MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH, SAFETY, ENVIRONMENT AND

QUALITY SYSTEMS

X edizione 2018

San Donato
 Master HSEQ 2018 – X Edizione

University of Pisa
“Master Universitario di I livello”
X EDIZIONE - 2018
MANAGEMENT of HEALTH, SAFETY, ENVIRONMENT and QUALITY SYSTEMS
dedicated to eni Upstream
managed by
Consorzio Universitario in Ingegneria per la Qualità e l’Innovazione
in collaboration with
Eni Corporate University
2
eni corporate university
 Master HSEQ 2018

University of Pisa
“Master Universitario di I livello”
MANAGEMENT of HEALTH, SAFETY, ENVIRONMENT and QUALITY
SYSTEMS

MODULE 7 - Environmental Management

Noise
Ing. C. Grassi

3
eni corporate university
 Sound and Noise

Sound is a vibratory disturbance created by a moving or vibrating source, in a gaseous, liquid medium or in the elastic
strain of a solid which is capable of being detected by the hearing organs between frequency range of 20-20000 Hz.

Noise is defined as (airborne) sound that is loud, unpleasant, unexpected or undesired, and may therefore be classified as
a more specific group of sounds. Perceptions of sound and noise are highly subjective: one person's music is another's
headache

Sound (and noise) is actually a process that consists of three components: 1) the sound source, 2) the sound path, and 3)
the sound receiver

Acoustics is the field of science that deals with the production, propagation, reception, effects, and control of sound. The
field is very broad and environmental noise and its abatement covers just a small, specialized part of acoustics

4
 Speed of sound

When the surface of an object vibrates in air, it compresses a layer of air as the surface moves outward, and
produces a rarefied zone as the surface moves inward. This results in a series of high and low air pressures waves
(relative to the steady ambient atmospheric pressure) alternating in sympathy with the vibrations. These pressure
waves move away from the source at the speed of sound, or approximately 343 m/s in air of 20° C.

These pressure waves - not the air itself - move away from the source at the speed of sound, or approximately 343
m/s in air of 20° C. Sound velocity may be calculated from the following formula :

c     p /   331 .4  T / 273  331 .4  1   / 273 

where:
c is the Speed of Sound at a given temperature, in meters per second (m/s);
γ is the adiabatic coefficient of gas;
p is the pressure in Pascal;
ρ is the air density in kg/m3
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin;
θ is the temperature in degrees Celsius.

5
 Sound waves

Sound pressure is defined as pressure variation around the static atmosphere value of them (~ 105 Pa).
The sound pressure waves are characterized by a sinusoidal periodic (recurring with regular intervals)

6
 Frequency, wavelenght and Spectrum

Frequency (Hz): is the number of times per second that the wave passes from a period of compression through a period of
rarefaction and starts another period of compression. The distance between crests of both curves is the wavelength of the
sound () and can be calculated as: λ = c/f Speed of sound( 343.3 m/s at 20°C)/ Frequency
The extreme range of frequencies that can be heard by the healthiest human ears spans from 16 to 20 Hz on the low end to
about 20000 Hz (or 20 KHz) on the high end.

To represent the
complete characteristics of a
sound properly, it is necessary to
break the total sound down
into its frequency components;
that is, determine how much
sound (sound pressure level)
comes from each of the multiple
frequencies that make up the
sound. This representation
of frequency vs sound pressure
level is called a frequency
spectrum.

7
 Decibels (dB)
Sound pressures can be measured in units of micro Newtons per
square meter (μN/m2) called micro Pascals (μPa). 1 μPa is
approximately one-hundredbillionth of the normal atmospheric
pressure. The pressure of a very loud sound may be 200,000,000
μPa, or 10,000,000 times the pressure of the weakest audible
sound (20 μPa). Expressing sound levels in terms of μPa would be
very cumbersome, however, because of this wide range. For this
reason, sound pressure levels (SPL) are described in logarithmic
units of ratios of actual sound pressures to a reference pressure
squared as follows:

P2 P
SPL  L P  10log10 ( 2 )  20log10 ( ) dB
Pref Pref
P is sound pressure
Pref = is a reference pressure, standardized as 20 μPa
The standardized reference pressure, P0, of 20 μPa, is the absolute threshold
of hearing in healthy young adults.

8
 RMS SPL Leq
The two most common ways to describe the amplitude of the waves is in terms Example
of the peak sound pressure level (SPL) and the root mean square (R.M.S.) SPL.
The peak SPL is the maximum or peak amplitude (pressure deviation); the
R.M.S. is derived by squaring the positive and negative instantaneous pressure
deviations, adding these together and dividing the sum by the number of Road traffic
pressure deviations.
Shootin
RMS is generally the value used to identify equivalent sound pressure level Leq,T g
as the sound level which in a stated period of time would contain the same
acoustical energy as the time-varying sound level during the same period.

