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DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY/SOURCES OF
MORALITY

Morality – consists in the conformity and non-conformity of an act

with the norm

HOW DOES AN ACT RELATE TO THE NORM?

HOW DO WE KNOW THAT A GIVEN ACT IS MORALLY OBJECTIONABLE OR
NOT?

Human Acts relate to the norm under the following aspects:

a) In Itself = as a deed
b) In its Motive
c) In its circumstances

The 2 principal elements of the act, the object and the intention of the
agent must be ordained to the last end. The circumstances though
accidental to the action, must also be ordained to the last end, since they
could also be important.

These 3 aspects are called Determinants of Morality

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- determine how an act is rendered good or bad
on the basis of its relation with the norm
- the ordination of human acts to God depends
on them, in accordance with the condition of
created beings
- If these 3 principles or aspects are good, the
action is good, because it leads to God and
makes the agent better.

 “BONUM EX INTEGRA CAUSA, MALUM EX QUOCUMQUE

DEFECTU”
- It means that, a thing is good if it has the fullness of its parts and
it is bad when it is deficient in any of its integral parts

- In moral parlance: human act is good when it is good in itself, in

its motive, or purpose and circumstances. Defect coming from any of
those aspects renders an act morally objectionable. In other words,
like human anatomy, an act must have the perfection of its parts
- Thus, a thing to be good must be entirely good, vitiated by any defect
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I. ACT IN ITSELF/OBJECT

- To consider an act in itself is to regard its nature

- ACT = not simply a mental or bodily activity requiring an expenditure of
energy
= it is physical tendency towards a definite result

- we are dealing here with the human act performed, the deed done

- RESULT=a) end of the act (finis operis)

b) end of the agent (finis operantis) = motive of the doer

- In physical sense = some actions are bad because they produce such
evils as pain, hunger, illness or death
- In moral sense = actions are bad because they disturb the harmony
within the acting person
` = they are unfit to the natural and spiritual tendencies
of the human soul
= Moral evils also produce physical harm and damage
of oneself and others = they are moral evils
because what they destroy is the innate goodness,
the Image of God in our human nature
= Thus, moral evils are those that go against the
natural law

 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC EVIL

INTRINSIC - implies a quality inherent in a thing

- Thus, an intrinsic evil act is an act which is evil in
itself

EXTRINSIC - implies a quality which is superficially added to a thing

(Example, a coat of paint covering surface of the wall
without modifying the essentiality of the wood
constituting the wall)
- extrinsic evil – an act which in itself is not evil but is
made evil nonetheless on account of something else
- extrinsic evil act – that which, although good or
indifferent in itself, is however prohibited by the law

INTRINSIC EVIL ACT = certain actions are in themselves objectively

good and certain others are objectively evil. Men
have always regarded certain acts as good in
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themselves because as a matter of fact, they are

good
= by its nature, that is, by its functional purpose
is wrongful
= natural law = tendency of man to actualize
his potentials as a rational creature, that is, to
be a person
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- an act which prevents man from realizing his
true worth as a person is intrinsically evil
- ex. Murder, robbery, rape, adultery, lies,
slavery = they contradict the demands of
reason for justice, truth an decency
= these actions are evil, not only
because they cause unjust harm and
suffering to others but above all, they
dehumanize their perpetrators,
reducing them to the level of beasts/
animals/irrational

 TO KNOW WHAT KIND OF PERSON WE OUGHT TO BE ON THE BASIS

OF OUR NATURAL AND RATIONAL TENDENCIES = we can identify
with relative accuracy those actions that are to be avoided as
intrinsically harmful
- The Decalogue of Moses and many human laws – identify some
actions like blasphemy, stealing, untruthfulness, murder and adultery

 In the tradition and culture of all people – there are those actions
which are regarded with horror and great repugnance = this means
that it the consciousness of men certain actions are to be avoided
as extremely dangerous poisons; actions that cause misery and
physical afflictions to man

II. MOTIVE OF THE ACT/ INTENTION OF THE AGENT

- it is the purpose which the doer wishes to achieve by such action

- it gives direction and motivation to an act = without a motive, an act
is meaningless, and accident
- it comes FIRST in the mind as intention and occurs LAST in the action
as its culmination or fulfillment

WHAT IS A GOOD MOTIVE?

