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+1 introduction
CoinPiter design

Chapter'1 : Introduction
1.1 Langu age Processors:
Language Processors are
1r PPPro0essor r f f' I I' t rf
' 2. ComPiler / InterPreter
3. Assembler
4. Loader / Linker
Preprocessor:

prograrn"

Structure

Source Progrtlm

'A
Fig: 1.1 PreProcessor
' $:'''

Compiler: :

in another language - the target language'

mnslate ii into an equivarent progftrm

prograrn that it detects during the translation process'

Source Progruun

Target Program

Fig: 1 .2 AcornPiler

*
& !

t"' ], Cornpiler design introduction

If the target program is an executable machine language program it can then be called by
the user to process inputs and produce outputs see fig 1.3.

input output.

l't I i .3 Running bf tdfget program

rS
:1

fnterpreter:
It is another common kind of language processor instead of producing a target prograrn as a
translation, an interpreter appears directly execute the operations specified in the source program
on the inputs supplied by the user as shown in fig 1.4.

Ss*fi gutX>u't
3n kr Pvt)<-t
'

--? (P,' t'u; e'r-!-u$tfrY't)

compiler is usually much faster than

an interpreter at mapping inputs to outputs.
a compiler, because it executes the
source prograp statement by statement.

Difference betrveen compiler and interpreter

SIno Compiler Interpreter

I Erecution of whole prcgrarn at a Execuiion of program line by iine
time
2. Program execution is relatively Program execution is slow
fast
3. It gives an error diagnostic It gives better error diagnostic
messages message compare to compiler.

Note: JAVA language processor combines both compiler and interpreter for the execution is
called Hybrid compiler, as shown in fig 1.5

gotlrCs ?'fifnn
'.lr ' v
YJ
arat's'lot'\ t;ffi-l*__2o,"r+"rh
,enLJSl Ma{hqel
-?oP^J;4\-----
v Fig: 1.5 A hybrid compiler.

f,
 introduction
Compiler design

source program may first be compiled into

an intermediate form called byte
> e ieve
codes.
a virtual machines'
) The b1'te codes are theh interpreted by
}Abenefitofthisafangementisthatbytecodescompiledononemachinecanbe
a nefwor k.
inlerpreted'on anothermachine perhaps. across
r ;"T'J#;ffi"$ ;#;'#;;ti;f ilBrs Called
br ifrpr'rts to output$ soite Java compilBrs Cal

into machine language immediately

t

Just_rn_time compiler, translate the byte codes

the input.
before they run the intermediate program to process

Assembler:
given as the input to the
The compiler produces an assembly code as the output, which is
assembler.

The assembler is a kind of translator which accepts assembly language as

the input and
produce relocatable machine code as its output is shown in the fig 1.6-

A T,b3 p, " cd4-

r',s

TnTo^
^ ^b @Y
figf.O*Assembler

Loaders and Linkers:

into a single file i.e. relocatable machine code is directly executable.

location in another file.

address are modified-

execution.

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 Compiler design introduction

Source progr4rn

!t ft -T +
Modified ssurce rt

Relocatabl'e machine code

Target machine code

Fig: 1 .7 Alanguage -Piocessing system

1.2 The structure of a comPiler

The compilation can be performed using two major parts of a compiler is'shown in fig
1.8 .

1. AnalYsis Part
2. SYnthesit
l*.
' ' l_ r_tsyntnesisl I
II r.g*4-{
--l
so*'. I
| e"avtit | | I
l-Tarsetl
noru*l
i-il--lll
-t
/
Fig 1.8 analysis and synthesis model.

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 introduction
Ccmpiler design

Analysis Modet: @iont end of compiler)

>' It breaks up the source program into constituent pieces and imposes a grammatical
structure on them.
F It tJren uses this structure to create an intermediate representation of the source program'
$ Il the anatysis plht dbrects that rhe $ur,$ program is eidrer (s) ntactically ilitformed or t
semantically unsound, then it must provide informative messages, so the user can take a
corrective action.
F This part also collects information about the source program and stores it in a data
stmcture called a symbol table. Which is passed along with the intermediale
representation to the synthesis part?
) Analysis part consists of4 sub parts. Such as
a. Lexical analYsis
' b. SYntax analYsis
c. Semantic analYsis
d. . Intermediate code generation.

