COMPUTER NETWORKS

III year / VI Sem B.Sc

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION

Need for Communication

A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at

different locations.
Communication services & applications are everywhere. Some examples are given
below

Need for Computer Communication over Distances

Computer communication has become essential for the following reasons:

(a) Computers can send data at a very fast speed over long distances using satellite
and microwave links. Therefore, the cost of transfer of documents using computers
is cheaper than other conventional means like telegrams.

(b) Computers can have fax system integrated with them. This allows them to send
pictures along with the text. Thus the newspaper reports can be prepared and sent
all over the world at a very high speed by composing and publishing them from
different centers.

(c) The time taken to transmit the messages is very small. Hence different
computers can be connected together and the users can work together as a

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group. Software packages have been developed for group working in Data Base
Management (DBMS) and graphic works.

(d) Different departments of an organization may be separated physically being at

distant places but their data could be stored on a central computer. This data
is accessed by computers located in different departments. The data at the central
computer may be updated from time to time and accessed by all users. This
prevents any bottlenecks in the smooth functioning of the organization. The latest
data (say for inventory) will be easily available at all times to all the users.

(e) Fluctuations of prices in foreign exchange and shares/equities can be

communicated instantaneously using the medium of computer communications only.
The transfer can be accelerated and verified at any instant of time.

Data Communication:
Data Communication is defined as the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. The communicating
devices must be a part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware ( physical equipment) and software (programs).

Characteristics of data Communication:

The effectiveness of a data communication depends on three characteristics
1. Delivery
2. Accuracy
3. Timeliness

Delivery : The system must deliver data to correct destination.

Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late
are useless. Timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real –time transmission.

Components:
The components of a data communication are Message, Sender, Receiver,
Medium and Protocol

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Message: The message is the information to be communicated. It can consist of
text, pictures, numbers, sound, video or audio .

Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer or workstation telephone handset, video camera and so on..

Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer or workstation telephone handset, video camera and so on..

Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. It could be a twisted pair wire , coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable, or radio waves.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. It

represents an agreement between the communicating devices.

Data representation.
Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio and
video.

Text.
Text is represented as a bit pattern,
The number of bits in a pattern depends on the number of symbols in the language.
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set
is called a code. The process of representing the symbols is called coding.

ASCII
The American National Standards Institute developed a code called the American
Standard code for Information Interchange .This code uses 7 bits for each
symbol.

Extended ASCII
To make the size of each pattern 1 byte(8 bits),the ASCII bit patterns are augmented
with an extra 0 at the left.

Unicode
To represent symbols belonging to languages other than English, a code with much
greater capacity is needed. Unicode uses 16 bits and can represent up to 65,536
symbols.

ISO
The international organization for standardization known as ISO has designed a
code using a 32 – bit pattern. This code can represent up to 4,294,967,296 symbols.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by using bit patterns. ASCII is not used to represent
numbers. The number is directly converted to a binary number.

Images

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Images are also represented by bit patterns. An image is divided into a matrix of
pixels, where each pixel is a small dot. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size
and value of the pattern depends on the image. The size of the pixel depends on
what is called the resolution.

Audio
Audio is a representation of sound. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or
images. It is continuous not discrete

Video
Video can be produced either a continuous entity or it can be a combination of
images.

Direction of data flow (or) Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two
devices connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These
modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of
transmission modes. They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender.
Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just need to
send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and
remote, keyboard and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both

directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex
transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and then immediately
receive data on the line from the same direction in which data was just transmitted.
Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry data in
both directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but
messages are sent in both the directions.

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FULL DUPLEX Mode
In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is
bidirectional at the same time in other words, data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication
between two persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the
same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the
other for receiving data.

Network: Definition :

An interconnected collection of autonomous computers” interconnected = able to

exchange information

A set of nodes connected by communication links .A node can be any device

capable of sending &/or receiving data to &/or from other nodes in the network

A connected collection of hardware and software that permits information exchange

and resource sharing.
information = data, text, audio, video, images, …
resources = printers, memory, link bandwidth

Uses of networks

•companies & organizations

•resource sharing: programs, equipment, data…
•high reliability: multiple processors/links/file copies/...
•scalability: gradually improve system performance
•rapid communications & remote cooperation
•saving money
•private individuals:
•access to remote & diverse information sources
•communicating with other people
•entertainment
•education, healthcare, access to government...

