Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Fiber-reinforced concrete with low content of recycled steel fiber:

Shear behaviour
M. Leone ⇑, G. Centonze, D. Colonna, F. Micelli, M.A. Aiello
Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, Via Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy

h i g h l i g h t s

The shear properties of SFRC with fibers recycled from scrap tires were studied.

Fresh and hardened concrete properties are reported.

Experimental direct shear tests were carried out on specimens varying the type of fibre reinforcements.

An analytical analysis was done aims to evaluate the shear stress versus displacement curves.

The obtained results confirm promising applications of concrete reinforced with RSF.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The sustainability of construction materials is a mandatory issue that started to be strongly felt in view of
Received 4 August 2016 a global perspective of environmental protection. Wasted materials often may find a new lifecycle if well
Received in revised form 10 July 2017 re-engineered, even in structural applications. In this field short steel fibers obtained from used tyres at
Accepted 17 November 2017
the end of their life may find promising applications within a concrete matrix. In the present research the
Available online 28 November 2017
mechanical properties of recycled steel fiber-reinforced concrete in terms of workability, compressive
and tensile strength, toughness and shear behaviour are analysed and compared with those of industrial
Keywords:
steel fiber-reinforced concrete and ordinary Portland concrete. An experimental campaign is illustrated,
Fiber reinforced concrete
Recycled steel fibers
and an extensive comparison in terms of shear strength has been studied considering different experi-
Waste tyres mental works available in scientific literature. Moreover, a theoretical analysis aimed at evaluating and
Shear behaviour comparing the shear modulus of the analysed concrete type was carried out. The results obtained through
this study show a satisfactory behaviour of the concrete reinforced with recycled steel fibers compared
with industrial new steel fibers reinforced concrete, both in terms of toughness and shear behaviour.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Incorrect handling of waste tyres is a crucial issue that annually
generates a high environmental global impact. Over the last two
decades, an increase of the global waste tyres recovery was
observed, encouraged by new technologies that allow retrieving
the waste tyres constituent materials (rubber, steel and natural
fibers) and reusing them in various fields. In recent years is
increasing the interest for these secondary raw materials and their
potential applications in the civil engineering field, such as the use
of steel fibers obtained by the recycling of wasted tyres as reinforc-
ing fibers for the production of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC).
Several experimental works which study the mechanical propri-
eties of concrete reinforced with both metal and plastic recycled
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marianovella.leone@unisalento.it (M. Leone).
short fiber are available in the literature [1–17]. The results
obtained in previous research have shown a comparable behaviour
between concrete reinforced with industrial and recycled steel
fibers in terms of flexural strength and ductility [1,7,18], with an
increase of the concrete matrix toughness compared to plain con-
crete. This is due to the well known bridging effect explicated by
the fibers crossing the cracks. The positive effect of the industrial
steel fibers in terms of shear behaviour is also widely discussed
in several works [18–38] in which an increase of the maximum
shear strength and shear deformation were basically detected. This
beneficial effect is due to the sliding resistance opposed by the
fibers located between the surfaces of shear cracks and depends
on several fiber’ factors such as their dosage, aspect ratio, distribu-
tion within the concrete mix, their orientation along the cracked
surface and finally the concrete matrix proprieties; a similar bene-
fit is expected also when recycled steel fibers are utilized. The
available experimental works to study the shear behaviour of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.101
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
142 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155

fibers, in terms of shear strength and shear load–displacement

curves. Both concrete mixtures have been prepared using a low
fibers percentage in volume equal to 0.46%; this was decided in
order to maintain a good workability at the fresh state. Moreover,
similar tests have been carried out on ordinary plain concrete spec-
imens for comparison purpose.
Finally, an analytical study aimed both to establish whether the
Equivalent fiber length analytical formulations available in the scientific literature for
industrial steel fibers (ISF) are also applicable for recycled steel
fibers (RSF) and to evaluate the cracking and post cracking shear
Fig. 1. Recycled steel fiber: Equivalent length.
modulus (Gcr, Gpc) for ISF and RSF was carried out. The results
obtained from the performed investigation have shown satisfac-
FRC (Fiber Reinforced Concrete) elements refer to direct shear tests tory shear behaviour of the recycled steel FRC (RSFRC) in terms
on small FRC specimens or to tests on structural elements (beams). of shear capacity and shear displacement and a comparable post
The two approaches are completely different because of the cracking behaviour between ISF and RSF specimens.
involved shear strength mechanisms change. In fact, the direct
shear test is able to furnish the shear strength of the materials,
2. Geometrical characterization of recycled fibers
while the test on beams involves other shear strength mechanisms
as depth/span ratio of the beam, longitudinal reinforcement ratio,
The high geometrical variability of the recycled steel fibers
transverse reinforcement ratio, etc. The scope of the authors was
required a statistical analysis in order to define a mean aspect ratio
specifically the evaluation of the concrete shear strength enhanced
value. A similar procedure has been previously utilized by the
by the addition of fibers in order to combine this contribution with
authors in [1,3,5], it may constitute a starting point for assessing
the others when passing to the analysis of structural elements.
a more detailed and general protocol aiming to the geometrical
Actually, the results of the direct shear test can be used to predict
characterization of steel fibers recovered from waste tyres.
the shear capacity of FRC beams. According to [38], the results of
Geometrical properties of recycled steel fibers utilized for the
the direct shear test on FRC specimens can be used to estimate
experimental campaign herein reported were determined on a
the contribution of the concrete shear capacity in the FRC beams.
sample of 1200 fibers randomly extracted after the shredding pro-
On the other hand, few information about the shear strength of
cess. According to [39], the length of each fiber was recorded as the
recycled FRC are to date available in the scientific literature [4],
distance between the outer ends (Fig. 1), obtaining values ranging
therefore in the authors opinion the more adequate starting point
between 1 mm and 37 mm with a mean values equal to 13.94 mm
could be the direct shear test in order to use the results obtained
and a coefficient of variation (C.o.V.) equal to 38%.
for planning an experimental campaign on FRC beam.
The obtained measures were divided in nine different length
The experimental work herein discussed is aimed to study the
classes. The length range, including the major number of fiber
mechanical properties of concrete reinforced with steel fibers recy-
was 10–15 mm (40.75%), followed by the class 1520 mm
cled from wasted tyres, in terms of compressive strength, tensile
(22.92%) and 510 (21.75%) (Fig. 2).
strength, flexural strength, toughness and shear strength. In partic-
Similarly, the diameter of each fiber was measured by means of
ular, direct shear test has been carried out on prismatic samples in
a micrometer, averaging two measures taken at the two ends of the
order to evaluate the shear behaviour of two different SFRC
fiber itself, in accordance following the indications suggested in
obtained with both recycled (from waste tyres) and industrial
[40] for round wire fibers. The fiber diameters varied between