1 t2 p 2 (t )
t2  t1 t1 p0 2
SPL  Leq ,T  10 Log10[ dt ]

Rain

Hammerin
g

Time

9
 Adding and Subtracting Sound Pressure Levels
Since decibels are logarithmic units, sound pressure
levels cannot be added or subtracted by ordinary
arithmetic means. For example, if one automobile
produces a SPL of 70 dB when it passes an observer,
two cars passing simultaneously would not produce
140 dB.
In fact, they would combine to produce 73 dB. This can
be shown mathematically as
follows:

2
 P1  P12
L
P1
P22
LP2

   
10 10
LP1  10 Log10 P02
10 ;
P02
10
 P0   LP1 LP 
 P12 P22   10 2

P P  2  2   10Log 10 10
2 2 2
P 10
  LPTot  10 Log10

Tot 1 2
P 2
P02  P0 P0  10

 
 
0

 
 n LPi

LPTot  10 Log 10 10
 
 i 1 
 

10
 A-Weighting, Noise Levels
Sound pressure level alone is not a reliable indicator of loudness. The
frequency or pitch of a sound also has a substantial effect on how
humans will respond. While the intensity (energy per unit area) of the
sound is a purely physical quantity, the loudness or human response
depends on the characteristics of the human ear.
Human hearing is limited not only to the range of audible
frequencies, but also in the way it perceives the sound pressure level
in that range. In order to approximate the frequency response of the
human ear, a series of sound pressure level adjustments is usually
applied to the sound measured by a sound level meter.

The scale weighting most common are called A, B

e C and correspond to the isophonic at 40, 70 e
100 phon respectively. In environmental noise
studies A-weighted sound
pressure levels are commonly referred to as noise
levels.

11
 “A”-Weighting Adjustments for 1/3 Octave Center Frequencies

12
 Sound perception

13
 Power and Sound Intensity
The Power of a Sound (W) is defined as the irradiated energy over time from one sound source. It can
be measured in Watt (W).
 W 
Sound Power Level can be expressed as: LW  10  log 
W 
 ref 
where:

Wref is the reference power sound conventionally assumed 10-12 W.

The Intensity of a Sound (I), is defined as the acoustical power per unit area in the direction of propagation, i.e. intensity is a
measure of the mechanical (kinetic) energy and potential energy carried by a propagation wave per unit area. It can be
measured in Watt per square meter (W/m2). W
I
A

The sound intensity decreases with distance to source. Intensity and distance
W can be expressed as:
With spherical spreading I 
4r 2
Sound Intensity level can be expressed as:
 I 
L I  10  lg  where: Iref = 1 pW/m2 = 10-12 W/m2
I 
 ref 
14
 Relationship Between Levels
The connection between Sound Intensity and Sound Pressure can be expressed as

P2
I
where: 0  c
p2 = sound pressures squared;
ρ0 = air density;
c = speed of sound.

ρ0 c product is about 400 Pa∙s/m at ambient conditions

 I   p2   2
L I  10  log   10  log   10   p 
I     c  I   p 2 
 ref    ref   0

i.e L I  LP
 
L  L 10 log A 
W P A 
 0
15
 Sound Propagation
From the source to the receiver noise changes both in level and frequency spectrum. The most obvious is the decrease in
noise as the distance from the source increases. The manner in which noise reduces with distance depends on the
following important factors:
• Geometric Spreading from Point and Line Sources
• Ground Absorption
• Atmospheric Effects and Refraction
• Shielding by Natural and Manmade Features, Noise Barriers, Diffraction, and Reflection
Sound Pressure Level Lr at the receiver is therefore given by (ISO 9613.2)

Lr  LW  DI   DS   D 

where:
LW is the source sound power; DI is the source directivity;
DS geometric spreading in dB(A);
∑D attenuation due atmospheric effect, barrier,ground absorpton, etc

16
 Geometric spreading from point source
Sound from a small localized source (approximating a "point" source) radiates uniformly outward as it travels away
from the source in a spherical pattern. The sound level attenuates or drops-off at a rate of 6 dBA for each doubling of
the distance (6 dBA/DD). In fact
 A
LW  LP  10 log  LW  LP  10 log4r 2 DS  20 logr   11
 A0 

Lp1=Lw-20 log(D ) -11 Lp2= Lw-20 log (2D) -11 Lp2 =Lp1-20log(2D/D ) = Lp1- 6

This decrease, due to the geometric spreading of the energy over an ever increasing area, is referred to as the inverse
square law.