Synthesis Modet: (Back end of a compiler)

the information in'the symbol table.

a. Machine independent code

b. Code generator
c. ivlachine dependent cocie generator-

Note: code optimization phases a^re an optional phases ( the purpose of this optimization phase is
to perform transformation on the intermediate representation, so tlrat the back end can produce a
better target program than it would have otherwise produced from an unoptimized intermediate
representation.) Since optimizationis optional, one or the other of the two optimiz-ation phases
shown in fig 1.9

F
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introduction
Compiler design

Lexical AnalYzer

rf Synta;< AnglYzer

Semantic AnalYzer

Syntax tree
lntermediate Code Generator

Machine Independent code Optimizer

Intermediate rePresentatron
Code Generator

Target machine'code

Machine DePendent Code OPtimizer

Target machine code

Fig 1.9 Phases of a ComPiler

Lexical AnatY zer z (Scanner)

groups the characters into meaning full sequence called lexemes'

form
{Token -name' attribute-value>
syntax analysis
- Token name: it is an absttact symbol that is used during
the token'
- Attribute value: it points to an entry in the symbol table for

generation.

s
 introduction
Compiler design

Functions of lexical analYzerz

by character
1. Lexical analyzetcollects the source program character
unit is called lexeme'
z; It clivides the so'rce progam into rneaning full
is called tokens'
It imposes a grammatical structure on each lexeme
3.
t4. lt stores the i"nfotmadon of the sourcd pr*fuam into symbcl
tatle I t rt
w-hite spaces (btanks, tabs and
5. Lexical analyzer is' used to remove comment lines,
newlines)-
6. Lexical anal wr also keeps track
. of line numbers which are helpful for location and

display of errors.
relo '}| 6a
pcri{-'on
lr:'ru" - = in'rral +
Ex: .t
Lerrca; 'Ana.\W
\,/
(ia,t7 1z 7
Syntax AnalYzer: (Parser)

analYsis. t

Functions of SYntax analYzer ' -

f . it collects the token as the input

operators and leaf nodes
Z. it constructs syntalr tree as output (Syntax tree: all root nodes are
are operands)
it recogrrizes the slmtactic errors and sends an eror messages to
user.
3.

<id,t7 1z) <id,z> <+7 1id' s

Ex:

i
t
*r)
.l,

. ./' -\-.L
<'d rt) .,.i ,/' \
{id,J> -60

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 introduction
Compiler design

Semantic'Ana lYzer:

code generation.
meaningfullY (tYPe
rf checkin$* f t I t It rt
Explicit- by user)
It perfiorms type conversion ( Implicit- by itself,
so the type conversion from int to float'
Ex : pos, rate and initial are real and 60 is an integer

ffiW o."tg W I

,r t,
.r'=\ '+|
1td,t7 ,l \
a,d,?>
"' ,# -t.\ ,
./
r 1'{ in'F tg{ge*
'; n
,

'drJ)
Intermediate Code gen€ration: 6O

easilY converted to target code'

code is close to the level of machine code'

t. Three address code

2. QuadruPle
3. SYntru< tree
Ex: .t ./'= \
<rd,tt> )+
,drZ>

v Lr; r'n.F .to .{+*t(6 6;

f,* 8 l-.^
-oa
-a id3.Xtl
-'-.' . .":'-
+:-* ";;''- -
':
i4, ,dZ*te I

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introduction
Compilei design

consists of a sequence of
a

we consider an intermediate form called 3- address code, rvhich

per instruction'
assembly like instructions with 3 operands

Code oPtimization:
a 1 -r
,, gThe machine r4depgndent co<ie-optlmizqtion phese attempts*tc improi'e
theiinterumediate
I
code so that better (faster) target cdde will result'

- less power.
z inrt-o ,tLgc,k L6o)
Lt
Ex: bzt i.rg* b I

Ll, i'dz * ba
idrz..b1
Csd,o
N1
-w
Lrz ,da * 6A, A
t-drz ,da *tr.

