random phenomenon where generally the WITH POWER CIRCUIT BREAKE3RS, N. B.
AKE3RS, N. B. Dillow, the magnitude and wave shape of switching
restriking occurs at times other than
that which would result in the maximum
voltage as a result of one restrike. There
is evidence, however, to indicate more
severe voltage magnitudes occurring on
power systems than those included in
Table IV.3-5
A preliminary investigation describing
the effect of lightning arresters on switch-
ing surges is described in the AIEE Trans-
actions." Further analysis of this phase
of the investigation by the Working
Group is awaiting the receipt of an
industry-wide definition of arrester char-
acteristics under switching surge condi-
tions.
At the present time the Working Group
on Switching Surges is devoting its atten-
tion to a study of the type of switching
surge classified items A.1(d), A.3, and
A.4 in the foregoing.
References
1. SOME FUNDAMENTALS ON CAPACITANCE
SwITCEING, 1. B. Johnson, A. J. Schultz, N. R.
Schultz, R. B. Shores. AIEE Transac*ions, vol.
74, pt. III, Aug. 1955, pp. 727-36.
2. SWITCHINO SURGB VOLTAGES IN HIGH-VOLTAGE
STATIONS, I. B. Johnson, A. J. Schultz. Ibid.,
vol. 73, Pt. III-A, Feb. 1954, pp. 69-79.
3. RESISTORS FOR 138-Kv CABLE SWITCHING,
B. K. Sadler, T. M. Blakeslee. Ibid., vol. 66,
1947, pp. 39-46.
4. SHUNT CAPACITORS IN LARGE TRANSMISSION
NETWORKS, E. C. Starr, E. J. Harrington. Ibid.,
vol. 72, Pt. III, Dec. 1953, pp. 1129-40.
5. SWrnCMNG CAPACXTIVE KICLOVOLT-AMPBRES
Distribution System
and Their Use in Planning and Design
R. H. SARIKAS
ASOCIATE MEMBER AIEE
SINCE THE SOLE PURPOSE for the
existence of an electric distribution
system lies in supplying the requirements
of the consumer's utilization devices, it is
fundamental that a knowledge of these
load requirements is necessary for sound
planning of the distribution system and
its various components. The economic
importance of the knowledge of load char-
acteristics has become more and more
recognized with the growth of load on
utility systems.
In recent years, much work has been
done in this field. Many utilities have
made and continue to make, in some form,
surveys of the load on their systems.
564 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics
1. B. Johnson, N. R. Schultz, A. B. Were. Ibid.,
vol. 71, pt. III, 1952, pp. 188-200.
6. SWITCHINO SURGES AND ARRESTRR PREFORM-
ANCR ON HIGH-VOLTAGE STATIONS, L. 0. Barthold,
I. B. Johnson, A. J. Schultz. Ibid., vol. 75, pt.
III, June, 1956, pp. 481-91.
7. SWITCHINO OVERVOLTAGH HAZARD ELrMINATED
IN HIGH-VOLTAGE OnL CIRCUIT BREAKHR9, L. F.
Hunt, B. W. Boehne, H. A. Peterson. Ibid., vol.
62, 1943, pp. 98-106.
8. TEE INTERRUPTION OF CHARGING CURRENT
AT HIGH VOLTAGE, W. M. Leeds, R. C. Van Sickle.
Ibid., vol. 66, 1947, pp. 373-80.
9. PERFORMANCE TEST OF THE ALLOEMEINE
ELEKTRICITATS GESELLSCHAPT FRREE-JBT AIR-
BLAST 220-KV, 2,500 MEGAVOLT-AMPBRE RE-
CLOSING CmcuT BREAKER, Alexander
Ibid., vol. 67,
Dovjikov,
1948, pp.
Clifford C. Diemond.
295-306.
10. 138-KV LINE-DROPPING FIELD TESTS, D. L.
Finneran, R. D. Allen, L. J. Linde, A. B. Kilgour.
Ibid., vol. 73, pt. III-A, Aug. 1954, pp. 809-16.
11. FIELD TESTS ON A 138-Kv HIGH-SPEED OIL
CIRcUIT 3REAKER AT PHuL.u SPORN POWER
PLANT, Otto Naef, R. D. Hambrick. Ibid., vol.
74, pt. III, Aug. 1955, pp. 710-27.
Discussion
H. W. Smith and H. M. Ellis (B. C. Engi-
neering Company Ltd., Vancouver, B. C.,
Canada): The Working Group on Switch-
ing Surges has undertaken a very impor-
tant assignment in that the results of their
investigation will provide information re-
quired to determine the basic insulation de-
sign criteria for high-voltage transmission
systems, particularly where lightning surges
are not an important factor in arriving
at insulation requirements. Knowledge of
Characteristics
Load
H. B. THACKER
MEMBER AIEE
This paper describes the load survey
work being done by one utility company,
and how the resultant data is processed
and used in distribution planning and
design. The paper also demonstrates the
importance of a knowledge of load char-
acteristics in the design of equipment
which will meet the utility industry's
requirements for service with minimum
initial investment and operating cost. An
example of the need for load information
to design equipment having character-
istics most desirable to the utility, is the
pole-mounted distribution transformer.
These transformers represent a major item
of capital investment in the utility system
surges determines the insulation require-
ments of all equipment on high-voltage
systems on a more scientific basis. The
establishment of switching surge criteria
as a function of the various system charac-
teristics is certainly a very difficult task
and the Working Group is to be congratu-
lated on undertaking this assignment.
The other phase of the committee assign-
ment of particular interest to utilities is
the system discharge requirement of ar-
resters when switching long cables at trans-
mission voltages. Utilities are installing
miles of underground high-voltage cables
for transmission of power where right of way
for overhead lines is unavailable close to
load centers. For these conditions the
thermal discharge requirements of the
lightning arrester may well exceed even
modern station arrester discharge capa-
bilities. It is to be hoped that in the near
future the committee will have results to
present on this phase of the investigation,
including the effect of transformer satura-
tion on arrester thermal duty, on a similar
basis to that given for switching long lines
in reference 2 of the paper.
I. B. Johnson: The Working Group on
Switching Surges wishes to thank, the
discussers, H. W. Smith and H. M. Ellis,
for their comments on the first report of
this group. As indicated in the report,
the question of arresters and switching
surges has been recognized. Papers on the
subject are being solicited and some work
has been done. In particular, there is a
need for more field data to supplement the
results which so far have been obtained
and also are now being obtained from
studies on systems in miniature.
and an important segment of operating
cost. The optimum design of the distri-
bution transformer, in terms of such things
as loss ratio, impedance, and insulation
system life, is inherently related to the
characteristics of the load to which the
transformer will be subjected.
Information obtained from utility-
load surveys can be used for many pur-
poses other than distribution system
planning and optimum equipment design.
Often, data from the same load survey will
also be used in studies of rate structure,
cost analysis, and development of selec-
tive selling programs.
Classes of Loads
To facilitate the orderly determination
of load characteristics, loads may be
divided into the following major classes:
residential, rural, commercial, and in-
dustrial. These classes usually can be
further subdivided, based on some pecu-
liarity of the particular class of load being
served. Exanples are: residential, large
AUGUST 1957
use, no gas available; residential, large
use, gas available; etc.

