NOT_ESF ORCLAS

________________
SXI

PHYSI
CS
PARTI&I
I

KAMI
LKATI
LVEETI
L
S
OHS
SAREEKODE
 INDEX

1 Physical World 1

2 Units and Measurement 3

3 Motion in A Straight Line 11

4 Motion in A Plane 17

5 Laws of Motion 24

6 Work, Energy and Power 30

7 Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion 36

8 Gravitation 44

9 Mechanical Properties of Solids 50

10 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 54

11 Thermal Properties of Matter 65

12 Thermodynamics 71

13 Kinetic Theory 79

14 Oscillations 86

15 Waves 92
 CHAPTER ONE
PHYSICAL WORLD
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Science- Originates from the Latin word “scientia” meaning 'to know'.
Physics – originates from the Greek word “Fusis” meaning nature. physics is the study of
the basic laws of nature and their manifestations.

1.2 BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

1. Classical physics 2. Modern physics
1. Classical Physics
physics that was recognized and developed before the beginning of the 20 th century
Branch Major focus
Classical mechanics The study of forces acting on bodies whether at rest or in
motion
Thermodynamics The study of the relationship between heat and other forms
of energy
Optics The study of light
Electricity and magnetism The study of electricity and magnetism and their mutual
relationship

2.Modern Physics
Refers to the concepts in physics that have surfaced since the beginning of the 20 th century.
Branch Major focus
Quantum mechanics The study of the discrete nature of phenomena at the atomic
and subatomic levels
Atomic physics The branch of physics which deals with the structure and
properties of the atom
Nuclear physics The branch of physics which deals with the structure,
properties and reaction of the nuclei of atoms.

1.3 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE

Name Relative Range Operates among

strength
Gravitational force 10-39 Infinite All objects in the universe
Weak nuclear force 10-13 Very short, Sub-nuclear Some elementary particles,particularly
size electron and neutrino
Electromagnetic 10-2 Infinite Charged particle
force
Strong nuclear 1 Short, nuclear Nucleons, heavier elementary particles
force size

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 PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1.Which one of the following fundamental forces in nature binds Protons and neutrons
in a nucleus? ( IMP 2016)
A) Gravitational force B) Electromagnetic force
C) Strong nuclear force D) Weak nuclear force (1)

2. Which one of the following is present between all object in universe? (March 2016)
A)Electromagnetic force B)Magnetic Force
C)Gravitational force D)Strong nuclear force (1)

3.Choose the WRONG statement from the following statements. (IMP 2015)
A)Electromagnetic force is the force between charged particles.
B) Electrostatic force can be attractive or repulsive.
C)Nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
D) Gravitational force is one of the strongest forces among fundamental forces in nature. (1)

4. Choose the correct answer from the bracket. Weakest force in nature is................... (1)
(Strong nuclear force, Electromagnetic force, Gravitational force, Weak nuclear force) (MAR 2015)

5. Pick the odd one out among the following forces (MAR 2017)
( Gravitational force , Viscous force , Week nuclear force, Electromagnetic force ) (1)

6. The branch of physics that was developed to understand and improve the working of heat engine
is........................... (MAR 2018) (1)
(Optics , Thermodynamics ,electronics, Electrodynamics )

7. The ratio of electrostatic force and the gravitational force between two protons kept fixed
distance is........................ (IMP 17) (1)
-19 19 36 -36
( 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 )

8. The week nuclear force is stronger than gravitational force. State whether the statement is true or
false (MAR 19) (1)

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 CHAPTER 2 terms of fundamental quantities, are called
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS derived quantities. The units of derived
quantities are called derived units.
2.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITY Eg: 1. Volume is measured in metre3 or m3 .
A quantity, which can be measured directly or 2. Speed can be expressed in meter per
indirectly, is called a physical quantity. second (m/s)
Ex : length, mass, time, speed, force, volume,
etc. 2.5 SYSTEMS OF UNITS.
2.2 UNITS A complete set of units for all physical
measurement of a physical quantity involves quantities with particular basic units is called a
comparison with a reference standard. This system of units.
reference standard is called unit. The commonly used systems are:
Ex: metre is the unit of length, kilogram is the (a) The FPS system: It is the British
unit of mass, second is the unit of time. Engineering system of units, which uses foot,
pound and second as the three basic units for
measuring length, mass and time respectively.
(b) The c.g.s system: Which uses centimetre,
gram and second as the three basic units for
measuring length, mass and time respectively.
(c) The MKS system:
(d) SI units(Metric System): In 1960,
International Committee for Weights Measures
adopted a system of units for all fundamental
physical quantities and is called International
system of units or SI units.
In SI system, there are seven Fundamental
Thus in the measurement of a physical (basic) units and two Supplementary units.
quantity, two things are involved – a number
and a unit. The unit is the standard quantity 2.6 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND
with which the measured quantity is compared THEIR UNITS IN SI SYSTEM
and the number shows how many times the
measured quantity is greater than the unit. Fundamental quantity Unit Symbol
A good unit will have the following Mass kilogram kg
characteristics.
It should be (a) well defined (b) internationally Length metre m
acceptable (c) invariable (d) reproducible. Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
2.3 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS Electric current ampere A
A set of physical quantities which are Luminous intensity candela cd
independent of each other are known as
Amount of substance mole mol
fundamental quantities. The units of
fundamental quantities are called fundamental
units. 2.7 SUPPLEMENTARY QUANTITIES
AND THEIR UNITS
2.4 DERIVED QUANTITIES AND
DERIVED UNITS Plane Angle radian rad
Physical quantities, which can be expressed in Solid angle steradian sr

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NOTE: These two quantities have units but no multip prefix symbo submu Prefix symbo
dimension. le l ltiple l
101 deca da 10-1 deci d
Advantages of SI units:
1) It is comprehensive. 102 hecto h 10-2 centi c
2) The system is coherent. 103 kilo k 10-3 milli m
3) It is internationally accepted.
106 mega M 10-6 micro μ
2.8 DESCRIPTION OF PLANE ANGLE 109 giga G 10-9 nano n
(dθ ) 1012
terra T 10-12
pico p
1015 peta P 10-15 femto f
1018 exa E 10-18 atto a
1021 zetta Z 10-21 zepto z
1024 yotta Y 10-24 yocto y
The Radian (rad): One radian is the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
2.10 MEASUREMENT OF BASIC
length equal to the radius of the circle.
QUANTITES
1.Measurement of Length
2.9 DESCRIPTION OF SOLID ANGLE
Distances ranging from 10 −5m to 10 2m can be
(dΩ )
measured by direct methods.
Eg: Metre Scale - To measure the distance
from 10−3 m to 1m
Vernier Calipers - up to 10−4 m
Screw Gauge - up to 10−5 m
The atomic and astronomical distances cannot
be measured by any of the above mentioned
direct methods.
The Steradian (sr): One steradian is the solid Measurement of large distances
angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a Parallax method
surface of the sphere, which is equal in area, to Parallax is the name given to the apparent
the square of radius of the sphere . change in the position of an object with
respect to the background, when the object is
Relations between radian , degree and seen from two different positions.
minute
10= π radian
0
π radian=180 => See Fig.
180

10= 60' (minute of arc) ∠LOR is called the parallax angle

or parallactic angle.
1'(minute of arc) = 60'' (seconds of arc)
Taking LR as an arc of length b and
radius LO = RO = x
2.10 MULTIPLES AND SUB MULTIPLES
OF UNITS. b
we get θ= where b-basis ,
x
To express magnitude of physical quantities, x-unknown distance.
which are very large or small, we use prefixes
to the unit. Knowing ‘b’ and measuring θ, we can

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calculate x.
* HW: Example 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
2.Measurement of Mass
Common objects - Common balance or spring
balance or electronic balance
Larger masses like that of planets, stars etc -
Gravitational methods
Small masses like atomic/subatomic particles
etc - Mass spectrograph.
3.Measurement of time
A clock is used to measure the time interval.
An atomic standard of time, is based on the
periodic vibration produced in a Cesium atom.
6.11 THEORY OF ERRORS
The result obtained from any measurement
will contain some uncertainty. Such an
uncertainty is termed error.
Accuracy And Precesion
Accuracy is a measure of how close the
measured value is to the true value of the
quantity.
Precision refers to the closeness of two or
more measurements to each other.
Errors in Measurement
1.Systematic error 2. Random error .
1.Systematic Errors:
The systematic errors are those errors that end
to be in one direction, either positive or
negative. Systematic errors can be classified as
follows.
(a). Instrumental Error : These errors are due
to the defect of the instrument.
Eg: 1. Zero error in screw gauge and vernier.
2.Faulty calibration of thermometer, metre
scale etc.
(b). Error due to Imperfection : This is due to
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imperfection of the experimental procedure.
Eg: A thermometer placed under the armpit
will always give a temperature lower than the
actual value of the body temperature.
(c). Personal Error : This is due to the mode of
observation of the person taking the reading .
Eg: Parallax error.
(d). Errors due to external causes : The change
in the external conditions during an
experiment can cause error in measurement.
Eg: changes in temperature,or pressure during
measurements may affect the result of the
measurement.
(e). Least Count Error : LC is the smallest
value that can be measured by the measuring
instrument, and the error due to this
measurement is least count error. The
instrument’s resolution hence is
the cause of this error. Least count error can be
reduced by using a high precision instrument
for the
measurement.
2. Random Error :
The random errors are those errors, which
occur irregularly and hence are random with
respect to sign and size.
Eg: 1.unpredictable fluctuations in
temperature, voltage supply etc become source
of error 2. when the same person repeats the
same observation, it is very likely that he may
get different readings every time.
ERROR ANALYSIS
1. Absolute Error
The magnitude of difference between the true
value and the measured value of a quantity is
called absolute error. If a1 , a2 , a3 , ..........an
are the measured values of any quantity ‘a’ in
an experiment performed n times, then the
arithmetic mean of these values is called the
true value (am ) of the quantity. Ie,
a1 +a2 +a 3+............. a n
am =
n
The absolute error in measured values is given
by
|Δ a1|=|am−a1|
|Δ a2|=|am−a2|
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Similarly two decimal place
|Δ an|=|am −an| (ii) Absolute error , |ΔT|=|T m−t|

2. Mean Absolute error ( |Δ am| ) |Δ T 1|=|2.62−2.63|=0.01

The arithmetic mean of absolute errors |Δ T 2|=|2.62−2.56|=0.06
in all the measurements is called the mean |Δ T 3|=|2.62−2.42|=0.20
absolute error. Ie, |Δ T 4|=|2.62−2.71|=0.09
|Δ a1|+|Δ a2|+|Δ a3|+..............+|Δ an| |Δ T 5|=|2.62−2.80|=0.18
Δ a m=
n
(iii) Mean absolute error,
3. Relative Error
0.01+ 0.06+0.20+ 0.09+ 0.18
|Δ T m|= =0.108 s
Mean absolute error 5
Relative error =
Mean value = 0.11 s ( Rounded off to two decimal
places)
Eg: A driver’s speedometer shows that his car
is travelling at 60 km/h when it is actually (iv) Relative error,
moving at 62 km/h. Then absolute error of Mean absolute error
Relative error =
speedometer is 62 km/h-60 km/h= 2 km/h. Mean value
Relative error of the measurement is
2 km/ h 0.11
=0.322 km/h = =0.0419=0.04
62 km/h 2.62
(v) Percentage error ,
4. Percentage Error P . E=R . E x 100=0.04 x 100
=4%
|Δ am|
Percentage error = x 100 (vi) Time period of simple pendulum,
am
T =(2.62±0.11)s

NOTE: If we do a single measurement, the COMBINATION OF ERRORS

value we get may be in the range am ± ∆am
Problem 1: In a series of successive
measurements in an experiment, the readings
of the period of oscillation of a simple
pendulum were found to be 2.63s, 2.56 s,
2.42s, 2.71s and 2.80s. Calculate (i) the mean
value of the period of oscillation (ii) the
absolute error in each measurement (iii) the
mean absolute error (iv) the relative error
(v)the percentage error. Express the result in
proper form.
Solution
t 1 +t 2+t 3 +t 4 +t 5
(i) T m=
5
2.63+2.56+2.42+2.71+2.80
=> T m=
5 = ( A+ B)±( Δ A + Δ B)
=> T m=2.624 s = 2.62 s (Rounded off to
The error in the final result depends on
(i) The errors in the individual measurements
(ii) On the nature of mathematical operations
performed to get the final result. So we should
know the rules to combine the errors.
(a) Error of a sum or a difference
*Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in the
two quantities A and B respectively. Then,
Measured value of A = A ± ΔA
Measured value of B = B ± ΔB
Consider the sum, Z = A + B
The error ΔZ in Z is then given by
Z ±Δ Z=( A±Δ A)+(B±Δ B)
= Z ±( Δ A +Δ B)

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=> Δ Z=(Δ A +Δ B) Examples
1)The length and breadth of a rectangle are
We will get the same result even if we take the (5.7 ± 0 . 1 ) cm and (3.4 ± 0 . 2 ) cm
difference. Ie, respectively. Calculate the area of the
rectangle with error limits.
The maximum possible error in the sum of
Soln) Length l= (5.7 ± 0 . 1 ) cm ,
two quantities or difference of two
Breadth b =(3.4 ± 0 . 2 ) cm
quantities is equal to the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.
Area with error limit = A ± ΔA = ?
Area A = l × b = 5.7 × 3.4
Examples = 19.38 = 19.4 cm 2
1)Two resistances R1 = (100 ± 3) Ω and R2 = Δ A Δl Δb
(150 ± 2) Ω are connected in series. What We know = +
A l b
is their equivalent resistance?
Soln: (250 ± 5) Ω
2) Do example 2.8 NCERT => Δ A=A ( Δl l + Δbb )
0.1 0.2
Δ A=19.4 (
5.7 3.4 )
(b) Error of a product or a quotient => +
Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in the = 1.48 = 1.5
two quantities, A and B, respectively. Then,
Measured value of A = A ± ΔA Therefore , Area with error limit,
Measured value of B = B ± ΔB 2
A=(19.4±1.5)cm
Consider the product , Z = A B
2) Do Example 2.9 NCERT
The error ΔZ in Z is given by
3) Example 2.10 NCERT [HW]
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)
4) The voltage across a wire is (100 ± 5)V and
The error ΔZ in Z is given by
the current passing through it is (10±0.2) A.
Z ± ΔZ =(A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)
Find the resistance of the wire. [HW]
= (AB) ± (A ΔB) ± (B ΔA) ± (ΔA . ΔB)
Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S by AB,
(c) Error in the power of a quantity
we get,
ΔZ ΔB Δ A Δ A Δ B
1± =1± ± ± The relative error in a physical quantity
Z B A A B
raised to the power k is the k times the
ΔA ΔB relative error in the individual quantity.
As , are both small quantities,
A B
ΔA ΔB Examples
their product term can be
A B 1) Find the relative error in Z, if
neglected. Z = A 4 B 1/3 /CD 3/2 .
So the maximum relative error in Z is , Solution
ΔZ Δ A 1 Δ B ΔC 3 Δ D
=4 + + +
ΔZ Δ A ΔB Z A 3 B C 2 D
= +
Z A B
This is true for division also. Ie, 2) Example 2.12 NCERT [HW]
The maximum fractional error in the
product of two quantities or quotient of SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
two quantities is equal tothe sum of the The digits that are known reliably plus the first
fractional errors in the individual uncertain digit are known as significant figures
quantities. or significant digits.

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RULES FOR COUNTING THE NUMBER
OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1) All non-zero digits are significant
Ex: 1342 has 4 significant figures
2) All zeros between two non-zero digits are
significant, no matter where the decimal
point is.
Ex: 1002 has 4 significant figures
20.003 has 5 significant figures
3) If the number is less than 1, the zero (s)
on the right of the decimal point but to left
of the first non zero digit are not significant.
Ex: 0.00345 has 3 significant figures
4) The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a
number without a decimal point are not
significant.
Ex: 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm
has three significant figures
5) The trailing zero(s) in a number with a
decimal point are significant.
Ex: 3.500 has 4 significant figures
0.06900 has 4 significant figures
6) The number of significant figures does
not depend on the system of units used
Ex:123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm
has three significant figures
7) The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
determination of significant figures.
Ex: = 5.70 m = 5.70 × 102 cm =
5.70 × 10 3 mm = 5.70 × 10 −3 km have 3
significant figures .
RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF
1) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than
5, then the preceding digit should be left
unchanged.
i) 7.32 is rounded off to 7.3
ii) 8.94 is rounded off to 8.9
2) If the digit to be dropped is greater than
5, then the preceding digit should be
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
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increased by 1
i) 17.26 is rounded off to 17.3
ii) 11.89 is rounded off to 11.9
3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by
digits other than zero, then the preceding digit
should be raised by 1
i)7.352 is rounded off to 7.4
ii)18.159 is rounded off to 18.2
4) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5
followed by zeros, then the preceding digit
is not changed if it is even
i) 3.45 is rounded off to 3.4
ii) 8.250 is rounded off to 8.2
5)If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5
followed by zeros, then the preceding digit
is raised by 1 if it is odd
i) 3.35 is rounded off to 3.4
ii) 8.350 is rounded off to 8.4
RULES FOR ARITHMETIC
OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES.
1) In addition and subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as there
are in the number with the smallest number of
decimal
places.
1)3.1 + 1.780 + 2.046 = 6.926
Here the least number of significant
digits after the decimal is one. Hence the
result will be 6.9.
2)12.637 – 2.42 = 10.217 Hence the
result will be 10.22
2) In multiplication or division, the final
result should retain as many significant
figures as there are in the original number
with smallest number of significant figures.
1) 1.21 × 36.72 = 44.4312 = 44.4
2) 36.72 ÷ 1.2 = 30.6 = 31
DIMENSION OF PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the
powers to which the fundamental units be
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raised in order to represent that quantity. ,where m is the mass of the body, v its
velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity
Displacement [ L] 0 −1 and h is the height. Check whether this
Eg: Velocity= = =[ M L T ]
time [T ] equation is dimensionally correct.

Hence the dimensions of velocity is 0 in mass, Solution

1 in length and -1 in time. 1 2
The dimension of m v = [M][LT-1]2
Problem: ( Do yourself) 2
Find the dimensional formula of the following = [M L2 T-2]
physical quantities.
(a) Acceleration (b) Force (c) Momentum The dimension of mgh = [M][LT-2][L]
(d) Kinetic energy (e) Mass per unit length = [M L2 T-2]

DIMENSIONAL FORMULA AND Since both term has the same dimension , the
EQUATION given equation is dimensionally correct.

Dimensional formula is an expression which Eg: Do Examples 2.16 NCERT

shows how and which of the fundamental units
are required to represent the unit of a physical 2.To establish the relation among various
quantity. physical quantities
Eg: [M 0 LT −2 ] is the dimensional formula of
acceleration. Problem
Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob
When the dimensional formula of a physical attached to a string, that oscillates under the
quantity is expressed in the form of an action of the force of gravity. Suppose that the
equation, such an equation is known as the period of oscillation of the simple pendulum
dimensional equation. depends on its length (l), mass of the bob (m)
Eg: Acceleration = [M 0 LT −2 ]. and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the
expression for its time period using method of
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions dimensions.
Solution
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions *The dependence of time period T on the
states that the dimensions of all the terms in quantities l, g and m as a product may be
a physical expression should be the same. written as :
Eg: v 2 = u 2 +2as , the dimensions of v 2 , u 2 T=klxgymz
and 2as have the same dimension [L 2 T −2 ].
where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL and z are the exponents.
ANALYSIS
By considering dimensions on both sides, we
1.To check the correctness of an equation have
Checking the correctness of the equation using [M o L o T 1 ]=[L 1 ]x [L 1 T –2 ]y [M 1 ]z
principle of homogeneity. = L x+y T –2y M z
Here we use the principle of homogeneity to
check the correctness of the equation On equating the dimensions on both sides,
we have
Problem: x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
1 1 −1
Let us consider an equation m v 2=mgh So x= , y= , z=0
2 2 2

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Then, T =k l1/ 2 g−1 /2 => T =k
√ l
g
(a) 3215
(e) 3100
(b) 11.01
(f) 007
(c) 0.003 (d) 1.000

6. Report the result of the following with

Actually, k = 2π => T =2 π
√ l
g correct significant figures

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis.
1) This method gives us no information about
dimensionless constants.
2) We cannot use this method if the physical
quantity depends on more than three other
physical quantities.
3) This method cannot be used if the left hand
side of the equation contains more than one
term.
4) Often it is difficult to guess the parameters
on which the physical quantity depends.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1 . a) A boy recalls the relativistic mass
m0
wrongly as m=
√(1−V 2 )
dimensional method put the missing ‘C’ at the
proper place.
(a) 30.1 + 2.760 + 9.046 (b) 12.637 – 2.42
(c) 1.21 × 36.72 (d) 36.72 ÷ 1.2
7. If the velocity of sound through a medium
depends on the bulk modulus , 'B' of the
medium and density, 'ρ' of the medium , obtain
the relation connecting the velocity of sound,
bulk modulus and the density of the medium.
(Given that the bulk modulus has the
dimension of force per area)
8. “ A dimensionally correct equation may not
be a physically correct equation” . Comment
the statement.
. Using

b) Name and state the principle used in solving

the above problem. [ imp. 2012]

2. If the percentage error in calculating the

radius of the sphere is 2% , what will be the
percentage error in calculating the volume?
[imp 2013]
3. Which of the following measurement is
more accurate? Why?
i. 500.00kg.
ii. 0.0005kg.
iii.6.00kg.
4. Check whether the equation T =2 π m is
dimensionally correct. Where,
√ g

T - > Time period of a simple Pendulum.

m - > mass of the bob.
g -> acceleration due to gravity.

5 . Find out the number of significant figures

in the followig

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 CHAPTER THREE
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Point object : If the size of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a reasonable
duration of time, then the object is said to be point object.
Reference point : In order to specify the position of an object, we need to use a reference point
and a set of axes. For convenience we use a rectangular coordinate system consisting three
mutually perpendicular axes (X,Y,Z) as set of axes and the point of intersection of these three
axes (origin ) as the reference point.
3.2 POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND DISPLACEMENT

3.2.1 Position
To specify position we fix a origin (O). Positions to the right of O are taken as positive and
to the left of O, as negative ( convention)
Thus the position co ordinates of P ,Q , R are +360 m , +240 m , -120 m respectively.
3.2.2 Path length (Distance)
It is the total distance covered.
Suppose a car moves from O to P and then moves back from P to Q , then the total path length
(distance) covered = OP+PQ = 360 m+120 m= 480 m
3.2.3 Displacement (Δx)
It is the shortest distance between the final and initial positions
Suppose a car moves from O to P and then moves back from P to Q , then Δx = xQ-xO = + 240 m
If a car moves from O to P and then moves back from P to R , then Δx = xR-xO = -120 m
If a car moves from O to P and then moves back from P to O , then Δx = xO-xO = 0
NOTE:
* Distance is a scalar quantity ( only magnitude , no direction) while displacement is a vector
quantity ( it has both magnitude and direction)
* Distance can only have positive values while Displacement can be positive, negative and even
zero.
* The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to the path length traversed by an
object.
Problem 1

A point P is the contact point of a wheel on ground which rolls on

ground without slipping. What is the displacement of the point P
when wheel completes half of rotation (if radius of wheels is 1m)
Solution

Displacement , S = √(π R)2 +( 2 R)2 = R √ π2 +4

Since R=1 m, S= √ π2 + 4 m

Motion: If a body changes its position with time , then the body is said to be in motion.

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3.3 SPEED AND VELOCITY
3.3.1 Average speed
The average speed is defined as the ratio of the total path length covered by the particle to the total
total path length
time taken Average speed=
Total time interval
NOTE
* If a particle travels distances S 1 , S2 , S 3 with speeds v 1 , v 2 , v 3 respectively in same direction .
Then,
S1 S2 S3
Total distance travelled=S1 +S 2 +S 3 , Total time taken= + +
v 1 v 2 v3
S1 + S2 + S3
Therefore , The average speed =
S1 S2 S3
+ +
v1 v2 v3

* If a particle travels with speeds v 1 , v 2 , v 3 during the time interval t1 , t2 , t 3 respectively.

Then, Total distance travelled=v1 t 1 + v 2 t 2+ v 3 t3 , Total time taken=t 1+ t 2 +t 3
v 1 t 1 +v 2 t 2+v 3 t 3
Therefore , The average speed=
t 1+ t 2 +t 3

3.3.2 Average velocity

It is the ratio of displacement to the time taken
Δ x x 2−x 1
The average velocity= =
Δ t t 2−t 1

3.3.3 Instantaneous velocity (Velocity)

The time rate of change of position with time at any instant is called Instantaneous velocity

Uniform motion (Uniform velocity)

If a body covers equal displacement in equal interval of time , then the body is said to be in
uniform motion. During uniform motion magnitude and direction of the velocity remains constant.
Non uniform velocity
If a body covers unequal displacements in equal interval of time or equal displacements in unequal
interval of time, then the body is said to be in non uniform motion. During non uniform motion
either magnitude or direction of the velocity changes.

