GmE 202 Lecture 11:

FIELD METHODS FOR

REMOTE SENSING
Lecturer: Jeark A. Principe
Department of Geodetic Engineering
University of the Philippines Diliman
CONTENT

I. Introduction
II. Field Validation
III. Planning for Ground Truthing
IV. Some Equipment used in Remote Sensing
INTRODUCTION
 Thematic maps derived from image classification are not
without errors
 Accuracy quantification is a must if maps were to be used in
decision-making
 Qualitative Assessment
 accuracy is determined by visual comparison between the output imagery and
reference or actual.
 Quantitative assessment
 attempts to identify and measure error
 Comparing output and reference/ground data
FIELD VALIDATION
1. Collection of Reference/Validation Data
 collection of accuracy assessment data requires these
three steps, putting into mind both the reference data
being collected and the map being assessed (Congalton
& Green, 2009):
1. Accuracy assessment sample sites must be accurately located
both on the reference source and on the map.
2. Sample unit must be delineated. It must represent exactly the
same area on both the reference data and on the map.
3. The reference and map labels must be assigned to each sample
unit based on the map classification scheme.
FIELD VALIDATION

2. Field Validation using Global Positioning

 Any remote sensing project that requires field measurements or
observations must have a means of determining reliable locations
for each site (McCoy, 2005).
 Traditionally, determining location of sample sites involves using
surveying techniques such as establishing triangulation networks
connecting all sample points.
 The advent of GPS technology has greatly changed the approach of
location-finding in remote sensing (McCoy, 2005)
WHAT IS GPS?
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 developed by the US DoD (NAVSTAR
GPS)
 space-based satellite navigation system that
provides location and time information in
all weather, anywhere on or near the
surface of the earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites
 accessible to both civilian and military
 OTHER SYSTEMS

 GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) – Russia

 Galileo – European Union

 Compass – China

 Indian Regional Navigation System - India

 SEGMENTS OF THE GPS
GPS Framework

Space Segment
NAVSTAR GPS
30 Satellites
20200 Km

Control Segment
User Segment 1 Master Station
Receive Satellite Signal 5 Monitoring Stations
 SPACE SEGMENT

 originally composed of 24 satellites (SV) in

medium earth orbit (31 as of March 2008)

 4 satellites in 6 orbital planes having a 55°

inclination

 20,200 km orbital altitude

CONTROL SEGMENT
 Ground stations around the world monitoring the health of each
satellite and uploading orbital parameters to each satellite

 Composed of:
 A master control station (MCS) - US Air Force Space Command Center at Schriever
Air Force Base (formerly Falcon AFB) in Colorado Springs, Colorado

 4 Monitor stations – Schriever Air Force Base, Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Diego Garcia
and Ascension Islands

 3 Ground antennas - Ascension, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein Atoll, as well as Cape

Canaveral, Florida
GPS Framework
USER SEGMENT
User Segment
 Worldwide community of military and civilian users equipped with GPS
worldwide
receivers community of civilian & military users equipped
with GPS receivers
 Precise Positioning Service
 Standard Positioning Service

Typical information
Typical information sought:
sought: 2D or2D
3Dor 3D position,
position, navigation
navigation parameters
(position, velocity,
parameters heading)
(position, and timeheading), time
velocity,
 USER SEGMENT

 Military
 Search and rescue
 Disaster relief
 Surveying
 Marine, aeronautical and terrestrial navigation
 Remote-controlled vehicle and robot guidance
 Satellite positioning and tracking
 Shipping
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
 Recreation
USER SEGMENT

TYPES OF RECEIVERS

1. Navigation / Mapping Grade Receivers – C/A Code

2. Single Frequency / Survey Grade Receivers – C/A Code and L1 carrier
3. Dual Frequency / Geodetic Grade Receivers – C/A Code, P code and
L1 and L2 carrier
GPS RANGE MEASUREMENT

Range = Time Taken x Speed of Light

Xll

Vl
SIGNAL FROM ONE SATELLITE

The receiver is
somewhere on
this sphere.
SIGNALS FROM TWO SATELLITES
THREE SATELLITES (2D
POSITIONING)
THREE DIMENSIONAL (3D) POSITIONING
 GPS POINT POSITIONING
R1
R3
R2