Method of Conducting Load Surveys

One of the most useful survey methods
for determining load characteristics is the
method of group-load surveys. Test CLARK

groups are selected on the basis of homo-

geneity of character and use, predom- ST
inance of one class, and convenient layout
of distribution lines for test metering. If
the test groups are selected as being repre-
sentative of their class, the load survey
data can have a broad application.
EXAMPLE OF GROUP LOAD SURVEY
The plot plan of a typical residential
test group is shown in Fig. 1. The group
is one of 48 similar residential test groups
in a current load survey. These groups
are of varying size in order to provide
coincidence information. One-fourth of
the groups has less than 6 customers, ST.
1/4 has 6 to 12 customers, 1/4 has 13 to 20 A CAODJrM
customers, and the remainder has over )P-
20 customers. An indicating, 15-minute
m

interval, kilowatt demand meter is in-
stalled at each residence. Graphic in-
tegrating meters with 15-minute interval
strip charts are installed at the master-
meter location on the primary circuit to
measure kilowatts and reactive kilovolt-
amperes for the entire group. These
tests run for a 12-month period. In addi-
tion to daily load curves, an analysis of
-these data furnishes the following:
1. Correlation between the kilowatt-hour
(kw-hr) usage of an individual consumer
and his peak demand.
2. Coincidence factor relationship.
3. Loss and power-factor data.
4. Load factor information.
The derivation and significance of the
above factors and relationships is dis-
cussed in the following paragraphs.
CORRELATION BETWEEN Kw-HR AND
DEMAND
This relationship has been established
for the yearly peak demand versus annual
kw-hr usage, winter peak demand versus
winter kw-hr usage, and summer peak de-
mand versus summer kw-hr usage. These
latter relationships are more significant in
view of the increasing saturation of resi-
Paper 57-168, recommended by the AIEE Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee and approved
by the AIEE Technical Operations Department
for presentation at the AIRE Winter General
Meeting, New York, N. Y., January 21-25, 1957.
Manuscript submitted October 25, 1956; made
available for printing December 10, 1956.
R. H. SARIKAS is with the Illinois Power Company,
Decatur, Ill., and H. B. THACKER iS With Westing-
house Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.
'4.
Flg. 1. ResidentIal load survey plot plan
dential air conditioning. The annual kw-
hr versus demand relationship will not
provide reliable estimating results where
there is a mixture of air-conditioning and
nonair-conditioning customers and where
the yearly peak ordinarily occurs during
the winter. The inaccuracy of the esti-
mate is due primarily to the inclusion of
the air-conditioning kilowatt-hour usage
in the annual consumption figures.
Estimates of winter peak demands for
customers with large air-conditioning
usage, based on this relationship, will be
higher than actual demand, since the air-
conditioning usage contributes greatly to
the annual kw-hr consumption and adds
nothing to the winter peak demand.
The least-squares lines of best fit for the
summer and winter peak-period relation-
ships are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. A tab-
ulation of the pertinent statistics under-
lying these curves is provided in Tables I
and II.
INTRACLASS COINCIDENCE FACTOR
Use of test groups of varying size pro-
vides the data needed to evaluate intra-
class coincidence. Scatter diagrams of
test-group coincidence factors for summer
and winter peak periods along with the
hyperbolic regression lines are shown in
UD
z
Figs. 4 and 5. The test-group coincidence
factors, shown in the figures, are the ratio
of the maximum diversified demand of the
group during the 4-month peak period, to
the sum of the maximum noncoincident
demands, for each customer, during the
same peak period. These curves are
similar to those published by others.1.2.3
The coincidence relationship between
various test groups is obtained by com-
paring the peak demand period graphic
chart readings of the test group master-
meters.4
Surveys utilizing a single group size,
while desirable for some purposes, do not
furnish intragroup coincidence-factor in-
formation. However, the kw-hr versus
demand relationships discussed prev-
iously, can be derived. An example of
the results of such a survey, made some
years ago, is shown in Fig. 6.
INTERCLASS COINCIDENCE FACTOR
If the test locations can, in the aggre-
gate, be considered statistically repre-
sentative of the residential customers as a
whole, a load curve for the entire resi-
dential class of customers can be prepared.
If this same technique is used for other
classes of customers, similar load curves
can be prepared. When these load