3.4 Position – time graph

NOTE: The slope of position

time graph (Δx/Δt) gives the
velocity. In Fig
(a) Slope = (x2-x1)/(t2-t1) = 0
(b)Slope =(x2-x1)/(t2-t1) = +ve
(c) Slope =(x2-x1)/(t2-t1) = -ve

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3.5 Velocity - time graph for uniform motion.

NOTE :
Area under the velocity - time graph is equal
the displacement of the particle.
Here the displacement covered by the particle
between 6s and 12s is 40 x 6 = 240m

3.6 Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity of an object is called acceleration.

V −u
Or a=
t

NOTE:If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the opposite direction of its
velocity. When an object is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction of the velocity.
Ex : Raju throws a stone up and it comes back. Give sign for displacement, velocity and
acceleration during its (a) Upward motion (b) Downward motion
soln: I fix upward direction as positive and downward direction as negative ( Reverse can be
taken)
(a) Upward motion: displacement= positive , velocity= positive, acceleration = negative ( during
upward motion body slows down , so acceleration is in the opposite direction of velocity)
(b) Downward motion: displacement= negative , velocity= negative, acceleration = negative
( during downward motion body speeds up , so acceleration is in the same direction of velocity)

Instantaneous acceleration

3.6.1 Uniform acceleration

If the velocity of an object changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time (however small the
intervals may be) , then the body is in uniform acceleration.
Eg: A freely falling stone has an acceleration 9.8 m/s2 means velocity of the stone increases 9.8m/s
in each second.

3.6.2 Position-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion

Fig(a):Uniform acceleration Fig(b):Uniform deceleration

( Note the slope of x-t graph ( Note the slope of x-t graph is
is increasing ,velocity decreasing ,velocity decreases)
increases)

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3.6.3 Velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion

Fig(a) Motion in positive Fig(b) Motion in positive

direction with positive direction with
acceleration negative acceleration

Fig(c) Motion in negative Fig(d) Motion of an

direction with negative object with negative
acceleration acceleration that changes
its direction at time t1 .

NOTE : 1) The slope of velocity time graph gives acceleration

2)Area under the velocity time graph gives the displacement

3.7 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Let u- Initial velocity v- Final velocity after time t
s- displacement covered in time t a- Uniform acceleration

First Equation Of Motion

Acceleration = Slope of velocity-time graph

v−u
a=
t
=> v −u=at
=> v =u+a t ........................ (1)
This is the first equation of motion.

Second Equation Of Motion

Displacement = Area under the velocity-time graph
=> S= Area of Δ ABC + Area of □ ACOt
1
=> S= (v−u) t+ ut ....................(2)
2
Substitute v =u+a t in (2)
(2) => S=ut +1/2(u+at−u) t
1
=> S=ut + a t 2 .....................(3)
2
1
(OR) S= (u+v )t
2
This is the second equation of motion

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Third equation of motion
From (1) v =u+a t
Squaring both sides , we get v 2=(u+ at )2=u2 +2u at +(a t )2
1
= u2 +2 a(ut + a t 2 )
2
2 2
=> v =u + 2 aS ................(4)
This is the third equation of motion
Summary
1 2 2 2 1
v =u+a t S=ut + a t v =u + 2aS S= (u+v )t
2 2

Stopping distance of vehicles

When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance. It is an important factor for road safety and depends on the initial velocity (u)
and the braking capacity, or deceleration, –a that is caused by the braking.
Expression for stopping distance
Let the distance travelled by the vehicle before it stops be d s .
Then, using equation of motion v 2=u 2+ 2 aS and noting that v = 0, S= d s , the equation
becomes, 0=u2+ 2 a d s => −u 2=+2 a d s

−u2
ie, the stopping distance ds =
2a
Thus, the stopping distance is proportional to the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the initial
velocity increases the stopping distance by a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).

3.8 RELATIVE MOTION

Consider two objects A and B moving uniformly with velocities v A and v B in one
dimension(along x-axis) with respect to the ground . If x A (0) and x B (0) are positions of objects A
and B, respectively at time t = 0, their positions x A (t) and x B (t) at time t are given by:

Then, the displacement from object A to object

B is given by

...........................(5)

(5) => Final distance between objects=initial distance between objects+ Relative velocity x time interval .

= vBA is the velocity of object B relative to object A . ie, relative velocity of B wrto A.

Similarly (vA – vB) = vAB is the velocity of object A relative to object B . ie, relative velocity of A
wrto B.

Special cases
Case 1: when vA= vB from (4) xBA(t)= xB(0) – xA(0)
i.e. the distance between the two objects remains the same at all times.
The position time graph for such motion is as shown in fig.

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Case 2: when v A > v B ( v A and v B in the same direction)
v B - v A is -ve.
From (4), we get x B (t) - x A (t) < x B (0) - x A (0)
ie, the value of x B (t) - x A (t) first decreases, becomes zero
and then increases in magnitude. The position time graph for such
motion is as shown in fig.

Case 3: when v A < v B ( v A and v B in the same direction)

v B - v A is +ve.
From (4), we get x B (t) - x A (t) > x B (0) - x A (0)
ie, the value of x B (t) - x A (t) increase as time passes. The position time
graph. for such motion is as shown in fig.

Case 4 : When v A and v B are in opposite directions ( say v A in +ve X

direction and v B in the -ve X direction) .The position time graph
for such motion is as shown in fig.

Do Example 3.1, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8 ,3.9

Previous Questions
1.Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.
a) Distinguish between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
b) When does the average velocity becomes equal to the instantaneous velocity?
c) A car travels from A to B at 60 km/hr and returns to A at 90 km/hr. What is its average velocity
and Average speed?
..............................................................................................................................................................
2. The figure shows the position – time
graph of a body moving along a straight line.
a)Draw the velocity-time graph of the body.
From the graph
b) find the displacement in 20 seconds.

..............................................................................................................................................................

3.Acceleration – time graph of a body starts from rest as shown below:

( a in m/s2 and t in seconds)
a) Draw the velocity – time graph using the above graph.
b) Find the displacement in the given interval of time from 0 to 30 seconds.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
MOTION IN A PLANE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to describe motion of an object in two
dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
(space), we need to use vectors.
Example for motion in a plane
Motion of a coin on a carom board,An insect
crawling over the floor of a room, projectile
motion, etc.
4.2 ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Scalar quantity and vector quantity
Scalar quantity: A quantity with magnitude
only. It is specified completely by a single
number, along with the proper unit.
Eg : mass, temperature , distance
The rules for combining scalars are the rules of
ordinary algebra.
Vector quantity: A quantity that has both
magnitude and direction and obeys vector
algebra . It is specified by giving its magnitude
by a number and its direction.
Eg: displacement, velocity, acceleration , force
Representation of vectors
1. Geometrical (Graphical ) representation
2. Analytical representation
Geometrical representation of vectors
A vector represented by an arrow. Length of the
arrow indicates its magnitude and arrow head
indicates its direction
The given vector is toward east direction
F1 = 3 N towards east
F2 = 6 N towards east
( Note that F2=2 F1)
v1= 10 m/s towards north
v2= 5 m/s towards north
east
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
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(Note that v1≠ 2 v2 but the magnitude of v1 is
equal to 2 x magnitude of v2)
4.2.1 TYPES OF VECTORS
1.Equal vectors: Two vectors A and B are said
to be equal when they have
equal magnitude and same
direction and represent the
same physical quantity.
2. Collinear vectors: Those vectors which act
along the same line. The angle between them
can be 0° or 180°.
3.Parallel Vectors: If two vectors A and B act
in the same direction along the same line or on
parallel lines( the angle between them is 00)
4.Anti–parallel vectors: Two vectors A and B
are said to be anti–parallel when they are in
opposite directions along the same line or on
parallel lines (the angle between them is 180 0)
5.Unit vector: A vector divided by its
magnitude is a unit vector. The unit vector for
A is denoted by  ( A cap). It has a magnitude
equal to unity or one.
6.Orthogonal unit vectors:
Let i , j , k be three unit
vectors which specify the
directions along positive x–
axis, positive y–axis and
positive z–axis respectively.
These three unit vectors are
directed perpendicular to each
other.
These three vectors are orthogonal unit vectors.
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
4.2.2 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
BY REAL NUMBERS
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number
λ gives a vector whose magnitude is changed
by the factor λ but the direction is the same as
that of A
Step1: Two vectors A and B with their tails
brought to a common origin. (Fig. a)
Step 2: The sum R= A + B is obtained using
the parallelogram method . (Fig b)

NOTE
The parallelogram
Fig (a) : Vector A and the resultant vector after method of vector
multiplying A by a positive number 2. addition is equivalent
to the triangular
Fig (b) : Vector A and resultant vectors after method. (Fig. c)
multiplying it by a negative number –1and –1.5.
4.2.4 SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
4.2.3 ADDITION OF VECTORS
(Geometrical method)
(1) Triangular law of addition method (HT )
(2) Parallelogram law of addition method (TT)
(1)Triangular Law of addition method
The
tail
of
the Fig a: Two vectors A and B , – B is also shown.
Fig
b:

second vector B is connected to the head of the

first vector A . Then the resultant is the vector
connecting the tail of the first vector A to the
head of the second vector B.

Subtracting vector B from vector A

(R 2= A-B) . For comparison, addition of
vectors A and B ( R 1= A+B) is also shown.
NOTE
A+B=B+A ( Commutative) Magnitude and direction of the resultant of
(A+B)+C=A+(B+C) (Associative) two vectors A and B in terms of their
(2) Parallelogram law of addition method magnitudes and angle θ between them

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 In 2D , a vector A can be represented as
A = A x ^i+ A y ^j
⃗

Magnitude
From the figure For ΔOBN, we have
AN
cos θ= => AN =B cos θ
B
BN Ax Ay
sin θ= => BN =B sin θ From the diagram cos θ= , sin θ=
B A A

OB 2=ON 2+ BN 2 A x =A cosθ --------> x component of A

A y = A sinθ --------> y component of A

where ‘A’ is the magnitude (length) of the

vector A and θ is the angle between A and the
x component of A . Also we will get
A= √ A 2x + A 2y
This is law of cosines
Ay −1 Ay
Direction tan θ= , θ=tan
Ax Ax
If R makes an angle α with A , then in
ΔOBN,
Thus the vector A is resolved into two
perpendicular components Ax and Ay along x
axis and y axis respectively.

Problem1: Resolve the given force vector

along x and y direction and write the vector in
analytical form

Do Example 4.3 NCERT

Analytical representation of vectors

(Resolution of vectors) Fy F=36N
In 3D a vector can be represented as =300
A= A x ^i + A y ^j+ A z k^
⃗ Fx

Soln ) Fx= F cosθ

=36 cos30 = 18√3
Fy= F sinθ
= 36 sin30 = 18
So the vector can be analytically represent as
F = 18√3 i + 18 j

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4.3 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL The position vector of r2 = x2 i +y2 j
METHOD Then the displacement vector , ∆r = r2 - r1
Let ⃗A= A X ^i + A y ^j+ A z k^ and = (x2 – x1) i + ( y2 –y1) j
B =B X ^i+ B y ^j+B z k^
⃗
Then ⃗
R= ⃗
A+⃗ B => => ∆r = ∆x i + ∆ y j

R=( A x + B x ) ^i +( A y + B y ) ^j+( A z +B z ) k^
⃗ 4.4 MOTION IN A PLANE

POSITION VECTOR
It is a vector which
denotes the position of
a particle at any instant
of time with respect to
some reference point.

The position vector of

r is given by ⃗r =x ^i+ y ^j+ z k^

problem2:
Determine the VECTOR EXPRESSION
position Position vector ( r ) r= x i + y j
vectors for the Displacement vector (dr) dr = dx i + dy j
following
particles which Velocity vector (v) dr d
= ( x i+ y j)
are located at dt dt
dr dx dy
points P, Q, R, v= = i+ j
dt dt dt
S.
v = v x i+v y j
Soln) rp= 3 i
rQ= 5 i + 4 j Acceleration vector dv
a=
rR= -2 i dv dt
a= d
rS= 3 i - 6 j dt = ( v i+ v y j)
dt x
a= a x i+a y j
DISPLACEMENT VECTOR

4.5 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR

UNIFORM ACCELERATION FOR
MOTION IN A PLANE

Along x direction

V x =ux +a x t .....................(1)

1 2
S x =x=u x t+ ax t ..................(2)
2

The position vector of r1 = x1 i +y1 j V 2x =u2x +2 a x S x ...................(3)

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Along y direction V x =ucos θ+0 x t
V x =u cosθ ..............(9)
V y =u y + a y t ..................(4)
Similarly V y =u y + a y t
1 2 V y =u sin θ−g t ............(10)
S y = y =u y t+ a y t ................(5)
2
NOTE:
2 2
V =u + 2a y S y
y y ..................(6) 1) x-component of velocity remains constant
throughout the motion , only the y- component
4.6 PROJECTILE MOTION of velocity changes
When an object is thrown in the air with 2) At maximum height vy =0
some initial velocity (NOT just upwards), and 3) The velocity at any instant is given by the
then allowed to move under the action of relation V = √V 2x +V 2y
gravity alone, the object is known as a
projectile. 4) At maximum height V=vx=ucosθ since
The path followed by the particle is called its vy=0 at maximum height
trajectory .
Motion of a projectile is an example for motion 4.6.1 Equation of path of a projectile
in a plane with constant acceleration . From (8) x=u x t=ucosθ t
x
=> t= .............(11)
Fig. shows Motion of an object projected with u cos θ
velocity u at angle θ . 1 2
From (5) y=u y t + a y t
2

For projectile u y =u sinθ and a=−g

Therefore
1 2
y=usin θ t− g t ..............(12)
2

Substitute (11) in (12)

usinθ x g x2
=> y= −
ucos θ 2cos 2 θ
After the object has been projected, the
acceleration acting on it is acceleration due to => y=tanθ x−
g
x2
gravity alone , which is directed vertically 2
2 cos θ
downward. This is of the form y = a x + b x 2 , in which a
Ie, a x =0 , a y =−g ..............(7) and b are constants. This is the equation of a
parabola, i.e. the path of the projectile is a
The components of initial velocity are parabola.
u x =u cosθ u y =u sinθ ...........(8)
4.6.2 Time of maximum height (tm )
The components of velocity at any time t can be We know V y =u sin θ−g t (From eqn 10)
obtained using Eq (1) , (4) , (7) and (8) At maximum height V y =0
Therefore ,
ie, V x =ux +a x t (10) => 0=u sinθ−g t m

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 => g t m =u sinθ u2
ie, Rmax=
g
u sinθ
=> t m= ................(13) Do Example 4.7 ,4.8 NCERT
g

4.6.3 Time of flight (TF ) 4.7 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Th e total time taken by the projectile
from the point of projection till it hits the
horizontal plane is called time of flight.
TF = 2 tm
When an object follows a circular path at a
constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion.
4.7.1 Some basic terms

2 usinθ 1. Angular displacement (θ)

T F= ..............(14)
g The angle swept over by the radius vector in a
given interval of time is called angular
4.6.3 Maximum height of a projectile (hm) displacement (θ).
The maximum vertical distance travelled
by the projectile during its journey is called
maximum height.
We know V 2y =u 2y + 2a y S y ( From (6))

When the projectile is at maximum height

S y =hm , V y =0
Therefore the above equation becomes

0=(usinθ )2−2 g h m Unit : radian Dimension :No dimension

=> 2 g h m=u2 sin2 θ 2) Angular velocity (ω)

Angular velocity is the rate of change of
2
u sin θ
2 angular displacement. It is a vector quantity.
=> hm = ................(15) dθ
2g Angular velocity , ω =
dt
3) Time period (T)
4.6.4 Horizontal range of a projectile (R) Time taken for one complete revolution
It is the horizontal distance travelled by a
projectile during its time of flight. 4) Frequency (f)
Therefore R=V x X T F Number of revolutions per second
2 usinθ 1 dθ 2π
=> R=(u cosθ) f= Also ω= =
g T dt T
2
u 2sin θ cos θ
=> R=
g Relation between linear velocity and angular
velocity
u2
=> R= sin 2 θ ds d dθ
g Velocity= = (r θ) =r = rω
dt dt dt
NOTE : Horizontal range is maximum when
2θ=90o . ie, θ=45o for a particular 'u' ie, v =r ω

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 2
Angular acceleration (α)
ie, Fc= m v = m ω2 r
r
It is the rate of change of angular velocity The centripetal force is always towards the
dω d v 1 dv a centre of the circle.
α= = ( ) = =
dt dt r r dt r 4.8 RELATIVE VELOCITY

ie, a=r α Do Problem 4.8 NCERT

4.7.2 centripetal acceleration Add.Problem 1

Consider a particle executing uniform
circular motion with speed 'v' around a circle of
radius 'r'.
Let the directions of position and velocity
vectors shift through the same angle θ in a
small interval of time ' Δt ' as shown in Figure.
For uniform circular motion ,
r = |r⃗1| = |r⃗2| and v= |v⃗1| = |v⃗2|
A stone of mass 2 kg tied to the end of a
string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal
circle with a constant speed . If the stone makes
14 revolutions in 25 seconds.
(a) What is the angular velocity of the sone
(b) Centripetal acceleration
(c) Centripetal force
[Ans a) 3.52 rad/ s b) 9.9 m/s2 c) 19.8 N ]
Add.Prob 2
Calculate the angular velocity of
(a) Second hand
(b) Minute hand and
(c) Hour hand of a clock

Previous Questions
1a) Find whether the given vectors 2 i +3 j + 4
k and 4 i + 6 j+ 8 k are parallel or not.
The magnitudes of the displacement Δr and b) What are orthogonal unit vectors?
of Δv satisfy the following relation.
2a) Obtain expression for Time of flight
Δr Δv for a projectile motion.
| |=| |
r v
= θ
b) What is the angle of projection for
maximum horizontal range?
c) The ceiling of a long hall is 25m
=> Δv = v Δr
r high. What is the maximum horizontal
Δv v Δr 2
distance that the ball thrown with a speed
a = = = v
Δt r Δt r of 40 m/s can go without hitting the ceiling
v 2
of the hall?
ie, a =
r
Also v =r ω 3 . A stone is thrown upward from a moving
ω2 r 2 train.
Therefore, a = = ω2 r
r a) Name the path followed by the stone.
b) ) A man throws a stone up into air at an
4.7.3 Centripetal force (Fc) angle ' θ ' with the horizontal. Draw the
path of the projectile and mark directions
The centripetal force is given by of velocity and acceleration at the highest
position
mv 2
F c=ma = = m ω2 r
r

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 CHAPTER FIVE
LAWS OF MOTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Is an external force required to keep a
body in uniform motion?
Aristotle’s fallacy :An external force is required
to keep a body in motion.
Galileo arrived at a new insight on motion
from his inclined plane experiments which
corrected Aristotle's idea.
Inertia: Inertia is the inability of an object to
change its velocity by itself. This includes changes
to the object's speed, or direction of motion.
5.2 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
5.2.1 Newton’s First Law ( Law of inertia)
Every body continues to be in the state of rest
or in the state of uniform motion (constant
velocity) unless there is external force acting
on it.
Problem : example 5.1 NCERT
Momentum (p) :Momentum of a body is the
product of its mass m and velocity, v P=mv
5.2.2 Newton’s second Law
The force acting on an object is equal to
the rate of change of its momentum
═>
Unit of Force ═> newton
Thus One Newton is defined as the force which
acts on 1 kg of mass to give an acceleration
1 ms−2 in the direction of the force.
NOTE
Newton’s laws are vector laws. The equation
F= ma is a vector equation and essentially it is
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
24
equal to three scalar equations.
By comparing both sides, the three scalar
equations are
Fx= max . The acceleration along the x direction
depends only on the component of force acting
along the x-direction. And
Fy= may .Th e acceleration along the y
direction depends only on the component
of force acting along the y-direction.
FZ= maZ
From the above equations, we can infer that the
force acting along y direction cannot alter the
acceleration along x direction. In the same way,
F z cannot affect a y and a x .
Problem : example 5.2 NCERT
5.2.3 Newton’s third Law
Newton’s third law states that for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Action and reaction pair of forces do not act on
the same body but on two different bodies. So
they don't cancel each other. Any one of the
forces can be called as an action force and
the other the reaction force. These action-
reaction forces are not cause and effect forces.
5.3 IMPULSIVE FORCE
The force which acts for a very short
interval of time is called impulsive force.
Eg: - (i) The force on a ball when hit with a bat.
(ii) Force exerted on a bullet when fired from a
gun.
5.4 IMPULSE (I)
Impulse of a force is the product of the
force and the time for which the force acts on
the body. Impulse is a measure of the total
effect of force.
i.e, Impulse, I = force x time = Change in
momentum
i.e, I = F dt = dp where dt is the time for which
the force F acts.
Problem : example 5.4 NCERT
Problem:
Show that Impulse= Change in momentum
using Newton's second law.
Soln) According to second law
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
 NOTE
The graphical representation of constant
force impulse and variable force impulse ( Area
under the graph give impulse)

Soln) (a) (i)Downward gravitational force along

negative y direction (mg) ii) Tension (T) along
the two strings
(b) since the boy is in
equilibrium (rest),
2T cosθ = mg

Problem:An object of mass 10 kg moving with => T= mg/ 2cosθ

a speed of 15 m s −1 hits the wall and comes to NOTE
rest within a) 0.03 second b) 10 second . When θ = 0 °, the strings are
Calculate the impulse and average force acting vertical and the tension on each string is
on the object in both the cases. T = mg/2
5.6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
[ Ans : a) Impulse= -150 N s Fav=-5000 N If there are no external forces acting on
b) Impulse= -150 N s Fav=-15 N ] the system, then the total linear momentum of
the system ( p tot ) is always a constant vector.
5.5 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES In other words, the total linear momentum of
the system is conserved in time. Here the word
‘conserve’ means that p 1 and p 2 can vary, in
such a way that p 1 +p 2 is a constant vector.
When two particles interact with each other,
they exert equal and opposite forces on each
other.
Let F 21 → Force acting on 2 by 1
F 12 →Force acting on 1 by 2
when the net external force on the Then by Newton's third law
particle is zero , then the body is in equilibrium. ⃗
F21=−⃗ F 12 ......................(1)
ie, Even under action of forces the object will In terms of momentum of particles, the
be at rest . If the lines of forces are acting at a force on each particle (Newton’s second law)
common point , then the collection of forces is can be written as
said to be concurrent forces ( Fig Below) d⃗P1 d⃗P2
⃗
F12= and ⃗
F21= ..............(2)
dt dt
Prob: A baby is playing in a swing which is
hanging with the help of two identical chains is d⃗P1 −d ⃗P2
(1)=> =
at rest.(a) Identify the forces acting on the dt dt
baby. (b)find out the tension acting on the d⃗P1 d ⃗
P2
=> + =0
chain dt dt

d ⃗ ⃗
=> ( P + P )=0
dt 1 2
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE
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ie, p 1 + p2 = constant vector (always).
Example 1 : Recoil of gun.
System = Gun and bullet
M – mass of Gun, m – mass of bullet
U – inial velocity of gun, u– inial velocity of
bullet
Let momentum of the gun before
firing = p1=MU=0
momentum of the bullet before
firing = p2=mu=0
Total momentum of the system before
firing =p1 + p2 = 0
After firing bullet moves with a velocity, v
forward. According to the law of conservation
of linear momentum, total linear momentum
has to be zero after the firing also.
Ie, p1I + p2I = 0
=> p1! + mv =0
=> p1I = -mv is the recoil momentum
=> MV= -mv
=> V= -mv/M is the recoil velocity.
The - ve sign shows that the gun is recoiling.
Example 2 : Rocket Propulsion
In case of rocket, a fuel burnt in the
combustion chamber produces hot gas, which is
allowed to escape through a nozzle at the back
of the rocket. This produces a backward
momentum on the gas and the rocket acquires
an equal forward momentum. Thus the rocket
moves forward
Problem : A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by
a gun of mass 100 kg. If the muzzle speed of
the shell is 80 m/s, what is the recoil speed of
the gun?
[Ans = 0.016 m/s]
5.7 FRICTION
Frictional force is the force which
always opposes the relative motion between an
object and the surface where it is placed.
Frictional force always acts on the object
parallel to the surface on which the object is
placed. There are two kinds of friction namely
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26
1) Static friction 2) Kinetic friction.
5.7.1 Static friction (fs)
Static friction is the force which opposes
the initiation of motion of an object on the
surface.
If some external force F is applied on an
object parallel to the surface on which the
object is at rest, the surface exerts exactly an
equal and opposite force on the object to resist
its motion and tries to keep the object at rest .
But if the external force is increased, after a
particular limit, the surface cannot provide
sufficient opposing frictional force to balance
the external force on the object, then the object
starts to slide. The maximum value of frictional
force before the body just slides over the
surface of another body is called limiting
friction or maximum static friction (fsmax).
Experimentally, it is found that the
magnitude of the maximum static friction
fsmax α Normal force, N
OR
where µs- coefficient of static friction
NOTE: Law of static friction
The static friction does not depend upon the
area of contact. And
5.7.2 Kinetic Friction
When an object slides, the surface exerts
a frictional force called kinetic friction fk (also
called sliding friction or dynamic friction).
Experimentally it is found that
NOTE: Since μk< μs , starting of a motion is
more difficult than maintaining it.
When relative motion has begun, the
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
acceleration of the body according to the the wheel or surface. Due to this deformation,
second law is ( F – fk )/m. For a body moving there will be minimal friction between wheel
with constant velocity, F = fk .If the applied and surface. It is called ‘rolling friction’. In
force on the body is removed, its acceleration is fact, ‘rolling friction’ is much smaller than
– fk /m and it eventually comes to a stop. kinetic friction.
Do Examples 5.7,5.8,5.9 NCERT
5.7.3 Angle of Friction OR Angle of repose
Consider an inclined plane on which an object 5.8 APPARENT WEIGHT (Motion of a body
is placed, as in a lift)
shown in
Figure
Let the angle
which this
plane makes
with the
horizontal be θ. For small angles of θ , the
object may not slide down. As θ is increased,
for a particular value of θ , the object begins to
slide down. This value is called angle of repose
or angle of friction. Case (i) : When the lift is stationary or moving
Expression up or down with a uniform velocity (a=0)
From the above Fig. Since the body is in Then Force, R - mg = 0
equilibrium => R = mg (real weight)
...............(1) Case (ii) : When the lift moves up with an
acceleration, a
..............(2) R - mg = ma =>R = mg +ma
=> R = m(g +a)
..................... (3) Case (iii) When the lift moves down with an
acceleration , a
Equating the right hand side of equations R - mg = - ma =>R = mg - ma
(2) and (3), we get => R = m(g – a)
Case (iv) When the lift falls down freely.
ie, R=m (g-g)=0