3 Spheres
We are 2somewhere
Spheres onintersect
intersect as aatcircle
a sphere ofaradius,
point R1
3 Ranges to resolve for Latitude, Longitude and Height
POINT POSITIONING

4 Ranges to resolve for Latitude, Longitude, Height & Time

It is similar in principle to a resection problem
 DIFFERENTIAL GPS

 Position of Rover ‘B’ can be

determined relative to Reference
‘A’ provided
 Coordinates of ‘A’ are known
 Simultaneous GPS Observations

 Differential Positioning
 Eliminates errors in satellite &
receiver clocks
 Minimizes atmospheric delays A B
 Accuracy 3mm-5m
PLANNING FOR
GROUND TRUTHING
Sampling Considerations and Design for
Positional Accuracy Assessment
SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS AND DESIGN FOR
POSITIONAL ACCURACY ASSESSMENT
 Estimating positional error parameters requires the comparison of
coordinates of sample sites from the reference data and the map to be
assessed
 The NSSDA (National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy) outlines
several requirements that govern positional accuracy sampling design
and collection:
 Data Independence
 Source of Reference Data
 Number of Samples
 Identification of Samples
 Distribution of Samples
 Sampling considerations and design for
positional accuracy assessment

DATA INDEPENDENCE
 It is critically important that the reference data be independent from
the data being tested to ensure the objectivity and rigor of the accuracy
assessment.
 reference data cannot, in any way, have been relied upon in the creation
of the map or image being assessed.
 control points or digital elevation models used to create the spatial
products to be assessed are unsuitable sources of reference data.
 Sampling considerations and design for
positional accuracy assessment

SOURCE OF REFERENCE DATA

 The source of reference data depends on a number of factors.
 Often, a map of larger scale than the map or image being tested may be
sufficient as source of reference data especially if the map/image to be tested
is small in scale and covers a large area.
 In cases where much more precision is required of the reference data (e.g.
for use in assessing engineering site drawing, etc.), field survey or use of
high-precision GPS may be required.
 NSSDA stipulates that the reference source data “be of the highest accuracy
feasible and practicable” (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998).
 Other handbooks suggest that the reference data be from one to three
times more accurate than the anticipated accuracy of the data being tested
(Congalton & Green, 2009).
 Sampling considerations and design for positional accuracy assessment

NUMBER OF SAMPLES
 The NSSDA requires a min of 20 sample points (Federal Geographic Data
Committee, 1998).
 Other standards require a min of 20 samples per ground cover class and suggest
that at least 30 sample points per class are preferred (Congalton & Green, 2009).
 For statistical rigor, more than 20 sample locations should be chosen.
 Fewer than 20 points do not provide sufficient samples for a statistically valid
estimate.
 If the population of errors is normally distributed, then, taking >30 samples will not
contribute much to the precision of the accuracy estimate compared to the cost
and effort required in collecting additional samples especially if the additional
sample’s location were determined using ground surveys.
 However, if the distribution of the population of errors is skewed or flat, then the
sample size should be increased.
 Collecting reference samples, especially ground survey locations, can be extremely
expensive and most positional accuracy assessments rely on the NSSDA minimum
of 20 samples.
 Sampling considerations and design for positional accuracy assessment

IDENTIFICATION OF SAMPLES
 NSSDA suggests that, “For graphic maps and vector data, suitable well-
defined points represent right-angle intersections of roads, railroads, or
other linear mapped features, such as canals, ditches, trails, fence lines, and
pipelines.
 For orthoimagery, suitable well-defined points may represent features such
as small isolated shrubs or bushes, in addition to right-angle intersections of
linear features.
 For map products at scales of 1:5000 or larger, such as engineering plats or
property maps, suit- able well-defined points may represent additional
features such as utility access covers, and intersections of sidewalks, curbs,
or gutters.” (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998).
 Sampling considerations and design for positional accuracy assessment

DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLES
 The sample points must also be well distributed across the
project area, and represent the full variety of topography, as
topography has the largest impact on positional accuracy
 Other options
 Random selection
 NSSDA: distributed more densely in the vicinity of important features
and more sparsely in areas that are of little or no interest
 ASPRS: image is divided into quadrants; min of 20% of the sample points
are allocated to each quadrant; no two points should be closer than d/10
distance from each other, where d is the diagonal dimension of the map
or image
 Sampling considerations and design for positional accuracy assessment

DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLES

ASPRS-suggested distribution of positional

accuracy assessment sample locations
Sampling Considerations and Design for Thematic
Accuracy Assessment
SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS AND DESIGN FOR
THEMATIC ACCURACY ASSESSMENT
 requires sampling because it is not economically feasible to visit every
place on the ground
 Sampling design requires knowledge of the distribution of thematic
classes across the landscape, determination of the types and number of
samples to be taken, and choice of a sampling scheme for selecting the
samples.
 The design of an effective and efficient sampling scheme to collect valid
reference and map sample data is one of the most challenging and
important components of any accuracy assessment, because the design
will determine both the cost and the statistical rigor of the assessment
(Congalton & Green, 2009).
 Sampling considerations and design for thematic accuracy assessment

CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING AN
ACCURACY ASSESSMENT SAMPLING SCHEME

 What are the thematic map classes to be assessed and how

are they distributed across the landscape?
 What is the appropriate sample unit (size of sample sites)?
 How many samples should be taken?
 How should the samples be chosen?
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT ARE THE THEMATIC MAP CLASSES TO BE

ASSESSED?
 Important considerations are the discrete nature of map information,
and the spatial interrelationship or autocorrelation of that information.
 Assumptions made about the distribution of map categories will affect
both how we select accuracy assessment samples and the outcome of
the analysis.
 It is critical that accuracy assessment reference data be collected and
labeled using the same classification scheme as that used to generate
the map.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE UNIT?

Single Pixel
 has been used as the sampling unit for thematic accuracy
assessment
 a very poor choice for the sampling unit because:
 a pixel is an arbitrary rectangular delineation of the landscape that may
have little relation to the actual delineation of land cover or land use
type (can be a “mixel”)
 it is hard to exactly align one pixel on the map to the exact same
location in the reference data
 few classification schemes specify a unit as small as a pixel as the
minimum mapping unit
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE UNIT?

Cluster of Pixels
 typically a 3 x 3 square for moderate resolution imagery
 has recently been the most common choice for the
sample unit
 minimizes registration problems because it is easier to
locate on the reference data or in the field
 Select homogenous clusters
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE UNIT?

 Polygons
 Most large-scale thematic maps delineate the landscape into polygons of
homogeneous map classes.
 Polygons are delineated on edges of classes, where more “between” than
“within” class polygon variation exists.
 While the pixels inside the polygons may vary dramatically, the class label
across the pixels is constant.
 Usually the polygon map is created either through manual interpretation or
through the use of image segmentation and object-oriented classification
algorithms.
 If the map to be assessed is a polygon map, then the accuracy assessment
sample units should also be polygons.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE UNIT?

Cluster of Polygons
 Sampling clusters of polygons (or a grouping of polygons together),
rather than single polygons, can reduce accuracy assessment costs
dramatically because travel time and/ or setup time is decreased.
 Unlike clusters of pixels, each polygon within a cluster of polygons
can represent a single sampling unit because polygons are by
definition separate map class types that have more between than
within variation.
 However, care must be taken to provide some separation between
polygons and to limit the number in the cluster.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE UNIT?

 The main things to keep in mind in determining the size of a sample site
is the variability of the terrain and the ground resolution of the image
data, which is usually the same as image pixel dimensions.
 Except for applications involving pixel unmixing (subpixel analysis), we
should try to generalize a great amount of variation on the ground into
a single statement that is representative of an area at least the size of a
ground pixel, though usually larger.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE UNIT?

Justice and Townshend in 1981 suggest a useful formula for determining

area of a sample site (McCoy, 2005):

A is the minimum sample site dimension,

P is image pixel dimension,
L is estimated locational accuracy in number of pixels.
For example, a project is using TM image data with 30-m pixel resolution, and one
can accurately locate an area on the ground to ±0.5 pixel (15 m). The minimum
ground area dimension that should be sampled is 60 m × 60 m. Sample sites may
be larger than the minimum to allow for a margin of error in ground location and
image georeferencing.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

HOW MANY SAMPLES SHOULD BE TAKEN?