Fig. 2. Relative frequency of the fibers length.

 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155 143

Fig. 3. Relative frequency of the fibers diameter.

Fig. 4. Relative frequency of the fibers aspect ratio.

0.10 mm and 0.45 mm, with a mean value equal to 0.25 mm and a
coefficient of variation (C.o.V.) equal to 29%. In particular, eight
diameter ranges were basically defined (Fig. 3), evaluating the high
population in the range 0.200.25 mm (30.17%) followed by the
range 0.150.20 mm (27.08%) and 0.300.35 mm (18.33%).
Eleven aspect ratio range were defined. Analysing Fig. 4, it is
possible to see that the aspect ratio value in the range 5060
include the largest population (18.25%). Moreover, a mean value
of the aspect ratio L/d equal to 58 with a coefficient of variation
(C.o.V.) equal to 40% were calculated.
Regarding the industrial steel fiber a geometrical tolerance of
±10% for both length and diameter was stated by the supplier.
2.1. Concrete mix proportions
In order to realize three different mix-design with a target
strength of 35 MPa, Portland cement, water, limestone aggregates,
locally available sand and super plasticizer were used. In particu-
lar, a control mix without fibers (CM), a mix reinforced with RSF
and a mix reinforced with ISF were cast. For all the mixtures, the
water/cement (W/C) ratio was set equal to 0.54 while the amount
of superplasticizer for each mix was set by several trials and to
finally obtain an adequate level of workability (Table 1).
The industrial steel fibers were 0.6 mm  30 mm (diameter 
length) with an aspect ratio L/d = 50. The equations of Fuller and
144 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155

Table 1
Concrete mix-design.

Mix Portland CEM 32.5R II-A/LL Water Aggregate I (10–20 mm) Aggregate II (4–10 mm) Sand Fibers Plast.
3 3 3 3 3 3
[kg/m ] [l/m ] [kg/m ] [kg/m ] [kg/m ] [%v] [kg/m ] [%] [kg/m3]
CM 350 188 508.9 179.2 1021.9 – – 0.40 1.40
RSF 350 188 505.5 178.0 1015.0 0.46 35.0 0.34 1.19
ISF 350 188 505.5 178.0 1015.0 0.46 36.0 0.59 2.07

Fig. 5. Granulometric curves.