17
 Geometric spreading from line source
Roads and railway traffic noise is not a single, stationary point source of sound. The movement of the vehicles
makes the source of the sound appear to emanate from a line (line source) rather than a point when viewed over
some time interval .
This results in cylindrical spreading rather than the spherical spreading of a point source. Therefore

 A
LW  LP  10 log  LW  LP  10 log2rl  DS  10 logr   11
 A0 
Since the change in surface area of a cylinder only increases by two times for each doubling of the radius instead
of the four times associated with spheres, the change in sound level is 3 dBA per doubling of distance. In fact

Lp1=Lw-10 log(D ) -11 Lp2= Lw-10 log (2D) -11 Lp2 =Lp1-10log(2D/D ) = Lp1- 3

18
 Ground Absorption/Attenuation
Most often, the noise path between the noise source and the observer is very close to the ground. Noise attenuation
from ground absorption and reflective wave canceling adds to the attenuation due to geometric spreading
Ground absorption and reflection is defined (for each frequency) as:

Agr  As  Ar  Am

AS is the attenuation close to the noise source (within 30Hs Hs i.e. the height of noise source from the ground), Ar the
attenuation in proximity of the receiver (within 30 Hr) and Am at intermediate distance
can assumed the value from -1,5 dB for hard soil to 0 dB for porous soil
Ar and AS values depend on Hs and Hr , frequency and type of soil. They range from -1,5 dB for hard soil (ice, paved
roads) to 0 dB for porous soil (fully vegetated), Am ranges from 3 dB for hard soil to 0 dB for porous soil.

It is common practice utilise Agr= -3 for hard soil and 0 for porous soil therefore
For point sources

Lp=Lw- 20log(D ) -8

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 Atmospheric Effects and Refraction

 Researches have shown that atmospheric conditions can have a profound effect on
noise levels also within 60 m from source. Wind has shown to be the single most
important meteorological factor within approximately 150 m, while vertical air
temperature gradients are more important over longer distances. Other factors such
as air temperature and humidity, and turbulence, also may have significant effects.

 Molecular absorption in air also reduces noise levels with distance. Although this
process only accounts for about 1 dBA per 300 m .

» Da= d/1000

 : atmospheric attenuation coefficient (in decibels/km) for each frequency

 d: distance source receiver .

20
 Natural and Man-made Noise Barriers
Diffraction and Reflection
Sound barrier attenuation : Abar = Dz – Dgr

DZ is the sound barrier attenuation at each frequency

Dgr is the ground attenuation in absence of the sound barrier

When the barrier is infinitely long holds the following (Makaeva formula)

Abar=20. Log√2ПN/tanh√ 2ПN

Where N is the Fresnel number , a is the distance source – top of the barrier , b is the distance top of barrier – receiver
and d is the distace source-receiver and N is the Fresnel number :
N =2/λ(a+b-d)

21
 Instrumentation

The instruments used for measuring or

recording noise is fonometer or Sound Level
Meter (SLM). For each type, the standard
requires three frequency weightings, A, B,
and C, and two response settings: slow and
fast. In addition, the standard permits other
optional features in an SLM, such as impulse
and peak measuring capabilities, wide
ranges for the display of sound level on an
analog indicator, digital displays, etc.

22
 Instrumentation
The microphone converts air pressure fluctuations into an electrical
signal that is in turn measured by instrumentation such as the SLM, or a
third –octave and spectrum analyzer, Microphones come in various
diameters. The 1/2 inch diameter microphone is most commonly used.
The air condenser microphone (most common) consists of a membrane
and a back plate, separated by an air gap. The width of the air gap
fluctuates as the membrane vibrates in a sound field, thereby hanging
the capacitance. Microphones of SLM complying with the type
standards are omnidirectional, have a flat frequency response and are
sensitive over a wide range of frequencies.

A compatible preamplifier, usually manufactured as part of the

microphone system should always be used. A preamplifier provides
high-input impedance and constant low-noise amplification over a
wide frequency range. Depending on the type of microphone, a
preamplifier may also provide a polarization voltage to the microphone.

23
 Instrumentation
RMS Detector : converts peak-to-peak signals to an RMS (root mean square) signal. The RMS measure is
derived by first squaring the signal at each instant, obtaining the average (mean) of the squared values, and
taking the square root of this average.

Amplifier - amplifies the electrical signal.

Frequency weighting filters (A, B, C): the "A-weighting" is used internationally for environmental noise
measurements.

Slow and/or Fast Response Switch: refers to time averaging characteristics of the SLM. On the slow setting,
the averaging of sound levels takes place over 1 second increments; on the fast setting the averaging time is
0.125 second. On a real time display (digital or analog) the sound level fluctuations are easier to read on the
slow setting than in the fast position. The latter, however, gives a better resolution of instantaneous sound
levels.

Range Setting: allows setting of the correct range of sound levels to be measured.

Analog or Digital Display : displays instantaneous noise levels and/or integrated averages. Digital displays
often have multi-function switches that allow the user to view various noise descriptors such as Leq, LMAX
etc.

24
 Effects of Noise

25
 Noise descriptors and definition
Lden - abbreviation for the Day-Evening and Night Level noise descriptor. It is the energy-average of the A-weighted sound
levels occurring during a 24-hour period, with 5 dB added to the weighted sound levels occurring during the period from 8
p.m. to 10 p.m. and 10 dB added to the weighted sound levels occurring during the period from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. it can be
calculated as follows:
L day (Levening5 ) (Lnight10 )

L den  10·log [(14 ·10 10  2·10 10

 8 ·10 10
]

Leq - Equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level is widely used around the world as an index for noise. It is
defined as "the A-weighted sound pressure level of a noise fluctuating over a period of time T, expressed as the amount of
average energy.”