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Code Generation:

and maps it into the target language- :

each of the variables used by the progruun

performs the same task.

Ex: bt. ids )e6o.o

L'dr z ilUA *t t

J,
bcfu-
$enuoLoL

LDF R2, ids

M uiF Rr, Pr, #rc,O
LDtr R t, iola
Aopi: . $r"^ ?1, ?z
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 €ompiler design
introduction

Tri ::rl"::: _.r,_1f ?.n : ! :

-':rl::;i - :i:t " 5i
"Fj"*tl+n = ,/-
L*tfce!.{nah:*r

r@
l, Ct,de Geliereter
I
I

LTF F*:. F;
-".-:i-F F-l i:l =f* i
:-tF F.:. .I}:
.ittF Ri.*,. F_l
::F Di R.:
-s:= i+E $*t;:.t:' -

fig I .10: Translation of an assigmnent statement.

$ymbol Table Management:

for t}e athibutes of the narne.

and its scope.

nrrethod of passing each argument, ffid the type refurned.

name quiekly and to store or retrieve data from that record quickly.

The grouping of phases into passes:

Inplementation activities from several phases may be grouped together

into a passes that
reads an input file and writes an output fiie.

. Ex: Fronlt-end phases r j Lexical Analyzer

ll
2. Syntax Analyzer

3. Semantic Artalyzer

4. Intennediate code Generation

 introduction
Compiler design

optional phases l. Machine independent code optimization

2.Machine dependent code optimization

t *{
heneration * *
* r
i . #ark-e'd phasesf 1. Code

Compiler construction tools: - i

tools such as
dompiler writer Use a modem softrvare developrnent environment containing
tools
t*goug" editors, debugging, version managers, text harnesses other more sophisticated
have been creared to hetp the implemenlation of various phases of
compiler

The following are some of the conipiler construction tools

Parser Generator: That automatically produces syntax analyzer from a

grammatical
l.
description of a programming language'
2. Scanner generator: that produces lexical analyzer from a regular Expression t
description of the tokens ofa language'
3. Syntax directed, translation engine: it produces collections of routines for walking a

parse tree and generating intermediate code

4. Code genenator generators: that produces a code generator fiom a collection
of nrles
for translating each operation of the intermediate language into machine language for
a

urget machine:
hoe values
5. Data flow analyiis engine: that facilitates the gathering of information about
are transmitted from one part ofa program to other part'
6. Compiler construction toolkits: that provides an integrated set of routines for
-
constructing various phases ofa compiler'

1.3 The evaluation of programming langtrage:

l. Move to high level language

2. Impacts on compilers t

1.3.1 Move to High level language:

languages based on generation, commutation etc....

{q
 ' Co,rnpiler design introduction

Classification bY generation:

Itt generation: M/c language

2nd generation: Assembly level language

'# & 3'd generhtiof;r High levei lartgua$es iike C,C+-,.FA\,rA etc..- t t fq

4,h generation: Specific applications like NON4AD for report generation, SQL for data base
quefles.

5'h generation: Logic and constraint based languages like prolog and oops5-

Classification by comPutation

Imperative langu age: in which a program specifies how computation should be done

Ex: C, C#, Java etc. . ...

Declarative language: it specifies what computation is to be done

Ex: prolog.

The Von-Neumann'languege: it is applied to progftunming languages whose computational

model is based on Von-N:** computer architecture.

The object oriented languages: this supports object oriented programming

Ex: C++, Java etc.-

The Scripting Language: there are interpreted languages both high level languages
operators designed for "Gluing together" computation. Theses computations are called
scripts.

Ex: Jav4 PHP, Perl scriPts.

1.3.2 Impacts on compildrs:

representation to translate and support new language features. They have to desire new
translation algorithm that would take rnaximal advantage of the new hardware
capabilities.