Bolomey allow to individuate the optimal granulometric curves in
order to have the maximum volume of coarse aggregates, with the
minimum concrete dosage, assuming a fixed W/C ratio. In this case,
due the presence of irregular short fiber, the choice of the granulo-
metric curve was also strongly addressed to the obtainment of high
workability and minimum degree of segregation at the fresh state.
For this purpose the cubic granulometric curve was chosen, as
appropriate in this application (Fig. 5).
Similarly to what was done in previous studies [1,5], a batch
mixer with a vertical axis, a fixed tank and four rotating arms
was used in order to obtain an homogeneous fibers distribution
within the concrete matrix. Recovered fibers were added by hand
to the mixes as the last component with the plasticizer. At the
end, the mix showed an almost homogeneous fiber distribution
due to an adequate friction generated during the mixing process.
Subsequently, the specimens were cast and cured according to
the requirements of the standard [41].
2.2. Properties of fresh and hardened concrete: Specimens and testing
procedure
According to the standards [42–44], the fresh and hardened
properties of the different concrete mixes were evaluated. In par-
ticular, slump tests [42] were executed in order to estimate the
workability of each mixture: two slump tests were done for each
realized mixture before casting. The slump test was adopted as a
quality control test to monitor the SFRC consistency in different
batches, as it is well known that this test is not appropriate for
quantitative measures of workability when referring to SFRC [44].
In order to determine the mechanical proprieties of the hard-
ened concrete mixtures, compressive and tensile splitting tests
were performed on cubic specimens with a 150 mm side and cylin-
drical specimens with a diameter of 150 mm (height = 300 mm),
according to the standard [43]. Three samples for each mix-
design were tested.
After casting, all the specimens were left to cure for 24 h
and then they were demoulded and placed under water at
approximatively 20 °C until the execution of the tests. All the tests
were performed at room temperature after a minimun of 28 days
of cure.
2.3. Bending test: Specimens geometry and test set-up
In order to evaluate the toughness for each mix-design analysed
in the present work, four point loading bending tests on notched
prismatic specimens were carried out according to [45] (see
Fig. 6a). In particular, four samples for each concrete mixture
(CM, RSF, ISF) were cast using timber moulds (150 mm  150
mm  600 mm).
After the casting, all the specimens were accurately demoulded
and a notch in the middle of each one was realized in order to
ensure a better cracking control during the test. Subsequently,
the specimens were maintained under water at approximately
20 °C until the execution of the tests. The bending tests were per-
formed after a minimum of 28 days. During the test, three full-
bridge resistive clip gauges were used: one clip gauge was fixed
across the notch mouth in order to monitor the CMOD (Crack
Mouth Opening Displacement); two clip gauges were glued at
the two opposite faces of the beam, at the height of notch tip, in
order to record the CTOD (Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
(Fig. 6b).
 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155
Fig. 6. Bending test set-up (UNI 11039, 2003): a) four-point loading beam scheme; b) bending test set-up.
2.4. Shear test
In order to evaluate the shear strength of each type of analysed
concrete mix analysed, direct shear tests on prismatic specimens
were performed in accordance with the Japan Society of Civil Engi-
neers standard test procedure JSCE-SF6 [46] with some modifica-
tions, aimed to limit rotation effect, flexure or arch mechanisms
that could influences the experimental results. This kind of test
in accordance with [19,21,24,33,38] allows: 1) to perform direct
shear test with pure shear failure of the specimens instead of Z-
shaped push-off test for which the crack growth occurs in a
mixed-mode comprising both opening and shear modes, [21]; 2)
to realize prismatic specimens that guarantee a more adequate
level of fibers dispersion in concrete with respect to Z shaped spec-
imens that show an acute corner; as known the homogeneity of the
concrete mix is generally a critical issue for FRC and even more
when using recycled steel fibers. On the basis of above considera-
tions a higher accuracy of results are expected by using the per-
formed test. In particular, the specimens were placed on two
rigid blocks with a central free span equal to 155 mm. The ends
of the specimens have been fixed to the supports, using two adjus-
table yokes, in order to avoid any rotations. The shear load was
applied by a steel loading block with a span of 150 mm. In order
to ensure a shear failure plane, a 10 mm deep notch has been real-
ized all around the transverse surface, in between the loading and
the supporting edges (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Test set-up for shear beam test.
145
Five prismatic specimens (100 mm  100 mm  400 mm) for
each type of concrete were cast.
The specimens were tested with a 200 kN electro-mechanic
machine under displacement control with a constant displacement
rate of 0.1 mm/min. During the test, the applied load and the cor-
responding displacement of the central part of the specimen were
continually recorded. In particular, displacements were measured
averaging the signals of two resistive displacement transducers
placed on each side of the specimen and fixed to the top of its cen-
tral part by a rigid steel frame (Fig. 8).
The shear strength of each specimen was calculated using the
following equation:
P max
smax ¼ ð1Þ
2A
where:
– smax is the shear strength (MPa);
– Pmax is the peak load attained during the test (N);
– A is the effective area of the transverse shear plane for both side
of the specimen (mm2).
3. Experimental results and discussion
3.1. Fresh and hardened properties
The basic properties of both fresh and hardened concrete were
evaluated according to the related technical standards [42,43]. In
Fig. 8. Direct shear test: Experimental set-up.
146 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155

Table 2
Concrete properties at fresh and hardened state.

Mix Slump Fresh density Entrapped air Compression Strength Tensile Strength
[mm] [kg/m ]3
[%] Rc C.o.V. D Rct C.o.V. D
[MPa] [%] [%] [MPa] [%] [%]
CM 220 2229 3.50 33.61 1.11 – 5.06 4.85 –
RSF 210 2209 5.30 32.60 1.49 3.00% 4.55 12.71 10.07%
ISF 200 2246 6.00 32.32 2.19 3.84% 4.50 10.58 11.06%

Note: S4 = measured slump in the range 160–210 mm (UNI EN 206–1, 2006); S5 = measured slump 220 mm (UNI EN 206–1, 2006).

Fig. 9. Mean tensile strength: Plain (CM), Recycled (RSF); Industrial (ISF).