Lmax - the highest sound pressure level in a specific time period.

Lx (where x= 1-99; e.g. L10, L50) - the sound pressure level exceeded x percent of a specific time period. L10 is the level
exceeded 10% of the time; L50 is the level exceeded 50% of the time.

SEL (Sound Exposure Levels) - is the total noise energy produced from a single noise event. The Sound Exposure Level is a
metric used to describe the amount of noise from an event such as an individual aircraft flyover .

LA (noise environmental level) – the equivalent continuous sound level measured in a site , when all noise sources are
emitting;
LR(residual noise level) – the equivalent continuous sound level measured when a specific noise source is disabled;

26
 Noise descriptors and definition
LD(differential noise level) - difference between noise environmental level (LA) and residual
noise level (LR);
TR (reference time) – the period of the day utilized to establish threshold values for Leq . In Italy the 24 hr of a
day are splitted in day time from 06:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. and the night time from 10:00 p.m. to 06:00 a.m.

Noise limit – maximum level of a noise descriptor that can be tolerated in a specified site . In the table Italian
limits

Land use classification Reference time

daytime Nighttime
(06:00-22:00) (22:00-6:00)
I – Protected areas 50 40
II – Mainly residential areas 55 45
III- Commercial and residential 60 50
areas
IV – High human activity areas 65 55
(traffic and commercial)
V – Mainly Industrial areas 70 60
VI – Only industrial areas 70 70
27
 Industrial Plant noise Impact prediction
Steps to assess the impacts are :

• Collect information about land use in the vicinity (about 1 km) of the plant and potential planning tools to be
applied;

• Analyze Legislations and Regulations in force in the country;

• Identify closest noise receptors and characterize them through noise measurements to calculate noise
descriptors in force in that country

• Characterize source of noise in the plant to be considered both during construction and during operational
phases in term of sound power for each source;

• Model noise diffusion from new sources to receptors to calculate the contribute of the new installation to LA
environmental noise

• Add the contribute of the new noise source to LA to calculate new LA

• Compare the new LA with the absolute noise limit and the difference new LA and LA with LD limit

Subsequently it must be evaluated the Power Plant impacts in two phases: Construction and operation phase.

28
 Case of study:
Impact assesment in a Industrial Plant (construction phase)

The potential impacts raised by the erection of an industrial plant will be essentially produced by the running
of soil handling machines.

Therefore, the activity will produce non-constant noise, sometimes not negligible, depending on the number
and characteristics of the operating machines. In general the most important component of noise produced by
such equipments is that coming from internal combustion engine exhausts.

The table summarises typical ranges for sound levels of some Noise Level
of the most common operating machines at a distance of 15 Machine [dB(A)]
meters. Sound levels vary according to dimensions, typology
Digging machine 73-93
and operating power levels. Lately all machines are produced
paying special attention to noise production. For this reason, Earth moving machine 73-95
if new machinery and models are used, it can be assumed Grader 74-95
that the highest levels among the ones presented in Table Lorry 70-95
are never reached. Concrete mixer 72-90
Cement pump 72-90
Pile driver 78-98
Compressor 81
Generator 78

29
 Case of study:
Impact assesment in the Power Plant (construction phase)
During this phase,number and type of machines to be used for the construction is hypotized .

Based on the noise levels formerly presented, assuming machines operating simultaneously producing a
noise emission level of 82,8 dB(A) at a distance of 15 meters each. It follows :

Noise Levels

Machine Number of [dB(A)]

machines
Distance = 100 300 400 800
15 m m m m m

Digging machine 1
Grader 1
Earth moving 1 82.8 66.3 56.8 54.3 48.3
. machine
1
Concrete mixer
1
Lorry
Generator 1
30
 Mitigation action during construction phase
The measures described are those applied in order to minimize the impacts produced by temporarily operating machines.
Such measures may be classified as:
• “active” measures, aimed to reduction of noise levels at sources;
• “passive” measures, aimed to noise propagation hampering.

In general, actions aiming to reduce operating machines noise at source through technical and operational solutions are to
be preferred to interposiztion of nose barrier generally not so effective.

Some actions aimed to reduce noise emission are listed below:

• Appropriate operating machines and equipments choice: tired vehicles are to preferred to tracked ones, silencers should
be foreseen on the highest power machines exhausts, etc;
• Operating machines and equipments maintenance: worn components should be replaced, rotating components should
be balanced in order to avoid or reduce vibrations, etc;
• Operational methods and construction yard layout: noisy operating machines should be located/oriented in the most
effective way to minimize impacts on receptors, cement bases should be used so as to reduce vibrations, etc.

“Passive” measures mainly consist of interposition of adequate protection panels between noise sources and receptors.
Screenings can be successful in a relevant reduction of the sound pressure. Noise screenings can be realized as follows:

• Making provisional barriers along the noisy areas of the power plant perimeter, using stockpile materials, soil, not used
machines;
• Making special barriers in order to protect receptors during the construction phase.