 Accuracy assessment requires that an adequate number of samples per

map class be gathered so that the assessment is a statistically valid
representation of the accuracy of the map.
 However, the collection of reference data at each sample unit is very
expensive, requiring that sample size be kept to a minimum to be
affordable.
 In spite of efforts by various researchers, there is still no hard and fast
rule for determining the number of samples needed for accuracy
assessment (McCoy, 2005)
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

HOW MANY SAMPLES SHOULD BE TAKEN?

Fitzpatrick-Lins (McCoy, 2005) applies the following binomial

probability formula to estimate an appropriate number of
samples over the entire study area:

where: N = the number of samples

Z = 2 (the standard normal deviate for a 95% confidence level)
p = expected accuracy
q = 100 – p
E = allowable error
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

HOW MANY SAMPLES SHOULD BE TAKEN?

• For example, if an accuracy of 85% is expected, with an allowable error of

5% (95% confidence level), 204 sample sites would be needed to apply this
approach. If the allowable error changed to only 2%, the number of samples
needed would jump to 1,275.
• However, this method does not consider the size of the study area, the
number of categories, the variation in the areal size of the categories, nor
the variability within the categories.
• It would be very easy to under-sample using this method alone unless the
confidence level is set to a point that is unrealistic in terms of field time.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

HOW MANY SAMPLES SHOULD BE TAKEN?

 Congalton and Green (Congalton & Green, 2009), based on experience

with the multinomial distribution, suggested to use 50 samples minimum
in each category.
 If the area is larger than 1,000,000 acres, or if there are more than 12
categories, then there should be 75–100 samples per category.
 This approach samples small areas heavily, while large areas might be
under-sampled.
 These suggested sample numbers could be adjusted to accommodate
variations in size and within-class variability.
 Considerations in Designing an Accuracy Assessment Sampling Scheme

HOW SHOULD THE SAMPLES BE CHOSEN?

There are five common sampling schemes that have been applied for
collecting reference data:
(1) simple random sampling,
(2) systematic sampling,
(3) stratified random sampling,
(4) cluster sampling,
(5) stratified, systematic, unaligned sampling.
 46

SAMPLING SCHEMES

Simple Random Sampling:

observations are randomly placed.

Stratified Random Sampling : a

minimum number of observations
are randomly placed in each
category.
 47

SAMPLING SCHEMES

Systematic Sampling: observations

are placed at equal intervals
according to a strategy.

Systematic Non-Aligned Sampling:

a grid provides even distribution of
randomly placed observations.

UP DEPARTMENT OF GEODETIC
ENGINEERING
 48

SAMPLING SCHEMES

Cluster Sampling: Randomly

placed “centroids” used as a base
of several nearby observations.
The nearby observations can be
randomly selected, systematically
selected, etc...

UP DEPARTMENT OF GEODETIC
ENGINEERING
 49

SAMPLING SCHEMES

• uses a grid, as in the systematic method, but assigns the position of each point
randomly within the grid cell.
• In this way a degree of randomness is maintained within the constraints of
the grid cell, but the grid assures that all parts of the project area will be
sampled.

UP DEPARTMENT OF GEODETIC
ENGINEERING
Some Equipment used in
Remote Sensing
GPS
Spectrometer
PAR Sensor
AAQ
GPS UNITS (HANDHELD)
SPECTROMETER
 GPS UNITS (SURVEY GRADE)
Spectra Precision Epoch 10 Single Frequency Global Navigation
Systems/Global Positioning Systems (GNSS/GPSs) Receivers (4 units)
 GPS UNITS (GEODETIC GRADE)
Topcon Dual Frequency Global Navigation Systems/Global Positioning
Systems (GNSS/GPSs) Receivers, Model Hyper GA (3 units)
PAR SENSOR
 WATER QUALITY
PROFILER

light-weight and high-accuracy multi-

parameter water quality meters
designed for measurement (up to a
depth of 100 meters) of:
• Depth
• Temperature
• conductivity (salinity)
• Turbidity
• Chlorophyll
• dissolved oxygen and
• pH

Alec Electronics Water Quality Profiler, Model

AAQ1183
END OF LECTURE