Table 2, the obtained mean experimental data of both fresh and
hardened tests in terms of slump, class of consistency, density,
entrapped air, compressive and tensile strength with relative coef-
ficient of variation (C.o.V.) are listed. The class of consistency was
determined with the most common and inexpensive slump test
with the Abram’s cone. As well known [44], this test may not be
a good workability indicator for FRC, but once established the
desired fresh properties of a mixture for an optimal slump value,
this test can be used as a quality control test of the consistency
between different batches. According to [41], the mean class of
consistency for each mixture (at least on two samples) was deter-
mined. It can be noted that the optimal use of the super plasticizer
made possible to obtain the same class of workability both for
plain (CM) and reinforced concrete mixtures (RSF, ISF).
The compressive and splitting tensile tests were performed
according to the relative standard [43] at room temperature after
28 days of specimen’s cure. The mean compressive and tensile
strength values were determined for each mix design as the mean
of three values (Table 2).
All the tested mixes have showed high slump values and then a
good workability being classified as S4 and S5 according to the rel-
ative standard [41]. For the reinforced mix, the presence of the
steel fibers (Recycled and Industrial), did not affect the concrete
properties at the fresh state as a consequence of the low content
of discontinuous fibers used as derived from specific studies of
the authors [1]; these studies were aimed to improve the workabil-
ity of the mix when recycled steel fibers are added that, as well
known, are more susceptible to balling effect.
Analysing the Table 2, it can be noted that the fibers did not
have significant effects on the compressive strength of the rein-
forced concrete, in accordance with [1,2,5,34,35,39]. The mean
compressive strength for both ISF (32.60 MPa) and RSF (32.32
MPa) specimens is slightly lower than that found for the control
mix (33.61 MPa) and, thus, within the experimental error.
As for the compressive behaviour, it can be noted that the mean
tensile strength of the plain specimens is slightly higher (5.06 MPa)
than that of reinforced ones (RSF = 4.55 MPa; ISF = 4.50); however,
a higher coefficient of variations have been found in this case
(Table 2). Probably, as reported in other research work [1], the
random distribution of the fibers within the concrete matrix acted
as a discontinuity defect in the principal cracking plane during the
splitting test, obtaining a decrease of the tensile strength. Never-
theless the difference in strength detected between FRC and plain
concrete can be considered within the range of the experimental
error (Fig. 9).
3.2. Post-cracking behaviour of RFRC
The nominal flexural properties of FRC specimens, in terms of
first crack strength (fIf) and toughness (D0, D1), were determined
according to [45]. Plain concrete specimens (CM) were tested only
for comparison purpose. The samples are listed using the following
notation: the first symbol describes the type of concrete mix
(CM = plain; RSF = recycled steel fiber reinforced concrete; ISF =
industrial steel fiber reinforced concrete) while the second number
individuates the test sequence.
In Table 3 the mean values for all the realized mixtures are sum-
marized with the correspondent coefficient of variation (C.o.V.)
and standard deviation (St. Dev.).
In Table 3 the positive effect of the fibers at the post-cracking
stage [3,5,34,35,47] can be evaluated. Similar first crack strength
(fIf) values were determined for all analysed concrete types.
Indeed, this parameter (fIf) is linked only to concrete matrix
properties, resulting not affected by the presence of the fibers.
 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155 147

Table 3
Nominal flexural properties.

Concrete type CTOD0 fIf feq(0–0, 6) feq(0, 6–3) D0 D1

[mm] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
CM Mean Value 18.85 3.25
St. Dev. 2.78 0.06
C.o.V. 14.73% 1.99%
RSF Mean Value 18.85 3.29 2.01 2.09 0.60 0.83
St. Dev. / 0.50 1.12 1.14 0.27 0.16
C.o.V. / 15.16% 55.54% 54.31% 45.67% 18.86%
ISF Mean Value 18.85 3.09 2.00 2.30 0.64 1.34
St. Dev. / 0.17 0.83 0.47 0.26 0.72
C.o.V. / 5.44% 41.41% 20.31% 40.32% 53.74%

Fig. 10. Curves load-CTODm.

On the contrary, the strength value in the range 0–0.6 mm for both
the reinforced mixtures is greater than that of plain concrete, as
expected. In addition, the fiber reinforced concretes still evidence
a bearing capacity in the range of CTOD between 0.6 and 3 mm,
while it is null for ordinary concrete. This is due to the presence
of fibers that prevents and controls the cracks by the mentioned
‘‘bridging effect”.
However, a high variability of the results, referring to the post-
peak behaviour was observed; as well known this result could be
attributed to a non-uniform distribution of the fibers inside the
concrete mixture and particularly within the notched section of
the specimens tested in bending [1–5,48]. This trend is more
marked for the samples realized with recycled steel fibers (Table 3),
due to their higher geometric variability and irregularity with
respect to ISF, in accordance with [4].
The D0 and D1 ductility index were used to define the ductility
of the reinforced concrete. These values were determined as ratio
between the equivalent strength values calculated for the relative
crack tip opening ranges CTOD: (00.6) mm, CTOD: (0.63) mm
respectively and the first crack strength value. Through the evalu-
ation of the ductility indexes is possible to classify the post-
cracking behaviour of fiber-reinforced concrete, in agreement with
the standard [45]. The calculated D1 and D1 ductility index values,
allows to classify the post cracking behaviour of the RSF concrete
specimens as softening while for the ISF specimens a softening
post-peak behaviour in the range of CTOD (00.6) mm and harden-
ing in the range of CTOD (0.63) mm can be classified according to
the standard [45]. Although the ISF post-peak behaviour can be
classified hardening in the range of CTOD (0.63) mm according
with the standard [45], analysing the Load-CTOD trends plotted
in Fig. 10 and in consideration of the scatter detected for the D1
values, the post-peak behaviour for the concrete specimens rein-
forced whit industrial steel fibers can be considered as softening.
Basically the experimental data listed in Table 3 confirm the
satisfactory contribution of the RSF to improve the brittle beha-
viour of the concrete matrix. In Fig. 10, the curves load-CTODm
for all tested specimens are reported.
Analysing Fig. 10, a different Load-CTODm post-peak trend for
plain and reinforced specimens was detected. The flexural
behaviour of the reinforced concrete specimens is characterized
by a high residual strength in the post-cracking stage due to the
fibers that prevent and control the cracks propagation within the
148 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155