5.9 DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION

5.7.4 Rolling Friction 5.9.1 Centripetal Force
In rolling motion when a wheel moves The centripetal acceleration of a particle
on a surface, the point of contact with surface is in the circular motion is given by ,
always at rest. Since
the point of contact is From Newton's second law the
at rest, there is no centripetal force is given by
relative motion
between the wheel Note that , to execute
and surface. Hence circular motion centripetal force is essential.
the frictional force is The origin of the centripetal force can be
very less. gravitational force, tension in the string,
However , Due to the elastic nature of frictional force, Coulomb force etc. Any of
the surface at the point of contact there will be these forces can act as a centripetal force.
some deformation on the object at the point on 1)In the case of whirling motion of a stone tied
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE
27
to a string, the centripetal force on the particle
is provided by the tensional force on the string.
2) In motion of satellites around the Earth,the
centripetal force is given by Earth’s
gravitational force on the satellites.
3)When a car is moving on a circular track the
centripetal force is given by the frictional force Consider a vehicle of mass m moving on
between the road and the tyres. a banked curve. Then various forces acting on
the car are
5.9.2 Motion of a car on a level road 1) The gravitational force (weight) mg
downward
2) Normal force N normal to the road
3) Frictional force f s , acting parallel to the
road.
Since there is no acceleration along the vertical
direction, the net force along this direction must
be zero. Hence,
N cos θ = mg + f sin θ ..........(1)
Fig. Forces acting on the vehicle on a leveled
circular road
The centripetal force is provided by the
horizontal components of N and f.
Th ere are three forces acting on the vehicle
when it moves as shown in the Figure
..............(2)
1.Gravitational force (mg) acting downwards
2.Normal force (mg) acting upwards
3. Frictional force (fs ) acting horizontally
inwards along the road
As there is no acceleration in the vertical
direction N = mg ..............(1) Then Eqn (1) and (2) become

................(3)
The centripetal force is provided by the
force of static friction fs between the tyre and
surface of the road. ie, Static friction opposes ..............(4)
the impending motion of the car moving away
from the circle. From (3)
Ie, ................... (5)

Substituting value of N in Eq. (4), we get

This shows that for a given value of μ s and R,

there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the car possible, namely
..................(6)

maximum possible speed of a car on a banked

Note: vmax is independent of mass of the car. road is greater than that on a flat road.
5.9.3Motion of a car on a banked road
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28
 For μs = 0 , v0= (R g tanθ )1/2
At this speed, frictional force is not needed at
all to provide the necessary centripetal force.
Driving at this speed on a banked road will
cause little wear and tear of the tyres.

Do Example 5.10 NCERT

Problem 1 : Consider a circular levelled road of

radius 10 m having coefficient of static friction
0.81. Three cars (A, B and C) are travelling with
speed 7 m/s , 8 m/s and 10 m/s respectively.
Which car will skid when it moves in the
circular level road?(g =10 m/s2)
Ans : car C

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 CHAPTER SIX soln)
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In physics work means mechanical work.
Work is said to be done by a force, when the
force applied on a body displaces it.
work is also defined as ‘the product of
displacement and the component of force in the
direction of displacement.
Energy is the capacity to do work. So it
has the same unit and dimension of work.
Power is the rate of change of work done.
6.2 SCALAR PRODUCT ( DOT PRODUCT)
If there are two vectors A and B having
an angle θ between them, then their scalar
product is defined as A ⋅ B = AB cosθ . Here, A
and B are magnitudes of A and B .
Properties NOTE: Geometrical interpretation of dot product
1.The product quantity A ⋅ B is always a scalar.
2.The scalar product is commutative,
ie, A ⋅ B= B . A
3.The vectors obey distributive law . ie,
A . (B + C) = (A . B ) + (A . C)
3.The angle between the vectors (a) The scalar product of two vectors A and B is a
scalar : A. B = A B cos θ (b) B cos θ is the
projection of B onto A (c) A cos θ is the projection
4. A . B= AB , if θ= 0o of A onto B.
A . B= 0 , if θ= 90o ie. A.B= AB cos θ => magnitude of A x projection
A . B= -AB , if θ= 180o of B onto A
5. For unit vectors B.A = BA cosθ => magnitude of B x projection of
A onto B

6.2 WORK
6. In terms of components the scalar product of The work done by the force is defined to
A and B can be written as be the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the magnitude
of this displacement.
7. The magnitude of vector A is given by
ie, W= Fcosθ x d
A . A = Ax Ax + Ay Ay + Az Az = AA=A2
NOTE
ie ,
problem1 Work done is zero in the following cases.
1) When the force is zero (F = 0).
2) When the displacement is zero (d = 0).
Eg : when force is applied on a rigid wall it
does not produce any displacement.
3)When the force and displacement are
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE
30
perpendicular (θ = 90 o ) to each other.
Eg:when a body moves on a
horizontal direction, the
gravitational force (mg) does no
work on the body, since it acts at
right angles to the displacement .
In circular motion the centripetal
force does not do work on the
object moving on a circle as it is
always perpendicular to the
displacement.
Problem 2:A box is pulled with a force of
25 N to produce a displacement of 15 m. If the
angle between the force and displacement
is 30 o , find the work done by the force.
[Ans : 324.76 J]
Problem 3 : Find the angle between force
F=( 3i+4j-5k ) unit and displacement d=
( 5i+4j+3k ) unit
[ Ans : cos-10.32]
6.3 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed
by a body by virtue of its motion. All moving
objects have kinetic energy.
6.4 WORK–KINETIC ENERGY
THEOREM (For Constant Force)
For constant acceleration ( constant force) , we
know
.............. (1)
where u and v are the initial and final speeds
and s the distance traversed. Multiplying both
sides by m/2, we have
.............(2)
ie, Final Kinetic Energy- Initial Kinetic
Energy= Work done
Kf – Ki =ΔK =W
ie, The change in kinetic energy of a particle is
equal to the work done on it by the force. This
is called work-kinetic energy theorem.
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
31
NOTE : The work-kinetic energy theorem
implies the following.
1) If the work done by the force on the body is
positive then its kinetic energy increases.
2) If the work done by the force on the body is
negative then its kinetic energy decreases.
3) If there is no work done by the force on the
body then there is no change in its kinetic
energy, which means that the body has moved
at constant speed provided its mass remains
constant.
Relation between Momentum and Kinetic
Energy
OR
Do Example 6.2 , 6.3 NCERT HW 6.4
6.5WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE
A plot of varying force
in one dimension shown
in figure.
If the displacement Δx is small , we can take
F(x) is approximately constant and work done
is then
This is
illustrated in this
Fig .
Adding successive rectangular areas in Fig. we
get the total work done as
where the summation is from the initial position
x i to the final position x f .
If the displacements are allowed to approach
zero, then the number of terms in the sum
increases without limit, but the sum approaches
a definite value equal to the area under the
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
curve.
Then the work done is
= Area under the curve
Do example 6.5 NCERT
Problem4:A variable force F = k x 2 acts on a
particle which is initially at rest. Calculate the
work done by the force during the
displacement of the particle from x= 0 m to x
=4 m. (Assume the constant k= 1 N m -2
6.5.1 Work Energy theorem for variable
force( see last page) *
6.6 POTENTIAL ENERGY
The energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its position( in a field ) or
configuration ( in a state of strain) is called
potential energy.
Potential energy of an object at a point P
is defined as the amount of work done by an
external force in moving the object at constant
velocity from the point O (initial location) to
the point P (final location). At initial point O
potential energy can be taken as zero.
We have various types of potential energies.
1. Gravitational potential energy: The energy
possessed by the body due to gravitational force
gives rise to gravitational potential energy.
2. Elastic potential energy :The energy due to
spring force and other similar forces give rise to
elastic potential energy.
3. Electrostatic potential energy: The energy
due to electrostatic force on charges gives rise
to electrostatic potential energy.( Next year)
1.Gravitational Potential energy near the
surface of the Earth
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
32
The gravitational potential energy (U) at some
height h is equal to the amount of work required
to take the object from ground to that height h
with constant velocity.
The gravitational potential energy
(U) at some height h is equal to the
amount of work required to take the
object from the ground to that height
h at constant velocity.
Fg = -mg j (downward)
Fa = mg j ( upward)
d= h j (upward )
U= Fa .d
= mg j. h j = mgh cos0 = mgh
ie, U = mgh
2. ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
( POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING)
When a spring is elongated, it develops a
restoring force. The potential energy possessed
by a spring due to a deforming force which
stretches or compresses the spring is termed as
elastic potential energy. The work done by the
applied force against the restoring force of the
spring is stored as the elastic potential energy in
the spring.
Fs =- Kx
Fa = Kx
Force-displacement graph for a spring
The elastic potential
energy can be easily
calculated by drawing a
F - x graph. The shaded
area (triangle) is the work
done by the spring
force.
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
6.7 CONSERVATIVE FORCE
A force is said to be a conservative force
if the work done by the force in moving the
body depends only on the initial and final
positions of the body and not on the nature of
the path followed between the initial and final
positions.
There will be a potential energy
associate with a conservative force.
Total mechanical energy remains
constant in a conservative force field.
Eg :Elastic spring force, Electrostatic
force, Magnetic force, Gravitational force, etc.
6.8 NON CONSERVATIVE FORCE
A force is said to be non-conservative if
the work done by or against the force in moving
a body depends upon the path between the
initial and final positions.
Eg: Frictional forces, The force due to
air resistance, viscous force , etc.
6.9 THE CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY (IN CASE OF A
FREELY FALLING BODY)
U=mgh, K=0,
E=U+K=mgh
U=mg(h-y) ,
=1/2 m(2gy)= mgy
E=U+K= mgh
U=0, K= 1/2 mv2
=1/2 m(2gh)=mgh
E= U+K = mgh
[NOTE : In case of spring , the conservation of
mechanical energy will be discussed in the
chapter 14 , oscillations]
6.10 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Heat: The work done by friction is not ‘lost’,
but is transferred as heat energy.
2.Chemical Energy: Chemical energy arises from
the molecules participating in the chemical reaction
have different binding energies. If the total energy
of the reactants is more than the products of the
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
33
reaction, heat is released and the reaction is said to
be an exothermic reaction. If the reverse is happens,
heat is absorbed and the reaction is endothermic.
3.Electrical Energy: Energy is associated with an
electric current
4.The Equivalence of Mass and Energy (Nuclear
energy):
Albert Einstein
E=mc2
The energy released from the nuclear reactions,
either fission or fusion, is called as nuclear energy.
Nuclear fusion and fission are manifestations of the
equivalence of mass and energy.
6.11 POWER
Power is a measure of how fast or slow a
work is done. Power is defined as the rate of
work done or energy delivered.
Unit: watt 1 W = 1 J /s
1 hp = 746 w 1 kW = 1000 W
Note: kWh is the unit of energy not of power
1 kWh= 3.6×10 6 J
Average power Instantaneous power
6.11.1 Relation between Power and velocity
The work dW done by a force F for a
displacement dr is dW = F.dr
Therefore
Do Example 6.11 NCERT
6.12 COLLISIONS
A collision is said to have taken place if two
moving objects strike each other or come close
to each other such that the motion of one of
them or both of them changes suddenly. Total
momentum will be conserved in all types of
collision.
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
Types of collisions ie, KE i = KE f
(1) Elastic collision (2) Inelastic collision
(1) Elastic collision
Elastic collision is one in which both
momentum and kinetic energy is conserved.
Total kinetic energy before collision = Total
kinetic energy after collision =>
(2) Inelastic collision
A collision in which total kinetic energy is not
conserved. ( Note:Total energy is conserved in └ ---------(4)
all types of collision) (4)/(3)=>
Total kinetic energy before collision ≠
Total kinetic energy after collision
completely inelastic collision.
A collision in which the two particles move
together after the collision is called a =>
completely inelastic collision.
=>
6.12.1 Elastic collisions in one dimension
Two elastic bodies of masses m1 and m2 This means that for any elastic head on
moving in a straight line (along positive x collision, the relative speed of the two bodies
direction) on a frictionless horizontal surface as after the collision has the same magnitude as
shown in Figure. before collision but in opposite direction.

To find the final velocities v1 and v2

From the above equation
.................... (5)
In order to have collision, u1 > u2
..................... (6)
For elastic collision, the total linear momentum
and kinetic energies of the two bodies before Substitute (6) in (3) =>
and after collision must remain the same.

Total linear momentum before collision,

.................(1)

Total linear momentum after collision,

..................(2)

From the law of conservation of linear

momentum, pi = pf

└---------> (7)
.............(3) Substitute (7) in (6) =>

since the collision is elastic,Total kinetic energy ..............(8)

also will be conserved

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34
Special Cases 6.5.1 WORK ENERGY THEOREM FOR
Case 1 : ( if m1 = m2 ) VARIABLE FORCE
(7)=>
We know the kinetic energy, K= 1/2 mv2
(8) =>

ie, In one dimensional elastic collision, when

two bodies of equal mass collide, after the
collision their velocities are exchanged.

Case 2 : ( if m1 = m2 , u2=0 )
(7)=>

(8)=>
ie,
Case 3 : ( if m1 << m2 , u2=0 )
=> dK = Fdx

ie, Change in kinetic energy = Work done

6.12.2 Collisions in Two Dimensions

Figure depicts collision of a moving mass m1

(moves along +ve X direction) with a stationary
mass m2 in x-y plane .
After collision m1 moves with a velocity v1 at
an angle θ1 with respect to the horizontal and
m2 moves with a velocity v2 at an angle θ2 with
respect to the horizontal.

By conservation of momentum parallel to

X-axis.
m1u1=m1v1cos θ1 + m2v2cos θ2
0= m1v1sin θ1 - m2v2sin θ2

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35
 CHAPTER SEVEN
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND
ROTATIONAL MOTION

Rigid Body
A rigid body is a body with a perfectly
definite and unchanging shape. The distance
between any two points in the body always Fig(d): Motion of a rigid body which is a combination
of translation and rotation.
remains same even under the action of
external forces.
Rotation about a fixed axis
What kind of motion can a rigid body
In rotation of a rigid body about a fixed
have?
axis,every particle of the body moves in a
Pure translation: In pure translational motion
circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular to
at any instant of time every particle of the
the axis and has its centre on the axis.
body has the same velocity. ( Fig (a),(b))

Fig(a):Translational (sliding) motion of a block down

an inclined plane. (Any point like P 1 or P 2 of the
block moves with the same velocity at any instant of Fig : Rotation about a fixed axis : A ceiling fan and
time.) a potter’s wheel .

Rotation(Axis is not fixed,but a point on

the axis is fixed)

Fig(b): Motion of a rigid body which is pure

translation.
Translation plus Rotation
A system is said to be in rotational plus
Fig:A spinning top (The point of contact of the top
translational motion, when the particle is with the ground, its tip O, is fixed.) and An oscillating
rotating with some angular velocity about a table fan with rotating blades. The pivot of the fan,
movable axis. (Fig c ,d) point O, is fixed. The blades of the fan are under
Fig(c): Rolling rotational motion, whereas, the axis of rotation of the
motion of a fan blades is oscillating.
cylinder. It is not
pure translational Note
motion. Points P 1 ,
The motion of a rigid body which is not
P 2 , P 3 and P 4 have
different velocities pivoted or fixed in some way is either a pure
(shown by arrows) translation or a combination of translation and
rotation. The motion of a rigid body which is
at any instant of time.In fact, the velocity of the point pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation.
of contact P 3 is zero at any instant, if the cylinder
rolls without slipping.

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36
Centre Of Mass m 1 z 1 +m2 z 2 +m3 z3 +........
Z=
The centre of mass of a system is the point m 1+ m2 +m3 +........
where all the mass of the system may be
assumed to be concentrated and where the (* Do Example 7.1 ,7.2,7.3 NCERT)
resultant of all the external forces acts.
Centre of mass of a two particle system Motion of centre of Mass
Consider a system of two particles with m1 r 1+m2 r 2 +m3 r 3 +........
masses m1 and m2 and their position vectors From (1) , R=
m1 +m2 +m3 +........
be r1 and r2 respectively from some arbitrary => MR=m1 r 1 +m2 r 2+m3 r 3 +........
origin O.
Differentiating wrto time ,
dR dr dr dr
=> M =m1 1 + m 2 2 +............. mn n
dt dt dt dt
=> MV =m1 v 1 +m2 v 2+ ...........mn v n

Again differentiating wrto time,

dV dv dv dv
=> M =m1 1 +m2 2 +............. mn n
dt dt dt dt
The centre of mass will be at a point C whose
=> MA=m1 a1 +m2 a 2+........... m n an
position vector is given by
m 1 r 1 +m 2 r 2
R= => MA=F 1+ F 2 +........... F n
m1 +m 2
If the particles have the same mass, m1 = m2 = NOTE: The force F1 on the first particle is not
m , then, a single force,but the vector sum of all the
m r 1+ mr 2 r 1 +r 2 forces on the first particle ; likewise for the
R= => R= Thus second particle etc. Among these forces on
m+ m 2
if the particles are having same mass, the each particle there will be external forces
centre of mass lies exactly midway between exerted by bodies outside the system and also
them. internal forces exerted by the particles on one
another. We know from Newton’s third law
Centre of mass of an N particle system that these internal forces occur in equal and
Consider a system of N particles of masses opposite pairs and in the sum of forces in the
m 1 , m 2 , m 3 ........ having position vectors above equation, their contribution is zero.
r 1 , r 2 , r 3 ,.......... Only the external forces contribute to the
The total mass of the system, M = m 1 + m 2 + equation. We can then rewrite the above
m 3 +......... equation as
m1 r 1+ m2 r 2 +m3 r 3 +........ MA=F ext ................(2)
Then R= ...........(1)
m1 +m2 +m3 +........
where A is the acceleration of the centre of
or
mr
R=∑ i i => R=
∑ mi ri mass and Fext represents the sum of all
mi M
external forces acting on the particles of the
In terms of co ordinates (the co ordinates of system.
the centre of mass), Eqn (2) states that the centre of mass of
m1 x 1 +m2 x 2 +m3 x 3 +........
X= a system of particles moves as if all the mass
m1 +m2+m3 +........ of the system is concentrated at the centre of
mass and all the external forces are applied
m1 y 1 +m2 y 2+ m3 y 3 +........ at that point.
Y=
m 1+m2 +m3 +........

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37
Examples of centre of mass motion
(1) Explosion of a shell in flight.
Consider a shell projected upwards. This shell
will follow a parabolic path. Now let the shell
explode during flight. After explosion, the
fragments travel in their own parabolic path.
Since the force of explosion are all internal,
the centre of mass of the system will continue
to follow the same parabolic path of the shell
before
explosion.
(2) Motion of earth – moon system
Moon moves round the earth in circular orbit,
and earth moves round the sun in an elliptical
orbit. Or we can say that the centre of mass of
the earth – moon system moves in an elliptical
orbit round the sun. Hence the force of
attraction between earth and moon is internal
to earth – moon system while sun’s attraction
on both earth and moon are external.
Linear momentum of a system of particles
For a system of n particles, the total linear
momentum of the system is equal to the
vector sum of momentum of all individual
particles. Ie,
P= p1 + p2 +............ pn
dP
Now from Newton’s second law, F=
dt
where F is the total external force.
dP
If F=0, =0 . Therefore, P will be a
dt
constant i.e, linear momentum will be
conserved.
Examples:-
1) Decay of nucleus: Consider the decay of a
parent nuclei at rest into two fragments. They
move in opposite directions with different
velocities. Here the momentum is conserved
and the centre of mass of decay product
continuous to be at rest.
[Fig.A heavy nucleus
(Ra) splits into a
lighter nucleus (Rn)
and an alpha particle
(He). The CM of the
system is in uniform
motion.]
[Fig. The same splitting of the heavy
nucleus(Ra) with the centre of mass at
rest. The two product particles fly back
to back.]
2) Motion of binary stars: In case of motion of
binary stars, if no external forces act, the
centre of mass moves like a free particle.
Centre of mass of a rigid body
The centre of mass of a rigid body is a fixed
point with respect to the body as a whole.
Depending on its shape and mass distribution,
the centre of mass of a rigid body may or may
not be a point within the body.
Centre of mass of some regular bodies
A uniform rod – at the geometric center.
A ring or a uniform disc – at the center.
A uniform cylinder – at the center of its axis
of symmetry.
A triangle – at the point of intersection of the
medians.
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS
RELATION WITH LINEAR VELOCITY
We know the average angular velocity= Δ θ
Δt
dθ
The instantaneous angular velocity ω=
dt
The magnitude of linear velocity of a particle
moving in a circle relates with angular
velocity,
V =ωr
In vector form V =ω x r
ANGULAR ACCELERATION AND ITS
RELATION WITH LINEAR
ACCELERATION
dω
The angular acceleration , α =
dt

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

38
 dV dω
Also =r
dt dt
(if the particle moves in a constant radius)
ie, a=r α
*[ See appendix before proceeding further.
Cross product of vectors discussed there ]
TORQUE ( τ )
The torque or moment of force about a point
is the turning effect of force about that point
and is measured as the product of force and
the perpendicular distance between the point
and the line of action of the force.
Consider a particle P, whose position vector
with respect to origin O is r .
Let a force F act on the particle in a direction
making an angle θ with the direction of r .
Then the torque about the point O ,
τ= F x ON = F x r sinθ
'r sinθ ' is called moment arm of the force
ie τ= F (r sinθ)
(or) ⃗τ =⃗r X ⃗
F about that axis.
note
• Torque is the rotational analogue of
force
• The direction of torque is
perpendicular to both r and F
• If Στ =0, then the body is in rotational
equilibrium
• If ΣF=0 along with Στ =0,then the
body is in mechanical equilibrium.
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
39
• A pair of equal and opposite forces
with different lines of action is known
as a couple.
• A couple produces rotation without
translation.
principle of moments
In rotational equilibrium, total anti clockwise
moment = total clockwise moments. This is
called principle of moments.
For a lever , the principle of moment
expressed as ,
Load x Load arm=Effort x Effort arm
ie , F1 d 1=F 2 d 2
F1 d2
note: The ratio = is called the
F2 d1
mechanical advantage.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A
PARTICLE ( L )
It is the rotational analogue of linear
momentum. It could also be referred to as
moment of linear momentum.
Consider a particle of mass 'm' and linear
momentum 'p' at a position r relative to the
origin O .The angular momentum is defined
to be
⃗L=⃗r X ⃗
P
Angular momentum of a rotating body
The sum of the moments of linear momentum
of all the particles of the body about the axis
of rotation is called its angular momentum
Consider a body rotating about an axis.
This body is made up of a large number of
particles. Let one such particle of mass mi
be situated at a distance r i from the axis.
Thenlinear velocity of particle , v i =r i ω
Linear momentum of particle=mi v i=mi r i ω
Moment of linear momentum of the particle
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
about the axis = mi r i ω r i=mi r 2i ω * Inertia in linear motion is the inability of a
body to change its state of rest or of uniform
Therefore Total moment of momentum of the motion in a straight line, without the help of
whole body about the axis = ∑ m i r 2i ω=I ω an external force.
* A corresponding property of the body in
ie, Angular momentum, L=Iω rotational motion is known as moment of
inertia.
* We know that for a body rotating about a
Where, I --> Moment of inertia of the body fixed axis, each particle of the body moves in
I =∑ m i r i
2
and a circle with linear velocity v given by the
( Moment of inertia will be discussed later in detail) eqn v=r ω
Relation between angular momentum and * For a particle p at a distance ri from the axis,
torque the linear velocity is v i=r i ω
We know L= r x p
differentiate with respect to time *The kinetic energy of motion of this particle
d⃗
L d is
= ( r⃗ x ⃗P)
dt dt 1 2 1 2 2
K i= m i v i = m i r i ω
d r⃗ ⃗ d⃗P 2 2
= x P + r⃗ x
dt dt
= ⃗v x m ⃗v + r⃗ x ⃗
F *Therefore the total kinetic energy of the
= 0+ τ body
1 2 2
K=∑ K i=∑ m i r i ω
ie, d⃗
L 2
= ⃗τ
dt
Thus the time rate of change of angular *Note ω is the same for all particles. Hence,
momentum of a particle is equal to the torque taking ω out of the sum,
acting on it. 1 2 1 2
K= ω ∑ mi r i
Torque and angular acceleration 2 2
d⃗
L 5
We know ⃗τ = We define a new parameter characterising the
dt
d⃗
L d dω rigid body, called the moment of inertia I ,
=> ⃗τ = = ( I ω)=I =I α given by
dt dt dt
I =∑ m i r i
2

ie, ⃗τ =I α
⃗
where α is the angular acceleration. 1 2
Therefore K= I ω
2
Conservation of angular momentum
dL Thus “ The moment of inertia of a body about
If τ =0 , =0 a given axis is defined as the property of the
dt
ie, L= a constant body by virtue of which it is unable to change
Thus if the total external torque on a system its position of rest or of uniform rotational
of particles is zero, then the total angular motion without the help of external torque”.
momentum of the system is conserved. Note
• I is independent of the magnitude of
MOMENT OF INERTIA (I) the angular velocity
* What is the analogue of mass(measure of • It depends on two factors: 1) mass of
inertia ) in rotational motion? the body. 2) distribution of mass about
the axis of rotation

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

40
THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF hands, moment of inertia increases and angular
SOME RIGID BODIES velocity decreases.
Fig(b) : when the diver wants to do a triple
Body Axis I
tuck under 2 seconds ,she can’t change the
2
Thin circular Perpendicular to MR angular momentum, but she can reduce the
ring, radius R plane, at centre moment of inertia by pulling the legs and
Thin circular Diameter M R2 arms closer to the point of rotation. So angular
ring, radius R 2 velocity increase.
2
Circular disc, perpendicular to MR Radius of gyration (K)
radius R disc , at centre 2 Radius of gyration. The radius of gyration of a
2
Circular disc, Diameter MR body about an axis may be defined as the
radius R 4 distance from the axis of a mass point whose
Hollow cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2
mass is equal to the mass of the whole body
radius R and whose moment of inertia is equal to the
moment of inertia of the body about the axis.
Solid cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2 ie, I =M K2
radius R 2 THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA
2
Solid sphere, Diameter 2MR
radius R 5 1) Perpendicular axes theorem
Thin rod, Perpendicular to M L2
length L rod, at mid point 12

Example for conservation of Angular

momentum

It states that “ the moment of inertia of a plane

lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane
Fig (a) is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia
about two mutually perpendicular axes lying
in its plane and intersecting each other at the
point where the perpendicular axis passes
through the lamina”.

