Ch2 Standards

Chapter 2
Standards
Dr. Anita Ahmad

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 Skudai, Johor.
innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Standards
• Standard is a physical representation

of a unit of measurement. A known
accurate measure of physical quantity
is termed as a standard.
www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Standards
• Classification of
Standards
• Standards of
Fundamental Quantities
• Standards of Derived
Quantities
Standard of Paper Size

3

Classification of Standards
Consists of 4;
• international standard
• primary standard
• secondary standard
• working standard
International Standards (ISs)
• ISs are devices designed and constructed to specifications

of an international forum
• i.e. BSI (https://www.bsigroup.com/en-MY/),

IEC (https://webstore.ansi.org)
EU (https://www.en-standard.eu/) 4

International Standards (ISs) cont…
• ISs represents unit of

measurement of various physical
quantities to the highest possible
accuracy that is attainable by use of
advanced technique of production
and measurement technology
Power Transformer comply to

BS EN 60076-3:2001
5

International Standards (ISs) cont…
• ISs maintained systematically by

actual measurement in physic
definition such as mass, length,
time, current etc…
• i.e the standard maintained by the

inter. Bureau of weight & measure in
Paris
• ISs not available to ordinary user

for purpose of day-to-day
comparisons and calibration
6

Primary Standards (PSs)
• PSs are devices maintained by

organizations/national laboratories
in different part of the world or countries
• PSs devices represent the fundamental, derive quantities

and calibrated independently by absolute measurement
• Main function of PS is to calibrate/check & certify secondary

reference standards
• PSs are not easily available to an ordinary user of

instruments for verification/calibration or working standards 7

Secondary Standards (SSs)
• Basic reference standards

employed by industrial
measurement laboratories
• main function is the maintenance & ESD protection area

periodic calibration of secondary
standards against primary standards of the national
standards laboratory/organization
• SSs are freely available to the ordinary user of instruments

for checking & calibrations of working standards
8

Working Standards (WSs)
• high accuracy devices that commercially available, checked &

certified against either the primary or secondary standard
• i.e safety equipment in industry

Relationship between standard and accuracy
IS
Accuracy
PS
SS
WS
Diagram Traceability
10

Standards of Fundamental
Quantities
Consists of;
• Mass
• Time
• Length
• Absolute Ampere
• Temperature
11

Quantities
Mass;
• standard for mass is the International

Prototype Kilogram (platinum-iridium
cylinder)
• kept at the Inter. Bureau of Weights & Measure in France
• kilogram was originally defined as the mass of one liter of

pure water at a temperature of 3.98 oC & standard
atmospheric pressure (101 325 Pa).
12

Quantities
Mass; ……cont.
• since 1998, the SI system defines the

unit to be equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram,
• made from alloy of platinum & iridium of 39 mm height &

diameter
• official copies of the prototype kilogram are made available

as national prototype (made in 1880s) & compared to Paris
prototype (“Le Grand Kilo”) roughly every 10 years
13

Quantities
Time;
• 60 seconds = 1 minute
• 3600 seconds = 1 hour
• 86.4 kilo seconds (86 400 seconds) = 1 day (in SI)
• the factor of 60 may have influenced by Babylonians based

on their 60 in counting system
• the hour defined by Egyptians in term of rotation of earth as

1/24 of a mean of solar, 1/86400 of a mean solar day
14

Quantities
Time; ….cont…
• the second was defined in terms of

the period of revolution of the Earth
around the sun for a particular moment
• the earth’s motion was describe in

Newcomb’s Table of the sun that provides a formula for the
motion of the sun at the epoch 1900 based on astronomical
observations made during the 18 & 19 centuries
15

Quantities
Time; ….cont…
• the second thus defined as

a fraction 1/35 556 925.9747
of the tropical year for 1900
January 0 at 12 hours Ephemeris Time (ET)
• ET was defined as the measure of time that brings the

observed positions of the celestial bodies into accord with the
Newtonian dynamical theory of motion
• the second was endorsed by 11th General Conference on