AUGUST 1957 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics 565

 transformer, secondary, and service losses.
Similarly the rural test group kw-hr
master-meter readings (the master meter
is usually installed on a primary lateral
Lii
serving 30 to 60 customers) less kw-hr
sales, represents losses in rural primary
0 laterals, transformers, and services.
01-J When these losses are increased in propor-
y tion to total system mileage and trans-
-j z
formers they furnish data on losses within
0
z various segments of the system. These
data, when compiled for the entire system,
0 may be used to obtain loss multipliers for
z LUJ
0
-/ SOL ID CURVE: Y:O.C004c66X3-O.7615X 2 ' 364x'+ 1.2 2467
evaluating the effect of further system
.tDASHED GURVE: Y 2.4593 x3+6.4732ox2 -1.53917x+0O.S6
596 losses caused by losses in the distribution
2 system.,,6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 POWER-FACTOR DATA
The power factor of the various test
4- SUMMER MONTHS CONSUMPTION - MWHR groups at time of peak load during the
winter peak period is shown in Fig. 8.
20 Fig. 2 (above). Comparable information for summer
8 Residence test peak-period is provided in Fig. 9. Use
group, kw-hr con- of these data permits an evaluation of the
U,
16 sumption versus de- effect of such loads as air conditioning and
4 mand, summer-peak the improvement possible by such means
period as series and shunt capacitors. Data rel-
-Jz- 2
ative to the power factor of loads on the
I0 secondary system also permit an intelli-
~- 8 gent decision whether or not to use sec-
6 ondary capacitors after determining a
breakeven power factor for secondary
4 versus primary capacitors.7
Fig. 3 (left). Resi-
2 dence test group, LOAD FACTOR
0 kw-hr consumption
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 versus demand, Load factor can be obtained from an
4-WINTER MONTHS CONSUMPTION - MWHR winter-peak period analysis of the daily load curves or the
load factor may also be obtained from a
comparison of demand and kw-hr readings
curves are combined, the system load Loss DATA for a comparable period. The load-
curve is obtained. Such a series of load Loss data are obtained as a by-product factor versus coincidence-factor relation-
curves along with the actual system send- of the load study. For example, in the ship is also available. This relationship,
out from dispatching records is shown in residential test group shown in Fig. 1, the which has limited application in distri-
Fig. 7. Comparison of the series pro- difference between master-meter kw-hr bution planning, is useful in developing
vides interclass coincidence relationships. readings and total sales billed represents "selective selling" programs.8

1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 172 _ 1 1 08
0
0 0.7 A I
_ _ _I l O 07
U- 0.6 < 06
Li 0.5 a_"I%,-, ti I a 05

_ _ e- Se
0 z
z 0.4 oU 04
5 0.3 Z 03
z
0
0)
0.2 I_ - - &
0
0.2
0.1 01
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1I 20 22 24 26 28 31vJ 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
NUMBER OF CUSTOMERS NUMBER OF CUSTOMERS

Fig. 4. Residence test group, coincidence-factor relationship, summer- Fig. 5. Residence test group, coincidence-factor relationship, winter-
peak period peak period

