F3. The
two forces F2 and F3 are given by:
 4π 3
F2 = r ρ1 g (2)
3

4π 3
F3 = r ρ2 g (3)
3

Where ρ1 = density of the fluid

ρ2 = density of the sphere

g = gravitational acceleration

The equilibrium between these three forces can be described by:

F1 + F2 = F3 (4)

The viscosity can, therefore, be determined by measuring the rate of fall v:

2
η = 9 .r2.¿ ¿ (5)

Where, v can be determined by measuring the fall time t over a given distance s.

In practice, equation 5 has to be corrected since the assumption that the fluid extends infinitely in all
directions is unrealistic and the velocity distribution of the fluid particles relative to the surface of the
sphere is affected by the finite dimensions of the fluid. For more accurate values of viscosity wall
effect need to taken into account. The modified expression for high viscous liquids with the correction
is as follows:

2
η = 2. g . r ¿ ¿¿ ¿ (6)
While Stokes‟ Law is straight forward, it is subject to some limitations. Specifically, thisRelationship
is valid only for „laminar‟ flow. Laminar flow is defined as a condition where fluid particles move
along in smooth paths in lamina (fluid layers gliding over one another). The alternate flow condition
is termed „turbulent‟ flow. This latter condition is characterized by fluid particles that move randomly
in irregular paths causing an exchange of momentum between particles.

Units: The SI physical unit of viscosity is Pascal-second (Pa.s, equivalent to N.s/m2or kg/ms). The
CGS unit is poise (P), named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille. It is more commonly expressed as
centipoise (cP) or milli Pascal-second (mPa.s). The conversion factor is 1cP = 1mPa·s = 0.001Pa·s.
Castor oil at room temperature has a viscosity of ~ 650 cP or ~0.65 N.s/m 2

Apparatus:

Glass tube

Steel balls,

Retort stand and clamps

Weighing balance

Screw gauge

Stopwatch

Sample liquid (castor oil/glycerin)

Tweezers

And Rubber bands for marking calibration points, cleaning accessories

Experimental Setup:
The experimental set up, shown in Fig. 2, is based on
Stokes‟ Law. It is filled with the sample liquid under
investigation. A steel ball is allowed to fall down this
tube over a calibrated distance. The falling time is
recorded and then utilized to determine the viscosity
at room temperature.

Fig 2.

Procedure:

Measurement of diameter of falling ball:

1. Determine the least count (vernier constant)

of the screw gauge.
2. Measure the radii of at least three balls using the screw gauge.

Measuring the falling times:

3. Carefully clamp the glass tube to the retort stand and make sure it is vertically aligned.
4. Choose marked calibrated positions and ensure that the ball indeed falls with terminal
velocity.
5. Pick one of the given balls and roll it in the sample liquid to wet its surface thoroughly before
dropping into the glass tube.
6. Keep two stopwatches ready to measure the fall time between two different calibrated
positions.
7. Bring the ball with a tweezers over the tube and drop it carefully into the liquid at the center
of the tube.
8. Watch the ball falling centrally through the liquid. When it reaches the first calibration mark,
start both the stopwatches. Note down the time taken by the ball separately to reach the
second and third calibration marks.
9. Measure the falling times similarly for all the balls supplied to you.
10. Measure the distance from first to second and third calibration marks to determine the
terminal velocity.
11. Finally calculate viscosity using Ladenburg correction as given in Eq. 6.

Observations:

Specification of glass tube

Inner diameter of the measuring tube = 2.88±0.01 cm,

Length of the cylinder_______________ = cm

Radius of the steel ball________________

Vernier constant of screw gauge = __________

Observation # Linear scale Circular scale Total Average radius
reading reading reading
1
2
3

Density of the sample liquid:

Calculated density of sample liquid, ρ1 = 1.26 ± 0.01 g/cc

Density of the steel ball

Least count of weighing balance = …………….

Observation # Mass Average Mass

Average density, ρ2
1
2
3

Determination of viscosity

Distance between 1st and 2nd calibration mark = …………

Distance between 1st and 3rd calibration mark = …………

Least count of the measuring scale = ……..

Ball # Falling time Falling time Velocity Velocity Average Average

from 1st to from 1st to between 1st between 1st terminal viscosity
2nd 3rd and 2nd and 3rd velocity, v with
calibration calibration calibration calibration correction,
mark, t1 mark, t2 mark, v1 mark, v2 η