Weight & Measures in 1960
16

Quantities
Time; ….cont…
• 2 astronomers at United States

Naval Observatory (USNO) &
National Physical Laboratory
England determined the relationship
between the hyperfine transition freq Caesium atomic clock, 1955
of the caesium atom & the ephemeris second
• in 1967 the 13th General Conference on Weight & Measures

defined the second of atomic time in SI as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state
of the caesium-133 atom (at 0 K)
17

A walk through time
1656 World Time Zone. GMT
20000 years
ago
Ancient calendar depends on

celestial bodies. Mechanical clock
3500 BC 1967
First clock
at Egypt
Caesium – Atomic clock

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is a time system originally referring
to mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
London, which later became adopted as a global time standard.
• GMT is an absolute time

reference & doesn't
change with the
seasons.

GMT: Comparison
LONDON
MALAYSIA
BRAZIL

Standards of Fundamental Quantities
Length: ……..”meter”
• The meter is the unit of length in the International System

of Units (SI)
• It is one of the seven SI base units
21

SI multiples of meter
Multiple Name Symbol Multiple Name Symbol
100 meter m
101 decameter dam 10–1 decimeter dm
102 hectometer hm 10–2 centimeter cm
103 kilometer km 10–3 millimeter mm
106 megameter Mm 10–6 micrometer µm
109 gigameter Gm 10–9 nanometer nm
1012 terameter Tm 10–12 picometer pm
1015 petameter Pm 10–15 femtometer fm
1018 exameter Em 10–18 attometer am
1021 zettameter Zm 10–21 zeptometer zm
1024 yottameter Ym 10–24 yoctometer ym
22
INSTRUMENT
www.utm.my& ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Standards
• The origins of the meter go back to

at least the 18th century
• Some suggested defining the

meter as the length of a pendulum
having a half-period of one second;
• others suggested defining the

meter as one ten-millionth of the
length of the Earth's meridian
along a quadrant (one-fourth the
circumference of the Earth).
23

• In 1791, soon after the

French Revolution, the
French Academy of
Sciences chose the
meridian definition over
the pendulum definition
because the force of
gravity varies slightly
over the surface of the
Earth, affecting the
period of the pendulum.
24

• in 1889, the 1st general

conference on weights &
measures (CGPM-
Conférence Générale des
Poids et Mesures) defined
‘meter’ as a length of the
International Prototype Meter,
the distances between two
finely scribed lines of platinum
iridium bar when subject to
certain specified conditions.
25

• definition of the meter was then replaced by CGPM in 1960

using a definition based upon a wavelength of krypton-86
radiation.
• this definition was adopted in order to reduce the uncertainty

with which the meter may be realized
• to further reduce the uncertainty, in 1983 the CGPM replaced

this latter definition by the following definition:
•“The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in

vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second”
26

Temperature
• is a physical property of a
system that underlies the
common notions of hot and
cold; something that is hotter
generally has the greater
temperature
• is one of the principal

parameters of
thermodynamics
27

Temperature
• On the microscopic scale, temperature is defined as the

average energy of microscopic
motions of a single particle in
the system per degree of
Freedom
• If no heat flow occurs, the

two objects have the same
temperature; otherwise
heat flows from the hotter
object to the colder object.
28

Temperature
• the above basic principles are stated in the zeroth law

(equilibrium) and second law (entropy) of thermodynamics,
respectively
•For a solid, these microscopic

motions are principally the
vibrations of its atoms about their
sites in the solid
•For an ideal monatomic gas, the

microscopic motions are the
translational motions of the
constituent gas particles. 29

Temperature
• The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) is an

equipment calibration standard for making measurements on the
Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales
Figure: Long-stem platinum

resistance thermometers are
sometimes used at temperatures
as low as 83 K (-190 °C). The
apparatus in the photo is used to
calibrate the thermometer at the
triple point of argon (83.8058 K).
30

Temperature
• ITS–90 is an approximation of the

thermodynamic temperature scale
that facilitates the comparability and
compatibility of temperature
measurements internationally
• ITS–90 offers defined calibration points

ranging from 0.65 K to approximately The new PTB (Physikalisch-
Technische Bundesanstalt) scale for
1358 K (−272.5 °C to 1085 °C) and is the temperature interval from 0.65 K
subdivided into multiple temperature to 3.2 K (in short: PTB-2006 shows
ranges which overlap in some instances. how the two scales can be combined
in future to form one improved
International Temperature Scale.
31