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Line Configuration in Computer Networks (Type of connection)
A Network is nothing but a connection made through connection links between two
or more devices. Devices can be a computer, printer or any other device that is
capable to send and receive data. There are two ways to connect the devices :

1. Point-to-Point connection
2. Multipoint connection

Point-To-Point Connection
It is a protocol which is used as a communication link between two devices. It is
simple to establish. The most common example for Point-to-Point connection (PPP)
is a computer connected by telephone line. We can connect the two devices by
means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite link.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote control and Television for
changing the channels.

MultiPoint Connection

It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share
a single link.
There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections :
 If the links are used simultaneously between many devices, then it is spatially
shared line configuration.
 If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) line
configuration.

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Topologies:
Physical Topology refers to the way in which network is laid out physically. Two or
more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and the linking devices tone another.

The basic topologies are

Bus, Ring Star, Mesh, Tree and Hybrid topologies.

Types of Network Topology

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear
Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for
each device.

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Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a
backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted,
has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes,
as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology

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 1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like
routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance.
Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those
node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But
it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected
in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected
to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).

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 Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

Categories of Network

The three primary categories are of network are Local Area Network (LAN),
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), and Wide Area Network(WAN). The category into
which a network fall is determined by its size, ownership, the distance it covers and
its physical architecture.

LAN
 A LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or
campus.
 A LAN can be as simple as two PCs or it can extend throughout a company. LAN
size is limited to a few kilometers. The most widely used LAN system is the Ethernet
system developed by the Xerox Corporation.
 It is designed to allow resources (hardware , software or data) to be shared between
PC’s or workstations. It may be used to provide a (shared) access to remote
organizations through a router connected to a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) or a
Wide Area Network (WAN).
 One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and may become a
server to other clients. Software can be stored on this server and used by the whole
group.

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 The size of the LAN may be determined by the licensing restrictions on the numbers
per copy of software. or the number of users licensed to access the operating
system.
 Also differentiated from other types of network by transmission media and topology.

 LAN use only one type of transmission medium

 The common LAN topologies are bus, ring and star.
 LANs have data rates in the 4 to 10 megabits per second. Can also reach 100 Mbps
with gigabit systems in development.

 Intermediate nodes (i.e. repeaters, bridges and switches) allow LANs to be

connected together to form larger LANs. A LAN may also be connected to another
LAN or to WANs and MAN’s using a "router

Metropolitan Area Network

A MAN is designed to extend over an entire city.
 May be a single network such as cable TV network
 May be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger
network
 Resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device
Example A company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices
throughout a city.
 A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service
provided by a public company ,such as local telephone company
 Telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called (SMDS)
Switched Multi-megabit Data Services.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 A WAN provides long distance transmission of data .,voice ,image and
video information over large geographic areas.
 It may comprise a country ,continent or even the whole world.
Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps,
625 Mbps (or sometimes considerably more).
 WAN utilize public, leased, or private communication equipment usually in
combinations and therefore span an unlimited number of miles.
 A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is referred to
as an Enterprise Network. The figure represents the comparison of the
different types of networks

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Internetwork
When two or more networks are connected they become an internetwork or internet

Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. It defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing
Syntax
It refers to the structure or format of the data. This refers the order in which the data
are presented.
Example
 The first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender.
 The second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver.
 The rest of the stream may be the message itself
Semantics
It refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How a particular pattern to be
interpreted

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What action is to be taken based on that interpretation
Example
An address specifies the route to be taken or the final destination of the message.
Timing
It refers to two characteristics
When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
Example
If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps and the receiver process data at only 1
Mbps, it will overload the receiver and data will be lost.

Standards
Why do we need standards ?
 To create and maintain an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers
 To guarantee national and international interoperability of data,
telecommunication technology and process
 To give a fixed quality and product to the customer
 To allow the same product to be re used again elsewhere
 To aid the design and implementation of ideas
 To provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies and
other service providers to ensure kind of interconnectivity.

Data communication standards are divided into two categories

De facto(from the fact):
 Standards that have not been approved by an organized body.
 It have been adopted as standards through widespread use.
 This is often established originally by manufacturers to define the functionality
of a new product or technology.
De jure (by law):
 Those that have been legislated by an officially recognized body.
Standards organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.