566 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics AUGUST 1957

Use in Distribution Planning and Table 1. Urban Residential Electric Service.* Relationship Between Four Summer-Months
Design Kw-H r Consumption and Maximum Demand for Individual Customers During Test Period
15-Minute Demands in Kw
One of the most important uses of load
No. of Range of Tests for
characteristic data is in distribution plan- Average
Range of Four
Summer-Months Measure- Range of Middle Half of Cases
ning and design. Such data can be Kw-Hr Usedt ments Average Median All Tests Ranked by Demands
applied to local distribution design for
each customer class, as well as to over-all 346 .. Under 500 kw-hr ........ 139 ...... 1.21 ...... 0.8 . 0.3- 8.2 .......
1.5 . 0.5- 7.7 .......
0.5- 1.2
1.0- 4.0
718 .. 500- 999 kw-hr.....208 ...... 2.4 ......
system planning involving combined 1,224 .. 1,000-1,499 kw-hr..... 124 ...... 4.04 ...... 4.3 ... 1.0-12.0 ....... 2.2- 5.3
customer classes. 1,721 .. 1,500-1,999 kw-hr ..... 57 ...... 5.2 ...... 5.0 ... 2.0-10.5 . 4.5- 6.0
2,215 .. 2,000-2,499 kw-hr ..... 34 ...... 6.2 ...... 6.0 ... 3.5-10.0 . 5.0- 7.0
Loads of presently installed trans- 2,685 .. 2,500-2,999 kw-hr ..... 16 ...... 6.5 ...... 6.5 ... 3.4- 9.0 5.5- 8.1
3,289 .. 3,000-3,499 kw-hr..... 17 ...... 6.8 ...... 7.0 ... 3.0-11.0 . 6.0- 8.5
formers can be estimated by determining 9 .0 ... 7.5-11 .0... 8.5- 9.5
3,830 .. 3,500-3,999 kw-hr ..... 14 ...... 9.0 ......
the kw-hr usage of each customer served 4,182 .. 4,000-4,499 kw-hr.... 8 ...... 9.2 ...... 9.0 ... 8.0-11.0 . 8.7- 9.6
by the transformer and obtaining the 4,765 .. 4,500-5,499 kw-hr..... 7 ...... 11.2 ...... 10.0 . 6.0-15 .0... 8.0-10.2
5,847 .. 5,500-6,499 kw-hr ... 7 ...... 9.9 ...... 10 .5. 7.0-12.5 .. 9.8-10.5
individual customer demands from Fig. 2. 9,458 .. Above 6,500 kw-hr.... . 6 ...... 11.8 ...... 12.0 . 9.0-14.0 . 10.0-13.0
Application of the appropriate cinocidence * Data for all tables compiled at Illinois Power Company.
factor from Fig. 4 provides an estimate of
t June through Sept.
the peak load supplied by the transformer.
A nomograph to simplify this operation, Table II. Urban Residential Electric Service. Relationship Between Four Winter-Months
using an average of the four summer Kw-Hr Consumption and Maximum Demand for Individual Customers During Test Period
months (June-September), kw-hr usage
is shown in Fig. 10. A similar nomograph 15-Minute Demands in Kw
for estimating the winter peak-period No. of Range of Tests for
load, using an average of the four winter Average Range of Four Measure- Range of Middle Half of Cases
Kw-Hr Winter-Months Use* ments Average Median All Tests Ranked by Demands
months (November-February), kw-hr
usage is shown in Fig. 11. Similar
360 .. Under 500 kw-hr ........ 63 ...... 0.72 0.5 0.0- 3.5 ...... 0.4- 1.0
curves have been developed by others.9 760 .. 500- 999 kw-hr .. 197 ...... 1.8 1.2 0.0- 6.5 ...... 1.0- 2.0

The accuracy of the two demand estima- 1,231 .. 1,000-1,499 kw-hr ..... 117 ...... 3.4 4.0 0.1- 7.5 ...... 1.5- 5.0

1,735 .. 1,0500-1,999 kw-hr ..... 78 ...... 4.98 5.0 1.0-12.0 ...... 4.0- 6.0

tion nomographs is shown in Fig. 12. 2,240 .. 2,000-2,499 kw-hr ..... 49 ...... 5.99 6.0 1.5-10.0 ...... 5.0- 7.0

A number of companies are using similar 2,709 .. 2,500-2,999 kw-hr ..... 31 ...... 6.3 6.0 3.2-11.0 ...... 5.3- 7.0

3,242 .. 3,000-3,499 kw-hr ..... 17 7.98 ... 7.5 4.5-12.2 ...... 6.4- 9.4

schemes to monitor the loading of distri- 3,729 .. 3,500-3,999 kw-hr ..... 10 ..... 8.3 8.4 6.0-10.8 ...... 8.0- 9.0

bution transformers.'011 At least one 4,243 .. 4,000-4,499 kw-hr ... 11 ..... 9.0 8.7 5.5-14.5 ...... 8.4- 9.7

4,977 .. 4,500-4,999 kw-hr ..... 14 ..... 9.1 . 9.5 6.0-10.9 ...... 8.0-10.0

company has mechanized the operation, 9,414 .. 5,000-above kw-hr..... 6 .14. 14.6 .13.0 8.5-25.0 ...... 9.5-13.0

using punched card techniques employing * Nov. through Feb.

the computing machines normally used
for billing.'2
Safe overloads for distribution trans-
formers can be determined from an anal-
ysis of the daily load curves of the various
test groups. The frequency of occurrence
of the peak-load condition is of great
significance.'3 The relative magnitude
of the daily peak loads throughout the
year, for a typical distribution trans-
former, is provided in Fig. 13. These data
have been regrouped in the form of a
cumulative frequency polygon in Fig. 14.
This figure permits an estimate of the
drops at various points along the feeder. be adjusted by the ratio of measured to
The estimated load on each feeder can be estimated demand. If voltmeter readings
compared to the load recorded on demand at the regulated bus of each substation
meters installed on the respective feeders, bus are available for the peak period, the
and the calculated voltage drops may then sending-end voltage at the feeder may be
3.6 NOG S SEVICI 3.6
* NO GAS SERVICE AVAILABLE
* GAS SERVICE ALSO AVAILABLE
3.2 A APARTMENT BUILDINGS 3.2
*@A PRIMARY MEASUREMENT
OOL SECONDARY MEASUREMENT
2.8 2.8
w

probability of obtaining the true peak-

load of a distribution transformer using 2.4 2.4 O
cn ()
field measurements of a given duration. 0

Transformer-secondary system voltage- a:

w
2.0 2.0 r

drop calculations based on the resulting a- a-

load estimates, will furnish data useful Z

1.6 1.6 Z

from an operating as well as an engineer- 0

ing standpoint. If the loading and regula- z

r5C
1.2
z

o 1.2
tion of an existing transformer-secondary
combination exceeds design limits, data 30.
0.8
are available to plan an adequate rebuild. 0.8

PRIMARY CIRCUIT LOADING AND DESIGN 0.4

0.4

Fig. 6. Group co-

Since the load at each distribution incident demand
transformer along with the diversity be- versus average an-
n)
u
0

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

tween transformer loads can be estimated, nual use per cus-
it is thus possible to calculate the voltage tomer KWH CONSUMED IN YEAR