If IX and IY are the moments of inertia of the

lamina about perpendicular axes OX and OY
in the plane of lamina, then moment of inertia
Fig(b) of lamina about Z axis (OZ) ,
I Z =I X + I Y

2) Parallel axes theorem

When there is no external torque in action ,

angular momentum will remain conserve.
Fig(a) : When the dancer stretches out her

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

41
“Moment of inertia of a body about any axis
is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of
the body about a parallel axis through its
centre of mass and the product its mass and
square of the distance between the two axes”.
dW =τdθ and Instantaneous power, P=τω
.
KINETIC ENERGY OF ROLLING
MOTION (WHEEL ROLLING OVER A
SMOOTH HORIZONTAL SURFACE)

If ICM is the moment of inertia of the body A wheel rolling over a horizontal smooth
about an axis passing through the centre of surface without slipping has two types of
mass, then the moment of inertia of the body motion: - (i) Rotational motion about an axis
about a parallel axis distant a from the axis passing through its centre; and (ii) Linear
through centre of mass, motion in the horizontal direction of the
I =I CM + M a
2 surface. Therefore,
where M is the mass of the body Total KE=Translational KE+ Rotational KE

Do Example 7.10,11,12 1 2 1 2
Total KE= mV cm + I ω
2 2
WORK AND POWER IN ROTATIONAL 1 2 1 2 2
=> Total KE= mV cm + m k ω
MOTION 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
=> Total KE= mV cm + m k ω
Consider a force F acting at the rim of a 2 2
pivoted wheel of radius R. During the action,
the wheel rotates through a small angle dθ. If 1 k2
this angle is small enough, the direction of => Total KE= mV 2cm ( 1+ 2 )
2 R
force remains constant. Let the corresponding
displacement is dx within a time interval dt.
Do example 7.16
* Then work done, dw=F dx .=F Rdθ .
{Arc length = angle x radius} COMPARISON OF TRANSLATIONAL
AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
But F R is the torque, τ .
Translational Rotational motion
* Therefore work done, dW =τdθ and motion about a fixed axis
Displacement , x Angular displacement θ
* The work done to turn from θ1 to θ2 is given Velocity ,v Angular velocity , ω
by dx dθ
θ2 V= ω=
dt dt
W =∫ τdθ=τ (θ 2−θ1 )=τ θ
θ1 Acceleration, a Angular acceleration α
dV dω
a= α=
dt dt
dW d dθ
* The power P= = (τ θ)=τ Mass , M Moment of inertia , I
dt dt dt
Force F = Ma Torque τ = I α
dθ Work dW = F ds Work dW = τ d θ
ie, P=τ ω ( =ω )
dt
Kinetic energy , K Kinetic energy , K
1 2 1 2
Therefore Work done by torque for a small K= M V K= I ω
2 2
angular displacement dθ is given by

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

42
Power , P Power , P Problem
P=F v P=τω Find the torque of a force ⃗ F =^i− ^j + k^ about
Linear momentum , p Angular momentum , L the origin. The force acts on a particle whose
P=mV L=I ω position vector is ⃗r =7 ^i +3 ^j−5 k^
Solution
KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL Given ⃗ F =^i− ^j+ k^ and ⃗r =7 ^i +3 ^j−5 k^
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
We know ⃗τ =⃗r X ⃗
F
The kinematical quantities in rotational

| |
motion, angular displacement ( θ ), angular ^i ^j k^
velocity ( ω ) and angular acceleration ( α ) ⃗r x ⃗
F = 7 3 −5
respectively correspond to kinematic 1 −1 1
quantities in linear motion, displacement (x ),
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). F =^i (3 x 1−−5 x−1)− ^j(7 x 1−−5 x 1)
⃗r x ⃗
+ k^ (7 x −1−3 x 1)
LINEAR MOTION ROTATIONAL
MOTION F =^i (3−5)− ^j(7+5)+ k^ (−7−3)
=> ⃗r x ⃗
V =u+ at ω=ω 0+α t
F =−2 ^i−12 ^j−10 k^
ie ⃗τ =⃗r X ⃗
1 2 1 2
S=ut + a t θ=ω0 t + α t
2 2
2 2
V =u +2 as ω2=ω20 +2 α θ

APPENDIX
Vetor Product (Cross Product)

If ⃗A and ⃗ B are two vectors, θ be the

angle between them . Then the vector product
⃗
A x⃗
B is defined as

⃗
A x⃗
B= A Bsinθ n^

Where n^ is the unit vector perpendicular to

both ⃗
A and ⃗ B

In analytical form

A= A x ^i+ A y ^j+ A z k^
⃗ B =Bx ^i+ B y ^j+ B z k^
, ⃗

| |
^i ^j k^
Then ⃗
A x⃗
B= A x A y A z
Bx B y Bz
Or

⃗ B= ^i ( A y Bz −A z B y )− ^j( A x B z −A z B x )
A x⃗
+ k^ ( A x B y − A y B x )

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

43
 CHAPTER EIGHT planet. ie, T2 α a3
GRAVITATION
8.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION Every body in the universe attracts every other
Claudius Ptolemy ( AD 100 ) : Proposed body with a force which is directly proportional
geocentric model. According to this model, to the product of their masses and inversely
the Earth is at the centre of the universe and all proportional to the square of the distance
other celestial objects orbit the Earth. between them.
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) : proposed
Heliocentric model , the Sun is at the centre of Where the G is the
the solar system and all planets including the Universal gravitational
Earth orbit the Sun in circular orbits. constant,
Galileo Galilee (1564-1642) : Strongly G=6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2/kg2
supported heliocentric model. Definition of G
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) : Observed and If m 1 = m 2 = 1 Kg and r = 1 m
recorded The stellar and planetary positions Then F= G . ie,
with his naked eye. Universal gravitational constant is numerically
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) : Used Brahe's equal to the force of attraction between two
observations and proposed Kepler's laws for unit masses kept at a distance of 1 m apart
planetary motion.
Isaac Newton (1642–1726) : Proposed 8.3.1 Determination of G
universal law of gravitation First done by English scientist HenryCavendish
in 1798.
8.2 KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY
MOTION
1. Law of orbits: All planets moves around the
Sun in an elliptical orbit with the Sun at one of
the foci.

AP – Major axis
BC – Minor axis
S , S' – Foci He used a torsional balance for this .The
A-Farthest point, bar AB has two small lead spheres having mass
aphelion 'm' attached at its ends. Two equal heavy lead
P – Closest point, spheres of mass ‘M’ each kept at a distance of
Perihelion ‘d’ from each ‘m’ mass, on opposite sides. Due
2.Law of area: The radial vector (line joining to the gravitational attraction , the smaller ones
the Sun to a planet) sweeps equal areas in move slightly towards the larger ones and the
equal intervals of time. wire gets twisted through a small angle 'θ'

The shaded area is the The gravitational force on each pair of masses
area ∆ A swept out in a (M, m) is
small interval of
time ∆ t.
If L is the length of the bar AB , then the
3. Law of period: The torque arising out of F , τ = FL .
square of the time period of revolution of a At equilibrium, this is equal to the restoring
planet is proportional to the cube of the semi- torque and hence
major axis of the ellipse traced out by the

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

44
 Cθ

where 'Cθ' is the restoring torque , C is the (2) / (1) =>

torque for unit twist
Knowing M, m, L ,d , C , θ the value of G can
be determined.
8.4 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY =>
OF EARTH
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface gh R
2
=> =
The gravitational force acting on a body on g 2 h
2
R (1+ )
the surface of earth is R
M- Mass of Earth
...........(1) m – Mass of body =>
R – Radius of earth

The weight experience by the body

F = mg .................(2)
If h << R
comparing (1) and (2) mg

Therefore

NOTE : The mass of the earth can be calculated

ie,
using the values of acceleration due to gravity,
G and radius of earth. That is why the statement
“Cavendish weighed the earth”. As h ↑ 2 h/ R ↑(1- 2h/R) gh ↓ ↓
Thus as we go above the surface of the earth
8.5 VARIATION OF ACCELERATION
acceleration due to gravity decreases.
DUE TO GRAVITY
The value of acceleration due to gravity (g)
2. Variation of 'g' with depth
varies as we go above or below the surface of
the earth. It also varies from place to place
The acceleration due to
on the surface of the earth.
gravity at the surface of the
earth given by
1. Variation of 'g' with altitude (height)
..............(1)
The acceleration due to gravity
at the surface of the earth
given by
If ρ is the density of the earth,
..............(1)
then ρ=M/V
The acceleration due to gravity
at a height 'h' above earth's where M- mass of earth , V – Volume of earth
surface is given by
Therefore M = ρV
...............(2)

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

45
 Ans) gh ≈ g

2) At what height above Earth’s surface is the

..................(2)
Substitute (2) in (1) we will get ' g ' at the
surface of the earth in terms of density of the
earth. ie ,
................(3)
Now, consider a point mass m at a depth d
below the surface of the earth which is at a
distance (R – d) from centre of the earth.
The outer spherical shell, whose thickness is d,
will not exert any force on the body .
Let M ! be the mass of the earth of portion of
radius (R-d) then
value of acceleration due to gravity half of its
value of the Earth’s surface? (RE=6400km)
[Ans :2650 km] dont use h<<R approximation
Problem 3: a) At what height above the earth's
surface the value of g is same in a mine of
100km deep?
b) What is the value of g at the centre of the
earth?
[ Ans : a) 50 km b) 0 ]
8.5 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
ENERGY
The gravitational force is a conservative
force and hence we can define a gravitational
potential energy associated with this conserva-
tive force field.
Gravitational potential energy of a mass
is defined as the work done in bringing the
mass from infinity to a point in the
gravitational field of another body .

............(4) Let the body of mass ‘m’ be at a distance x

from the mass ‘M’.

(4) / (3) => Now the gravitational force on ‘m’ is

GMm
F=
x2

ie, The work done to displace the body through a

distance ' dx ' is

As d ↑ d
R
↑ 1−
d
R
↓ gd ↓ dW = F.dx =
GMm
dx
x2
Problem1: Calculate the value of g if a mango Therefore the total work done to bring the body
of mass 1⁄2 kg falls from a tree from a height from infinity to the point P is given by,
of 15 meters, what is the acceleration due to
gravity when it begins to fall?

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE

46
 r r
ie, ΔU = mgh
W= ∫ Fdx = ∫ GMm
x2
dx
∞ ∞
8.5.1 Gravitational Potential ( V )
r It is the work done in bringing a body of
=GMm ∫ x12 dx unit mass from infinity to a point in the gravita-
∞
tional field.
− GM
1 r V=
= −GMm [ ] r
x ∞
8.6 ESCAPE VELOCITY
1 1 It is the minimum velocity that a body must
= −GMm [ − ∞ ]
r attain to escape out of the gravitational field.
Since the gravitational field is a conservative
− GMm
=> W= field , the total energy will be conserved.
r
[ Let M – Mass of earth , m – Mass of
projecting body , R – Radius of the earth , h-
This work done is stored in the body as its
height above the surface of earth ]
gravitational potential energy U.

− GMm
TE ( Initial) = TE ( Final) ..........(1)
Therefore U=
r
TE (initial) = KE ( initial) + PE (initial)
8.5.1 potential energy near the surface of
1 − GMm
earth = mvi2 + ......(2)
2 R +h
If a body of mass ‘m’ is taken from the surface
of earth to a height ‘h’ , then the gain in 1 GMm
potential energy = mvi2 – ...........(3)
2 R+ h
ΔU = U(R+h) – U(R)
TE (Final) = KE ( Final) + PE (Final)
−GMm −GMm
=> ΔU = −
( R+ h) R 1 − GMm
= mvf2 +
2 R∞ + h
−GMm GMm 1
= + = 2
mvf + 0 .................(4)
(R+ h) R 2
Therefore,
−GMmR +GMm( R+ h) 1 − GMm 1
=
R( R+ h)
(1) => mvi2+ = mvf2 .......(5)
2 R +h 2

GMmh If vi = Ve , vf = 0
= ................(1)
R ( R+h) Therefore,
1 GMm
Since h is very small (R+h) ≈ R (5) => mve2 – =0
2 R+ h

GMmh 1 GMm
Therefore, (1) => ΔU = => mve2 = .............(6)
R2 2 R+ h

GM 2 GM
=> ΔU = m h => Ve2 =
R2 R+ h

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47
 => Ve =
√ 2 GM
R+h
.............(7)
If we are projecting the body from the surface
ie, V=
√ GM
R+ h
....................(8)
Special case : If the satellite is very close to the
of the earth , h=0 earth (R+h) ≈ R
(7) => Ve =
√ 2 GM
R
=>
√ 2 GMR
R2 therefore (8) => V =
√ GM
R
=>
√ GMR
R2
=> Ve = √ 2 gR = 11.2 km/s
=> V = √ gR
NOTE : Moon has no atmosphere. Why ? This velocity ( velocity in the minimum orbit)is
The escape speed for the moon is 2.3 called first cosmic velocity
km/s .The rms velocities of gas molecules on NOTE: Ve = √ 2V . That is escape velocity
the surface of moon are greater than its escape is √ 2 times the first cosmic velocity.
speed. Therefore gas molecules escape from the
moon and hence moon has no atmosphere 8.7.2 Time period of a satellite
It is the time taken by the satellite to
8.7 EARTH SATELLITES revolve once around the earth.
Earth satellites are objects which revolve Expression for time period
around the earth.
Moon - The one and only natural satellite of the Distance travelled 2 π (R+h)
Velocity = =
Earth. Time taken T
Artificial satellites – man made satellites- Use
for meteorology , telecommunication ,etc.
Eg: Sputnik, Aryabatta, INSAT , Edusat ,etc.
=>
√ GM
R+h
=
2 π ( R+h)
T
............ (9)

8.7.1 Orbital velocity of a satellite Squaring both sides

Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity GM 4 π ( R+h)
2 2
(9)=> =
with which it revolves around a planet in its R+ h T2
fixed orbit.
Expression for orbital velocity 2

Consider a satellite of mass 'm' moving => T

2
= 4 π (R+ h)3 ............... (10)
GM
with a velocity 'v' around the earth of mass 'M' NOTE
and radius R. Let r = R+h is the orbital radius Equation (10) obeys Kepler's law of periods.
of the satellite.
2π 3/2
The centripetal force is From (10) T= ( R+ h) .........(11)
√GM
provided by The
gravitational force Special case :If the satellite is very close to the
between the earth and earth (R+h) ≈ R
the satellite.
2
4π 3
ie, Then (10)= > T2 =
R ............(12)
GM
mV 2 GMm Dividing Numerator and denominator by R2
=
R+ h (R+h)2
2
4π R
GM (12) => T2 =
=> 2
V = GM
2
( R+ h) R

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48
=> T 2
=
4 π2 R
g
=> T = 2 π
√ R
g
8.9.2. Polar Satellites
A satellite which revolves in polar orbit is
called a polar satellite. The polar orbit is in the
8.8 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING north-south direction, while earth spins below it
SATELLITE in the west-east direction. Thus a polar satellite
can scan the entire surface of earth. It is placed
KE=
1 2
mV =
1 GM
(From 8) at a distance of 500 to 800 km from the surface
m
2 2 (R+h) of the Earth. The time period of a polar satellite
is nearly 100 minutes and the satellite
GMm completes many revolutions in a day.
ie, KE= ............(13)
2( R +h) Eg:IRS group of satellites - remote sensing,
meteorology,etc.
−GMm
And we know, PE = ............(14)
( R+ h) 8.10 WEIGHTLESSNESS IN SATELLITES
Therefore In a satellite around the earth, every part of the
TE = KE+PE =
GMm
+
−GMm satellite has acceleration towards the centre of
2( R +h) ( R+ h) the earth which is exactly the value of earth’s
acceleration due to gravity at that position.
=> TE =
−GMm
...............(15) That is everything inside the satellite is in a
2 (R +h) state of free fall. Thus everything inside the
satellite experience weightlessness.
8.9 GEOSTATIONARY AND POLAR
SATELLITE Problem : Pick the correct option and justify
your answer
8.9.1. Geostationary Satellite Assertion: On satellites we feel weightlessness.
If the orbit of the satellite is in the Moon is also a satellite of earth. But we do not
equatorial plane of the earth and having the feel weightlessness on moon.
same period as the period of rotation of the Reason : Mass of moon is considerable.
earth about its own axis( T=24h) would appear A) Both assertion and reason are correct
stationary viewed from a point on earth. Such B) Both assertion and reason are incorrect
satellites are known as geostationary satellites C) Assertion is correct , reason is incorrect
Orbital radius of a geostationary satellite
Ans : A . On satellites, we feel weightless
2
because the gravitational force on us due to the
We know the relation T 2 = 4 π ( R+ h)3
GM planet provides the centripetal force to keep us
revolving in the orbit. The same happens on the
2
moon also because moon is also a satellite
=> (R+h)3 = GM T2
4π (natural satellite). . But, the difference is the
GM T 2 1 /3 mass of the moon is very large compared to the
Therefore ( R+h) = ( ) mass of the satellites. So, the weight that we
4 π2
feel on the moon is the gravitational force with
G= 6.67 X 10−11 Nm2/ kg2 ,M= 6 X 1024 kg which moon attracts us. For a man-made
And T= 24 x 60 x 60 s = 86400 s satellite, the gravitational force between us and
the satellite is negligible hence we feel
Therefore, h = 36000 km weightless.

Eg: INSAT group for Telecommunications

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 CHAPTER NINE 2.Shearing stress or tangential stress
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF This stress is developed when there is a
SOLIDS change in the shape of the body
Solids
* In solids, atoms or molecules are tightly
fixed.
* Solids have a definite shape and size.
Deforming force
* When suitable forces are applied on a body ,
it undergoes a change in length, volume or 3.Normal stress or hydraulic stress
shape( The body deforms) This stress is developed in the body, when the
Restoring force applied force produces a change in the volume
* When a body is subjected to a deforming of the body.
force, a restoring force is developed in the
body.
Elasticity
* If a body regains its original shape and size
after the removal of deforming force, it is said Strain
to be elastic and the property is called elasticity. * Strain measures how much an object is
* The deformation caused is known as Elastic stretched or deformed when a force is applied.
deformation.
* Eg : Rubber, metals, steel ropes, etc. Change i n dimension
Strain=
Plasticity Original dimension
* If a body does not regain its original shape
and size after removal of the deforming * Unit : Nil Dimension: Nil
force, it is said to be a plastic body and the Types of strain
property is called plasticity.
* Eg : Glass , clay ,etc. 1. Longitudinal strain
Stress If the deforming force produces a
* When a body is subjected to a deforming change in length, the strain produced in
force, a restoring force is developed in the the body is called longitudinal strain
body. This restoring force is equal in magnitude Longitudinal strain =
but opposite in direction to the applied force. Change i nlength
* Stress is the restoring force per unit area. Original length
F
Stress, σ = ΔL
A Longitudinal strain =
* Unit : N m−2 Dimension : M L−1 T −2 L

Types of stress 2. Shearing Strain

1.Longitudinal stress or linear stress: This If the deforming force
stress developed, when the applied force produces a
produces a change in the length of the body. change in shape of the
The change in length may be elongation( tensile body without
stress ) or compression (compressive stress) changing volume, the
strain produced
is called shearing strain.

Δx
Shearing strain = = tan θ ≈ θ
L

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50
3) Volume strain proportional. Still the body returns to its
If the deforming force original dimension when the load is removed
produces a change in * If the load is increased further (beyond
volume, the strain elastic limit) the body cannot regain its
produced in the body is original dimension.
called volume strain. * In the portion of the curve between C and D,
if the load is increased, strain increases rapidly
Volume strain = even for a small change in the stress. When the
Change i n volume load is removed at some point, say at C
Original volume between B and D, the body doesn’t regain its
original dimension. The material is said
ΔV to have a permanent set. The deformation is
Volume strain =
V said to be plastic deformation.
* Beyond the point D, additional strain is
HOOKE'S LAW produced even by a reduced applied force. And
For small deformations the stress is directly fracture occurs at E.
proportional to strain. NOTE
stress ∝ strain * If the ultimate strength and fracture points D
stress = K × strain and E are close, the material is to be brittle.
where , K is the proportionality constant and is (Fig A)
known as modulus of elasticity. * If D and E are far apart, the material is said to
Note be ductile. (Fig B)
* Modulus of elasticity depends on, nature of
the material of the body and temperature.
* Unit : N m−2 Dimension : M L−1 T −2

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
* A graph drawn with strain along x-axis and
stress along y-axis.

Stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of

Aorta

* Point A – Proportional limit

* Point B – Elastic limit or yield point and
corresponding stress – Yield Stress , σy
*Elastic region is very large
Point D – The stress corresponding to D is
* The material does not obey Hooke’s law over
Ultimate tensile strength , σu
most of the region.
* Point E – Fracture point
* There is no well defined plastic region.
* Region O A – Hook's law is valid
* Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber etc.
* Region AB, stress and strain are not

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51
which can be stretched to cause large strains Y , G, B of some materails
are called elastomers.
Material Y G B
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY 1010N/m2 1010N/m2 1010N/m2
1 . Young's Modulus ( Y )
Steel 20.0 8.0 15.8
* The ratio of longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain is defined as the Young’s Aluminium 7.0 2.5 7.0
modulus Copper 12.0 4.0 12.0
Longitudinal stress Iron 19.0 5.0 8.0
Y=
Longitudinal strain Glass 7.0 3.0 3.6

F
A Do Example 9.1 ,2 ,3,4 ,5 NCERT
Y= = FL
ΔL AΔL
L Compressibility ( K )
* If the material has circular cross- section, then * The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called
A= π r2 compressibility.
FL −Δ V
Then , Y= K=
2
πr Δ L PV
* Unit: N/m 2 Dimension: ML -1 T -2 * Unit: m 2/N Dimension: M -1L T 2
(NO unit and dimension for strain) * The bulk modulus for solids is much larger
than that for liquids,
2. Rigidiy Modulus (G) *The bulk modulus of liquids are larger than
* The ratio of shearing stress to the shearing gases.
strain is called the Rigidity modulus or shear * Thus solids are least compressible where as
modulus . gases are most compressible.
Shearing stress
G= DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S
Shearing strain
F MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL OF A
A F WIRE
G= θ = Aθ

* Unit: N/m 2 Dimension: ML -1 T -2

Y
Note: For most material G ≈
3
3. Bulk Modulus ( B )
* The ratio of the volume stress to the
corresponding volume strain is defined as bulk
modulus.
Volume stress
B=
Volume strain
F
A FV
B= =
ΔV A ΔV
V
−P −PV
Or B= =
ΔV ΔV
V
* Unit: N/m 2 Dimension: ML -1 T -2

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The Young’s modulus of the material of the A bar of length l, breadth b, and depth d when
experimental wire is given by loaded at the centre by a load W=mg sags by an
mgL amount given by
Y=
π r2 Δ L mgl 3
δ=
4 b d3 Y
Poisson's Ratio
The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain in a stretched wire is called Poisson’s
ratio.
Δd
d
Poisson's ratio =
ΔL
L Note:* For a given material, increasing the
depth d rather than the breadth b is more
SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS effective in reducing the bending.
ELASTICITY * Buckling: The bending of deep bars unless
the load is not in the proper position is called
1) To find the thickness required for a metal buckling .(Shown in fig a ,b)
rope, to be used in cranes to pull up heavy
objects.
Eg:Make a crane which has a lifting capacity of
10 tonnes or one metric tonne [10000Kg]
(yield strength of steel , σy = 3× 10 8 N/m 2)
Soln ) The load shouldn't deform the rope
permanently . Therefore the extension shouldn’t
exceed the elastic limit. Ie , the maximum stress
developed in the rope must be less than yield To avoid this, large load bearing surface as
strength. shown in figure (c) is used.
F F This is called I-section of the beam or I- girder.
Stress= => A=
A Stress
Here the condition σ < σy , So A must be 3)The maximum height of the mountain is
sufficiently large. limited by the elastic properties of the
F F
The minimum A= σy => πr2 = σy rock which hold the mountain.

Therefore r2= π σ y
F
=> r= √ F
π σy At the bottom of the mountain of height ‘h’, the
force per unit area due to the weight of the
mountain is hρg . This creates a shearing.
√
ie , r =
mg
π σy= 1.03 x 10 m ≈ 1 cm -2

Generally a large margin of safety (of about a Equating this with the elastic limit for a typical
factor of ten in the load) is provided. Thus a rock is 3 × 10 8 N/m 2 .
thicker rope of radius about 3 cm is
recommended. A single wire of this radius h ρ g = 3 × 10 8
would practically be a rigid rod. So the ropes
8 8
3 x 10
are always made of a number of thin wires h = 3 x 10 = 3
braided together. ρg 3 x 10 x 9.8

2 ) In designing a building, the structural ≈ 10 km

design of the columns, beams and which is more than the height of Mt. Everest!
supports.

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53
 CHAPTER TEN the resultant horizontal forces should be zero
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FLUIDS and the resultant vertical forces should balance
the weight of the element.
FLUIDS
➢ Anything which can flow is fluid Ie, F2 – F1 = mg
➢ Gases and liquids are fluid
➢ Fluids do not have definite shape => P2A – P1A= mg ..........(1)
➢ They offer less resistance to the shear
stress If 'ρ' is the density of the liquid,
Thrust and V be the volume of the liquid
The total normal force acting on a surface. element , then the mass of this
Unit : N liquid element ,
Density m =ρV = ρAh ..........(2)
m Substitute (2) in (1)
Mass per unit volume. Density , ρ=
v
Unit : kg/m3 Dimension : ML-3 (1) => ( P2 – P1 )A = ρAh g
Relative density or specific gravity
The ratio of the density of a substance to the density => P2 – P1 = ρ g h ..............(3)
of water at 40C is the relative density of the
substance. It is a unitless quantity. If the top of the liquid element is open to the
atmosphere, then P 1 = P a and let P 2 =P .
10.1 PRESSURE Then,
Total normal force( Thrust) per unit area . It is a
(3) => P – P a = ρ g h ................(4)
F
scalar quantity. P=
A
Unit : N/m2 or pascal Dimension : ML-1T -2 => P = P a + ρ g h ...............(5)
Note : atm , bar , torr are other units of pressure.
1 atm = 1.013×10 5 Pa . Thus the pressure increases with depth.
The pressure P , at a depth below the surface of
When an object is submerged a liquid open to the atmosphere is greater than
in a fluid at rest, the fluid atmospheric pressure by an amount ρgh. This is
exerts a force on its surface. the absolute pressure .
This force is always normal to The excess of pressure, P − P a , at depth '
the object’s surface.
h' is called gauge pressure at that point .
Do example 10.1 NCERT Hydrostatic paradox
From the above equation the liquid pressure is
10.1.1 variation of pressure with depth the same at all points at the same horizontal
Consider a fluid at level (or same depth). Base area or the shape of
rest in a container. the container does not involve in the pressure.
point 1 is at height h
above a point 2. The
pressures at points 1
and 2 are P 1 and P 2
respectively. Consider
a cylindrical element
of fluid having a base On filling with water, the level in the three
area 'A' and height h. vessels is the same( though they hold different
As the fluid is at rest amounts of water) . This is because water at

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54
the bottom has the same pressure below each oil) for measuring small pressure differences
section of the vessel. and a high density liquid (such as mercury) for
large pressure differences. One end of the tube
Do Example 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 NCERT is open to the atmosphere and the other end is
connected to the system whose pressure we
10.1.2Atmospheric Pressure want to measure
➢ The pressure of the atmosphere at any
point is equal to the weight of air column of
unit cross-sectional area extending from that
point to the top of the atmosphere..
➢ At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is
1.013×10 5 Pa = 1 atm
➢ It is maximum on the surface and it
decreases with altitude.
Measurement of Pressure
1. Barometer 2. Manometer
1. Barometer Pressure of the system , P = P at A
➢ Used to measure atmospheric pressure = P at B
➢ Evangelista Torricelli (1608 –1647) P = Pa+ρ g h
ie, P – Pa = ρ g h
The space above the mercury
column in the tube contains
10.1.3 Pascal's law & Applications
only mercury vapour whose
If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a
pressure P is so small that it
particular point, the change is transmitted
may be neglected. The
to the entire liquid without being diminished
pressure inside the column at
in magnitude.
a point B must be equal to the
Application – Hydraulic lift
pressure at point C which is at
the same level.
A1 , A 2 –
The cross
Atmospheric pressure , Pa = P at C
sectional
= P at B = ρ g h
areas of
( B and C lies in same horizontal level)
the
Where ρ – Density of mercury
cylinder (
g - Acceleration due to gravity
h – Height of the mercury column A1 < A 2 )
ie, Atmospheric pressure, Pa = ρ g h Suppose a downward force F1 is applied on the
It is observed that at sea level the height of the smaller piston, the pressure of the liquid under
mercury column is 76 cm F1
this piston increases to P ( where P = ).
ie, 1 atm = 76 cm of Hg A1
NOTE : In barometer mercury is used because According to Pascal’s law this pressure is
of it's High Density (So we can reduce the transmitted throughout the liquid. Then the
height of the tube) and it does not wet glass. It upward force on the second piston,
has a shining surface.
2. Manometer( Open tube manometer)
An open tube manometer measures the pressure
difference .It consists of a U-tube containing a Thus the applied force has been increased by a
suitable liquid i.e., a low density liquid (such as

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55
 A2
factor of is called mechanical
A1
advantage
NOTE : hydraulic lift is a force multiplying
device not energy multiplying.
Fig : (a) A typical trajectory of a fluid particle.
Application – hydraulic brake Fig : (b) A region of streamline flow.
When we apply a small force on the pedal with
our foot the master piston moves inside the 10.2.2 Equation of continuity
master cylinder, and the pressure caused is
transmitted through the brake oil to act on a
piston of larger area. A large force acts on the
piston and is pushed down expanding the brake
shoes against brake lining. In this way, a small
force on the pedal produces a large retarding
force on the wheel

Do Example 10.5 , 10.6 NCERT
Consider a pipe of varying cross sectional area
A1 , A2 such that A1 >A2 . A non-viscous and
incompressible liquid with density 'ρ' flows
steadily through the pipe, with velocities v 1
and v 2 in area A1 and A2 respectively as shown
in Figure.

* The volume of the liquid going through the

cross sectional area A1 in a time interval 'Δt'
= A1 v1 Δt
* The mass of the fluid
10.2 FLUID DYNAMICS crossing the area A1 , M1= A1 v1 Δt ρ ......(1)
The study of the fluids in motion is known
as fluid dynamics. * Similarly The volume of the liquid going out
of the cross sectional area A2 in a time interval
10.2.1 streamline flow ( Steady flow) 'Δt' = A2 v2 Δt
* The flow of the fluid is said to be steady if at * The mass of the fluid
any given point, the velocity of each passing
fluid particle remains constant in time. (velocity crossing the area A2 , M2= A2 v2 Δt ρ ......(2)
at different points may not be same)
* The path taken by a fluid particle under a Since the liquid is incompressible we must have
steady flow is a streamline. A1 v1 Δt ρ = A2 v2 Δt ρ ............(3)
* A streamline is a curve whose tangent at OR A1 v1 = A2 v2 .............(4)
any point is the direction of the fluid velocity at ie, Av = a constant .................(5)
that point.
This is the equation of continuity.
* Two stream lines will never intersect. 1
Because, If they intersect, there will be two (5) => V α . ie, at narrower portions of
A
velocities at the point which is not possible for the pipe the velocity increases and vice versa
a stream line flow.

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56
Note: Equation of continuity is a statement of and DE. In a very small interval of time Δ t, the
conservation of mass, in the flow of fluid at B moves to C at the same time fluid at
incompressible fluid. D moves to E.
10.2.2 Turbulent Flow The volume between B and C = A1V1 Δt
Steady flow is achieved at low flow speeds. The volume between D and E = A2V2 Δt
Beyond a limiting value, called critical speed,
this flow loses steadiness and becomes By the equation of continuity ,
turbulent. A1V1 Δt = A2V2 Δt ........(1)
Reynolds Number (Re)
Reynolds number is a dimensionless number The mass of this volume of liquid is ,
which gives us the idea that whether the flow is Δm= A1V1 Δt ρ = A2V2 Δt ρ ..........(2)
streamline or turbulent.
ρVd
Re= η Total Work done on part of the liquid just
ρ – density , V – velocity considered
d – diameter of pipe , η – Viscosity of the liquid The Forces acting on this part of the liquid are
1) P1A1 , by the liquid on the left
Note: If Re < 1000 – Stream line flow 2) P2A2 , by he liquid on the right
Re > 2000 - Turbulent flow 3) Δm g , Gravitational force (weight) of the
1000< Re < 2000 – Unsteady flow liquid considered
4) N , Normal force by the walls of the tube.
10.3 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
According to this principle, the sum of In time Δt the point of application of P1A1 is
pressure , kinetic energy per unit volume and displaced by BC = V1 Δt . Thus the work done
potential energy per unit volume of an
by P1A1 in time Δt is
incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a
streamlined flow remains a constant. W1= ( P1A1) ( V1 Δt ) = P1 ( Δρm ) ..........(3)
Mathematically,
1 2 Similarly the the work done by P2A2 in time
P+ ρ V +ρ gh = a constant
2
It is just the application of work energy theorem Δt is
in the case of fluid flow.
W2= (−P2A2) ( V2 Δt ) = −P2 ( Δρm ) ..........(4)
Proof
The work done by the gravity, W3
= − ve change in potential energy
= − ( Δm g h2− Δm g h1)

W3 = ( Δm g h1− Δm g h2 ) ...........(5)
The contact force does no work because it is
perpendicular to the velocity.

There fore, W4 = 0 ...........(6)

The total work done on the liquid considered ,
Fig: - The flow of an ideal fluid of density ' ρ' in in the time interval Δt is ,
a pipe of varying cross section.
Consider the flow at the two regions BC W = W1+W2+W3+W4

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57
 => equation of hydrostatics is a special case of
Bernoulli equation.
( Δm) ( Δm)
W = P1 ρ − P2 ρ + Δm(g h1 − g h2 ) Special Case 2 (When h1=h2 )
ie, the Flow is through a horizontal pipe.
...........(7) 1 2 1 2
So P 1+ ρ V 1 = P2 ρV 2
The change in kinetic energy of the same 2 2
liquid in time Δt (ΔKE) 1 2
ie , P+ ρ V = A constant
2
1 2 1 2
ΔKE = Δ mV 2− Δ mV 1 ..........(8)
2 2
10.3.1 Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem
By the work energy theorem , the total work
Application 1 : Speed of Efflux
done on the system is equal to change in kinetic
energy of the system.
The word efflux means fluid outflow.
Ie, (7) = (8)

( Δm) ( Δm)
=> P1 ρ − P2 ρ + Δm(g h1 − g h2 )

1 2 1 2
= Δ mV 2− Δ mV 1
2 2

P 1 P2 1 2 1 2
=> ρ − ρ + g h1−g h 2 = V − V
2 2 2 1

Rearranging Consider a tank containing a liquid of

density 'ρ' with a small hole in its side at a
P1 1 2 P2 1 2 height y 1 from the bottom. The air above the
=> ρ + g h1+ 2 V 1 = ρ + g h2 + 2 V 2 ........(9) liquid, whose surface is at height y 2 , is at
pressure P
Multiply throughout by ρ
From the equation of continuity ,
1 1 A 1 V1 = A 2 V2
(9) => P1+ρ g h1+ ρ V 21 = P2+ρ g h2 + ρ V 22
2 2 A1
V2 = V
A2 1
1
=> P+ρ g h+ ρV 2 = A constant Since A 2 >> A 1 , V2 = 0
2
Now, applying the Bernoulli equation at points
Hence the proof 1 and 2 ( note that P1=Pa , the atmospheric
Special Case 1
pressure )
Bernoulli's equation for a fluid is at rest 1 2
Here V1 = V2 = 0 Pa +ρ g y 1+ ρ V 1 = P+ρ g y 2 ..........(1)
2
So Bernoulli Equation becomes
1 2
P1+ρ g h1 = P2+ρ g h2 => ρV1 = P+ρ g y 2−Pa−ρ g y1
2

P1−P2 = ρ g( h2−h1 ) = ρ g h . ie, The = P−Pa +ρ g ( y 2− y 1 )

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58
 = P−Pa +ρ gh * By applying equation of continuity to the area
A and B , A V1 = a V2
2( P−P a+ρ gh) A
=> V 21= OR V 2= V ..................(1)
ρ a 1

Then by using Bernoulli’s equation (here

h1=h2)
ie, V1 = √ 2(P−Pa +ρ gh)
ρ
1 1 2
2 A

OR V1 = √ 2
ρ (P−Pa )+ 2gh
2
2
P1+ ρ V 1 = P2+ ρ V 1
2 a ( )
2
1 2 A 1
This is the velocity of efflux ie, P1−P2 =
2
ρV1
a ( ) 2
− ρV 1
2
Special cases
Case 1: ( If P>>Pa , 2gh can be ignored)
This condition is used in rocket propulsion.
=> P1−P2 =
1
2
2
ρV1
a [( ) ]
A 2
−1 ..........(2)

V1 = √ 2ρ ( P−P )
a
=> ρm g h =
1
ρ V 21
[( ) ]
A 2
−1
2 a
Now the speed of efflux is determined by
container pressure. 2 ρm g h
Case 2: ( If P=Pa , ie, the tank is open to => V 21 =
atmosphere ) ρ
[( ) ]
A 2
a
−1

V1 = √2 g h

√ [( )
ie, speed of efflux from an open tank is given 2ρm g h
=> V1 =
by a formula identical to that of a freely falling
body. This is Torricelli's law.
ρ
A 2
a
−1 ]
Application 2 : Venturi-meter The principle behind the venturi- meter is used
* The Venturi-meter is a device to measure the in the Carburetor of auto mobile, Bunsen
flow speed of incompressible fluid. burner, Atomisers and Sprayers.
* It consists of a tube with a broad diameter and
a small constriction at the middle as shown .

Fig: The spray gun. Piston forces air at high

* A manometer in the form of a U-tube contains
a liquid of density ' ρm ' is also attached to it,
with one arm at the broad neck point of the tube
and the other at constriction.
speeds causing a lowering of pressure
at the neck of the container and liquid rises up
to a low pressure region.
Application 3 :Blood Flow and Heart Attack
The artery may get constricted due to the
accumulation of plaque on its inner walls.The

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59
speed of the flow of the blood in this region is
raised which lowers the pressure inside and the
artery may collapse due to the external
pressure. The heart exerts further pressure to
open this artery and forces the blood through.
The internal pressure once again drops due to
same reasons leading to a repeat collapse. This
may result in heart attack.
Application 4 : dynamic lift
Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a
body, such as airplane wing, a hydrofoil or a
spinningball, by virtue of its motion through a
fluid.
(a)Ball moving with spin ( Magnus effect)
For a spinning ball as in diagram velocity of air
streamlines above it becomes larger than that
below it. So the pressure above it becomes
smaller than that below it. Thus the ball gets an
upward shift. This is called Magnus effect.
(b)Aerofoil
The wings of an airplane (aerofoil) are so
designed that its upper surface is more curved
than the lower surface and the front edge is
broader than the real edge. As the aircraft
moves, the air moves faster above the aerofoil
than at the bottom as shown in Figure.
10.4 VISCOSITY
Liquids, flow in the form of layers. This type of
flow is called laminar flow.
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
Viscous Force
when there is relative motion between the
layers of a liquid , a frictional force which
opposes the relative motion between the liquid
(fluid) layers. This force is the viscous force.
Velocity distribution of layers
Suppose we consider a fluid like oil
enclosed between two glass plates as shown in
Fig (a). The bottom plate is fixed while the top
plate is moved with a constant velocity v
relative to the fixed plate (If oil is replaced by
honey, a greater force is required to move the
plate with the same velocity. Hence we say that
honey is more viscous than oil) The fluid in
contact with a surface has the same velocity as
that of the surfaces. Hence, the layer of the
liquid in contact with top surface moves with a
velocity v and the layer of the liquid in contact
with the fixed surface is stationary. Other layers
have velocity between zero and v . The velocity
distribution is shown in fig (a)
velocity distribution for viscous flow in a pipe
(Fig (b) )
10.4.1 Coefficient of viscosity( η )
Stress
η=
Strain rate
Refer fig (a) ,
@ S O H S S AREEKODE
60
 F F the net upward force and hence the resultant
A A force on the sphere becomes zero. Thereafter
η= =
Δx V the body will move with constant velocity
/Δ t
l l called terminal velocity.

Fl Expression For terminal velocity

Or η= ..................(1)
AV * Let the density of the material of the sphere
be ' ρ ' and the density of the fluid be' σ ' .
ηA V
Or F= ................(2)
l
* When the body attains terminal velocity , Vt
This is Newton's viscous formula
W = U + F ..............(1)
Note: 1) Unit of viscosity : poiseiulle (Pl) 4 3 4 3
Other units : N s m -2 Or Pa s => πr ρ g = π r σ g+6 π r ηV t ..........
3 3
2) The viscosity of liquids decreases with (2)
temperature, while it increases in the case of
gases. 4 3 4 3
=> 6 π r ηV t = π r ρ g− π r σ g
3 3
10.4.2 Stoke's law
* The viscous force on a body moving through 4 3
a fluid is proportional to the velocity of the => 6 π r ηV t = π r (ρ−σ) g ...........(3)
3
object and is opposite to the direction of
motion. 2 r 2 (ρ−σ) g
* When a spherical body, having radius ' r ' => Vt = ................(4)
9η
moving through a fluid , the viscous drag force
is given by , NOTE : If σ is greater than ρ, then the term
F = 6 π r η V ....................(1) (ρ - σ) becomes negative leading to a negative
Note that this is proportional to V terminal velocity. That is why air bubbles rise
up through water.
10.4.3 Terminal velocity( Vt)
* Consider a sphere of radius ' r ' which falls 10.5 SURFACE TENSION
freely through a viscous fluid of coefficient of * For a molecule well inside the breaker the net
viscosity η. force on it is zero.
* The forces acting on the body are , * But for a molecule on the liquid meniscus
1) Gravitational force (W) (free surface) there is a net downward force.
- downwards * This asymmetric force distribution is
responsible for surface tension. ( Fig .a )
2) Buoyancy upthrust ( U )
- upwards

3) Viscous force (F)

- upwards

* When it falls , initially W > U + F . So the
body will accelerate in the downward direction.
The velocity of the body goes on increasing and
so viscous force also increases. Finally a stage
reaches at which the downward force balances
* The property due to which the free surface
of liquid tends to have minimum surface
area and behaves like a stretched membrane
is called surface tension.
* imagine a line AB drawn on the surface of a

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liquid (Fig .b) . The line divides the surface in
two parts . One to the left of the line and other
right to the right of the line. It is found that the
two parts of the surface pull each other with a
force proportional to the length of the line AB.
These forces of pull are perpendicular to the
line separating the two parts and tangential to
the surface.
* Let F be the common magnitude of the forces
exerted on each other by the two parts of the
surface across a line of length ' l ' . We define
the surface tension 'S ' of the liquid as
S=
F
...............(1)
l
Unit : N/m
10.5.1 Surface energy ( U )
* When a molecule is taken from the inside to
the surface layer, work is done against the
inward resultant force . The amount of work
done is stored as potential energy. This extra
energy that a surface layer has is called surface
energy .
10.5.2 Relation between surface tension and
surface energy
* Consider a U- shaped frame with a sliding bar
on its arm. Suppose it is dipped in soap solution
, taken out and placed in a horizontal position.
* Suppose that we move the bar by a small
distance ' x '
* Since the area of the film increases a work
must be done for to move the bar.
* The work done for that ,
W = F x ................(2)
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL
62
F
From (1) we know S =
l
(Or) F = Sl
Since a soap film has two surfaces ,
F = 2 S l ..................(3)
substitute this in (2)
(2) => W = 2 S l x=S (2 lx) .........(4)
This work done is stored as potential energy of
the new surface.
The increase in surface energy is
U = W = S (2 lx)
U U
Thus =S (Or) =S
2 lx A
That is the surface tension of a liquid is equal to
the increase in surface energy per unit area.
NOTE: In this interpretation the unit of surface
tension may be written as J /m2
10.5.3 Excess pressure inside a liquid drop
* Due to the force of surface tension, the drop
tends to contract. This create an excess
pressure inside than that of outside. So the drop
tends to expand. When the drop is in
equilibrium, these two forces will be equal and
opposite.
* Let the excess pressure, Δ P = P i –Po
* Suppose that the liquid drop expands under its
own pressure and its radius increases from ' R '
to ' R + ΔR ' and attains equilibrium.
* The work done for this expansion,
W = F ΔR
= (ΔP A) ΔR
=> W = (ΔP) (4 π R2) ΔR ...............(6)
* work done can be calculated using the idea of
surface tension also.
@ S O H S S AREEKODE
 U W 10.6 ANGLE OF CONTACT (θ )
We know surface tension , S = =
A A * The angle between the tangent to the liquid
Therefore , W= SA surface at the point of contact and solid surface
inside the liquid is termed as angle of contact.
ie, W = Surface tension X Increase in area * The value of θ determines whether a liquid
will spread on the surface of a solid or it will
= >W = S [ 4 π (R +ΔR)2 - 4 π R2] form droplets on it . ( It determines the
wettability)
= >W = S[4 π ( R 2+ 2R ΔR + (ΔR)2) - 4 π R2]

= >W = S [ 8 π R ΔR + 4 π (ΔR)2]

{ Since ΔR is very small 4 π (ΔR)2 can be

neglected }
ie, W = S ( 8 π R ΔR ) ..............( 7 )
Note : For pure water and clean glass, angle
Comparing (6) and (7) of contact, θ ≈ 0
=> (ΔP) (4 π R2) ΔR = S ( 8 π R ΔR )
10.7 CAPILLARY RISE
2S * One consequence of the pressure difference
=> ΔP = .................(8) across a curved liquid-air interface is that water
R
10.5.3 Excess pressure inside a bubble rises up in a narrow tube against gravity
* A bubble has two interfaces, thus by applying
the above argument Expression for capillary rise
4S
ΔP = ................. (9)
R
10.5.3 Excess pressure inside a bubble in the
liquid
* A bubble in the liquid has one interface ,
2S
ΔP = .....................(10)
R
10.5.4 Pressure on either side of a liquid
surface.
1. Plane liquid surface
The pressure inside and outside will be the Let θ → Angle of contact
same. ( Fig .A) a → Radius of the capillary tube
2. Convex liquid surface r→ Radius of the meniscus
pressure inside is greater than that of the See the figure,
outside.( Fig .B)
3.Concave liquid surface * Since the point 'A' and 'B' lies on the same
pressure inside is less than that of the outside. horizontal level ,
( Fig .C) Pressure at A = Pressure at B
2S
=> Pa = P a− +h ρ g
r
2S
=> hρ g =
r
2S
=> h= ............ (11)
rρg

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63
From the figure,
a a
cosθ = => r=
r cos θ

2S
therefore , (11) => h=
a
ρg
cos θ

2 Scos θ
ie, h= ..........(11)
aρg

10.8 DETERGENTS AND SURFACE

TENSION
* Detergents (soap) reduce the surface tension
of water
* Soap molecule has two ends: One end of
detergent molecule form bond with water and
other end forms with oil dirt.
* Dirt particles surrounded by detergent
molecule is removed on rinsing in water.