Standards Creation Committees

ITU, International Telecommunications Union formerly the (CCITT):
 It a standard for telecommunication in general and data systems in particular.

ISO, International Standards Organization :
 It is active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological
and economic activity.

ANSI, American National Standards Institute:

 It is a private nonprofit corporation and affiliated with the U.S federal
government.
IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers:

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  It aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of
electrical engineering , electronics radio and in all related branches of
Engineering.
 It oversees the development and adoption of international standards for
computing and communications. See http://standards.ieee.org/

EIA, Electronic Industries Association:
 It is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns.
 Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying efforts in
addition to standards development.
 It also made significant contributions by defining physical connection
interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
Forums
 It work with universities and users to test, evaluate ,and standardize new
technologies.
 The forums are able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in
the telecommunications community.
 It present their conclusions to standard bodies.
Regulatory Agencies:
 Its purpose is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television and
wire cable communications.
 It has authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to
communication.
Internet Standards
 It is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those
who work with the internet.
 It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.
 A specification begins as an internet draft and attains Internet standard status.
 An Internet draft is a working document and it may be published as Request
for Comment(RFC).RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to
all interested parties.

OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL:

Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP protocol
suite, this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined and established in 1947.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost three-fourths
of the countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers
all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

ISO is the organization; OSI is the model

Layered architecture:

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate

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but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information
across a network

 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer and shields the
upper layer from the details implemented in the lower layers.
 Each layer appears to be in direct (virtual) communication with its
associated layer on the other computer. Actual communication
between adjacent layers takes place on one computer only.
 Layering simplifies design, implementation, and testing. Only the
lowest level (Physical layer) can directly communicate with its peer
communications process into parts.

Peer-to-Peer Processes
 The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are
called peer-to-peer processes.
 At higher layers communication must move down through the layers on
device A aver to device B and then back up through the layers.
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it. and passes the whole package to the
layer just below and transferred to the receiving device.

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Interfaces between layers
 The passing of data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.
 Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for
the layer above it.
 Well defined interfaces and functions provide modularity to a network.

OSI Reference Model:

Describes a seven-layer abstract reference model for a network architecture.
Purpose of the reference model was to provide a framework for the development of
protocols

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Functions of Layers:

Physical Layer
 It coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
 It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission media.
Mechanical: cable, plugs, pins...
Electrical/optical: modulation, signal strength, voltage levels,
bit times,
 It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur
Major responsibilities of Physical layer are
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
It defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission media. Also defines the type of transmission medium.
 Representation of bits:
To transmit the bits, it must be encoded into electrical or optical
signals. It defines the type of representation how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals.
 Data rate:
The number of bits sent each second is also defined by the physical
layer.
 Synchronization of bits:
Sender and the receiver must be synchronized at the bit level .i.e the
sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.

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Information flows from top to bottom at the sender and bottom to top at the receiver.

Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery. It
transforms the physical layer a raw transmission facility to a reliable link. It makes
physical layer appear error free to the network layer. The duties of the data link layer
are
 Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical Addressing: If the frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network the data link layer adds a header to the frame
to define the receiver or sender of the frame. If the frame is intended
for a system located outside the senders network then the receiver
address is the address of the connecting device that connects the
network to the next one.
 Flow Control: If the rate at which the data absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control Reliability is added to the physical layer by data link layer
to detect and retransmit loss or damaged frames. and also to prevent
duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added to the
end of the frame
 Access control When two or more devices are connected to the same
link it determines which device has control over the link at any given
time.

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Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of a packet across
multiple networks. It ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final
destination .It does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats
each one independently as though each belong to separate message.
The functions of the network layer are
 Logical Addressing: If a packet has to cross the network boundary then the
header contains information of the logical addresses of the sender and the
receiver.
Networking: When independent networks or links are connected to create an
internetwork or a large network the connective devices route the packet to the final
destination.

Transport Layer
The network layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery ,that is source to
destination delivery of the entire message.
The responsibilities of Transport layer are
 Service-point (port) addressing :Computers run several programs at the same
time. source-to-destination delivery means delivery from a specific process on
one computer to a specific process on the other. The transport layer header
therefore include a type of address called a service – point address.
 Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into segments and each
segment contains a sequence number. These numbers enable the Transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination.
The packets lost in the transmission is identified and replaced.
 Connection control : The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer. A connection-
oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine and delivers the packets. After all the data are
transferred the connection is terminated.
 Flow control :Flow control at this layer is performed end to end .
 Error Control: Error control is performed end to end. At the sending side ,the
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer with out error. Error correction is achieved through
retransmission.