AUGUST 1 957 Sariktas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics 567

 ~~~~~~4 0

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I1

LU~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~oC
0~~~~~~
U
(D1 N0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0
_r 0 SIS0NINOSN±~ B

0~~~~~~~~~~~

0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~000
_
0
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

CN0 -J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
m 0

0 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
0
o 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 U,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
00

z W z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0C
Li) 0l
0~~~~~~~~~0
(1) ()g

oLU
0
o~~~~~~~~~
U

< 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00
0
Ld a: 0 CD 0 L 0 0
pD001 )jOd8 10 4U83JOd PO 18 0lOJdL

ZD 0
0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0 r-, F- c

LL w~~~~~B WU) LU
cli

wn N.1<w0G

V L
TIIlIInS (.......ID 1]:Iz
~
~~~~~~C
cIn

LU

m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0
0 (0 () 0 0 0 0 0 L

°
0 X 0 0 O 0 0
0 N 0 0 0 0 _ 0

PDOo MD0d 10 0U9D,0d pDOo1MaDd 10 IUO3iJd Z

Q VSSI9S8V NI NMOHS 0130i- 3MOd
SNIAVH SdnlOdo iS31 JO iN33d1d

568 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics AUGUST 1957

40
15000
10000 This latter information is obtained from INDUSTRIAL LoAD SURvEYS
35 billing data. The coincident demand for Since most customers in this class have
30 6001 5000 each area is then estimated by using the graphic-type meters for billing purposes it
4000
I
previously developed kw-hr versus de- is possible to obtain their characteristics
25- mand relationship, and intraclass and
3000 r2 both individually and collectively without
20- 30- interclass coincidence factors. Using this special surveys. To assist in future
15
50 2000-
0 method it is no longer necessary to assume planning, the characteristic-load curve of
1500
LL
2 that the entire load served by a substation various types of industrial customers
20- S
2
2 or a feeder is growing at the same rate. A was prepared with a composite-load curve
I0- cr 0
2 study using kw-hr consumption trends, of all industrial customers; see Fig. 7.
9- 2
0 1000
0
pinpoints the area where load is growing
8-
7- 10- a
4
900 0
2 most rapidly. Further, the load growth SYSTEM LOAD CURVES
0L
6- 0 B-
cr 800 I
picture of an area is not lost when load An analysis of system load character-
5 - Z-
2
6- 2 is transferred between substations or istics coupled with an appropriate cost
5.- 0 700 circuits.
2
D
4.
0
2 analysis based on a study of the contri-
4- z
3.:
4Ia: 600- z COMMERCIAL-GROUP LOAD SURVEYS butions of each class of load at various
3-
2
levels of the system; i.e., transmission, sub-
2- 500- A study of commercial groups provides transmission and primary, provides the
0Itr the necessary data to estimate trans- answer to many puzzling problems. For
4
2- 400- former loads and the necessary interclass example; when shall a customer be
4
I.0-
0.9- and intraclass coincidence factors to esti- served at 34.5 kv and when should he be
0.8-
0.7- 300- mate circuit loading. The duty cycles for served at 4.16 kv? What is the break-
0.6- 250- transformers serving this class of load even load, assuming equal accessibility
05-
are also obtained and may be used as a of both types of circuit? A complete dis-
basis for design and allowable loading. A cussion of the subject is more properly
FiS. 10. Demand esmation nomograph for group of typical commercial-load curves the material of another paper, but one of
urban reidential sevce, four summer months
kw-hr consumption are shown in Fig. 15. A tabulation of the the most important factors in the solution
pertinent statistics is provided in Table to the problem is an adequate knowledge
III. The pattern of these load curves is of load characteristics.
used as an "anchor-point," and the similar to those which have been de-
voltage at any customer served by the veloped by others."4 Load Studies by Other Utilities
feeder may be calculated. This would RURAL-GROUP LOAD SURVEYS
eliminate the need for routine secondary- Recognizing the importance of obtain-
voltage testing in order to keep informed What has been said for residential and ing load characteristic information, other
of customer voltage levels. Knowledge commercial load surveys also applies to utilities have been conducting load surveys
of the primary voltage existing at each rural group load surveys. A rel.ationship and utilizing the data obtained in many
distribution transformer would permit a between individual customer annual kw-
different design transformer-secondary hr usage and demand, has been developed; 40- 15000-

voltage drop for each transformer sta- see Fig. 16. The underlying data are shown 10000-
in Table IV. These data were obtained by 30-
tion, depending upon its location on the 8000-
feeder. The transformer-secondary com- installing demand meters at each residence 6000-:
ldr
2

bination nearest to the substation may and at the totalizing master-meter loca- 20-
100- 5000- I
be permitted more voltage drop than a tion. A large number of test groups were 80- ler
4000- 2
transformer-secondary combination near installed without individual demand 15. 60- 0

the end of the feeder. meters to obtain further data on group 50-
3000 1U'I-0
40-
Since iMdividual transformer loads are demands and losses. Since generally 0.
most rural customers are served by indi- 30-.
known, the loads to be connected to pro- 10- I,-
0:

posed feeders can be estimated with a vidual transformers, individual customer 20-
2000- 0

high order of accuracy. This eliminates load information is very significant. A is-
0
0
2
41
lz
1°0
difficulties which might arise if more load test has been initiated to determine the 0
2
0
1500-
1
is transferred to a new feeder than was individual characteristics of a carefully 6- 2
0
10-
intended. selected sample of our rural customers. 5. 8- 1000-
2 0
This will provide data on the duty cycle 4. 2 6-.
0
2
LoAD FORECASTING of rural distribution transformers serving 5- 41 800- 2
a:
A further use of these data is in the prep- single- or multiple-customer secondaries 3-
4-
600-
2