concrete matrix. However, analysing Table 3 and the Fig. 10, a great
dispersion of results can be noted referring to the post peak beha-
viour for both ISF and RSF specimens, in terms of both maximum
value of CTOD, that represent the ultimate value for each curve,
and residual strength. This scatter may be due to a random and
non-uniform distribution of the fibers within the notched section,
especially for RSF specimens. In fact, as the toughness of the FRC is
depending on the bridge effect of the fibers crossing the notched
section, a different distribution of them in that section could be
the cause of the registered scatter. In particular, the RSF concrete
mix is characterized by a less uniform fibers distribution and a
more tendency of the fiber to bundle compared to the industrial
steel fibers concrete mix, as found in other research work [1–5].
In the Fig. 11, a comparison between two cracked section of two
ISF specimens (ISF_1, ISF_2) is reported: a different number and
fibers distribution can be observed. In particular, a less uniform
fibers distribution for specimen ISF_1 (Fig.11a) compared to
ISF_2 specimen (Fig. 11b) was detected.
In addition, the Fig. 11 shows as steel fibers within the failure
surface are not sheared: this confirms that the different post-
peak loads are not due to the steel yielding but to the fiber–matrix
debonding (pull-out). Moreover, this difference in post-peak beha-
viour between similar specimens was obtained in bending tests
performed by other authors [48] on industrial steel fiber reinforced
specimens. For RSF specimens a similar comparison between two
cracked sections of two different RSF specimens (RSF_2; RSF_4) is
Fig. 12. Fibers distribution at notched section: a) RSF_2; b) RSF_4.
reported (Fig. 12).
Analysing specimen RSF_2 (Fig.12a) a greater fiber content at
the failure surface was detected compared to that of the RSF_4 a statistical analysis and define a design factor taking into account
specimen (Fig. 12b). However, RSF_2 specimen has provided the the effect of fibers distribution.
lowest residual shear strength compared with the others RSF spec-
imens. This result could be related to the presence of fiber bundles 3.3. Shear strength
(Fig. 12a) that act as a defect within the concrete matrix.
Future research work is suggested to address the influence of 3.3.1. Experimental study
fibers distribution on the post peak behaviour; indeed a wide In Table 4, the experimental results of the direct shear tests per-
experimental investigation is needed in this field in order to allow formed are reported in terms of maximum load (Fmax) and ultimate
shear stress (smax), mean ultimate shear strength (smax_av), with
the respective coefficients of variation and standard deviation val-
ues. Moreover, in order to better compare the experimental results,
the percentage increments (D) in terms of mean ultimate shear
strength (smax_av) between reinforced (ISF, RSF) and plain speci-
mens (CM) are added in the same table. The samples are listed
using the following notation: the first symbol describe the type
of concrete mix (CM = plain; RSF = recycled steel fiber reinforced
concrete; ISF = industrial steel fiber reinforced concrete) while
the second symbol individuates the test sequence.
The specimens CM_C, ISF_A and RSF_A are not included in the
following discussion due to experimental errors that affected the
validity of the experimental results obtained.
Analysing the values reported in Table 4, it is possible to note
that the presence of both recycled and industrial steel fibers into
the concrete matrix implies an increase in shear strength if com-
pared to that of the plain concrete. In particular, a mean shear
strength equal to 4.7 MPa (C.o.V. = 14%) was found for plain con-
crete, while smax_av is equal to 6.7 MPa (C.o.V. = 17%) for specimens
reinforced with industrial steel fibers (+42% compared with plain
concrete specimens) and 7.8 MPa (C.o.V. = 10%) for specimens rein-
forced with recycled steel fibers (+65% compared to the plain con-
crete specimens) (Fig. 13).
The experimental results obtained in the present work are in
accordance with those reported in similar experimental campaigns
[19–21,36].
A greater mean maximum shear strength (+16%) for recycled
specimens compared to industrial ones was detected. This could
be due to the higher fiber aspect ratio of RSF (L/d = 58) than ISF
Fig. 11. Fibers distribution at notched section: a) ISF_1; b) ISF_2. (L/d = 50) [23]. Moreover, for ISF_D and ISF_E specimens a lower
 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155 149

Table 4 In the Fig. 15, the load–displacement curves are plotted for each
Direct shear tests: Experimental results. analysed specimen.
Specimens Fmax smax smax_av St.Dev C.o.V. D Analysing the curves in Fig. 15, a relative ductile failure in all
[kN] [MPa] [MPa] [%] [%] fiber reinforced specimens (ISF and RSF) can be observed. For
CM CM_A 48.9 3.8 4.7 0.7 15% – FRC specimens, the experimental load–displacement trends
CM_B 69.7 5.4 (Fig. 15b, c) show a linear behaviour up to the first cracking, after
CM_D 61.8 4.8 that a lower slope of the curve can be observed with a further
CM_E 60.4 4.7
increase of the shear capacity, in agreement with [19]. This further
ISF ISF_B 99.3 7.8 6.7 1.1 16% 42% shear strength increase is due to the presence of the fibers that
ISF_C 96.9 7.6
ISF_D 72.9 5.7
provides a positive contribution to the shear strength, resisting
ISF_E 74.1 5.8 to the relative sliding of the shear surfaces. Once the maximum
RSF RSF_B 108.0 8.4 7.8 0.8 10% 65%
shear strength is attained, a sharp drop of the load occurs up to a
RSF_C 97.8 7.6 residual shear strength corresponding to high levels of displace-
RSF_D 86.1 6.7 ment. On the contrary, for all plain concrete specimens (Fig. 15a),
RSF_E 106.5 8.3 the load–displacement trend appears linear up to the maximum
shear strength, with a subsequent sharp decrease of the load,
typical of brittle materials. Nevertheless, for CM_A and CM_B spec-
shear strength compared to ISF_B and ISF_C ones can be observed. imens a residual shear strength may be measured even though at
This difference can be due to a lower quantity and a worse orien- very low displacement values; probably it is only due to the forma-
tation of fibers along the shear failure surfaces of the specimens tion of a wedge of material in the critical section that has generated
[19,37], as can be appreciated comparing the Fig. 14a (ISF_B spec- a residual friction between the constrained ends of the specimens
imen) and the Fig. 14b (ISF_E specimen). (Fig. 15a). Furthermore, for all the plain specimens the failure