F1 1)
 Compiler design
introduction

F The performance of a computer system is so derrendent on compiler tecbnology that

- computers are used as tool in evaluating architectural concept before a compiler is built.
. D Compiler writing is challenging, many modern language processing system handle
several source languages and target machines *.ithin some frarne work in collection of

+
comPilers.
-"--l t i r I
' . Millibns & fines of code ftay 6e there rn input?pro$am-
' 2. A compiler must translate conectly the infinite set of programs that could be
wdtlen in source language.

1.4 The science of building a compiler:

1.4.1 Modeling in compiler design and implementation:

. .. Study of compilers is a sttrdy of how we design the right mathematical models and
choose right algorithnis while balancing. The need'for generality arid power against simplicity
and effrciency some of the most fiudamenlal models are "Finite State Machines and Regular
Expressions" for Lexical units and 'context fiee Grammars" for syntactic units.

l.4.2The Science of Code Optimization r

Optimization in compiler desig! refers to attempts that a compiler makes to produces
' code that is more effrcient than obvious code is "optimization" there is no way that code
produced by a compiler can be guaranteed to bear fast or faster than any other code.

Code optimization must meet the following design objectives'

l. Optimization must be correct. That is preserves the meaning of the compiled program
2. Optimization must ipprove the perfomrance of many programs.
- . 3. Compilation time must be reasonable-
4. Engineering efiort required must be manageable.

1.5 Apptications of Compiler technology

Compiler design impacts several areas ofcomputer science. Such as

1. Implementation of High Level Programming Language-

' 2. Optimization for Computer Arghitecture
3. Design ofnew computer architecture
4. ProgramTranslations
5. Software Productivitv Tools

*
 Coinpi'ler design introduction

1.5.1 Implementation of High Level Programming Language

' Different Programming Languages suPports different levels of abstraction'

) C: Predominant progranming language in 1980's. In order to provide additional features

t . F, in 1p90 ptnitluced objeqt oi4nte<i programnqipg {nguage (C*=*lavE .. I

1. Data abstraction
2. Inheritance
3. Polyrnorphism.

they consist of many morer.but smaller, procedures-

been introduLed previously in other languages. Such as

1. Type-safe: that is, an object cannot be used as an object of unrelated type.

B
2. Boundary checking: All array accesses are checked to ensure that they tie within the
bounds of the affay.
3. Java has no t'ointers and does not allow pointer arithrnetie.
4. Java has built in garbage sollection facility: that automatically frees the memory of
the variables that dre no longer in use.
5. Java is designed to support portable and mobile code.

3.5,? Optimirattan for Computer Architecture

eompiler teehnologY.

1. Farallelisrn
Z. Fdemory hierarchy

Parallelism: It can be fomd at several levels

1. Instruction level Parallelism

2. Processor level Parallelism

tF
 Compiler design introduction

Instruction level Paratlelism: Where multiple operations are executed simultaneously. In this
the compilers arrange the instructions to make it very effective

' Ex: VLIW (Ver,v Long Instruction Word) machines.have the instructions that can issue multiple
optirnizations in parallel.
' r.tl"ssor level P'u."f"rism: where Jirr"r8rrt tlueads or Ju*. %pplication ur"u*rr'Ln rdifferent
processors.

Memory hierarchy: it consists of several levels of storage with different speeds and sizes, with
the level closest to the processor being fastest and smallest. Average memory access time is
reduced if most of its accesses are satisfied by faster levels of hierarchy.

large.

Cache containing kilobytes to megabyes, then primary memory containing megabytes to

gigabytes, and finally secondary storage that contains gigabytes and beyond.

1.5.3 Design of new comfruter architecture

In modem computer architecture development compilers are developed in processor

design stage, the different computers architecture are

I. SIC
2. SICDG
3. CISC
4. RISC
SIC: simplified instructional computer

SIC/XE: simplified instructional computer with extra equipment

CISC: complex instruction set computer

RISC: reduced instruction set computer, Computer optimization can rcduce the
instructions to a small number of simpler operations by eliminating the redundancy
across complex instructions. Most general processor architectures based on RISC are
Power PC, SPARC, ALPHA machines etc....