Session Layer : Session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes

,maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the layer are
 Dialog Control : Session layer allows two systems to enter in to a dialog.
Communication between two processes take place either in half-duplex or full-
duplex. Example :the dialog between a terminal connected to a mainframe.
Can be half-duplex.
 Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints into a
stream of data. Example If a system is sending a file of 2000 pages , check
points may be inserted after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100 page
unit is advised and acknowledged independently. So if a crash happens
during the transmission of page 523,retransmission begins at page 501,pages
1 to 500 need not be retransmitted.
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Presentation layer. It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. Responsibilities of the presentation layer are
 Translation .The processes in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The Since
different computers use different encoding systems ,the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. At
the sender ,the presentation layer changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver dependent
format.
 Encryption. The sender transforms the original information from to another
form and sends the resulting message over the entire network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original
form.
 Compression. It reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. It is important in
the transmission of text, audio and video.

Application Layer : It enables the user(human/software) to access the network. It

provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management and other types of distributed
information services. Services provided by the application layer are
 Network Virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File transfer, access and management. This application allows a user to
access files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a remote computer
and to manage or control files in a remote computer.
 Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
Directory services. It provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services .

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE(Reference Model):

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a protocol suite (a set of
protocols organized in different layers) used in the Internet today. It is a hierarchical
protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific
functionality. The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is
supported by the services provided by one or more lower level protocols. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model. Following
figure shows both configurations.

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

After the above introduction, we briefly discuss the functions and duties of layers in
the TCP/IP protocol suite. Each layer is discussed in detail in the next classes. To
better understand the duties of each layer, we need to think about the logical
connections between layers. Below figure shows logical connections in our simple
internet.

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Using logical connections makes it easier for us to think about the duty of each layer.
As the figure shows, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers is
end-to-end. However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-
hop, in which a hop is a host or router. In other words, the domain of duty of the
top three layers is the internet, and the domain of duty of the two lower layers
is the link.
Another way of thinking of the logical connections is to think about the data unit
created from each layer. In the top three layers, the data unit (packets) should not be
changed by any router or link-layer switch. In the bottom two layers, the packet
created by the host is changed only by the routers, not by the link-layer switches.
Below figure shows the second principle discussed previously for protocol layering.
We show the identical objects below each layer related to each device.

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COMPARISION OF OSI AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and
presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not
added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the publication of the OSI model. The
application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the combination of three
layers in the OSI model.

Two reasons were mentioned for this decision. First, TCP/IP has more than one
transport-layer protocol. Some of the functionalities of the session layer are available
in some of the transport- layer protocols. Second, the application layer is not only
one piece of software. Many Applications can be developed at this layer. If some of
the functionalities mentioned in the session and presentation layers are needed for a
particular application, they can be included in the development of that piece of
software.

Lack of OSI Model's Success

The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite. Most experts were at first
excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be fully replaced by the OSI
model. This did not happen for several reasons, but we describe only three, which
are agreed upon by all experts in the field. First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP
was fully in place and a lot of time and money had been spent on the suite; changing
it would cost a lot. Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.
For example, although the services provided by the presentation and the session
layers were listed in the document, actual protocols for these two layers were not
fully defined, nor were they fully described, and the corresponding software was not
fully developed. Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different
application, it did not show a high enough level of performance to entice the Internet
authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA:
Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly
controlled by the physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to
layer zero. Below figure shows the position of transmission media in relation to the
physical layer.

In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:

guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.

GUIDED MEDIA:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling
along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that
accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in following figure.

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One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition
to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and
crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are
parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because
they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is
closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting
the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is
closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is
true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external
influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the
difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals
are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of
twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twistedpair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic
wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath,
and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each RG
number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of
the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of
the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG
rating is adapted for a specialized function, as shown in below table.

Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone
networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.

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However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with
fiberoptic cable.

Fiber-Optic Cable
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core
is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density
of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is
reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it. See below figure.

Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for
propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical
characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-
index

Multimode
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through
the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the
structure of the core.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight
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line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. A second type of fiber,
called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal
through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw
above, the index of refraction is related to density.

Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single-mode fiber
itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and
with substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results
in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make the propagation of beams
almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical,
and delays are negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and can
be recombined with little distortion to the signal.

Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is
cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer
data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. The SONET network that we discuss in Chapter 14
provides such a backbone.
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus
creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial
cable provides the connection to the user premises. This is a cost-effective
configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user end does not
justify the use of optical fiber. Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network
(Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Advantages
Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or
coaxial).

- Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths

(and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates
and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by
the signal generation and reception technology available.
- Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater
than that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring
regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
- Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect
fiber-optic cables.
- Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials
than copper.
- Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
- Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
- Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere. o

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Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
- Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical
fiber cannot be justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

Below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to
900 THz, used for wireless communication. Unguided signals can travel from the
source to the destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and
line-of-sight propagation, as shown in below figure.

In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all
directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the
greater the distance.

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In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are
reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with
lower output power.
In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight
lines directly from antenna to antenna.

The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and

microwaves is divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by
government authorities. These bands are rated from very low frequency (VLF) to
extremely high frequency (EHF). Below table lists these bands, their ranges,
propagation methods, and some applications

Radio Waves
Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves,
electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between I and 300 GHz
are called microwaves. However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the
frequencies, is a better criterion for classification. Radio waves, for the most part, are
omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna. The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that
may send signals using the same frequency or band. Radio waves, particularly those
waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio
waves a good candidate for long- distance broadcasting such as AM radio.

Omni directional Antenna

Radio waves use omni directional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have
several types of antennas. Below Figure shows an omni directional antenna.

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Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting,
in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television,
maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits
microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of
aligned antennas.
The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:

 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted

antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be
very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles does not
allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often
needed for long distance communication.

 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can

be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.

 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
subbands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.

 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (one
to- one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are
used in cellular phone, satellite networks, and wireless LANs
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.

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Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm
to 770 nrn), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another; a short-range communication system
in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room. When we use
our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for
long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.

Multiplexing:

Multiplexing: To combine multiple signals (analog or digital) for transmission over

a single line or media.

A common type of multiplexing combines several low-speed signals for transmission

over a single high-speed connection. In other words, we can say that multiplexing is
used for sharing of a medium and its link by two or more devices. It can provide both
Efficiency and Privacy.

Multiplexing is done by using a device called multiplexer (MUX) that combines n

input lines to generate one output line i.e. (many to one). Therefore multiplexer
(MUX) has several inputs and one output. 

At the receiving end, a device called demultiplexer (DEMUX) or (demuxing) is used

that separates signal into its component signals. So DEMUX has one input and
several outputs.

Concept of Multiplexing 
As shown in fig multiplexer takes 4 input lines and diverts them to single output line.
The signal from 4 different devices is combined and carried by this single line. At the
receiving side, a demultiplexer takes this signal from a single line & breaks it into the
original signals and passes them to the 4 different receivers. 
                                

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Advantages of Multiplexing 
If no multiplexing is used between the users at two different sites that are distance
apart, then separate communication lines would be required as shown in fig. 
This is not only costly but also become difficult to manage. If multiplexing is used
then, only one line is required. This leads to the reduction in the line cost and also it
would be easier to keep track of one line than several lines. Multiplexing efficient for
utilization of bandwidth.
                               

 
The following are several examples of different multiplexing methods:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) –

In this a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source
transfers its signals in the allotted frequency range. There is a suitable frequency
gap between the 2 adjacent signals to avoid over-lapping. Since the signals are
transmitted in allotted time so this decreases the probability of collision. The
frequency spectrum is divided into several logical channels, in which every user feels
that they posses a particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously
on the same me allocating separate frequency band or channel to each signal. It is
used in radio and TV transmission. Therefore to avoid interference between two
successive channels Guard bands are used.

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2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) –
This happens when data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the
source, and each signal is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots are so
small that all transmissions appear to be parallel. In frequency division multiplexing
all the signals operate at the same time with different frequencies, but in time division
multiplexing all the signals operate with same frequency at different times.

It is of following types:
1. Synchronous TDM –
The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. This slot is even given if the source
is not ready with data at this time. In this case the slot is transmitted empty. It
is used for multiplexing digitized voice stream.

2. Asynchronous (or statistical) TDM –

The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of source or their
ready state. It dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input
channel’s needs, thus saving the channel capacity.

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