Temperature
• ITS-90 is designed to represent the thermodynamic (absolute)

temperature scale (referencing absolute zero) as closely as
possible throughout its range
• thermometer designs include helium

vapor pressure thermometers, helium
gas thermometers, standard platinum
resistance thermometers (known as
SPRTs or RTD) and monochromatic radiation
thermometers
32

Temperature
• Although the Kelvin and Celsius

scales are defined using absolute
zero (0 K) and the triple point of
water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is
impractical to use this definition at The triple point of a substance
temperatures that are very different is the temperature & pressure
at which three phases (liquid,
from the triple point of water gas & solid) of that substance
may coexist in thermodynamic
• Accordingly, ITS–90 uses numerous equilibrium. [273.16 K and
611.73 Pa]
defined points, all of which are based
on various thermodynamic equilibrium states
of fourteen pure chemical elements and one compound (water)
33

Temperature
• ITS–90 also draws a distinction between “freezing” and

“melting” points
• The distinction depends on whether heat is going into

(melting) or out of (freezing) the sample when the
measurement is made
• Only gallium is measured while melting, all the other metals

are measured while the samples are freezing.
34

Temperature
• at the triple point is defined to be exactly 0.0100C or 273.16K
• when the triple

point is realized
all three phases
of matter coexist;
liquid, vapor &
solid
35

• The measure of temperature is the thermodynamic
temperature, and the unit is Kelvin, defined as 1/273.16 of
the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water,
that temperature where solid, liquid and vapor phases of pure
water exist together in thermal equilibrium

Absolute Ampere:
• the ampere, (symbol: A)

is a unit of electric current, or
amount of electric charge per
second
Q
Q  it ; i 
t
•1 coulomb is approx. to 6.24 × 1018 e, where e is the
elementary charge, 1.602176487×10−19 C.
• the ampere is an SI base unit,
and is named after André-Marie Ampère, one of the
main discoverers of electromagnetism.
37

Absolute Ampere:
• the ampere is a
constant current
which, if maintained
in two straight
parallel conductors
of infinite length, of
negligible circular
cross section, and
placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum, would produce between
these conductors a force equal to 2×10-7 newton per metre of
length
38

Absolute Ampere:
• the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined, as a derived unit, to

be the amount of charge displaced by a one ampere current in
the time of one second
As a result, electric current is also the time rate of change or

displacement of electric charge. One ampere represents the rate
of 1 coulomb of charge per second.
39

Absolute Ampere:
• Because it is a base unit, the definition of the ampere is not

tied to any other electrical unit. The definition for the ampere is
equivalent to fixing a value of the permeability of vacuum to
• Prior to 1948, the so-called "international ampere" was used,

defined in terms of the electrolytic deposition rate of silver. The
older unit is equal to 0.999 85 A.
40

Absolute Ampere:
• The unit of electric charge, the coulomb, is defined in terms of

the ampere: one coulomb is the amount of electric charge
(formerly quantity of electricity) carried in a current of one
ampere flowing for one second
• Current, then, is the rate at which charge flows through a wire

or surface. One ampere of current (I) is equal to a flow of one
coulomb of charge (Q) per second of time (t):
41
INSTRUMENT
www.utm.my& ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Standards
Absolute Ampere:
• Since a coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24150948×1018

elementary charges(e), one ampere is approximately equivalent
to 6.24150948×1018 e, such as electrons, moving past a
boundary in one second
• More precisely using the SI definitions for the conventional

values of the Josephson and Von Klitzing constants, the ampere
can be defined as exactly 6.241 509 629 152 65 x 1018
elementary charges per second
42

Standards of Derived Quantities
Voltage Standards
• The volt (symbol: V) is the SI derived unit

of electric potential difference or
electromotive force
• It is named in honor of the Italian physicist

Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), who invented
the voltaic pile, the first modern chemical
battery.
43