Specialized arehitecture: over the last 3 decades many architectural concepts have been
proposed, namely Dataflow machines, Vector machines, VLIW machines, SIMD affays
of processors, multi-processor with shared memory and multi processor with distributed
memory.
 introdr_rction
Compiler design

Conrpile technology is needed not only to support programnlmg fbr their architectures,
also to evaluate proposed architectural designs-

L.5.4 Program Trahslations e€,

t:G$*
Compiler technology can be appiied to translate between different kinds of languages.

1. Binary translation: Compilertechnology can be used to translate binary code of one

machine to that of another machine, used in companies to increase the availability of
softw'are for their machines-
2. Hardrvare Synthesis: Most software is nritten in High level languages; even
hardware design is mostly described in hardware level. Hardware description
languages are verilog, VHDL (Very high speed integrated circuit Hardware
D escription Language).
3. Data Base p**ry interpreter: besides software and hardware languages are useful
in many other applications.
Ex: SQL
4. Compiled simulation: Simutation is a general technique used in many scientific and
engineering disciplines to understand a problem or to validate a design, but they are
expansive. Therefore, instead of writing a sirnulator that interprets design, it is faster
to compile the design to produce machine code that simulate that particular design
compiled sirnulation can run faster.

1,5.5 Sofhvare Productivity tools

Software is efficient if it is error free, we can guarantee this by testing. An interesting

arld easy approach is to use dataflow analysis to locate statically, carl find errors among all
possible executian paths.

Several \ rays in which program analysis, build upon techniques was originally
developed to optitnize code.
1. Type checking: an effective and well established technique to catch
inconsisteneies in progrcms, it can be used to catch errors. It can be used to catch
vanely of security holes in program.
2- Boun$ checking: an'easier to make mistake in low level languages then High
\D
level languages. Ex: C does not have array bouncls check. f)ata flow analysis can
be used to locate buffer overflow.
3. Memory management tools: garbage Collection is an excellent example of
software reliability. Automatic mernory management removes all memory related
errors which are major problems in languages like C, C++.

F'
 introduction
Compiler design

1.6 Programming Language Basics

1.6.1 Static and dynamic distinction

f ciecisions ban *re cornpiier made a progia'r. * | tS

the language uies a static policy or that tire is'sue can be decided at cornpile
time. '

dynamic policy or to require a decision at run time.

the region of the program in which uses of x refers declaration. A language uses static
scope if it is possible to determine the scope of declaration by loading only at
the

program-

1.6.2 Environments and states

The association of narnes with locations in

memory and then with values can be
described by two mappings that change as the progfam mns'
variables
The environment: environrnent is mapping from names to locations in the store. Since
., refer to locations, we.would alternatively define an environment as a mapping from names to
variables. r
The state is a mapping from locations in store'to their values.

I,z--' .V
l.(variables) ^\
Names lo&tiond ^ values

Fig: t .1 1 Two stage mapping from names to values'

Environments change according to the scope rules of a language'

int i; /* globali*l

void f(......) {

int i; /* Ioca|i*l
Connpiler design introduction

i:3; /*use of local i */

+&- E. * * E | *

X-i+ 1 ; l* use of global i *I

Figl.l2 trvo declarations of the name i.

declared as a variable local to fi.rnctions f.

reserved for the i that is-local to f, and any use of i, such as the assignment i:3 shou'n
explicitly refers to that location.

to f,

The environrnent and state mappings are dynamic, but there are few exceptions

1. Static versus dynamic binding of names to locations: most binding of nanes to locations
is dynamic. $orne declarations such as the global i in the above fig can be given a
Iocation in the store once and for all, as the cornpiler generates the object code.
7. Static versus dynamic binding of locations to values: The binding of locations to values
is generally dynamic as well, since we callnot tell the value in a location until we run the
program

X.6.3 Static Scope and block structure:

Most of the languages, irc,luding C language use a static scope. The scope rules for C are
bffied @n program structurg and it is deterrrined implicitly by where the declaration appears in
&e program. Later advanced languages such as C# and Java uses explicit access control of
us,iflg keywords Public, Frivate and Protected.