aration of load-density maps which show and further improve our knowledge of 3-
13
It

the coincident load in each unit of area.
This unit area is usually a square mile for
rural areas and 1/4 of a square mile for
urban areas. The load-density maps
are prepared by counting the number of
customers in each class within an area,
using distribution maps, and assigning
these customers the average kw-hr usages
of customers in their respective area.
kw-hr versus demand, and coincidence 2-
500-
relationships. The meters to be used for 2- 400-
this test are of a special design and have a
meter trough that can be plugged into the I '~~ ~~-
300d
customers' outdoor meter socket. This
trough will in turn accommodate the test
I 250]
meter and the customers' kw-hr billing Fig. 11. Demand estimation nomograph for
meter. Such an arrangement greatly urban residential service, four wintef months
reduces the cost of such a survey. kw-hr consumption

AxJGUSTr 1957 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics 5,69

 0
1. Curves showing the daily average 100 3 4 5 7
10 demand per customer for an average week-
day, and for the day when the test group
90

20_
reached its maximum coincident demand. z
w 80

z
30
40 -
2. The daily average load characteristic
0 per customer shown as a percentage of 0ir

(A
z
50_ maximum demand per customer, both Sz

60- for an average weekday and for the group 3L 0

f--
70 peak-load day. J

80_ 3. Coincident maximum demands per 40

90 customer and group load factor.
00 - 4. Noncoincident demand per customer as
100 90 80 a function of individual customer's monthly
PERCENT ACCURACY
kw-hr usage.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig. 12. Accuracy of transformer load
estimation, kw-hr method
ways. A representative list of problems
to which load data are being applied fol-
lows:
1. Load forecasting by determination of
class and system peak loads.
2. Determination of distribution trans-
former, primary feeder, and substation load-
ing for use in distribution system planning.
3. Economic determination of appliance-
promotion policies based on effect on
system load caused by load characteristics
of various appliances.
4. Development of load curves in various
portions of the system as a basis of design
for specific facilities.
5. Periodic survey of distribution trans-
former loading and development of change-
out schedules.
6. Determination of "cost to serve"
individual-load groups as a basis for evalu-
ating current rate schedules.
Many different methods and procedures
are used in making load surveys and apply-
ing the information.'0 One company has
selected customer groups of about 40
customers having some common electric-
load characteristic such as an average
peak-month kilowatt-hour usage between
100 and 150 kw-hr. Individual graphic
recording meters are installed on each
customer's service to record 1/2-hour
kilowatt demands for a 16-day period.
From these demand data and from kw-hr
usage obtained either by test data or from
meter books, the following is developed:
5. Coincident demand per customer as a
function of average monthly kw-hr usage
per customer for the group.
6. Diversity factors related to number of
customers and presented as absolute
diversity versus number of customers and
also in per cent of full diversity versus
number of customers.
Another company installs primary and
secondary metering to obtain:
1. Fifteen minute maximum kva (kilo-
volt-amperes) and cumulative kw-hr.
2. Kilowatt-hour and kilovar-hour usage
per hour and per day. Readings are taken
on primary feeders, at the distribution
transformers, and at the individual home.
These data is used in obtaining the following:
a. Daily load curves.
b. Determining the effect of tempera-
ture on hourly load variation of
appliance groups.
c. Determining kva demand versus
kw-hr usage of various appliance
groups. It is planned to use a program
for developing this information in
which data-processing machines will
eliminate a major part of the manual
calculations.
Another electrical utility uses a continu-
ing field check on certain selected trans-
formers to keep statistical data up to date
for use on their entire system. Recording
a eters and voltmeters are in contin-
uous service, measuring the loads on this
sample group of transformers, and sta-
tistical data are thus kept up to date by
periodically correcting according to data
obtained from the sample group.
As a means of simplifying and reducing
the cost of tabulating and interpreting
PERCENT OF DAYS HAVING LOAD GREATER THAN
LOAD SHOWN IN ORDINATE
Fig. 14. Daily load magnitude frequency oF
occurrence, group N-1, eight customers
load survey data, a demand meter has
been developed that records 15-minute de-
mands on a magnetic tape. The tapes
containing the 15-minute demand read-
ings can be fed into a machine which
punches the data on cards that in turn
are fed into data-processing machines to
obtain various desired information. This
new demand meter will considerably
speed up operations in interpreting load-
survey data and may well be justified
both for load testing and for demand
billing purposes.
IMPORTANCE OF LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
IN DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
DESIGN
Over the years, many changes have
taken place in the make-up of the distri-
bution transformer. The basic com-
ponents of copper, iron, insulation, and
oil have been improved by new process
techniques. New materials, tanks, finish
appearance, and protection have all been
points of design improvement. How-
ever, since the introduction of grain-
oriented steel, there has been very little
change in the basic operating character-
istics of the distribution transformer.
This is rather surprising in view of the
significant changes in system loads and
operating practices which have occurred

100
x
4 90

X 80
i : f ilA!gflunl.1

1~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~11~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I
4
P
Z 70
z

c 60
0
50

3 40
a. 30
Z 20
o 10

0
JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC. Fig. 13. Daily maximum loads, group
MONTH AND DAY N-1, eight customer
570 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics AUGUST 1 957
 YEAR 1954 - 55 Fig. 15. Com-
mercial test
CHAMPAIGN CHAMPAIGN groups, daily
SUMMER PEAK-WEEK WINTER PEAK - DAY load curves
10 o 0T
° 80 60 1 T1
a-
- so
'20 i F- N *20

12 2 6 T( 2 4 12 2 4 6 18 10 12 2 4 6 6 10 12 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2- 4 6 8 10 12
AM PM AM PM
a-

DANVILLE DANVILLE

o° mf
SUMMER PEAK- DAY SUMMER PEAK-WEEK
100
0.