Standards of derived Quantities
Voltage Standards
• The volt is defined as the potential difference across a

conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of
power
• Hence, it is the base SI representation m2 · kg · s-3 · A-1, which

can be equally represented as one joule of energy per coulomb
of charge, J/C.
44

Voltage Standards
• Since 1990 the volt

is maintained
internationally for
practical
measurement using
the Josephson effect,
where a conventional value is used for the Josephson constant,
fixed by the 18th General Conference on Weights and Measures
as K {J-90} = 0.4835979 GHz/µV.
45

Voltage Standards
• Electrical potential difference can be thought of as the ability to

move electrical charge through a
resistance
• Voltage is a property of an
electric field, not individual
electrons
• An electron moving across a

voltage difference experiences a
net change in energy, often measured in electron-volts
46

Voltage Standards
• In essence, the volt measures how much kinetic energy each

electron carries
• The no. of electrons

is measured by the
charge, in coulombs
• thus, the volt is
multiplied by the
current flow, in
amperes which
are one coulomb per second to yield the total electrical power in
the current, in watts
47

Voltage Standards
• When using the term 'potential difference' or voltage, one must

be clear about the two points
between which the voltage is
specified or measured.
There are two ways in which
the term is used.
•Voltage with respect to

a common point
•Voltage between two
stated points
48

Voltage Standards based on Josephson Junction
• The Josephson effect is the phenomenon of current flow across

two weakly coupled superconductors, separated by a very thin
insulating barrier
• This arrangement—two
superconductors linked
by a non-conducting barrier
known as a Josephson
junction; the current that
crosses the barrier is the
Josephson current
49

50

51

52

Voltage Standards based on Weston Cell
• The Weston cell, invented by

Edward Weston in 1893, is a
wet-chemical cell that produces
a highly stable voltage suitable
as a laboratory standard for
calibration of voltmeters
• It was adopted as the International

Standard for EMF in 1911
53

Voltage Standards based on Weston Cell
• The original design was a saturated cadmium cell producing a

convenient 1.0183 Volt reference and had the advantage of
having a lower temperature coefficient than the previously used
Clark cell. (Reference cells must be applied in such a way that
no current is drawn from them.)
• The temperature coefficient can be reduced by shifting to an

unsaturated design, the predominant type today.
• However, an unsaturated cell's output decreases by some 80

microvolts per year, which is compensated by periodical
calibration against a saturated cell.
54

Resistance Standards based on Quantum Hall effect
• the primary standard for resistance is based on the Hall Effect
• recall the principle a thin semiconductor.

bar carries a DC current
• the bar is subjected to a
magnetic field perpendicular
to it
• a voltage developed across
the bar perpendicular to the
direction of the current flow, this is Hall Voltage
• the ratio of the Hall Voltage to the DC current
is called Hall Resistance, RH of the bar
55

• For a simple metal where there is only one type

of charge carrier (electrons) the Hall voltage VH
is given by
• The Hall coefficient is defined as
• where I is the current across the plate length,

B is the magnetic flux density, d is the depth of
the plate, e is the electron charge, and n is the charge carrier
density of the carrier electrons.
56

• in 1980, it was
discovered that by;
• cooling the bar in
liquid helium,
semiconductor
becomes a
superconductor
• greatly increasing
the magnetic, the
Hall resistance
increased in
discrete steps
57

58

Capacitive Standards
• A capacitor is an
electrical/electronic
device that can store energy in
the electric field between a pair
of conductors (called "plates")
• The process of storing energy in the

capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges
of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each
plate
59

• Capacitors are often used

in electrical circuit and
electronic circuits as
energy-storage devices
• They can also be used to

differentiate between
high-frequency and low-frequency signals as electronic filters
• Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers
60

• A capacitor consists of two conductive

electrodes, or plates, separated by a
dielectric
• capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure

of the amount of charge (Q) stored on
each plate for a given potential difference
or voltage (V) which appears between the
plates
61

• In SI units, a capacitor has

a capacitance of one farad
when one coulomb of charge
is stored due to one volt
applied potential difference
across the plates
• Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are

usually expressed in microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF), or
picofarads (pF)
62