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 CHAPTER ELEVEN 1
ie, Pα ...................(1)
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER V

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE Charles’ law : At constant pressure, the

Heat volume of the gas is directly proportional to
* Heat is a form of energy transferred from one absolute temperature.
body to another body by virtue of temperature ie, V α T ....................(2)
difference.
* Unit : joule Ideal gas law : By combining these two
equations we have
A common misconception PV α T
There is a misconception that heat is a quantity For N number of molecules
of energy. People often talk ‘this water has P V = N k T ..................(3)
more heat or less heat’. These words are Where k =1.381×10 −23 JK −1 , the Boltzman
meaningless. Heat is energy in transit. constant
* N can be represented in terms of number of
‘A hot cup of coffee has more heat’ is as moles µ.
meaningless as ‘A lake has more rain’. ie, N = µ NA
Where NA - Avogadro number
When it rains, lake receives water from the
cloud. Once the rain stops, the lake will have Therefore (3) => P V = µ NA k T ...............(4)
more water than before raining. Here ‘raining’
is a process which brings water from the cloud. => P V = µ R T ................(5)
Rain is water in transit. So the statement ‘lake
has more rain’ is wrong, instead the ‘lake has Where R = 8.314 J /mol.K , the universal gas
more water’ will be appropriate. constant
This is called the equation of state for an ideal
gas.
Temperature
* Temperature is the degree of hotness or
Problem 1
coolness of a body. Hotter the body higher
A student comes to school by a bicycle whose
is its temperature.
tire is filled with air at a pressure 240 kPa at
* Unit : kelvin
27°C. She travels 8 km to reach the school and
Measurement of temperature
the temperature of the bicycle tire increases to
* Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
39°C. What is the change in pressure in the tire
* Commonly used thermometer scales are:
when the student reaches school?(take the gas is
(i) Celsius scale ( o C) (ii) Kelvin scale (K)
ideal)
(iii) Fahrenheit scale ( o F).
Solution
* The conversion of temperature from one scale
Here V1 = V2 = V
to other scale can be done by the following
P 1 V = µ R T 1 ..................(1)
formula.
C F−32 K −273
= = P 2 V = µ R T 2 ..................(2)
5 9 5
(1) P1 T
BOYLE’S LAW, CHARLES’ LAW AND => = 1
(2) P2 T2
IDEAL GAS LAW
Boyle's law : At constant temperature, the P1T 2 3

pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to => P2= = 240 x 10 x 312

T1 300
the volume

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 = 249 . 6 kPa 3. Volume Expansion
Therefore the change in pressure When temperature increases, the volume of a
=249.6 kPa – 240 kPa = 49.6 kPa substance (solid, liquid or gas) increases. This
called volume expansion.
ABSOLUTE ZERO ( 0 K)
When temperature decreases, the pressure of a ΔV
=αV Δ T
low density gas decreases. At -273.15 0 C V
( 0 K) the pressure become zero. This
temperature is known as absolute zero. Where α V - Coefficient of volume expansion.

Problem 2
Eiffel tower is made up of iron and its height is
roughly 300 m. During winter season (January)
in France the temperature is 2°C and in hot
summer its average temperature 25°C.
Calculate the change in height of Eiffel tower
between summer and winter.
Given αL of iron = 10 ×10 −6 per °C
Solution
ΔL
= αL Δ T or Δ L= α L L ΔT
L

ie, ΔL = 10 × 10 −6 × 300 × 23 = 0.69 m=69 cm

THERMAL EXPANSION Problem 3 ( Do yourself – imp 2010)

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter Railway lines are laid with gaps to allow for
to change in length, area, and volume due to a expansion. If the gap between steel rails 66m
change in temperature long is 3.63 cm at 100C, then at what
1 . Linear Expansion temperature will the lines just touch?
When temperature increases, length of a solid Coefficient of linear expansion for steel is
(rod like structure) increases. This is called 11x10 -6 / 0 C
linear expansion.
Do Example 11.1 ,11.2 NCERT
ΔL Relation connecting and α L and α A
= αL Δ T
L
ΔL
We know = αL Δ T
L
Where α L - Coefficient of Linear expansion.
ΔL
Or α L= ................. (3)
LΔT
2 . Area Expansion
When temperature increases area of a solid
ΔA
substance increases. This is called area Similarly =α A Δ T
A
expansion.
ΔA
ΔA Or αA= .................(4)
=α A Δ T A ΔT
A
Δ A=(L+ Δ L)2−L2 =
Where α A - Coefficient of Area 2 2 2
L + 2 L Δ L+Δ L −L
expansion.

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66
=> Δ A=2 L Δ L ( Δ L2 is very small)

2LΔ L 2Δ L
Therefore (4) => α A = = =2 α L
L ΔT LΔT
2

ie , α A =2 α L
Relation connecting and α L and α V

αV =3 α L
Problem 4
Show that the coefficient of volume expansion
at constant pressure of an ideal gas is the
1 Important environmental effect ofanomalous
reciprocal of temperature ie, αV = expansion of water.
T
Solution In cold countries during the winter season,
The ideal Gas Equation is P V = μ R T ..........(1) Lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a
At constant pressure, P ΔV = μ R ΔT ..........(2) lake cools towards 40 C, water near the surface
become denser and sinks; the warmer, less
μR dense water near the bottom rises. However,
Or ΔV = ΔT once the colder water on top reaches a
P
temperature below 40 C, it becomes less dense
V and remains at the surface itself. So a water
=> ΔV = ΔT body will not freeze from top to bottom. If
T
water did not have this property, lakes and
ΔV ΔT ponds would freeze from bottom to top.
=> =
V T
CHANGE OF STATE
ΔV 1 * All matter exists normally in three states as
=> = αV =
V ΔT T solids, liquids or gases. Matter can be changed
from one state to another either by heating or
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER cooling.
* Liquids expand on heating and contract on * During change of state, the two different state
cooling at moderate temperatures. coexist in thermal equilibrium and temperature
* water exhibits an anomalous behaviour. It remains constant until the completion of change
contracts on heating between 0 C and 4 C then of state.
it expands.
* This means that the water has a maximum
density at 4 C .

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67
Melting point
* The temperature at which solid and liquid
coexist in thermal equilibrium with each other
is called melting point.
* The melting point decreases with pressure.
Boiling point.
* The temperature at which liquid and vapour
state of substance coexist in thermal
equilibrium with each other is called boiling
point.
* The boiling point increases with pressure .
Regelation
When pressure is applied, ice melts at low
temperature. If pressure is removed, water
refreezes. This refreezing is called regelation.
Molar Specific Heat of gas
There are two specific heats for gases.
(i) Specific heat at constant volume CV
(ii) Specific heat at constant pressure CP
(i) Specific heat at constant volume ( CV )
* It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a gas at constant
volume by 1 0 C or 1K.
(ii) Specific heat at constant pressure ( CP )
* It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a gas at constant
pressure by 1 0 C or 1K.
Latent heat capacity ( L )
* There are two latent heat capacity

(i) Latent heat of fusion ( L f )

* The amount of heat energy required to change
a unit mass solid substance at its melting point
completely into liquid in the same temperature.
Q
Lf =
specific heat capacity ( s ) m
* It is the amount of heat required to raise the * Unit : J/kg
temperature of 1kg substance by 1 0 C or 1K . (ii) Latent heat of vaporisation ( L v )
The amount of heat energy required to change a
ΔQ unit mass liquid substance at its boiling point
s =
mΔ T completely into gas in the same temperature.
* Unit : J kg -1 K -1 Q
LV =
m
Heat capacity (S) * Unit : J/kg
* It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1 0 C or 1K. Temperature versus heat for water
S=ms

ΔQ
Or S=
ΔT
* Unit : J/K

Molar specific heat capacity ( C )

* It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1mole of a substance by 1 0C or
1K.
ΔQ Problem 4 ( Do yourself)
C= μ – No of moles Find out the work done to convert 2 kg of ice at
μ ΔT
-5 0 C to steam at 100 0 C . Specific heat capacity
* Unit : J mol -1 K -1 of ice is 2100J/kg K, specific latent heat of
fusion of ice is 336x10 3 J/kg, Latent heat of

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vaporisation of water is 2250x10 3 J/kg and
specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/kg K.
HEAT TRANSFER
* There are three modes of heat transfer:
1)Conduction 2) Convection 3) Radiation.
1) Conduction
* Conduction is the process of direct transfer
of heat through matter due to temperature
difference.
* it is found experimentally that in the steady
state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current) H
is proportional to the temperature difference
(T C – T D ) and the area of cross-section A and
is inversely proportional to the length L.
dQ A(T C −T D )
ie , = H= K
dt L * The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
Where K is a constant called Thermal
conductivity of material.
* Unit : W m -1 K -1
Note :
*Silver is the best thermal conductor
* some cooking pots have copper coating on
the bottom - Being a good conductor of heat,
copper promotes the distribution of heat over
the bottom of a pot for uniform cooking.
* Houses made of concrete roofs get very hot
during summer days because of considerable
thermal conductivity of concrete. People,
usually, prefer to give a layer of earth or
foam insulation on the ceiling so that heat
transfer is prohibited.
* A brass tumbler feels much colder than a
wooden tray on a chilly day -Brass has greater
conductivity than wood .
Do Example 11.6 NCERT
2) Convection
* Convection is a mode of heat transfer by
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69
actual motion of matter.
* It is possible only in fluids.
* When a fluid is heated from below, the hot
part expands and, therefore, becomes less
dense. Because of buoyancy, it rises and the
upper colder part replaces it. This again gets
heated, rises up and is replaced by the relatively
colder part of the fluid.
* Natural convection is responsible for many
familiar phenomena such as sea breeze , land
breeze, etc.
3) Radiation
* Radiation needs no medium for heat transfer.
* In radiation, energy is transferred in the form
of electromagnetic radiation .
body by virtue of its temperature, like radiation
by a red hot iron or light from a filament lamp
is called thermal radiation.
LAWS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Blackbody
* A body which absorbs all the radiations
falling on it is called a black body. It is a
perfect radiator also.
1 ) Stefan Boltzmann law
* Stefan Boltzmann law states that, the total
amount of heat radiated per second per unit area
of a black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E = σT4
Where σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W m −2 K −4 , the Stefan's
constant.
2) Wien’s displacement law
* Wien’s law states that, the wavelength of
maximum intensity of emission of a black body
radiation is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the black body.
@ SOHSS AREEKODE
 1 b * initially the rate of cooling is higher and
λm α or λ m=
T T decreases as the temperature of
Where, b is known as Wien’s constant. Its the body falls.
value is 2.898× 10 -3 m K Do Example 11.8 NCERT
* It implies that if temperature of the body
increases, maximal intensity wavelength ( λ m )
Problem 5 ( March 2010 )
shift s towards lower wavelength (higher
You are in restaurant waiting for your friend
frequency) of electromagnetic spectrum.
and ordered coffee. It has arrived. Do you add
sugar in your friend’s coffee and then wait for
him or do you add sugar after the arrives?
Explain with respect to the concept of cooling.

Soln) For the coffee to be hotter when the

friend arrives, the better option is: first mix
sugar and then wait for the friend. When we
mix sugar with coffee the temperature of the
coffee decreases. So according to Newton’s law
of cooling the rate of loss of heat decreases.

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

* Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of
loss of heat of a body is directly proportional to
the difference in the temperature between that
body and its surroundings .
−dQ
α(T o −T s)
dt
* The negative sign indicates that the quantity
of heat lost by liquid goes on decreasing with
time.
* Where, To = Temperature of the object
Ts = Temperature of the surrounding

Cooling of hot water with time

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 CHAPTER TWELVE (2) Intensive state variables
THERMODYNAMICS Intensive variables do not depend on the size
or mass of the system
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics Examples: Temperature, pressure, specific
which describes the laws governing the heat capacity, density etc.
process of conversion of work into heat and
conversion of heat into work. Equation of state
* The equation which connects the state
Thermodynamic system variables in a specific manner is called
* Part of the universe under study equation of state.
* It is a collection of large number of particles * For an ideal gas, the equation of state is
(atoms or molecules) PV =μ R T
* The system may exist in solid, liquid and
gaseous state. ( In this chapter we take a gas ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
inside a cylinder attached with a piston as The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that
system for the demonstrational convenience) if two systems, A and B, are in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, C, then A
Surrounding and B are in thermal equilibrium with each
* The remaining part of the universe except other.
system.
* The system and surrounding are separated
by a wall ( not a physical wall).
* Diathermic wall - A conducting wall that
allows heat flow through it
* Adiabatic wall- An insulating wall that does
not allow flow of heat INTERNAL ENERGY (U)
* The internal energy of a thermodynamic
Thermal equilibrium system is the sum of kinetic and potential
* Two systems are said to be in thermal energies of all the molecules of the system.
equilibrium with each other if they are at the * Since ideal gas molecules are assumed to
same temperature. have no interaction with each other the
internal energy consists of only kinetic energy
Thermodynamic state variables part , which depends on the temperature. So
* The state of a thermodynamic system is internal energy of an ideal gas depends only
represented by a set of variables called on temperature.
thermodynamic variables. * Internal energy is a state variable. It depends
Examples: Pressure, temperature, volume, only on the initial and final states of the
internal energy , heat capacity, specific heat thermodynamic system. For example, if the
capacity , etc. temperature of water is raised from 30°C to
* Note: Work and heat are not state variable. 40°C either by heating or by stirring, the final
They are process variables internal energy depends only on the final
temperature 40°C and not the way it is arrived
* There are two types of thermodynamic at.
variables: Extensive and Intensive
(1) Extensive sate variables FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Extensive variable depends on the size or * It states that the amount of heat given to a
mass of the system. system is equal to the sum of the increase in
Examples: Volume, total mass, entropy, the internal energy of the system and the
internal energy, heat capacity etc. external work done

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71
 Δ Q=Δ U +Δ W MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OF GAS.
* At constant pressure ΔW = PΔV Unlike solids and liquids, gases have two
Now Δ Q=Δ U + P Δ V molar specific heats: molar specific heat
* The first law of thermodynamics is a capacity at constant pressure ( C P ) and
statement of law of conservation of energy. molar specific heat capacity at constant
* We adopt the following sign convention volume ( CV ).

System gains heat Q is positive (1) Molar specific heat at constant

volume ( CV )
System loses heat Q is negative Molar specific heat of a gas at constant
Work done on the system W is negative volume is the amount of heat required to raise
Work done by the system W is positive the temperature of one mole of the gas
through 1K when its volume is kept constant.
Problem 1 :
(1) Molar specific heat at constant
Jogging every day is good for health. Assume
pressure ( C P )
that when you jog a work of 500 kJ is done
and 230 kJ of heat is given off . What is the Molar specific heat of the gas at constant
change in internal energy of your body? pressure is defined as the amount of heat
Solution required to raise the temperature of one mole
Work done by the system (body), of the gas through 1K, when its pressure is
W = +500 kJ kept constant.
Heat released from the system (body),
Q = –230 kJ Specific heat capacity of water
The change in internal energy of a body, * The specific heat capacity of water varies
Δ U =Δ Q−Δ W =– 230 kJ – 500 kJ =– 730 kJ slightly with temperature.
* Variation of specific heat capacity of water
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (s) with temperature is shown below.
* Specific heat of a substance is the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass substance through one Kelvin
* Suppose an amount of heat ∆Q supplied to a
substance changes its temperature from T to
T + ∆T. We define heat capacity of the
ΔQ
substance S=
ΔT
*Unit: J / K
* Therefore the specific heat capacity of the
S 1 ΔQ
substance s= =
m m ΔT * One calorie is defined to be the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of
*Unit: J kg−1 K−1 1g of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C

MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY(C) * 1 calorie = 4.186 J

* it is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a substance by 1K. * The specific heat capacity of water is
1 ΔQ
−1
4186 J kg K
−1
( to raise from 14.5 °C to
s= μ
ΔT 15.5 °C)
*Unit: J mol K
−1 −1

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Relation between C P and CV (Mayer’s of 'dQ'. Hence C P is greater than CV .
relation)
C P−C V =R THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Proof (1) QUASI-STATIC PROCESS
* From first law of thermodynamics
Δ Q=Δ U +P Δ V
We consider 1 mole of ideal gas
If ∆Q heat is absorbed at constant
volume, ∆V = 0
Then , CV = [ ] [ ] [ ] .......(1)
ΔQ
=
ΔU
=
ΔU
ΔT V ΔT V ΔT
The subscript 'v' can be dropped since U of an
ideal gas depends only on T.
Similarly
C P=
[ ] [ ] [ ]
ΔQ
=
ΔU
ΔT P ΔT P
+P
ΔV
ΔT P
.......(2)
It is a process in which a thermodynamic
system proceeds extremely slowly such that at
The subscript 'p' can be dropped from the
first term since U of an ideal gas depends only every instant of time, the temperature and
on T. pressure are the same in all parts of the
system.
So C P=
ΔQ
[ ] [ ] [ ]
=
ΔT P ΔT
ΔU
+P
ΔV
ΔT P
.......(3) Example
Consider a container of gas with volume V,
pressure P and temperature T. If we add sand
Now, for a mole of an ideal gas
particles one by one slowly on the top of the
PV =RT ................(4)
piston, the piston will move inward very
Differentiating w.r.t. temperature (at constant
slowly. This can be taken as almost a quasi-
pressure)
static process. It is shown in the figure

(4)=> P [ ]
ΔV
ΔT P
=R ...........(5) (2) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
A process in which the temperature remains
Sub (5) in (3) constant but the pressure and volume of the
(3)=> C P= [ ]
ΔU
ΔT
+ R ..........(6) thermodynamic system will change.

The ideal gas equation is PV =μRT

(6) – (1) => C P−C V =R
NOTE
C P is greater than CV . Why?
When one mole of the gas is heated at
constant volume, the heat is used only to
increase the internal energy of the gas. But
when the gas is heated at constant pressure,
the heat is used not only for increasing the
internal energy but also for doing external
work during expansion. So internal energy
change and hence the temperature change will
be more at constant volume for same amount So for an isothermal change P1 V 1=P 2 V 2
Examples:
(i)When water is heated, at the boiling point,
even when heat flows to water, the
temperature will not increase unless the water
completely evaporates. Similarly, at the
freezing point, when the ice melts to water, the
temperature of ice will not increase even when
heat is supplied to ice.
(ii) All biological processes occur at constant
body temperature (37°C).
Equation of state for isothermal process
PV =Constant .............(1)

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PV Diagram for isothermal process =207.75 kPa
V2
(ii) W =μ RT ln ( )
V1
6 x 10−3
W =0.5 x 8.31 x 300 ln ( )
2 x 10−3
= 1.369 kJ

(3) ADIABATIC PROCESS

Work done during isothermal process * A process in which no heat flows into or out
Consider an ideal gas which is allowed to of the system (ΔQ=0).
expand isothermally at constant temperature, * The system is insulated with an adiabatic
T from initial state (P1,V1) to the final state wall or
(P2 ,V2). * If the process occurs so quickly that there is
Then the work done, dW =PdV no time to exchange heat with surroundings
even though there is no thermal insulation.
V 2 Examples
The total work done , W =∫ P dV .......(2) (i)When the tyre bursts the air expands so
V 1 quickly that there is no time to exchange heat
μ RT with the surroundings.
But we know PV =μ R T (or) P=
V (ii)propagation of sound through air.
Substitute this in(1) , Equation of state for adiabatic process
V V
μ RT 1
2 2

(2) => W =∫ ( ) dV =μ RT ∫ ( )dV

V V CP
V 1 V 1
PV γ =Constant ...........(5)where γ=
CV
=> W =μ RT [lnV ]VV =μ RT (ln V 2−lnV 1 )
2

1
(or) T V γ−1=Constant .............(6)

V (or) P
1−γ
T =Constant ............(7)
γ
=> W =μ RT ln ( 2 ) .............(3)
V1
Work done during an adiabatic process
V2
for an isothermal process P1 V 1=P 2 V 2 =>
W =∫ P dV ............(8)
V 2 P1 V1
=
V 1 P2 For an adiabatic process PV γ =Constant=K
P1 K
So W =μ RT ln( ) .............(4) (Or) .................(9)
P=
P2 Vγ
V
K
2

Sub (9) in (8) => W =∫ ( γ ) dV

Problem 2 V
V 1

A 0.5 mole of gas at temperature 300K V2 V2

[ ]
−γ+1

expands isothermally from an initial volume => W =K ∫ ( 1γ )dV =K V

V V −γ +1 V
of 2 L to 6 L. (Given The value of gas 1 1

K −γ+1 −γ+1
constant, R = 8.31 J mol -1K-1) => W = [V 2 −V 1 ] ..............(10)
1−γ
(i) What is the fi nal pressure of the gas?
But we know K=constant=P1 V γ1 =P 2 V 2γ
(ii) What is the work done by the gas?
Solution
(i)For an isothermal process Therefore(10)=>
1 γ −γ+1 γ −γ+1
P1 V 1=P 2 V 2=μ R T W= [P V V −P 1 V 1 V 1 ]
1−γ 2 2 2
μ RT 0.5 x 8.31 x 300
Therefore P2= =
V2 6 x 10−3

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 1 (4) ISOCHORIC PROCESS
=> W= [P V −P1 V 1]
1−γ 2 2 * In an isochoric process, V is constant.
* Thus work done on or by the system is zero.
1 * The heat absorbed by the gas goes entirely
=> W= [μ RT 2 −μ RT 1 ]
1−γ to change its internal energy and its
temperature
μR
=> W= [T −T 1 ]
1−γ 2
μR
=> W= [T −T 2 ]
γ−1 1

Problem3: Draw the indicator diagrams for

isothermal and adiabatic processes.