0 60
° 60
° 40 20

20
u 100 40

2 4 6 P M0 12 2 4 6 6
A2 12 12 2 4 6 6 10 12 2 4 6 8 1o 12
60
AM PM AM PM
f-J

--I
DANVILLE DANVILLE
I
KEWANEE
WINTER PEAK- DAY WINTER PEAK -WEEK SUMMER PEAK - DAY
100 0. I0 1 I I/
00 1I
0
-J
so , soC 0 0
a
eol-ll r rvrI 1 T1
I 1 n
so
1 11
0
4o80
40
-r-l °l I- I III---l- -
I
°ITTIA- 1
I t
S 0
+i40- a-

0.
,,20 1 201 1 I I--
0
12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 6 10 12 12 2 4 6 6 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 i2 2 4 6 8 i0 12 2 4 6 8 IC
AM PM AM PM AM PM
I

KEWANEE
SUMMER PEAK -WEEK 11 T of 6

0.

a 4-
20
-11111AM
m
1P

0L2 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 Le J.,I
i i
AMl pM

Table 111. Urban Commercial Electric Service. Identity and Characteristics of Test Groups of Customers
Maximum 15-Minute
Demand for Group Annual-Load Factor Kw-Hr Per Kw of Demand Intraclass Coincidence Factor
No. of Summer Winter Kw-Hr Used Kw-Hr Summer Winter Summer Winter
Group Customers in Peak Peak in Year by Per Kw of Peak Peak Peak Peak
Location Test Group Period Period Test Group Demand Per cent Period Period Annual Period Period

Kewanee ...... 72 . 297 . 233 . 839,362 2,859 .. 32.6 1,175 ....... 1,006 ... 0.76 .... 0.81 . 0.68
Champaign .. 74 .. 6 i 23 .. 2,195,350 2,535....... 28.9
1,0. 996 ... 0.82 .. 0.87.. 0.76
Danville ..... 154 . . 724 574 2,110,427 1,122
2,917 .... 33.3...
1,089.. 0.67 . 0.73 0.66
Granite City. 74 . .477 . 297 1,468,179 3,081 .... 35.2
1,008 . 1,016 . 0.72 O.. 0 .. . 0.66
Mt. Vernon.. 60 402 306 1,212,050 3,020 .... 34.5....5
1,193 .. .... 1,180 0.63.7... , 72
Average ..... 87 . . .2,882..... 32.9..9 1,058.. 1,102 ... 0.72 . .78 . 0.69
Note: Summer-peak period includes the months of June-Sept. Winter-peak period includes the months of Nov.-Feb.