• When there is a difference in

electric charge between the plates,
an electric field is created in the
region between the plates that is
proportional to the amount of charge
that has been moved from one plate
to the other
•This electric field creates a potential

difference V = E·d between the plates of this simple parallel-plate
capacitor.
63

Inductance Standards
• An inductor is a passive
electrical device employed
in electrical circuits for its
property of inductance
• Inductors are used extensively

in analog circuits and signal
Processing for rectifiers.
• Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components

form tuned circuits or filter out specific signal frequencies
64

• This can range from the use of large inductors as

chokes in power supplies, which in conjunction with
filter capacitors remove residual hum or other
fluctuations from the direct current output,
to such small inductances as generated
by a ferrite bead or torus around a cable
to prevent radio frequency interference
from being transmitted down the wire
• Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits

used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance.
65

•Inductance (measured in henries)

is an effect which results from the
magnetic field that forms around
a current-carrying conductor
•Electrical current through the

conductor creates a magnetic flux proportional to the current
• A change in this current creates a change in magnetic flux that,

in turn, generates an electromotive force (emf) that acts to
oppose this change in current
66

• Inductance is a meas. of the generated

emf for a unit change in current
• an inductor with an inductance of 1H

produces an emf of 1V when the current
through the inductor changes at the rate
of 1A
•The number of turns, the area of each loop/turn, and what it
is wrapped around all affect the inductance.
• i.e the magnetic flux linking these turns can be increased by
using a high permeability material
67

• inductance is a measure of the amount of magnetic flux

produced for a given electric current
68

• An inductor is usually constructed as

a coil of conducting material, typically
copper wire, wrapped around a core
either of air or of ferromagnetic material
• Core materials with a higher

permeability than air confine the
magnetic field closely to the inductor,
thereby increasing the inductance
69

Tutorial
1. What is standards?
2. Discuss the difference between primary and
secondary standards.
3. What is the latest standard to define length.

What is standard?
• Standards is a physical devices that have
stable characteristics and accurately defined.
It is used as a reference for measurement
units.
• A known accurate measure of physical
quantity is termed as a standard

Primary vs secondary standard

Latest length standard
• The length of the path travelled by
light in a vacuum during a time of
1/229,792,458 of a second.

Ch2 Standards

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Chapter 2

Dr. Anita Ahmad

innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• Standard is a physical representation

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Standard of Paper Size

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

International Standards (ISs)

• ISs are devices designed and constructed to specifications

• i.e. BSI (https://www.bsigroup.com/en-MY/),

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

International Standards (ISs) cont…

• ISs represents unit of

Power Transformer comply to

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• ISs maintained systematically by

• i.e the standard maintained by the

• ISs not available to ordinary user

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Primary Standards (PSs)

• PSs are devices maintained by

• PSs devices represent the fundamental, derive quantities

• Main function of PS is to calibrate/check & certify secondary

• PSs are not easily available to an ordinary user of

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Secondary Standards (SSs)

• Basic reference standards

• main function is the maintenance & ESD protection area

• SSs are freely available to the ordinary user of instruments

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• high accuracy devices that commercially available, checked &

• i.e safety equipment in industry

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Relationship between standard and accuracy

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• standard for mass is the International

• kept at the Inter. Bureau of Weights & Measure in France

• kilogram was originally defined as the mass of one liter of

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• since 1998, the SI system defines the

• made from alloy of platinum & iridium of 39 mm height &

• official copies of the prototype kilogram are made available

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• 3600 seconds = 1 hour

• 86.4 kilo seconds (86 400 seconds) = 1 day (in SI)

• the factor of 60 may have influenced by Babylonians based

• the hour defined by Egyptians in term of rotation of earth as

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• the second was defined in terms of

• the earth’s motion was describe in

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• the second thus defined as

• ET was defined as the measure of time that brings the

• the second was endorsed by 11th General Conference on

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

• 2 astronomers at United States

• in 1967 the 13th General Conference on Weight & Measures

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

Ancient calendar depends on

Caesium – Atomic clock

• GMT is an absolute time

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global