Fig. 13. Mean maximum shear strength for each concrete type analysed.

Fig. 14. Fibers orientation and distribution at the shear surface: a) ISF_B; b) ISF_E.
150 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155
Fig. 15. Load–displacement trend: a) CM; b) ISF; c) RSF.
occurred with a detachment along the shear surface (Fig. 16a). This
failure mode is generally justified by the higher compressive
strength of the aggregates with respect to those of the cement
paste. In fact, the presence of aggregates along the shear surface
could move the shear crack from the notched section of the spec-
imens since a direction of lower fracture energy is found [19]. On
Concrete detachment
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 16. Failure mode: a) CM_B; b) ISF_B; c) RSF_D.
the contrary, all the fiber reinforced specimens showed a similar
failure mode namely the crisis at the notched sections, where it
is evident the presence of fibers (bridging effect) (Fig. 16b, c).
In Fig. 17, the experimental load–displacement curves are plot-
ted in order to better compare the different behaviour.
Analysing Fig. 17a, b, the positive contribution in terms of max-
imum shear strength and residual shear strength provided by the
fibers is evident, compared with plain concrete. Moreover, compa-
rable load–displacement behaviour trends were detected for ISF
and RSF specimens, which suggests an effective possible use of
the recycled steel fibers as discontinuous reinforcement of the con-
crete matrix. Nevertheless, further research work is required in
order to validate the results obtained in this experimental
campaign.
3.3.2. Shear design models
In order to check if the shear strength values evaluated in the
present work are in accordance with similar experimental results
available in the scientific literature, a comparison is made in the
following referring to the experimental campaign reported in
[19,20,33,36]. With the aim to make a reliable comparison
between the different experimental shear strength values, only
the data obtained by direct shear tests performed on specimens
similar to those tested in the present experimental campaign in
terms of fibers percentage volume and fiber aspect ratio were
analysed.
Moreover, the variability of the mechanical properties of the
concrete matrix was taken into account using the following
equation:
!1=2
fc
s ¼ smax av ð2Þ
f c;REF
where smax av is the mean experimental shear strength, fc is the con-
crete compressive strength of each specimen; fc,REF is the lowest
concrete compressive strength among all the specimens analysed
(21 MPa).
 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155 151

Table 6
Experimental mean shear strength.

Specimens fc L/d s s* D
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
CM 27.90 – 4.70 5.42 –
ISF 26.83 50 6.70 7.57 +40%
RSF 27.06 58 7.77 8.82 +63%

The comparison performed in this paragraph must be consid-

Fig. 17. Load-displacement trends comparison: a) CM–ISF; b) CM–RSF; c) ISF–RSF.
ered as first analysis aimed to provide information about the pos-
sible use of analytical shear design models calibrated for concrete
reinforced with industrial steel fibers even for concrete reinforced
with steel fibers recycled from waste tires. However, it is necessary
to enlarge the database in order to confirm the obtained results. In
Table 5, the fibers percentage volume (Vf), the aspect ratio (L/d),
the mean compressive strength (fc), the mean maximum shear
strength value (s), the modified mean maximum shear strength
value (s⁄) and the percentage of shear strength difference (D) eval-
uated with respect to the corresponding plain concrete specimens
are listed.
Analysing Table 5, a mean increase of 30% of the maximum
shear strength for FRC concrete compared to plain concrete is
obtained on the basis of the scientific literatures analysed. The val-
ues listed in Table 5 are in agreement with that obtained in the
present work, in which an increase of s⁄ equal to 39.7% for ISF spec-
imens compared to plain ones was determined (Table 6). More-
over, for RSF specimens a higher increase of s⁄ equal to 62.7%
compared to plain concrete specimens was determined, in agree-
ment with the experimental results listed in Table 4.
In addition, a comparison between the experimental shear
strength values both recorded in this experimental campaign and
in [19,20,33,36], with the analytical ones calculated using the for-
mulations proposed in [19,20,22] for plain and fiber reinforced
concrete was performed. This analysis allows to check the effec-
tiveness of the different relationships and the possibility of extend-
ing them for predicting the shear strength of RSF reinforced
concrete. In Table 7, the analytical formulations assessed for plain
concrete and concrete reinforced by industrial steel fibers are
reported:
In Table 8, the ID code of the analytical equation used, the ana-
lytical maximum shear strength (sanal), the experimental mean
maximum shear strength (smax_av_exp) determined in the experi-
mental campaign reported in this paper and the percentage scatter
(D) between experimental and analytical results are reported.
On the basis of results reported in Table 8, the more effective
analytical formulations appear that given by Eq. (5) and proposed
in [22] for plain concrete, and that expressed by the Eq. (4), pro-
posed in [20] for reinforced concrete. In particular, Eq. (5) provides
shear strength value for plain concrete lower than 8% compared to
the experimental ones, while Eq. (4) provide shear strength values

Table 5
Literature comparison between shear strengths for plain and industrial steel fiber reinforced concrete.