AUGUST 1957 Sarikas, Thacker-Distributxon System Load Characteristics 571


6 1
54
-z
4-4
> <
a 1244 . 1,000-1,499 kw-hr ...... 12.
0-
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CONSUMPTION IN MWHR
Fig. 16. Rural test group, annual kw-hr
consumption versus demand
in recent years. Load growth on the
distribution system has resulted in greater
load densities, and the advent of new
loads such as air conditioning and the tele-
vision set have resulted in a demand for
better voltage regulation. Such load
growth has also been accompanied gen-
erally by lower power factors and by
significant changes in the daily and
seasonal load curves. Perhaps the main
reason for there being little basic change
in the operation characteristics of the
distribution transformer, has been the
difficulty of obtaining load-characteristic
information which is sufficiently represen-
tative for the entire electrical utility in-
dustry to serve as the basis for evaluating
the over-all economics of transformer de-
sign changes. For this reason, load-
survey work such as described in this
paper is highly desirable.
A significant change in the load char-
acteristics of many areas of the United
States, having an important bearing on
distribution transformer design and oper-
ating practice, has been the trend towards
a summer-peak demand which approaches
or exceeds the winter peak. These
summer peaks, brought about mainly by
a growing use of residential air condition-
ing, occur at a time when ambient tem-
peratures and their effect on distribution
transformer loading are at an extreme.
Such loads also appear to have resulted in
a higher-load factor with attendant re-
duction in the ability of the transformer
to carry short-duration loads. Reduction
in allowable transformer loading is
certainly not to be desired from the stand-
point of obtaining the most use from the
investment in distribution transformer
capacity. Recognizing this, an improved
insulation system and more efficient cool-
ing has been incorporated in recent trans-
former designs, which has resulted in sub-
stantial improvement in life expectancy
and has allowed a greater margin of 6ver-
load capability. Other changes could be
572 Sarikas, Thacker-Distribution System Load Characteristics
Table IV. Rural Farm, Residence Electric Service. Relationship Between Annual Consumption
and Maximum Demand for Individual Customers During Test Peiod
No. of
Average Measure-
Kw-Hr Range of Annual Use ments Average
793 . Under 1,000 kw-hr . .....4.......
1908 ...... 1,500-2,499 kw-hr ...... 5 ......
3296. 2,500-4,499kw-hr ...... 14
5297 . 4,500-5,999 kw-hr . .....9
6720 . 6,000-7,999 kw-hr . .....8.......
- 9649 . 8,000 kw-hr and over.... 6 .
made along these lines at probable in-
creases in manufacturing costs. Justifica-
tion for such changes in the light of in-
creased costs must be based on studies of
economical transformer loading, recogniz-
ing the added cost of increased losses and
greater voltage regulation resulting from
heavier transformer loading. This could
be done, were sufficient information
available, by developing the relationship
between the annual costs of the various
factors involved in the application of dis-
tribution transformers and the average
load over the expected life of a trans-
former. Development of such relation-
ships, based on reliable information as to
load factor, cost of losses, cost of voltage
regulation, etc., provides a sound basis
for determining economical transformer
loading, and evaluating the desirability
of further changes in transformer design.
Conclusion
The work being done in the electrical
utility industry to obtain a more com-
plete and realistic knowledge of load
characteristics is producing valuable re-
sults. A knowledge of the character-
istics of individual and group loads of
different classes and how they combine
in various parts of the system is essential
to efficient, economical system design.
Many other benefits can accrue from a
greater familiarity with load character-
istics. Not the least of these are possible
changes in apparatus design to provide
greater operating economy to the utility.
Because of the importance of such informa-
tion to the industry, it is the authors'
opinion that load surveys and the free
exchange of resulting data should be
strongly encouraged by both utilities and
manufacturers.
References
1. COINCIDENCE-FACTOR RBLATIONsHIPS OF ELHC-
TtIC-SERVICB-LOAD CHARACTR.1STICS, Constantine
Bary. AIEE Transactions, vol. 64, Sept. 1945,
pp. 623-29.
2. EVALUATION OP INCOMPLBTELY DIVEERS'IED
LOADS, W. L. Tadlock. Electrical Engineering,
vol. 62, Nov. 1943, pp. 485-92.
15-Minute Demands in Kw
Range of Tests for
Range of Middle Half of Cases
Median All Tests Ranked by Demands
1.4 . 1.6 . 0.2-2.1 ..... 1.5-1 7
1.9 . 1.8 . 0.3-3.9 ..... 1.3-2.5
2.8 .......2.4....... 1.4-3.4 ........ 2.0-2.9
4.2 . 4.3 . 1.5-7.2 ..... 2 8-5 2
5.8 . 5.7 . 4.2-8.1 ..... 4.5-6 6
6.1 . 6.4 . 3.4-8.1 ..... 5.4-7 1
7.2 . 7.1 . 5.4-9.5..... 6.4-7.7
3. SYNTHETIC OR EQUIVALENT LOAD CURVBS.
R. F. Hamilton. AIEE Transactions, vol. 61,
1942, pp. 369-81.
4. TEE SUMMATION OP LOAD CURVES, R. P.
Hamilton. Ibid., vol. 63, Oct. 1944, pp. 729-35.
5. Table III of discussion by Robert H. Sarikas
of WHAT Do LOSSES COST IN HYDRO, TEBRMAL,
AND COMBINED SYSTEMS, V. W. Ruskin. Ibid.,
vol. 75, pt. III, June 1956, p. 336.
6. ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ENGINEERING
(book), H. P. Seelye. McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, N. Y., first edition, 1930,
chap. 33.
7. ECONOMIC MBRITS OP SECONDARY CAPACITORS,
R. A. Zimmerman. AIEE Transactions, vol. 72,
pt. III, Aug. 1953, pp. 694-97.
8. LOAD RESEARCH, AS A GUIDE TO SELECTIVB
SELLING, G. M. Turner. Electric Light and Power,
Chicago, Ill., May 1952.
9. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOAD SURVEY
AND TRANSFORMER-SECONDARY DESIGN, H. E.
Carpenter. Missouri Valley Electric Associatiox
Engineering Conference, Kansas City, Mo., Mar.
1955. (Available from the author.)
10. MBTER BooKc GIVES TRANSFORmER LOAD,
L. J. Weed. Electrical World, New York, N. Y.,
Sept. 6, 1954.
11. LOAD CRECK TEAT SMALL TRANsFORMER,
M. J. Urner. The Line, Sept. 1955.
12. COMPUTERS GAUGE TRANSFORMER LOAD,
H. E. Stratton, R. H. Joerden, B. M. Gal}aher.
Electrical World, New York, N. Y., Mar. 21. 1955.
13. ECONOMIC LOADING OP DISTRIBUTION TRANS-
PORMERS, C. F. Mitchell. Proceedings, American
Power Conference, Chicago, 11., Mar. 1956.
14. LOAD CHARACTBRISTICS OP "SMALL LIGHT
AND POWER" CUSToMERS-THEIR E CONOMIC SIG-
NIPICANCB, Constantine Bary. Electric Light and
Power, Chicago, III., Oct. 1955.
15. MANUAL OF PROCBDURE FOR LOAD SURVEYS,
Load Research Committee. Association of Edison
Illuminating Companies, New York, N. Y.,
Feb. 1951.
Discussion
A. H. Kidder (Philadelphia Electric Com-
pany, Philadelphia, Pa.): This discussion
was prompted by my inference for Mr.
Sarikas' paper that he proposed to use a
curve similar to Fig. 6 with one similar
to Fig. 4 as a moderately reliable basis for
estimating the maximum load on any given
distribution transformer installation. My
experience has taught me that the vagaries
of customers' meter-reading schedules, the
dissimilarity between the loads of appar-
ently identical residences, etc., make kw-hr
sales an unreliable substitute for distribu-
tion-transformer load testing; although the
information illustrated by the authors
does provide a practical basis for estimating
AUGUST 1957