31
 Impact evaluation during Plant operational phase

In this phase, the noise directly and indirectly produced by the plant is considered:

• traffic induced by operation: for example this component could be not relevant, because the
number of employees arriving to or leaving the site at each work shift is limited; the traffic of
goods or wastes can be negligible;

• the noise levels induced by the plant in the neighbouring receptors must be estimated by the use
of software package (ex. Soundplan), using the ISO 9613 Standard.

The hardness terrain, the screening effect of the buildings inside the power plant , the power level of
each source are taken into account by the model.

32
 Drilling Rig Noise sources

33
 Case of study:
Impact assessment in the Power Plant (operation phase)
An example of results are reported in the following Figure:
Legend
Sound level

34
 The physics of underwater sound
Sound propagates over a range of biologically significant distances
depending on its frequency (from metres to thousands of kilometres), at
higher speeds in water (1500m/s) than in air (340m/s), and has frequency
dependent resolving power (higher frequencies giving increased resolution
but over a limited distance). Marine mammals hearing characteristics has
been shaped by the properties of the medium (water) in which they live

In fact Speed (c) is related to the square root of a medium's elastic

properties (bulk modulus) divided by its density. In a volume medium the
wave speed takes the general form:
B
c

Where B is the bulk modulus or elastic property of the medium ρ(rho) is
the density of the medium.

For water B=2.2*l09 N/m2 and  =1*103 kg/m3, giving a speed in water
of approximately 1500m/s.

Water density nevertheless is dependent on temperature and salinity . This

implies different sound speed in different water layers.

35
 The effects of temperature, salinity and pressure on sound speed
The speed of sound in water will depend on the density structure of the water column, which is a complex
function of temperature (t), depth (pressure) and salinity. These environmental parameters have important
consequences for propagation, and these are described below:

C (m/s)

Permanente thermocline

A typical sound velocity profile showing the "Layer"

depth (depth of maximum sound velocity or Vmax),
the sound velocity minimum (Vmin), the signatures Sound speed minimum (SSM)

of seasonal and permanent thermoclines, and the

signature of the deep water isothermal layer.

Deep-water isothermal layer

36
 The effects of temperature, salinity and pressure on sound
speed
The effects of temperature on sound speed (c): as temperature decreases with depth, speed (c) decreases. Above
the Sound Speed Minimum (Vmin) changes in temperature with depth have the greatest influence on c. Below the
SSM temperature is fairly constant, i.e. the water is isothermal. A change in temperature of 1°C (DT), results in a
3m/s change in c (Dc).

The effects of salinity on sound speed (c): as salinity decreases with depth, speed (c) decreases. Above the Sound
Speed Minimum (Vmin) changes in salinity with depth have the modest influence on c. Below the SSM salinity is fairly
constant. A change in salinity (DS) of 1PSU (Practical Salinity Units) (about 1gr sal per liter ) results in a 1.3 m/s
change in c (Dc).

The effects of pressure on (c): as pressure increases with depth, (c) increases. Below the Sound Speed Minimum
(Vmin) pressure has the greatest influence on c, as temperature and salinity remain fairly constant at depth. A change
in pressure (DP) of lPa results in a 1.7m/s change in c (Dc).

37
 Comparison of sound intensities measured in air and
water
 p 
Air Sound Intensity Level is defined as:
L I  20  log   20  log p 
p   20Pa 
 ref .air   
Water Sound Intensity Level is defined as:  p   p 
L I  20  log  20  log 
p   1Pa 
 ref . water 
It follow that a comparison between water and air noise level are not possible, unless levels are
adjusted each other:
1) the differences in acoustic impedance between air and water: rcwater = 1.5*106 and rcair =
4.15*102;
2) the differences in reference pressures used for air and water: pref water= 1 mPa and pref air = 20
mPa.

However, although the physics behind these adjustments is correct it may not reflect the
complexities of marine mammal hearing. Bearing this in mind and that direct comparisons of
hearing in terrestrial mammals and marine mammals is both controversial and flawed, adjusting
the levels to make such comparisons is a two stage process.
There is a very wide range of sound pressures measured underwater, from around 0.000001 Pa in
quiet sea to 10000000 Pa for an explosive blast. The use of a logarithmic scale compresses the
range so that it can be easily described (in this example, from 0 dB to 260 dB re 1 µPa).

38
 Comparison of sound intensities measured in air and water
Adjusting for differences in  p   20 
pressure reference levels: 20  log air   20  log   26dB
 pwater   1Pa 

Adjusting for differences in  I   c air 

10  log air   10  log   10  log( 3600)  36dB
acoustic impedance (rc):  I water   c water 

The difference between a LI measured in water and LI measured in air is: 26 dB + 36 dB = 62 dB

Therefore if a LI is measured in air it has been proposed that its equivalent LI underwater might be achieved by adding
62 dB, and, conversely if a LI is measured in water, substract 62 dB from its value to get its equivalent value in air.

However, this may be a risky comparison because the mechanisms leading to damage in the ear underwater may be
significantly different to those in the air.