€ Sr.fic $eope policy is as follows:

I. AC progrcm consists of asequence of top level declarations of variables and functions.

7. Funetions may have variable declarations within them, where variables include local
variables and parameters. The scope of each such declaration is restricted to the function
in which it appears.
3. The scope of a top-level declaration of a narne x consists of the entire program that
follows. with the exseption of those statemehts that lie within a function that also has a
function declaration of x.

*t 1R
 introduction
Compiler design

In C, the syirtax of blocks is given by

1. One type statement is a block. Blocks can appear anywhere that other types of
of
statements, such as assignment statements, can appear.
2- A block is ,a sequence of declarations followed by a sequence of statpments, all
t su{ounded b,v braces. t 1i. I ; l. + |
Main0 {

int a:l; Br
int b:l;

int a:3;
cout 11 a

)
Cout 11 a<< b;

)
Fig:l-13 Blocks in a C+r Program

Declaration
int a:1; B1-B3
int b:l ; B1-82
intb:2; 82.84
int a:3; B3
int b:4; B4

Fig: 1.14 Scope of declaration

f
 Compiler design
introduction

1.6.4 Explicit Access Control:

, Classes and structures provide it in different programming Languages, In classes,
explain
private, public and protected Access specifies. In Cr-t, a class definition rnay be separated frorn
C may
the definitions of some or all of its rnethods. Therefo re, a name x associated with the class
ha'e+a r"[io' that is wjtlfin itt sccpe. In fact,tegidns inside and otrtsid€ the scope
mayaiteinate,
until all the methods have been defined'

1.6.5 Dynamic Scope:

Technically, any scoping policy if it is based on factor (S) that can be known onl-v when
the program executes. The term dynamic scope, however, usually refers to the following policy:
A use of a name x refers to the declaration of x in the most recently called procedure with such a
declaration. Dynamic scoping of this type appears only in special situations-

#define a (x+1)
'
int x:2;

void b0 { int x:l; Pintf("o/od",a);}

void c0 t Printr ("o/od",a);\

void mainQ { bd c0;}

Fig:1.15 A macro whose n€tmes must be scoped dynamically

in above example the function main first calls function b. As b executes, it prints the
value of a macro a. since (x+ I ) must be substituteci for a" we resoive this use of x to the
declaration int x:l in function b. the reason is that b has a declaration of x, so the (x+1) in the
printf in b refers to this x. thus the value printed is 2.

After b finishes, and c is called, we again need to print the value of macro a. however, the
only x accessible to c is the global x. the printf staternent in C thus refers to this declaration of x,
and value 3 is printed.

l.6.6Parameter passing Mechanisms :

All programming languages have a notion of a procedure, but they can after in how these
procedures get their arguments.

1. Catl by Value:

copied into the called function.

s
 introducti'-rn
Cornpiler design

values i.e. before caliing lhe function whatever value present in the arguments-

,Jone by the called procedures are local to that procedure and the actual parameter
thernseltres cannot be changed"
.!f ff
a
L. Call by Referenee:

passed fromthe calling function.

parameters.

referenced and it contains an address, it is called pointer variable-

calling function original value will get changed

This process is called pass by reference.

a
J. Call by Name:

Algol 60. .

literaly for the fonnal parameter in the code of the callee, as if the formal
parameter were a rnacro standing for the acfual parameter.

F Wn"n the actual parameter is an expression rather than a variable, some

unintuitive behaviors occur, which is one reason this mechanism is not favored
today.

t.6.7 Aliasing:
There is an interesting consequence of call-by-reference parameter passing or its
sinnutratior,!, as in jav4 where references to objects are passed by value.
It is possible that two
fbnnal parameters can refer to the same location; such variables are said to be aliases of one
ar,rsther. As a result, any two variables, which rnay appear to take their values
from two distinct
furmal puaneters, can becorne aliasesof each other, as well.

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