(5) CYCLIC PROCESS

* A process in which the system returns to its
initial state after undergoing a series of
changes.
* Therefore Δ U =0 for a cyclic process
Note : that adiabatic curve is steeper than * Then by first law Δ Q=Δ W
isothermal curve. Th is is because γ > 1
always. PV diagram for a cyclic process ( Example)

(3)ISOBARIC PROCESS
* A process in which pressure remains
constant.
Equation of state for an isobaric process
P=Constant
From the ideal gas equation, we have
PV =μ R T
μR
Or V= T or V αT
P
ie, In an isobaric process the temperature is
directly proportional to volume.
Work done during an an isobaric process * The P - V diagram for cyclic process will be
V2 V2 closed loop and area of this loop gives work
W =∫ P dV => W =P ∫ dV done or heat absorbed by system.
V1 V1
V2
=> W =P [V ] V! => W =P [V 2−V 1 ] REVERSIBLE PROCESSE
A thermodynamic process can be considered
reversible only if it can be reversed such that
both the system and surroundings return to
their initial states, with no other change
anywhere else in the universe.
Conditions for reversible process:
1) The process should proceed at an extremely

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slow rate.
2) No dissipative forces such as friction, the cold reservoir is the surroundings at room
viscosity, electrical resistance should be temperature. The automobile ejects heat to
present these surroundings through a silencer.
HEAT ENGINE
Heat engine is a device which takes heat as
input and converts this heat in to work by
undergoing a cyclic process.
A heat engine has three parts:
1. Hot reservoir
2. Working substance
3. Cold reservoir
Schematic diagram
1. Hot reservoir (or) Source:
* It supplies heatto the engine. It is always
maintained at a high temperature T H
2. Working substance:
* It is a substance like gas or water, which
converts the heat supplied into work.
* The working substance absorb Q H heat
from the source ( temperature T H ) and reject
Q L heat to the sink ( temperature T L) after
doing work W.
A simple example of a heat engine is a
steam engine. The working substance in these
is water which absorbs heat from the burning
of coal. The heat converts the water into
steam. This steam is does work by rotating the
wheels of the train
3. Cold reservoir (or) Sink: The heat engine
ejects some amount of heat (Q L ) into cold
reservoir after it doing work. It is always
maintained at a low temperature T L .
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For example, in the automobile engine,
Efficiency of heat engine (η)
output W Q H −Q L Q
η= = = =1− L
input Q H QH QH
Q
ie, η=1− L
QH
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Kelvin-Planck statement:
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that
operates in a cycle, whose sole effect is to
convert the heat completely into work. This
implies that no heat engine in the universe can
have 100% efficiency.
Clausius statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the
transfer of heat from a colder object to hotter
object.
Problem 3
According to first law of thermodynamics, in
an isothermal process the given heat is
completely converted into work (Q = W). Is it
a violation of the second law of
thermodynamics?
Solution
No. For non-cyclic process like an isothermal
expansion, the heat can be completely
converted into work. But Second law of
thermodynamics implies that ‘In a cyclic
process only a portion of the heat absorbed is
converted into work’. All heat engines operate
in a cyclic process.
CARNOT’S IDEAL HEAT ENGINE
* A reversible heat engine operating in a cycle
between two temperatures in a particular way
is called a Carnot Engine.
* The carnot engine has four parts
1) Source:
It is the source of heat maintained at constant
high temperature T H . Any amount of heat can
be extracted from it, without changing its
SOHSS AREEKODE
temperature. Step 3: Isothermal compression of the gas
2) Sink: from (P3 ,V 3 , T L ) to ( P4 , V 4 , T L ) on placing
It is a cold body maintained at a constant low the cylinder on the sink.
temperature T L . It can absorb any amount of * The work done by the gas during this
heat. process,
3) Insulating stand: V4 V
It is made of perfectly non-conducting W C → D=μ R T L ln ( )=−μ R T L ln( 3 ) .....(3)
V3 V4
material. Heat is not conducted through this
Step 4 : Adiabatic compression of the gas
stand. from (P4 , V 4 , T L ) to (P1 ,V 1 , T H )
4) Working substance:
* The work done by the gas during this
It is an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with
process,
perfectly non-conducting walls and perfectly
μR −μ R
conducting bottom. A non-conducting and W D→ A= [T H −T L ]= [T −T H ] ....(4)
γ−1 γ−1 L
frictionless piston is fitted in it

Carnot’s cycle: The total work done (W)

W =W A →B +W B →C +W C→ D +W D → A
The working substance is subjected to four
successive reversible processes forming
V V
Carnot’s cycle. => W =μ R T H ln ( 2 )−μ R T L ln ( 3 ) .....(5)
V1 V4

Since B and C lie on same adiabatic

T H V γ−1 γ−1
2 =T L V 3

T L V 2γ−1
=> = ..............(6)
T H V 3γ−1

Since A and D lie on same adiabatic

γ−1 γ−1
T H V 1 =T L V 4
T L V 1γ−1
= ..............(7)
T H V 4γ−1
Comparing (6) and (7)
V 2 V1 V 2 V3
= => = ..........(8)
V3 V4 V 1 V4
Step1 : Isothermal expansion of the gas from
(P1 ,V 1 , T H ) to ( P2 ,V 2 , T H ) by absorbing a Substitute (8) in (5)
V V
heat Q H from the source at TH K. (5) => W =μ R T H ln( 2 )−μ R T L ln( 2 )
V1 V1
* The work done by the gas during this
process, V
=> W =μ R ln ( 2 )[T H −T L ] ...........(6)
V2 V1
W A → B=Q H =μ R T H ln( ) .............(1)
V1
Step 2 :Adiabatic expansion of the gas from Efficiency of Carnot engine (η)
(P2 ,V 2 , T H ) to (P3 ,V 3 , T L ) by placing
work done W
cylinder on insulating stand. η= = =>
heat absorbed Q H
* The work done by the gas during this
V
process, μ R ln( 2 )[T H −T L ]
V1 [ T H −T L ]
μR η= => η=
W B→ C = [T −T ] ...............(2)
L H V2 TH
γ−1 μ R T H ln( )
V1

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 TL the cold reservoir at temperature T 2, some
=> η=1−
external work W is done on it and heat Q H is
TH
NOTE rejected to the hot reservoir at temperature TH.
1) η is always less than 1 because T L is less Coefficient of performance (COP) (α)
than T H . This implies the efficiency cannot be Q QL
α= L =
100%. It can be 1 or 100% only when W Q H −QL
T L = 0K (absolute zero of temperature) which
is impossible to attain practically. HEAT PUMPS
2) The efficiency of the Carnot’s engine is The device used to pump heat into a portion of
independent of the working substance. It space (to warm-up room) is called heat pump.
depends only on the temperatures of the Coefficient of performance (COP) (α)
source and the sink. Q
α= H
3) The entire process is reversible in the W
Carnot engine cycle. So Carnot engine is itself
a reversible engine and has maximum
efficiency. But all practical heat engines like Problem 4
diesel engine, petrolengine and steam engine There are two Carnot engines A and B
have cycles which are not perfectly reversible. operating in two different temperature regions.
So their efficiency is always less than the For Engine A the temperatures of the two
Carnot efficiency. This can be stated in the reservoirs are 150°C and 100°C. For engine B
form of the Carnot theorem. the temperatures of the reservoirs are 350°C
and 300°C. Which engine has lesser
Carnot theorem. efficiency? ( Do yourself)
‘Between two constant temperature reservoirs, Problem 5
only Carnot engine can have maximum One mole of an ideal gas initially kept in a
efficiency. All real heat engines will have cylinder at pressure 1 MPa and temperature
efficiency less than the Carnot engine’ 27°C is made to expand until its volume is
doubled.
REFRIGERATOR (a) How much work is done if the expansion is
A refrigerator is a heat engine working in the (i) adiabatic (ii) isobaric (iii) isothermal?
reverse order (b) Name the processes in which the heat
transfer is maximum and minimum.
Solution
(a) Do yourself
(b)In an adiabatic process no heat enters into
the system or leaves from the system. In an
isobaric process the work done is more so heat
supplied should be more compared to an
isothermal process.

The working substance extracts heat Q L from

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 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
KINETIC THEORY
13.1 INTRODUCTION
* Developed by – Maxwell , Boltzman and
others in 19th century.
* Kinetic theory relates pressure and
temperature to molecular motion of sample of
a gas .
* It is a bridge between Newtonian mechanics
and thermodynamics.
13.2 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
* Gases at low pressure and high temperature
approximately satisfy the relation PV = NK BT
= µRT. Such gases are ideal gases.
(P- Pressure, V- Volume, N-Total no of
molecules in the sample, KB- Boltzman
constant , T- Temperature in kelvin , µ – no of
moles, R- Universal gas constant.
KB= 1.38 x 10-23 J/K R = 8.31 J mol-1K-1).
Fig 1; A real gas approaches ideal gas at high
temperature and low pressure.
13.3 POSTULATES OF KINETIC THEORY
OF GASES
1. All the molecules of a gas are identical,
elastic spheres.
2. The molecules of different gases are
different.
3. The number of molecules in a gas is very
large and the average separation between them
is larger than size of the gas molecules.
4. The molecules of a gas are in a state of
continuous random motion.
5. The molecules collide with one another and
also with the walls of the container.
6. These collisions are perfectly elastic so that
there is no loss of kinetic energy during
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @
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collisions.
7. Between two successive collisions, a
molecule moves with uniform velocity.
8. The molecules do not exert any force of
attraction or repulsion on each other except
during collision. The molecules do not possess
any potential energy and the energy is wholly
kinetic.
9. The collisions are instantaneous. The time
spent by a molecule in each collision is very
small compared to the time elapsed between
two consecutive collisions.
10. These molecules obey Newton’s laws of
motion even though they move randomly.
13.4 PRESSURE EXERTED BY A GAS
( KINETIC INTERPRETATION)
Consider a monatomic gas of N molecules
each having a mass m inside a cubical
container of side L .
The molecules of the gas are in random
motion. They collide with each other and also
with the walls of the container. The molecules
of the gas exert pressure on the walls of the
container due to collision on it. During each
collision, the molecules
impart certain momentum to the wall. Due to
transfer of momentum, the walls experience a
continuous force. The force experienced per
unit area of the walls of the container
determines the pressure exerted by the gas.
* A molecule of mass m moving with a
velocity v having components (vx , vy ,vz ) hits
the right side wall. Since we have assumed that
the collision is elastic, the particle rebounds
with same speed and its x-component is
reversed. This is shown in the Figure. The
components of velocity of the molecule after
collision are (-vx , vy , vz ).
SOHSS AREEKODE
* The change in momentum of the molecule= * Therefore The mean square speed is written
–mvx – (mvx ) = – 2mvx as
v 2=v 2x + v 2y +v 2z=3 v 2x
* According to law of conservation of linear * Hence pressure P is
momentum, the change in momentum of
the wall = 2mvx 1 2 1N 2
P= n m v or P= m v .............(1)
3 3V
* In a small time interval Δt, a molecule with N
x-component of velocity vx will hit the wall as n=
V ( )
if it is within the distance vx Δt from the NOTE
wall. (see fig below) 1.Number density( n) : It implies that if the
number density increases then pressure will
* The maximum increase. For example when we pump air
number of molecules inside the cycle tyre or car tyre essentially the
that will hit the right number density increases and as a result the
side wall in a time pressure increases.
interval ∆t = nA vx Δt 2.Mass of the molecule : Since the pressure
where n= N/V arises due to momentum transfer to the wall,
But, on the average, larger mass will have larger momentum for a
half of these are fixed speed. As a result the pressure will
moving towards the increase.
wall and the other half away from the wall. (ie, 3.Mean square speed : For a fixed mass if we
nAvxΔt /2 molecules only hit the wall) increase the speed, the average speed will also
increase. As a result the pressure will increase.
* The total momentum transferred to the 4. Pressure of a Mixture Of Non- reactive
wall by these molecules in time Δt is Gases:
For a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases, the
n
Δ P= A v x Δ t (2 m v x )=A v 2x mn Δ t total pressure gets contribution from each gas
2
in the mixture. Ie, P=P1 + P2 + P3 ...............
* The force exerted by the molecules on the
13.5 KINETIC INTERPRETATION OF
wall (Newton's second law) is TEMPERATURE
ΔP 2
1 1N
F= =n m A v x 2
P= n m v (or) P=
2
m v ..............(2)
Δt 3 3V
* Therefore pressure , P is
F 2
1
P= =n m v x ie, 2
PV = N m v ...............(3)
A 3
* Since all the molecules are moving Comparing (3) with ideal gas equation
completely in random manner, they do not PV =N k B T ,
have same speed. So we can replace the term
2
v 2x by v x 1 1
(3)=> N k B T = N m v 2 => 2
Therefore pressure P is P=n m v 2x k B T = mv
3 3

* Since the gas is assumed to move in random Multiply the above equation by 3/2 on both
direction, it has no preferred direction 3 1 2
sides k BT = m v
of motion. It implies that the molecule has 2 2
same average speed in all the three direction. This is the average kinetic energy of a single
So v 2x =v2y =v 2z molecule (ε).

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 3 square speed is defined as the square root of
ie, KE=ϵ= k B T
2 the mean of the square of speeds of all
* By multiplying the total number of gas molecules. It is denoted by vrms..
molecules with average kinetic energy of each 3k T
mean square speed , v 2= B
molecule, the internal energy of the gas is m
obtained. Therefore ,
That is the Internal energy of ideal gas

1 3
3 k BT
root mean square speed , v=v rms =
√ m

√ 3 kB T
√
2
U=N ( m v ) (or) U= N k B T 3 RT
2 2 ie, v rms = =
m M
Where m – mass of the molecule , M – molar
3
(or) U= μ RT mass of the molecule.
2
Impact of v rms in nature : Moon has no
NOTE
atmosphere: The escape speed of gases on the
The average kinetic energy of each molecule
surface of Moon is much less than the root
depends only on temperature of the gas not on
mean square speeds of gases due to low
mass of the molecule. In other words, if the
gravity. Due to this all the gases escape from
temperature of an ideal gas is measured using
the surface of the Moon.
thermometer, the average kinetic energy of
2. Mean (or) average speed (v):It is defined
each molecule can be calculated without
as the mean (or) average of all the speeds of
seeing the molecule through naked eye.
molecules
If v 1 , v 2 , v 3 .......... v n are the individual speed
13.6 RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE
AND INTERNAL ENERGY of the molecules. Then
The internal energy of the gas is given by
3
U= N k B T
2
v + v +v +.......... v n
v= 1 2 3
N
=
√
8 kB T
=
8 RT
πm √ πM

3 3.Most probable speed (vmp ):It is defined as

( Or) U= PV
2 the speed acquired by most of the molecules of
the gas.
2U 2
(Or) P= = u
3V 3 v mp =
√ 2 k BT
m
=
√2 RT
M
ie, The pressure of the gas is equal to two thirds
of internal energy per unit volume (U/V=u) 4. Mean Free Path (λ) : It is the average
distance travelled by the molecule between
13.7 RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE AND two successive
AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY collisions.

1 2 1N 2 1 2 Expression for Mean Free Path

We know P= n m v = mv = ρ v
3 3V 3 Consider a system of molecules each with
Multiply and divide R.H.S of equation by 2 , diameter d. Let n be the number of molecules
2 ρ 2 per unit volume.
We get P= ( v )
3 2 Assume that only one molecule is in
motion and all others are at rest as shown in
ie, pressure is equal to 2/3 of mean kinetic the Figure.
energy per unit volume.
13.8 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
1.Root mean square speed (vrms ): Root mean

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 v rms (Cl)
√
v rms ( Ar )
=
3 RT
M Ar
√ √
=
M Cl
M
=
70.9
39.9
=1.33

√ 3 RT
M Cl
Ar

* If a molecule moves with average speed v in 13.9 DEGREES OF FREEDOM (f)

a time t, the distance travelled is vt. The total number of co-ordinates or
* In this time t, consider the molecule to move independent quantities required to completely
in an imaginary cylinder of volume πd2vt. specify the position and configuration of a
* It collides with any molecule whose centre is system is called the
within this cylinder. degrees of freedom of that system.( OR it is
* Therefore, the number of collisions is equal the number of squared term in the expression
to the number of molecules in the volume of of total energy of a molecule)
the imaginary cylinder. It is equal to πd2vtn .
13.9.1 Degrees of freedom of a monatomic
* The total path length divided by the number molecule
of collisions in time t is the mean free path. A monatomic molecule has only three
translational degrees of freedom. The average
Distance travelled kinetic energy of a monatomic molecule is
Mean free path, λ=
Number of collisions 1 2 1 2 1 2
vt 1 given by KE= m v x + m v y + m v z
λ= = 2 2 2
2 2
n π d vt n π d
A more exact treatment gives So f =3 (total no of squared terms )
Eg: Helium, Neon, Argon
1
λ=
√2 n π d 2 13.9.2 Degrees of freedom of a diatomic
molecule
Problem1 (NCERT example 13.5) 1. At Normal temperature
A diatomic molecule at normal
A flask contains argon and chlorine in the temperature has 3 translational
ratio of 2:1 by mass. The temperature of the degrees of freedom + 2
mixture is 27 °C. Obtain the ratio of Rotational degrees of freedom.
(i) Average translational kinetic energy per moment of inertia about its
molecule of the two gases and own axis of rotation is
(ii) Root mean square speed v rms of the negligible (about y axis in the figure ).
molecules of the two gases. Therefore, it has only two rotational degrees of
(Atomic mass of argon = 39.9 u; Molecular freedom (one rotation is about Z axis and
mass of chlorine = 70.9 u.) another rotation is about X axis). Avg KE is
Solution given by
(i) Since argon and chlorine both have the 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
KE= m v x + m v y + m v z + I x ω + I y ω
same temperature in the flask, the ratio of 2 2 2 2 2
average translational kinetic energy (per
molecule) of the two gases is 1:1. So f = 5 (Total no of squared terms)

2.At High Temperature

(ii) We know v rms =
√
3 kB T
m
=
M √
3 RT
At a very high temperature such as 5000
K, the diatomic molecules possess additional
two degrees of freedom due to vibrational
The ratio of the rms speed of molecules,

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82
motion[one due to kinetic energy of vibration 13.11 APPLICATION OF LAW OF
and the other is due to potential energy]. EQUIPARTITION ENERGY IN SPECIFIC
So f = 7 HEAT OF A GAS
Eg: Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen 1) Monatomic molecule

13.9.3 Degrees of freedom of a Triatomic The average kinetic energy of a monatomic

molecules 3
molecule , KE= k B T
1. Linear triatomic molecule 2
At normal temperature f = 5 Therefore the total energy of a one mole gas,
At high temperature f=7 3 3
U= k B T N A => U= R T
Eg: Carbon dioxide. 2 2
2. Non Linear triatomic molecule
f=6 The molar specific heat at constant volume, CV
Eg: Water, Sulphur dioxide.

13.10 LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF

CV =
dU d 3
=
dT dT 2[ ] 3
RT = R
2
ENERGY
The average kinetic energy of system of 3 5
C P=C V + R= R+ R= R
molecules in thermal equilibrium at 2 2
temperature T is uniformly distributed to all
degrees of freedom so that each degree of The ratio of specific heats,
1
freedom will get k T of energy. Thus 5
2 B R
*The Average kinetic energy of a monatomic CP 2 5
γ= = = =1.67
molecule (with f=3) CV 3 3
R
1 3 2
= 3 x k BT = k T
2 2 B
2)Diatomic molecule
*The average kinetic energy of a diatomic The average kinetic energy of a diatomic
molecule at low temperature (with f = 5) 5
molecule at low temperature, KE= k B T
1 5 2
= 5 x k BT = k BT Therefore the total energy of one mole of gas ,
2 2
*The Average kinetic energy of a diatomic 5 5
U= k B T N A => U= R T
molecule at high temperature (with f =7) 2 2
7
= k T The molar specific heat at constant volume, CV
2 B
*The Average kinetic energy of linear triatomic
molecule at low temperature (with f = 5)
5
CV =
dU d 5
=
dT dT 2[ ] 5
RT = R
2
= k T
2 B
5 7
*The Average kinetic energy of linear triatomic C P=C V + R= R+ R= R
2 2
molecule at high temperature (with f = 7)
7
= k T The ratio of specific heats,
2 B
*The Average kinetic energy of a non linear 7
triatomic molecule at high temperature CP 2 R 7
6 γ= = = =1.40
(with f = 6) = k T CV 5 5
2 B R
2

Similarly Energy of a diatomic molecule at

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 5 13.13 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN SPEED
high temperature , U= R T
2 DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
The molar specific heat at constant volume, CV To find how many gas molecules have the
range of speed from to v + dv. This is given by
CV =
dU d 7
=
dT dT 2 [ ] 7
RT = R
2
Maxwell’s speed distribution function.

7 9
C P=C V + R= R+ R= R
2 2

The ratio of specific heats, The above expression is graphically shown as

follows
9
CP 2 R 9
γ= = = =1.28
CV 7 7
R
2

3)Triatomic molecules
Do yourself for linear and for non linear
molecules

13.12 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

SOLIDS
*Consider a solid of N atoms, each vibrating
about its mean position.
*An oscillation in one dimension has It is clear that, for a given temperature the
1 number of molecules having lower speed
average energy of 2× k B T =k B T
2 increases parabolically but decreases
*In three dimensions, the average energy is exponentially after reaching most probable
1 speed.
6 × k B T =3 k B T
2 The rms speed, average speed and most
*For a mole of solid, N = NA probable speed are indicated in the Fig. It can
Therefore total energy , U=3 N A k B T =3 R T be seen that the rms speed is greatest among
the three. The area under the graph will give
*Now at constant pressure the total number of gas molecules in the
ΔQ=ΔU + PΔV = ΔU system
(since for a solid ΔV is negligible)
PROBLEMS
ΔQ ΔU
Hence C= = =3 R
ΔT ΔT 1)A room contains oxygen and hydrogen
molecules in the ratio 3:1. The temperature of
13.13 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF the room is 27°C. The molar mass of 02 is 32 g
WATER mol -1 and for H 2 is 2 g mol -1 . The value of
We treat water like a solid. For each atom gas constant R is 8.32 J mol -1 K -1. Calculate
average energy is 3 k B T . Water molecule (a) rms speed of oxygen and hydrogen
has three atoms, two hydrogen and one molecule
oxygen. (b) Average translational kinetic energy per
So U= 3 x 3NAkBT=9RT oxygen molecule and per hydrogen molecule
and C=9 R (c) Ratio of average internal energies of

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84
oxygen molecules and hydrogen molecules No of molecules of H2=1000/2 x 6.023 x 1023
Soln) (a) So No of H2 molecules > No of H2
Oxygen molecules

(b)From ideal gas equation we can say

PV = nRT
P = nRT/V
so here pressure of the gas directly
Hydrogen proportional to its number of moles because
temperature and volume is same here in both
containers.
so pressure of hydrogen gas will be more

iii) RMS speed of the gas is given as

(b)The average translational kinetic energy per

molecule is 3/2KBT. It depends only on
absolute temperature of the gas and is So vrms of Hydrogen > vrms of Nitrogen
independent of the nature of molecules. Since
both the gas molecules are at the same
temperature, they have the same average
kinetic energy per
molecule.

(c) The internal energy of total oxygen

3
molecules = N k T
2 O B
Average kinetic energy of total hydrogen
3
molecules = N k T
2 H B
It is given that the number of oxygen
molecules is 3 times more than number of
hydrogen molecules in the room. So the ratio
of internal energy of oxygen molecules with
internal energy of hydrogen molecules is 3:1

2) Two vessels of the same size are at the same

temperature. One of them holds 1 kg of N 2 gas.
(molar weight 28g) and the other contains 1kg of
hydrogen (molar weight 2g)
(a) Which of the vessels contains more molecules?
(b) Which of the vessels is under greater pressure
and why?
(c) In which vessel is the average molecular speed
greater? How many times is it greater?

Soln) (a) No of moles of N2=1000/28

No of moles of H2=1000/2
No of molecules of N2=1000/28 x 6.023 x 1023

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 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
OSCILLATIONS Displacement Variable
The physical quantity which changes with
time in a Periodic motion is called
PERIODIC MOTION displacement Variable or displacement.
* Any motion, which repeats itself in regular Examples
interval of time, is called a periodic motion. * For an oscillating simple pendulum - the
Examples angle from the vertical is the displacement.
* Hands in pendulum clock * Propagation of sound wave - pressure
* Swing of a cradle variation is the displacement.
* The revolution of the Earth around the Sun * Alternating current – Voltage or current is
* Waxing and waning of Moon, etc. the displacement.
* Vibration of tuning fork
Types of periodic motion SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
1) Rotatory motion * Simple harmonic motion is a special type of
Particle completes the rotation in regular oscillatory motion in which there is a restoring
interval of time force acting on the particle which is directly
Example : The revolution of the Earth around proportional to its displacement from a fixed
the Sun point and is always directed towards
2) Oscillatory motion that fixed point.
The particle moves to and fro with less
frequency. Differential Equation for a simple harmonic
Example : Swing of a cradle motion
3) Vibratory motion Consider a particle vibrating to and fro about
the particle moves to and fro with large the origin of an x-axis between the limits –A
frequency. and +A as shown in figure .
Example : Vibration of tuning fork

Note
All oscillatory motion are periodic whereas all
periodic motions are need not be oscillatory.

Period ( T )
* The smallest interval of time after which the
motion is repeated is called its period.
* Unit : second Restoring force , F α – x ..............(1)
Frequency ( υ )
* Number of repetitions per second . Or F = - kx ...............(2)
1
υ=
T Where k – The spring constant
* Unit : hertz (Hz) From Newton's second law

Angular frequency ( ω ) d2 x
2π F=m ..............(3)
ω= or ω=2 π υ dt 2
T Comparing (2) and (3)

Do example 14.1 d2 x
m = -kx
dt 2

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 d2 x
m +kx =0 .................(4)
dt 2 x max=± A ...................(9)

d2 x k 2 ) Velocity (v)
Or + x=0 ...................(5)
dt 2 m Displacement of a particle executing SHM is
given by
k d2 x x= A sin ω t
Put =ω 2 , then =−ω2 x
m dt 2

dx d
Therefore, v = = ( A sin ω t)
dt dt
d2 x
(4) = > 2
+ ω2 x=0 ..............(6)
dt
=> v = A ω cos ω t ..........(10)
This is the differential equation for a SHM.
Or v = A ω √(1−sin2 ω t )
Solution of the equation

Or
x= A sin(ωt +ϕ)

x= A cos (ω t+ ϕ)
x2
=> v = A ω (1− 2 )
A √ = Aω
√
A2 −x2
A
2

=> v = ω √( A2 −x2 ) ..............(11)

Or x= A sin(ωt +ϕ)+ B cos (ω t+ ϕ)
* Maximum velocity
* All these are the solutions of the equation (6)
* ie, If we substitute The above equations in At x=0 , the mean position v = v max
(6) , the eqn (6) satisfies.
ie, v max = A ω .................(12)
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM
3) Acceleration (a)
1) Displacement in SHM
dv
acceleration , a=
* Displacement of a particle vibrating in SHM dt
at any instant is defined as its distance from
the mean position at that instant. From (10) v = A ω cos ω t
x= A sin( ωt +ϕ) .................(7)
d
Therefore a= ( A ω cos ω t )
Where x – Displacement dt
A – Amplitude
2
2π => a=−ω A sin ω t .................(13)
ω= - The angular frequency
T
ϕ - Initial phase => 2
a=−ω x ...................(14)

x= A sin( ωt +ϕ) - Phase of the motion * Maximum acceleration

* If the initial phase , ϕ=0 , the At x= ±A acceleration will be

displacement maximum.

x= A sin ω t ................(8) Ie, amax =±ω2 A ....................(15)

* Maximum displacement

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Variation of displacement, velocity and 1 2 2
=> K= k ( A −x ) .....................(17)
acceleration at different instant of time 2

t 0 T T 3T T Potential energy ( U )
4 2 4
ωt 0 π π 3π 2π
U= ∫ F ext dx
2 2 2

x 0 A 0 -A 0 => U= ∫ kx dx =k ∫ x dx =k x
2
Asinωt
v Aω 0 -Aω 0 Aω 1 2
=> U= kx .....................(18)
Aωcosωt 2
a 0 -Aω2 0 Aω2 0
1 2 2
2
-Aω sinωt Or U = k A sin ωt ..................(19)
2

Total energy ( E )

E=K+U

1 2 2 1 2
=> E= k ( A −x ) + kx
2 2

1 2
=> E= kA ...............(20)
2

Variation of KE (K) ,PE (U) and TE (E)

with the displacement

4) Energy in SHM
A particle executing simple harmonic motion
has kinetic and potential energies.
Kinetic energy ( K )

1 2 1 2
K= mv = m(A ω cos ω t) Variation of KE (K) , PE (U) and TE (E) at
2 2
different instant of time
1 2 2 2
=> K = m A ω cos ω t ..............(16)
2

1 2 2 k
=> K = k A cos ω t ( =ω 2 )
2 m
1 2 2
=> K = k A (1−sin ω t )
2
Note : The kinetic energy and potential energy
1 both repeat after a period T/2. The total energy
=> K = k ( A 2−A 2 sin2 ωt )
2 remains constant at all t or x.