39
 The propagation of underwater noise
A simple model of sound propagation is: RL= SL – TL

Where RL is the receiver level, SL is the source level and TL is the transmission loss.

Transmission loss is the decrease in intensity of a sound as it propagates through a medium, and is the result
of spreading, absorption, scattering, reflection and rarefaction.

Transmission loss can also be estimated by adding the effects of geometrical spreading (TLsp), absorption
(TLa) and the transmission loss anomaly (A). The transmission loss anomaly includes scattering loss and losses
due to reflection and rarefaction at boundary interfaces.

TL = TLspreading + TL absorption+ A

For simplicity we'll only deal with spreading (TLsp) since spreading loss is a major component of transmission
loss.

Spreading loss is range (distance) dependent. Two forms of spreading loss are common underwater : Spherical
or Geometrical spreading loss (TLg) and Cylindrical spreading loss (TLcy).

40
 Spherical or Geometrical spreading loss (TLg)

Spherical spreading loss assumes an uniform or homogenous environment that is typical of

deep waters (>2000m). Sound from a point source will spread outward as spherical waves,
and intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source:

R
TLg  20  log  R  R1
 R0 
Where R is the range in metres of the
receiver from the source and R0 is a
reference range, usually 1 m.

With spherical spreading, sound levels

decrease by 6 dB if distance is doubled
and by 20 dB when distance increases by a
factor of 10. R1 is the range in metres at
which spherical spreading stops and
cylindrical spreading begins.

41
 Cylindrical spreading loss (TLcy)
Cylindrical spreading is appropriate when the medium is non-homogenous. Non-homogenous
mediums are typical of stratified or shallow coastal waters (<200m), where sound is reflected or
refracted off the sea surface and seabed.
At a given distance from the source, which is long in comparison to the water depth, various
reflected waves combine constructively to form a cylindrical wave front. Where cylindrical
spreading occurs, sound intensity varies inversely with distance from the source:

R
TLcy  20  log R1  10  log 
 R0 
R  R1

Cylindrical spreading is applicable where the range of the receiver from the source is greater than
the depth of the water column or density layer, i.e. for R > R1. Where R1 is the range in metres at
which spherical spreading stops and cylindrical spreading begins. For ranges R< R1 TL is spherical.

Spreading loss for cylindrical spreading (R> R1) is less than for spherical spreading (R< R1), and
sound intensity decreases by 3 dB if distance doubles and by 10 dB when distance increases by a
factor of 10. Therefore, a sound source generated in shallow coastal waters or estuaries travels
twice the distance of an equal sound source in the open ocean.

42
 Man made noise and marine life

 Man made noise underwater can cover a wide range of frequencies and level of sound, and the way in
which a given species reacts to the sound will depend on the frequency range it can hear, the level of
sound and its spectrum. Both the sensitivity of hearing and the frequency range over which sound can
be heard varies greatly from species to species.

 As examples, the source levels associated with low-frequency pure tones radiated by supertankers and
container ships lie in the range 180-190 dB re 1 µPa at 1 m, while drill ship and dredging operations
generate broadband source levels of 185 db re 1 µPa per Hz at 1 m [1]. Shipping noise is the main
contributor to the ambient noise level at frequencies below 500 Hz.

 For man, sound is ultrasonic (i.e. above human hearing range) above about 20 kHz. However, for many
fish, sounds above 1 kHz are ultrasonic. For a marine mammal, much of the energy of an airgun may be
infrasonic, as many cannot perceive sounds below 1 kHz. These considerations indicate the importance
of considering hearing ability when evaluating the effect of underwater noise on marine animals.

 Concerns over the environmental effects of offshore seismic shooting using airguns impose the
utilisation of MMO (Marine Mammals Observers) .
43
 Oil and gas noise and marine life

 The activities associated with the oil exploration industry have historically
constituted a major source of acoustic activity in shallow water (< 200 metres)
and, in recent years, in deeper water as well. These activities range from oil and
gas drilling and production operations to marine geophysical surveys .

 Few information are available but some measurements indicate that the drilling
structure using a rotary turntable produces noise frequency below 20 Hz.

 Research shows that whales avoid sounds with a source level of about 120 dB .
There are sound sources in the ocean that produce noise levels much higher than
120 dB: Air guns used for oil exploration & geophysical research (216 - 230 dB);
Underwater construction Explosives ; Military sonars; Large ships.

44
 Air gun arrangement

45
 Underwater noise air gun and code fish

46
 Noisy Activities and Permits
 Activities that generate high levels of noise in the marine environment usually require a permit.
This normally requires that an assessment of the emitted underwater noise and vibration levels
and its related effect to be made. The monitoring and assessment strategy is likely to require
measurements of underwater noise to be taken and interpreted in a biologically significant way.
 Transmission of sound in the underwater environment is in fact highly variable from region to
region. Transmission Loss is measured by undertaking a series of sound measurements at
incremental range from a consistent sound source, and then determining the sound level decay
with range.
 As underwater noise propagates, different frequency components decay at different rates
depending upon the local environment.
 For example, the propagation of low frequency sound is inefficient in shallow water since it
typically travels in combined modes involving the simultaneous motion of the water and the
seabed, in which losses can readily occur. Consequently, at range a species with good high
frequency hearing (typically marine mammals) will perceive the same noise at a very much higher
level than a species with low frequency hearing sensitivity (typically fish).