References CM ISF D
fc s s* fc Vf L/d s s*
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [kg/m3] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
Boulekbache et al. (2012) [19] 29.30 7.00 8.27 27.00 40.00 50.00 9.20 10.43 +26%
Wang (2006) [36] 33.20 4.00 5.03 25.50 39.50 42.85 6.30 6.94 +38%
Khanlou et al. (2013) [20] 42.10 5.28 7.48 40.00 40.00 80.00 6.95 9.59 +28%
Appa Rao and Rao (2009) [33] 21.00 3.45 3.45 21.60 40.00 47.00 4.33 4.39 +27%
Mean 31.40 4.93 6.06 28.53 54.96 6.70 7.84 +30%
dev. St. 8.76 1.58 2.22 7.98 16.95 2.01 2.74
C.o.V 28% 32% 37% 28% 31% 30% 35%
152 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155

Table 7
Analytical maximum shear strength formulations: Plain and reinforced concrete.

References Id Code Plain concrete Fiber Industrial Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Boulekbache et al. (2012) [19] Eq. (3) s0 ¼ 0:79
0:72f c sf ¼ 0:08V f ðL=dÞ su ¼ s0 þ sf
Khanlou et al. (2013) [20] Eq. (4) s0 ¼ 0:5
0:75f c sf ¼ 4V f0:9 su ¼ s0 þ sf
Mansur et al. (2008) [22] Eq. (5) s0 ¼ 0:615
0:56f c – –

Where: s0 is the shear strength of the plain concrete (MPa); sf is the maximum shear strength contribution of fibers (MPa); su is the maximum shear strength of the fiber
reinforced concrete (MPa); fc is the cylindrical compressive concrete strength of plain concrete (MPa); Vf is the fiber volume percentage (%); L/d is the fiber aspect ratio.

Table 8
Comparison between analytical-experimental maximum shear strength.

ID Code CM ISF RSF

sanal smax_av_exp D sanal smax_av_exp D sanal smax_av_exp D
[MPa] [MPa] [%] [MPa] [MPa] [%] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
Eq. (3) 9.98 4.70 +112% 11.82 6.70 +76 12.12 7.80 +36%
Eq. (4) 3.96 16% 5.69 15% 5.69 37%
Eq. (5) 4.34 8% – – – –
Mean 6.09 8.76 8.91
St.Dev. 3.37 4.34 4.54
C.o.V 55% 50% 51%

Table 9
Percentage differences between analytical and experimental shear strength values.

Experimental Data CM ISF

ANALYTICAL ANALYTICAL
Id Code Id Code
Eq. (3) Eq. (4) Eq. (5) Eq. (3) Eq. (4)
Boulekbache et al. (2012) [19] +48% 42% 36% +41% 21%
Wang (2006) [36] +186% +8% +21% +109% +22%
Khanlou et al. (2013) [20] +162% 8% +6% +146% +26%
Appa Rao and Rao (2009) [33] +131% 0.4% +6% +128% +41%
Mean +128% 12% 2% +100% +11%

Table 10
Experimental values scr, sult, scr, sult determined for the different concrete specimens.

Specimen scr sult scr sult

[mm] [mm] [MPa] [MPa]
CM_A 0.55 0.55 3.82 3.82
CM_B 0.30 0.30 5.45 5.45
CM_D 0.41 0.41 4.82 4.82
CM_E 0.53 0.53 4.72 4.72
Mean 0.45 0.45 4.70 4.70
ISF_B 0.35 1.10 5.21 7.75
ISF_C 0.19 0.56 5.15 7.57
ISF_D 0.18 0.84 3.60 5.69
ISF_E 0.01 0.36 2.71 5.79
Mean 0.18 0.73 4.17 6.70
RSF_B 0.27 1.14 3.04 8.44
RSF_C 0.38 1.01 4.15 7.64
RSF_D 0.36 0.52 5.85 6.72
RSF_E 0.26 0.94 6.04 8.29
Mean 0.32 0.90 4.77 7.77

campaigns (Table 5) and the corresponding analytical ones deter-

Fig. 18. Fiber reinforced concrete: Idealized Shear stress–displacement trend.
lower than 15% and 37% for ISF and RSF concrete respectively, com-
pared to experimental ones.
In Table 9, the percentage differences between the experimen-
tal shear strength values (s) found in the different experimental
mined using equations listed in Table 7 are reported.
Analysing Table 9, it can be noted that Eq. (3) provides values of
shear strength on average much greater (av. +128% for plain con-
crete; av. +100% for reinforced concrete) than experimental ones.
On the other hand, again Eq. (5) for plain concrete and Eq. (4) for
reinforced concrete provide the most accurate results. In particular,
Eq. (5) provides values of the shear strength for plain concrete on
average lower of 2% than the experimental ones while Eq. (4)
 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155 153