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5) Time period of oscillation
k Projection of ⃗
A on y axis at time t ,
We know ω2=
m
Or ω=
√ k
m
=>
2π
T
=
√ k
m
y(t)=A sinθ = A sinωt ..........(24)

From (23) and (24) we can conclude that

=> T =2 π
√ m
k
...........(21)
a simple harmonic motion can be defined as
the projection of uniform circular motion on a
diameter of the circle.
6) Frequency of oscillation
1 EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE HARMONIC
ν=
T MOTION
ie, ν= 1
√
k
2π m
............(22)
1) Simple pendulum

7) Force ( F )
From equation (2) F = - kx

x 1
Slope = =
F k

* From the diagram T = mg cosθ

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND * ie, mg cosθ cancel with the tension T in
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION the string.
* Mg sinθ acts as the restoring force.
* Therefore the restoring torque,

τ = − mg sinθ x L ................(25)

Negative sign shows that force acts to

reduce θ.
We know τ = I α ...............(26)

Comparing (25) and (26)

I α =− mg L sinθ .................(27)
Consider a particle executing uniform circular
motion as shown in the diagram. If θ is small, sinθ ≈ θ (θ in radian)
From the diagram ,
Therefore (25) => I α =− mg L θ
Let OA = ⃗ A , The position vector of the
particle at time t −mgL
=> α= θ ................(28)
I
Projection of ⃗A on x axis at time t , But the moment of inertia of the bob is,
x(t)=A cosθ = A cosωt ..........(23)
similarly I =mL2

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Therefore α=
−mgL
θ Differential Equation for a damped simple
m L2 harmonic motion
Or
α=
−g
θ ..............(29) * Damping force (Fd) is proportional to
L velocity and opposite to the velocity
* That is, the angular acceleration of the ie ,
pendulum is proportional to the angular Fd = − b v ...............(32)
displacement θ but opposite in sign. Thus the
motion of a simple pendulum swinging * The restoring force F = − kx ...........(33)
through small angles is SHM.
* Period of simple pendulum * Total force , F = −bv − kx

−g dx
Comparing a=−ω2 x with α = θ Or F = −b − kx ................(34)
L dt
we get ω2=
g
L
=> ω= g
√ L
=>
2π
T
=
g
L √ According to Newton's second law,

√
2
L
ie, T = 2π ................(30) F = m d x2 ...............(35)
g dt
Comparing (35) and (36)
* Frequency
Note
υ=
1 g
2π L √
................(31)
m
d2 x
dt
2
dx
= −b − kx
dt
* Time period is independent of Mass of the
bob (m) , Amplitude of oscillations(θ) d2 x dx
depends only on length of the pendulum(L) => m 2 +b + kx=0 ...............(36)
dt dt
and acceleration due to gravity(g)
d 2 x b dx k
* Seconds pendulum => + + x=0
dt 2 m dt m
A pendulum whose period is 2s.
* Length of the second pendulum
d 2 x b dx 2
=> +ω x=0 ...............(37)
√
L 2
+
We know T = 2 π dt m dt
g
2
Therefore L= T g2 This is the differential equation for a damped
4π SHM.
22 x 9.8
For seconds pendulum L= = 1m
4 π2 Solution of the equation

2) Horizontal Oscillations of a block of x = A e −b t / 2m sin(ω! t+ ϕ)

mass attached to a spring.
Refer the above discussions Where A e −b t / 2m is the amplitude of the
oscillation.
DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC 1
MOTION Energy , E = k A 2 e− b t /m
2
* If the amplitude of oscillation continuously
decreases (due to dissipating forces like
frictional force ) is said to be damped simple
harmonic motion.
Also ω! =
√ k
−
b2
m 4 m2

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* Note * Tacoma Bridge in Washington was destroyed
Amplitude of oscillation is not constant but by resonance produced by wind.
decreases exponentially with time . Similarly
energy also decreases exponentially with time.
It is graphically shown below.
ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION

COMBINATIONS OF SPRINGS

1 . Series combination

FORCED OSCILLATIONS
* Any oscillator driven by an external periodic
agency to overcome the damping is known The effective spring constant , k s is given by
as forced oscillator or driven oscillator and the k1 k 2
k s=
oscillation is known as forced oscillation. k 1 +k 2

Differential Equation for forced oscillations 2 . Parallel combination

d2 x dx
m 2
+b + kx=F 0 sin ω d t .........(38)
dt dt
Where F0 - Amplitude of the driving force
ωd - Frequency of the driving force
Solution of the equation

x= A ! sin( ωd t+ ϕ) ..............(39) The effective spring constant , k s is given by

k s=k 1 + k 2
Where the amplitude,

F0
A != ..........(40)
√m (ω −ω ) +ω b
2 2 2 2
d
2
d
2

RESONANCE
* From (40) it is clear that the amplitude of the
oscillation will be maximum when ω=ωd

The phenomenon of increase in amplitude of

oscillations when the driving frequency is
close to the natural frequency of the oscillator
is called resonance.
Note
* Soliders are not allowed to march on a
bridge. This is to avoid resonant vibration of
the bridge.

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 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
WAVES

WAVE MOTION
* The propagation of disturbance which carries
energy and momentum from one point in space
to another point in space without the transfer
of the medium is known as a wave motion.
Types of waves
1. Mechanical waves
2. Non mechanical waves
PROGRESSIVE WAVES ( TRAVELLING
WAVES)
A wave which travels from one point of the
medium to another is called a progressive
wave or travelling wave.
[* See the appendix before proceeding further]

1. Mechanical waves DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN A

* Waves which require a medium for propaga - PROGRESSIVE WAVE
tion are known as mechanical waves.
*Ex : Sound waves , * A transverse wave travelling in the
Ripples formed on the surface of water, etc. positive x direction can be represented as:

2. Non mechanical waves y (x,t) = A sin (kx – ωt + ϕ ) .........(1)

* Waves which do not require any medium for
propagation are known as non-mechanical
waves.
* Ex : All electromagnetic waves (Radio
waves, micro waves , light ,etc.)
* Similarly A transverse wave travelling in the
negative x direction can be represented as:
y (x,t) = A sin (kx + ωt + ϕ ) .........(2)

TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES Note: The displacement , y (x,t) is a function

a) Transverse waves of x and t .
b) Longitudinal waves

a) Transverse wave
* In transverse wave motion, the constituents
of the medium vibrate about their mean
positions in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
* Ex : Harmonic wave travelling along a
stretched string.
2π 2π
Where, ω= and k= λ
T

Graphical representation of the wave

Let us graphically represent the two forms
of the wave variation
b)Longitudinal wave
* In longitudinal wave motion, the constituent (a) Space (or Spatial )variation graph
of the medium vibrate about their mean
positions in a direction parallel to the direction (b) Time (or Temporal) variation graph
of propagation
* Ex : Sound waves travelling in air

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(a) Space (or Spatial )variation graph the displacement of the wave at this instant
is
y(xʹ, tʹ) = A sin[k (x + ∆x)- ω (t + ∆t)] .......(7)

Since the shape of the wave remains the

same (i.e., the y- displacement of the point is a
constant), the phase of the wave remains
Graph of sinusoidal function y = A sin(kx) . constant.
By keeping the time fixed, the change in
displacement with respect to x is plotted. Ie, y(x',t') = y(x,t), which implies

From the graph , k (x + ∆x)− ω (t + ∆t)= k x− ω t = constant

y = A sin(kx) = A sin(k(x + λ))
= A sin(kx + k λ) ...........(3) => d( k x− ω t )= d(constant)
The sine function is a periodic function with => d( k x− ω t )= 0 => k dx – ω dt
period 2π. Hence, =0
y = A sin(kx + 2π) = A sin(kx) .........(4) dx
=> k dx = ω dt => =v= ω .....(8)
dt k
From (3) and (4) k λ = 2π
2 π /T λ
2π Or v= = =υ λ ..........(9)
Or k = λ rad/m ...........(5) 2 π/λ T

(b) Time variation graph Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched

string
T
v= μ √ .............(10)

Where, T – Tension in the string

mass of the string
μ=
Graph of sinusoidal function y =A sin(ωt). length of the string
By keeping the position fixed, the change in This relation can be derived using dimensional
displacement with respect to time is analysis( Do yourself)
plotted.
2π Do Example 15.3 NCERT
Time period is given by T= ω s
Speed of a Longitudinal Wave
THE SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE (Speed of Sound)
* The general formula for velocity of longitu-
dinal waves in a medium is given by
B
v= ρ √ ...............(11)

* The speed of longitudinal waves in a solid

bar is given by
The displacement of the wave at an instant t is
y(x,t) = A sin(k x− ω t) ..............(6)
At the next instant of time tʹ = t + ∆t the
Y
v= ρ √ ...............(12)

position of the point P is xʹ = x + ∆x. Hence,

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Note : Liquids and Solids have higher mass => P γ V γ−1 dV =−V γ dP
densities ( ρ ) than gases. But the
corresponding increase in the bulk modulus −V γ dP −V γ dP
=> P γ= γ−1 = γ =B
(B)of solids and liquids is much higher. This is V dV V dV /V
the reason why the sound waves travel faster in
solids and liquids ie, γ p=B , the bulk modulus
Medium Speed (m/s)
* Therefore velocity of sound is given by
Air ( 0 0C) 331
Air ( 20 0C) 343 v= √ γP
ρ ................(14)
Water ( 20 0C) 1482
* For air γ = 7/5. Now using (14) to estimate
Sea water 1522 the speed of sound in air at STP, we get a value
Steel 5941 331.3 m/s , which agrees with the measured
Aluminium 6420 speed.

THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

Speed of sound in a gas
OF WAVES
1. Newton’s formula
When a no. of waves meet at a particular point
*Newton assumed that when sound propagates
in a medium, net displacement at the point is
in air, the formation of compression and
the algebraic sum of the displacements due
rarefaction takes place in a very slow manner
to each wave.
so that the process is isothermal in nature.
y(x,t) = y 1 (x,t) + y 2 (x,t) + ..........
* For an isothermal process
P V = constant => d( P V )=0
Superposition of waves going in same
=> P dV + V dP =0 => P dV = −V dP
−VdP −dP
direction
=> P = => P= =B
dV dV / V
Consider two harmonic travelling waves on a
ie, P = B , the bulk modulus stretched string both having the same
* Therefore velocity of sound is given by frequency and same amplitude but with
different initial phase.
√P
v = ρ ................(13)
Let the waves are travelling along the positive
This is Newton's formula .
* When we calculate the velocity of sound in x-direction .
air at STP using the above formula, the So
obtained value is 280m/s, which is about 15% y 1 ( x , t)=A sin(kx −ωt )
smaller as compared to the experimental value
of 331 m/s. y 1 ( x , t)=A sin(kx − ωt+ ϕ)
* Laplace corrected this problem
Suppose they move simultaneously in a
Laplace formula ( Laplace correction) particular direction, then interference occurs.
*Laplace assumed that the process is adiabatic. According to superposition principle
* For an adiabatic process
PV γ =constant => d ( P V γ )=0 y= A sin( kx − ωt )+ A sin (kx −ωt +ϕ)

=> Pd V γ +V γ dP=0 => y= A [sin (kx −ωt )+sin( kx − ωt+ϕ)] .....(15)

=> P γ V γ−1 dV + V γ dP=0 We know

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 A+ B A−B closed end, is reflected with a phase reversal.
sin A +sin B=2 sin( )cos ( )
2 2
* ie, there will be a phase difference of π
So equation (15) becomes between the incident and reflected waves.
ϕ −ϕ * The incident wave ,
y= A [2 sin(kx − ωt + )cos ( )]
2 2 y i ( x ,t)=A sin(kx − ωt)
ϕ ϕ So the reflected wave,
=> y (x ,t )=2 Acos ( )[sin (kx −ωt + )] y r ( x , t)= A sin(kx +ωt +π)
2 2

*This is also a travelling wave in the positive Or y r ( x , t)=−A sin( kx+ ωt)
x-direction , with the same frequency and
wavelength. However, its initial
ϕ
phase angle is .
2
* The amplitude of the resultant wave is
ϕ
A (ϕ)=2 Acos ( ) ..............(16)
2
* Special cases
Case 1 : if ϕ=0 , the waves are in phase. (2) Reflection of wave at an open boundary
* A travelling wave ,at an open boundary is
ϕ ϕ reflected without any phase change.
y (x ,t )=2 Acos ( )[sin (kx −ωt + )]
2 2 * So the reflected wave is ,
And A (ϕ)=2 A y r ( x , t)= A sin(kx +ωt )

i.e, the resultant wave has amplitude 2a, the

largest possible value for A . This is the
constructive interference.

Case 2 : if ϕ=π , the waves are completely NOTE

out of phase. * For longitudinal wave there is no phase
change on reflection at a rigid boundary(closed
y ( x ,t )=0 and A (ϕ)=0 end of a pipe) and a phase change of π at an
open boundary ( Open end of a pipe)
ie, the resultant wave has zero displacement
everywhere at all times. This is the destructive STANDING WAVES AND NORMAL
interference. MODES

* When two waves of same amplitude and

REFLECTION OF WAVES
(1) Reflection of wave at a rigid boundary
* A travelling wave, at a rigid boundary or a
frequency travelling in opposite direction super
impose , the resulting wave pattern does not
move to either sides. This pattern is called
standing waves.
* To see mathematically , consider a wave
travelling along the positive x- direction and a
reflected wave of the same amplitude and

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wavelength in the negative x- direction. * Antinodes : The positions of maximum
Let the two waves are amplitude are called anti nodes
y 1 (x , t)=A sin(kx − ωt)
ie, sin kx=1 => kx=(2 n+1) π
2
And y 2 (x ,t)=A sin(kx+ ωt) 2π
=> π => x=( 2n+ 1) λ
λ x=(2 n+ 1) 2 4
By the principle of super position, the resultant
wave y (x, t) = y 1 (x, t) + y 2 (x, t) * The distance between two consecutive
anti node is also λ
=> y (x ,t )=A sin( kx − ωt)+ A sin (kx +ωt ) 2

=> y (x ,t )=A [sin(kx−ωt )+sin(kx+ ωt)] STANDING WAVES ON A STRETCHED

STRING
=> y (x ,t )=A [sin( kx−ωt )+ sin(kx + ωt)] Consider a string stretched between two
clamped ends. When string is plucked
kx−ωt + kx+ ωt stationary waves are produced. But string can
=> y (x ,t )=2 Asin ( )
2 vibrate only in some definite patterns. These
kx−ωt−kx−ωt patterns are called normal modes.
cos ( )
2

=> y (x ,t )=2 Asinkx cos (−ωt)

=> y (x ,t )=2 Asinkx cos (ωt ) ..............(17)

*Note that the resultant wave is not a travelling

wave since there is no term containing kx – ωt
or kx+ ωt

* The amplitude of the wave ,

A 12 ( x)=2 A sin kx ...........(18)

This is a function of x. That is the amplitudes

are different at different points.

* Nodes : The positions of zero amplitude in a

standing wave are called nodes.

ie, sin kx=0 => kx=n π

2π nλ
=> λ
x=n π => x=
First mode of vibration
2

λ1
Where n= 0, 1, 2, 3 .......... L= => λ 1=2 L
2
* The distance between two consecutive node Therefore frequency of vibration,
λ V V
is υ1= λ = .................(19)
2 1 2L

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This frequency is called fundamental
frequency or first harmonic

The fundamental frequency can also be

expressed in terms of 'T 'and 'μ' of the string
as
υ1= √
1 T
2L μ
................(20)
Second mode of vibration

L=λ2 => λ 2=L

Therefore frequency of vibration,

V V
υ2= λ = =2 υ1 .................(21)
2 L

This frequency is called second harmonic or

first overtone.

The second harmonic can also be expressed in

terms of 'T 'and 'μ' of the string as

υ2= √
1 T
L μ
..............(22)
Third mode of vibration

3 λ3 2L
L= => λ 3=
2 3
First mode of vibration
Therefore frequency of vibration,
λ1
V 3V L= => λ 1=4 L
υ3= λ = =3 υ1 .................(23) 4
3 2L
Therefore frequency of vibration,
This frequency is called third harmonic or
second overtone. V V
υ1= =
λ1 4 L
...............(25)
The third harmonic can also be expressed in
terms of 'T 'and 'μ' of the string as This frequency is called fundamental
υ3=
3 T
2L μ √ ..............(24) frequency or first harmonic.

The first harmonic can also be expressed in

STANDING WAVES IN A CLOSED PIPE terms of 'P 'and 'ρ' of the gas as
* A closed pipe means one end closed and
other end opened. A PVC pipe partially filled
with water is an example υ1= √
1 γP
4L ρ
..............(26)

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Second mode of vibration First mode of vibration
3 4L λ1
L= λ 2 => λ 2= L= => λ 1=2 L
4 3 2

Therefore frequency of vibration, Therefore frequency of vibration,

V 3V V V
υ2= = =3 υ1 ...............(27) υ1= λ = ..............(31)
λ2 4 L 1 2L

This frequency is called third harmonic or This frequency is called fundamental

first overtone. frequency or first harmonic.

The third harmonic can also be expressed in The fundamental harmonic can also be
terms of 'P 'and 'ρ' of the gas as expressed in terms of 'P 'and 'ρ' of the gas as

υ2=
4L ρ√
3 γP
..............(28) υ1=
1 γP
2L ρ √
..............(32)

Third Mode of vibration Second mode of vibration

5 4L L=λ2 => λ 2=L
L= λ 3 => λ 3=
4 5
Therefore frequency of vibration,
Therefore frequency of vibration,
V V
V 5V υ2= λ = =2 υ1 ..............(33)
υ3= = =5 υ1 ...............(29) 2 L
λ3 4 L

This frequency is called second harmonic or

This frequency is called fifth harmonic or
first overtone.
second overtone.
The second harmonic can also be expressed in
The third harmonic can also be expressed in
terms of 'P 'and 'ρ' of the gas as
terms of 'P 'and 'ρ' of the gas as

υ3=
5
4L √ γP
ρ ..............(30)
υ2=
1
L √ γP
ρ ..............(34)

Third mode of vibration

* For a closed pipe only odd harmonics
are present.
3 2L
L= λ3 => λ 3=
2 3
STANDING WAVES IN AN OPEN PIPE
Therefore frequency of vibration,

V 3V
υ3= = =3 υ1 ..............(35)
λ3 2 L

This frequency is called third harmonic or

second overtone.

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The third harmonic can also be expressed in ω1 t+ω 2 t ω t−ω2 t
s=2 Acos( ) cos( 1 )
terms of 'P 'and 'ρ' of the gas as 2 2

(ω1 +ω 2)t (ω −ω2)t

υ3=
3
2L √ γP
ρ ..............(36) => s=2 Acos
2
cos 1
2
*Note:
In a closed pipe only odd harmonics exist , But If |ω1 −ω2|≪ω1 ,ω 2 , then the variations in
in an open pipe odd and even harmonics exist. the cosine term with time is very small. So it
Due to this reason Open pipes are preferred to can be taken along with the amplitude.
closed pipes in musical instruments.
(ω1−ω2) t (ω + ω ) t
Therefore s=2 Acos cos 1 2
BEATS 2 2
When two waves of nearly same frequencies
and amplitudes travelling in the same (ω1 +ω2 )t
=> s= A ' cos Where A' is the
direction, superimposes each other and the 2
intensity of the resultant sound at a particular (ω1−ω2) t
position rises and falls regularly with time. amplitude , A '=2 Acos
2
This phenomenon is called beats.
The amplitude A' will be maximum when
( ω1−ω2 )t
cos =±1
2

(ω1−ω2) t 2nπ
=> =n π => t=
2 (ω1−ω2)

2n π n
=> t= => t=
(2 π υ1−2 π υ2) (υ1−υ2)

1 2
=> t=0, , ,............. .
(υ1−υ2) (υ1−υ2)

Expression for beat frequency Therefore time period of beat,

let us consider two harmonic sound waves of
1 1
nearly equal angular frequency ω 1 and ω 2 and T= −0=
fix the location x to be zero with an initial ( υ1−υ2) (υ1−υ2)
phase of π and assuming equal amplitudes
2 Therefore beat frequency,
Then,
s 1= A sin(−ω1 t+ π ) ..........(37) 1
2 υbeat= =(υ1−υ2)
s 2= A sin(−ω2 t+ π ) ..........(38) T
2
DOPPLER EFFECT
s=s1 +s2 =Acos ω 1 t+ Acos ω 2 t * The phenomenon of apparent change in
frequency due to the relative motion between
=> s= A (cos ω1 t+ cos ω2 t) the source of sound and the listener is known
Using the familiar trigonometric identity for as Doppler effect.
cos A + cos B, we get

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Expression for apparent frequency *Now the listener also moving in the same
direction in which the sound is moving .
*Consider a general case in which the source
of sound and the listener moving in a direction In this case the apparent frequency received by
of sound from the source to the listener. We the listener is given by
derive the general equation in 3 steps.
Let V −Velocity of sound Relative velocity of sound wrto listener
υΙ=
V S −Velocity of the source apparent wavelength
V L −Velocity of the listener
V −V L V −V L
ie, υΙ= => υΙ=
λΙ V −V S
υ

* First let's assume that the source and the V −V L

listener at rest , and the source is emitting a
(Or) υΙ=υ ( V −V S )
sound of frequency, υ . The sound moves Special Cases
with a velocity , V through the medium. 1. Source moves towards stationary listener
V
V L =0 , V S →+ ve , υΙ=υ ( V −V ) S

2.Source moves away from stationary

listener.
V
V L =0 , V S →−ve , Ι
υ =υ ( V +V S )
3. Listener moves towards stationary source
In this case the listener will receive the real V +V L
frequency of the source.
V
V S =0 , V L →−ve , Ι
υ =υ ( V )
Therefore λ= υ 4. Listener moves away from stationary
source
velocity of sound
(Or ) λ=
Noof waves receiving per second V S =0 , V L →+ ve , υΙ=υ ( V −V
V )
L

*Now suppose the source moves with velocity, 5. Both approaching each other
V +V L
V s towards the listener and because of this
motion of the source the wavelength get
V S →+ ve , V L →−ve υΙ=υ ( V −V S )
reduced ( ie , listener receives more number of 6.Both moves away from each other
waves per second) V −V L

Let λ Ι be the new wave length and is given

V S →−ve , V L →+ ve υΙ=υ ( V+VS )
Ι V −V s
by λ= υ

KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ S O H S S AREEKODE

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 APPENDIX

Problem 1 Further, we can take a = vt and v = π , and

4
Sketch y = x −a for different values of a.
sketching for different times t = 0s, t = 1s,
t = 2s etc., we once again observe that
Solution
y = sin(x−vt) moves towards the positive x-
direction. Hence, y = sin(x−vt) is a travelling
wave moving towards the positive x direction.
If y = sin(x+vt) then the travelling wave moves
towards the negative x-direction.

* Thus, any arbitrary function of type y =

f(x−vt) characterising the wave must move
towards positive x -direction and similarly,
This implies, when increasing the value
any arbitrary function of type y = f(x+vt)
of a, the line shifts towards positive
characterizing the wave must move towards
x- direction.
negative x-direction.
Note : if y = x – vt and v= 1 m/s , then
Problem 3
y=x–t
Check the dimension of the wave
This implies, when increasing the value
y = sin(x−vt). If it is dimensionally wrong,
of ' t ' (t=1s , 2s, 3s.......) the line shifts
write the above equation in the correct form.
towards positive x- direction with a velocity
1m/s.
Solution
we know that (x−vt) must be a dimensionless
Problem 2
quantity but x−vt has dimension.
How does the wave y = sin(x − a) for a = 0,
3π The correct equation is y = sin (k x−ωt), where
a= π , a= π , a= , a=π look like? k and ω have the dimensions of inverse
4 2 4
Sketch the waves of length and inverse of time respectively.
Solution

From the above picture we observe that the

function y = sin (x−a) shifts towards positive
x- direction for those values of 'a' .

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Prepared by

KAMIL KV
H S S T PHYSICS
S O H S S AREEKODE
MALAPPURAM (DT)
673639

Email : kamilkv@gmail.com

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