47
 Vibrations Generalities

 Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic
such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.

 Often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound-noise and disturbance. For
example, the vibrational motions of engines electric motors, digging operations, or any mechanical device
in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be caused by imbalance in the rotating parts,
uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations.

 The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or "pressure waves", are generated by
vibrating structures; these pressure waves can also induce the vibration of structures. Hence, when trying
to reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.

48
 Vibrations Generalities
 Vibration wave is characterized as follows :
 amplitude (mm), linear displacement from equilibrium condition;
 velocity (m/s) of the displacement from equilibrium conditions;
 acceleration (m/s2 );
 frequency (hertz).

 Effective Acceleration is the most used quantity in vibration effects evaluation defined as :

1 T
T 0
a rms  a²(t) dt

Where a(t) is acceleration, T is the time of acceleration duration

 Similarly to noise dB are used to quantify acceleration level:

Lw = 20 log (aw / 10-6 ms-2)

49
 Generalities
 Modeling of vibration induced by industrial operations or traffic is very complex due to difficulties in
knowing either the characteristics of ground i.e transmission medium and the scarce knowledge of the
dynamic effects induced by the vibration reason.
 Assuming the ground as an elastic continuum, dynamic effects determine compression and shear
waves. Rayleigh and Love waves are also known at the interface between different media.
 Shear Wave: A wave in which the disturbance is an elastic deformation perpendicular to the direction
of motion of the wave.
Compression Wave: A wave in which the disturbance is a compression of the medium. (Compression
waves are also called 'longitudinal waves.‘
 Rayleigh waves are a type of elastic surface wave that travel on solids. It attenuate slowly and can be
perceived at long distances. Shear waves propagate at 30÷300 m/s; compression waves have
velocities 2,5÷4 times than shear waves.
 Trains and underground may determine vibrations having acceleration within 0.02 m/s2 e 1.5 m/s2 at
distance of 110 m from the rail.
 Vibrations and noise transmitted to buildings from operations are generally in the frequency range of
10-200 Hz

50
 Vibrations propagation and attenuation

 Similarly to noise vibration attenuation is characterized by three components:

• geometrical attenuation depending on the type of vibration source (point or linear) and on the type
of wave ;
• ground absorption;
• attenuation due to the presence of discontinuity in the transmission medium (soil layers with
different characteristics, underground pipelines , fissures etc)

 Vibration level at a distance “X" due to a exciting force such as the passage of a train or a truck is equal
to the vibration level at a fixed distance “X0“ less the sum of the different between “X0 e “X :

L(x) = L(X0) - iAi

L(X0 ) is generally determined by means of measurements performed in the vicinity (15-30m) from the
exciting cause (train, truck, drilling rig )

51
 Vibrations propagation and attenuation

 Geometrical Attenuation
Geometrical Attenuation from a line source of vibration such as a train rail or an highway is
:
» Ag = 10·log ((d+d0)/d)n
dove:
 d+d0: distance receiver –linear source [m];
 d0: reference distance ( at this distance Level of vibration is known)
 n=1 for above ground rail or highways
 n=0,5 for underground

Geometrical attenuation for point sources is double.

52
 Vibrations propagation and attenuation

 Ground attenuation
Ground attenuation depends on the type of ground, frequency an propagation velocity of
the wave and may be expressed :

AG= 4,34···x/c
dove:
x: distance from the source of vibration za [m];
: frequency [rad*s-1];
: loss factor of the soil

c = E/d
c: speed of the wave type concerned [m/s];
E: ground elastic module [N/m2];
d: ground density [kg/m3].

53
 Vibrations propagation and attenuation

 Discontinuity Attenuation
Discontinuity attenuation may simply evaluated considering that compression
wave displaces from soil type a to soil type c perpendicularly to the separation
surface between the two soils :

» Ai= 20·log[(1+dc·cc/da·ca)/2]

dove:
dc, dc soil density "c" e "a" [kg/m3];
cc, ca vibration speed of soil "c" and "a" [m/s].

54
 Vibration effects to buildings
 Propagation to buildings
 Propagation to buildings close to the source of vibration and the “answer” of walls and rooms depends
on the constructive characteristics of buildings. It is necessary firstly examining the interaction
between foundation and walls and afterwards wave propagation in the walls.
 Interface discontinuity favors energy dissipation enhancing attenuation . This attenuation depends on
the type of foundation .
 Wave propagation in the walls is important to quantify vibration effects on the buildings inhabitants
and on the resistance of floors and walls.
 Resonance phenomena may enhance vibration amplification especially in the frequency range 10 e 30
Hz. Problems may arise when resonance frequency of buildings are similar with peak frequencies of
ground vibration.
 Multistorey buildings attenuation value from a storey to the next is approx. 3 dB for lower storeys and
about 1 dB at the low frequencies for upper storeys
 To avoid buildings damage vibration velocity lower than 5 mm/s are recommended for new
constructions and lower than 2 mm/s for older buildings. Nevertheless vibration level capable of
producing building damages are higher than those capable of producing people annoyance . This
implies that guaranteeing vibration level acceptable for people is sufficient to protect constructions .