= one which is consistent with the dignity of the human person
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= one which is in accordance with the truth, justice, prudence and

temperance

BAD MOTIVE = one which grows from selfishness – such motive provokes
action detrimental to others
- Excessive indulgence of the self – a form of personal injustice to oneself,
nursing the greed that destroys others

Action springing from the self seeking its goal = such desire must be
moderated by prudence and fairness

Old Testament = a good man is called a just man

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- he acts rightly out of respect for himself
And out of his concern for others

 THE END DOES NOT JUSTIFY THE MEANS

- to the doer = an act is a means of achieving an aim or purpose
Ex. we study = to acquire knowledge, to pass the course, to receive a
degree, to qualify for a job

Wrong = to attempt at a good purpose by evil means

Examples:
- Student may not cheat in an exam in order to graduate
- Employee may not fake his documents in order to be promoted in job
- Public official may not accept bribe in order to finance a health center

The axiom “The End does not justify the Means”

- means that the worthiness of purpose does not make an evil act good
(nothing is more pernicious than for a hoodlum to believe that he is
justified in robbing the rich because he wants to share the loot with the
poor = Robin Hood)

 INSIGHTS ON THE EFFECTS OF THE MOTIVE ON THE ACTION

(Paul Glenn)

a) An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is

grievously wrong (an objectively evil act performed for an evil
purpose takes on a new malice from the evil end. If it has several evil
ends, it takes on new malice from each)

b) A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil

itself (An act which is objectively good but done for an evil end is
entirely evil. If the evil end is the whole motive of the act, an act is
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gravely evil if the evil end is gravely evil, and an act is only partially
evil if the evil is neither gravely evil nor the whole motive of the act)

c) A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an

additional merit (an objectively good act performed for a good
purpose takes on a new goodness from the good end if it has several
good ends)

d) An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending

on the motive

e) An objectively evil act can never become good by reason

of a good end

III. CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE ACT

An ACT = an event = it happens in a definite time and place

= accompanied by certain elements which contribute to the
nature and accountability of such act
In Law = we speak of mitigating or aggravating factors affecting a
criminal act
Morality = takes into account the circumstances surrounding an act
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- who
- what
- where
- with whom
- why
- how
- where
 WHO
- refers primarily to the doer of the act = who is the agent?
- at times, it also refers to the receiver of the act = to whom is the action
done?
- this circumstance includes the age, status, relation, family
background, educational attainment, health and socio-economic
situation of the person or persons involved in an act

Observations:

a) The moron, the insane, the senile, and the children below the age of
reason are considered incapable of voluntary acts and therefore are
exempted from moral accountability.
- But actions against these persons are normally regarded most cruel
due to their helplessness in defending themselves
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b) Persons with higher educational attainment are presumed to know

“better” than those with little education. Accordingly, their liability is
higher. Indeed, “to whom much is given, much is expected.”

c) Persons vested with authority have higher accountability than

those who merely follow their order or command. This is the meaning of
“command responsibility” which makes a superior or official
accountable for the actuation of those under their authority.

d) The relationship between people involved in act may modify the

nature of such act.
- In this sense, adultery is different from fornication, and parricide from
homicide

 WHAT
- refers to the act itself and to the quality and quantity of the results of
such act.
- what is the extent of the act? Was the injury inflicted serious or slight?
Was the amount stolen large or small?

 WHERE
- refers to the circumstance of place where the act is committed
- where was the act committed?

 WITH WHOM
- refers to the companion or accomplices in an act performed. This
includes the number and status of the persons involved. The more
people involved in the commission of an act, the greater and more
serious is the crime

 WHY
- refers to the motive or intention of the doer

 HOW
- refers to the manner how the act is made possible
- under what condition? Was the action performed by the agent done in
good or bad faith?
- How an act is performed contributes to the malice of an act

 WHEN
- refers to the time of the act
- when was the act committed?

 Observations:
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1) Circumstances may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of

an evil act

2) Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of a

good act

3) Some circumstances may alter the nature of an act

Ethical Principles:

1) An indifferent act becomes good or evil by reason by reason of its

circumstance

2) A good act may become evil by reason of circumstance

3) A good or evil act may become better or worse by reason of the

circumstance and may even take on new goodness or malice from its
circumstance

4) An evil act can never be made good by circumstance

5) A circumstance which is gravely evil destroys the entire goodness of an

objectively good act

6) A circumstance which is evil but not gravely so does not entirely

destroys the goodness of an objectively good act.

CONCLUSION:

Distinction between good act and evil act = it is not an illusion of the
mind
= There are good actions and there are evil actions and their
realities do not come from out mind
= Evil is not man’s invention = rather, it means that man uses
his freedom to do wrong
- only man can do something morally wrong = because only man has
the power to choose between what is good and what is wrong

 To be an authentic person is to be a responsible person. He knows

how to use his freedom only as an instrument to do good