Fig. 19. Comparison between idealized and experimental shear stress–displacement trend: a) ISF; b) RSF.

provides values of the shear strength for fiber reinforced concrete Table 11
Cracking shear modulus (Gcr) and post cracking shear modulus (Gpc).
on average greater (+11%) than the experimental ones.
In the following, an analytical study aimed to evaluate the Concrete type Gcr Gpc
cracking (Gcr) and post cracking shear modulus (Gpc) for industrial [MPa/mm] [MPa/mm]
and recycled steel fiber reinforced concrete is performed (Fig. 18). CM 10.50 –
For plain concrete, the shear stress-displacement trend is linear, ISF 23.23 4.62
RSF 15.02 5.13
while, for fiber reinforced concrete, the shear stress-vertical dis-
placement trend can be expressed by a bilinear curve, neglecting
the post-peak behaviour [23].
For each specimen, both the ultimate and first cracking stage estimated according to the experimental values (Table 10) as both
were evaluated according to the experimental results aims to experimental ultimate shear stress and displacement. On the
define the analytical shear stress versus displacement curve. To contrary, the cracking shear stress (scr), and the corresponding
this scope the points ‘‘A” and ‘‘B” of the Fig. 18 were set. In partic- displacement (scr), point ‘‘A” of the Fig. 18, were estimated on
ular, the ultimate shear stress (sult) and the corresponding the experimental s-s curve as the point at which the slope of the
displacement (sult), indicated in the Fig. 18 as point ‘‘B”, was curve changes due to the variation of the stiffness of the specimen.
154 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155
Fig. 20. Idealized shear stress-displacement trend.
Using the experimental mean values reported in Table 10, the
idealized shear stress–displacement curves were plotted and com-
pared with the experimental ones for plain and fiber reinforced
concrete (ISF, RSF) (Fig. 19).
In Table 11, the mean cracking shear modulus and mean post
cracking shear modulus are listed for each concrete type. These
parameters are evaluated using the analytical curves before
described, as slope of the first linear stage and the second one,
respectively.
Analysing Table 11, a comparable mean post cracking shear
modulus (Gpc) between RSF and ISF concrete specimens is
detected. On the contrary, a greater difference between the mean
cracking shear modulus (Gcr) determined for ISF (23.23 MPa/
mm), RSF (15.02 MPa/mm) and CM concrete specimens (10.50
MPa/mm) is found. In particular, higher mean cracking shear mod-
ulus values were determined for ISF with respect to RSF concrete
specimens; this result could be linked to the lower aspect ratio
of the ISF (Fig. 20), according to [23].
4. Conclusions
In the present work, the behaviour of waste steel fiber
reinforced concrete in terms of workability, compressive strength,
tensile strength, post-cracking behaviour and shear behaviour was
investigated. The experimental analysis was carried out testing
three different concrete mixture including concrete reinforced
with recycled steel fibers from waste tyres (RSF), concrete rein-
forced with industrial steel fibers (ISF) and plain concrete (CM)
with a compression strength target of 35 MPa, in order to compare
the effect of short fibers. A statistical analysis aimed to define the
geometrical characteristics of the recycled steel fibers (length,
diameter) was performed, defining an aspect ratio equal to 58. A
fiber content of 0.46% by volume of concrete was used for the fiber
reinforced concrete mixtures. The shear behaviour of the different
concrete types was investigated by means of direct shear tests and
the experimental results compared with those detected in different
experimental campaign for similar concrete types. Finally, the
experimental shear modulus of the concrete mixtures was evalu-
ated by means of a theoretical analysis and the results compared
with theoretical predictions obtained using an analytical model
reported in literature. Based on the experimental results reported
in this study, the following conclusions are drawn:
– A high workability for all tested concrete mixtures was
confirmed by the present experimental campaign. Moreover,
the workability of the reinforced concrete mixtures is not influ-
enced by the fibers since a low volume content was introduced.
– The hardened concrete properties of the fiber reinforced con-
cretes in terms of compressive and tensile strength are slightly
influenced by the presence of the fibers. In particular, slightly
lower compressive and tensile strength for fiber reinforced con-
crete were detected compared with plain concrete. Probably, a
random distribution of the fibers could generate fibers bundle,
which act like discontinuities within the concrete matrix.
– The presence of fibers (both recycled and industrial) improves
the post-cracking properties of the concrete matrix thanks to
the ‘‘bringing effect”, that allows a post-cracking bearing
capacity.
– The shear tests performed on both RSF and ISF concrete have
shown a relative ductility which is not present in plain concrete.
Fibers improve the post-cracking capacity resisting to the
relative sliding of the shear surfaces and thus lead to a greater
maximum shear strength and a residual shear strength for high
levels of displacement compared to ordinary concrete.
– RSF concrete has shown the highest maximum shear strength.
This result could be linked to the greater aspect ratio of the
RSF with respect to ISF.
– A comparable post-cracking shear modulus for RSF and ISF con-
crete is detected while a high difference in terms of cracking
shear modulus is registered. The lower aspect ratio of the ISF
could cause a more shear stiffness to the concrete matrix.
As final remark, the behaviour of concrete reinforced with short
steel fibers recycled obtained from wasted tyres at fresh and hard-
ened state can be compared with those of ISF concrete in term of
both shear capacity and displacement. This is in accordance to
the results of previous studies [1,3,5]. However, further studies
 M. Leone et al. / Construction and Building Materials 161 (2018) 141–155 155

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