55
 Vibration effects to people
 The degree of “Annoyance“ to population depends on the intensity and frequency
of the vibration and on the type of activity population is doing when may be
subjected to vibration .

 Annoyance is due to a combination of effects involving hearing and tactile

perception of vibration .

 Vibration effects to people are not concentrated on a single receptor but involve the
whole body and generally promote a stress increase with following inception of
reactions leading to the worsening of diseases .

 Threshold under which vibration is not perceived is given by the Reither-Meister and
Dieckmann curves. For example at 50 Hz frequency perception threshold for
acceleration level is about 0,03 m/s2 ). As shown in the next slides regulations
establish acceptable acceleration level.

56
 Vibration effects to people
 ISO 2631 / Part 2 regulation “Evaluation of human exposure to whole
body vibration / “Continuous and shock-induced vibration in buildings (1
to 80 Hz)”. Establish threshold vibration levels
 The ISO 2631-2 regulation holds for vibration transmitted through solid
surfaces along x, y and z axes to people standing, sitting or lying.
 Frequency range is 1÷80 Hz and the regulated parameter is the RMS of
acceleration defined as:
1 T
 a(t) acceleration T time a rms 
T 0
a²(t) dt

 The regulation establishes three curves for acceleration and three curves
for velocity as a function of frequencies . The curves represent the
conditions determining similar annoyance to population for acceleration
along axes Z, X,Y and their combination. Values of acceleration are
below reported
57
 Satisfactory magnitudes for building vibration with respect
to human response
ISO 2631-2 regulation

Frequency Acceleration in m/s² · 10-3

[Hz] Axis Z AxesX,Y Combination
1 10.00 3.60 3.60
1.25 8.90 3.60 3.60
1.6 8.00 3.60 3.60
2 7.00 3.60 3.60
2.5 6.30 4.51 3.72
3.15 5.70 5.68 3.87
4 5.00 7.21 4.07
5 5.00 9.02 4.30
6.3 5.00 11.40 4.60
8 5.00 14.40 5.00
10 6.30 18.00 6.30
12.5 7.81 22.50 7.80
16 10.00 28.90 10.00
20 12.50 36.10 12.50
25 15.60 45.10 15.60
31.5 19.70 56.80 19.70
40 25.00 72.10 25.00
50 31.30 90.20 31.30
63 39.40 114.00 39.40
80 50.00 144.00 50.00
58
 Satisfactory magnitudes for building vibration with respect to human response
 Annex A of ISO 2631-2 regulation provides further information about criteria for evaluating vibration
impact: Multiplying factors are utilized for the values shown in the previous table to take into account
the reference time (day/night) type of vibration (continuous or discontinuous) , type of buildings (
hospital, house, offices industries etc )
 Multiplying factors are shown below

Multiplying factors (ISO 2631-2 Annex A)

Building use Period Continuos vibration Transient

Intermittent Vibrations
Critical working sites Day 1 1
(surgery, precision labs, theatres ecc.)
Night
Residential buildings Day 2÷4 30÷90
Night 1.4 1.4÷20
Offices Giorno 4 60÷128
Day
Workshops and other working sites day 8 90÷128
Night

59
 Thank you for your
attention

60
 NOISE ATTENUATION BY THE USE
OF BARRIERS

61
 6° floor

3° floor

1° floor

4 m – 1° floor
10 m – 3° floor
19 m – 6° floor

dB attenuation

HB
Sources Leq distance from emitting source comments
Compressor 1 87,0 2

Compressor 2 87,0 2

total point emission 90,0 2

totale emission 52,5 150

Environmental Noise LA 54,44 150 all noise ON + compressors

Residual Noise LR 50,0 150 compressors OFF

Differential Noise LD 4,4 150

EMISSION from COMPRESSORs 52,5 150 check

 Level time
[dBA] [minute]
Noise 1 50 10

Noise 2 30 30

Noise 3 60 20

Noise Equivalent
tot Level 55,4 60
 R1
A1

C1/2/3/4

W1

R2

F2

F1

67
 DAYTIME periodo 6.00 am -> 10.00 pm
Calculate the

• IMMISSION LEVEL @ R1 & R2

Sum of Residual + Emission
(logaritmic sum)

• DIFFERENTIAL IMMMISSION LEVEL @ R1

& R2
Subtraction of Immission – Residual
(arithmetic subtraction)

R1 R2 F1 F2 A1 W1 C1/2/3/4

Sound Pressure Level 110 115 97 89 94

@ 10 meter [dBA]

Operating time [hr] 16 8 16 4 6

Residual Noise [dBA] 35 45

68