R Nagaswamy - Art and Religion of The Bhairavas - Illumined by Two Rare Sanskrit Texts Sarva-siddhānta-Vivēka and Jñāna-siddhi-Tamil Arts Academy

Art and Religion of the Bhairavas
illumined by Two Rare Sanskrit Texts

Sarva-siddhanta-viveka and Jiiana-siddhi
Vidyavacaspati, Kalaimamani
Dr. R. Nagaswamy
Director, International Institute for Saiva Siddhanta Research,
Dhannapuram Adheenam, Mayiladuturai.
Tamil Arts Academy

Chennai - 600 090
2006
Digitized by Google Original from

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
Tamil Arts Academy Series - II
April 2006
Art and Religion of ~be Bbairavas
C With the Author

Dr. R. Nagaswamy
Director, IISSR, Dharmapuram Adheenam, Mayiladuturai,
Former Director of Archaelogy, Tamil Nadu,
Former Vice Chancellor, Kanchipuram University.
Pllbllsl,ed by :
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Dedicated to
Srila Sri. Shanmukha desika Jnanasambandha Paramacharya Swamikal,
the Mahasannidhanam, 26th head of the Dharmapuram Adheenam.

Preface
I dedicate this work with admiration and veneration to the greatest
Siva yogi, His Holiness, Srila Sri. Shanmukha desika Jnanasambandha
Paramacharya Swarnikal, the Mahasannidhanam, who is the embodiment of
Siva Caryd, Siva Kriyd, Siva Yoga and Siva Jndna, and the 26th head of the
Dharmapuram Adheenam, Saiva Mutt, Tamilnad, on his 81•t birthday. I had
the privilege of having his darshan and the benefit of his discourses on many
occasion and found in him singular dedication to Saiva worship and faith. His
knowledge of Saivism is unparalleled and he follows it as a way of life and not
as an intellectual acquisition. He lives every minute in Siva consciousness.
His Holiness has absolute faith in Vedic, Agamic and Puranic unity that is the
foundation of Indian ethos and culture and strives to contribute to its proper
understanding and appreciation.
He comes from the same lineage of the great Tamil Saivism founded
by Sri Maykantar and Guru Jftana Sambandar, the founder of Dharmapuram
Adheenam and also the great poet Kumaraguruparar and Velli-ambala-vana
Tambiran, who in his masterly commentary on Jnanavar8lla text, cites the
two texts Sarva-siddhiinta-viveka, and Jniina-siddhi, the two rare Sanskrit
texts that form the subject matter of this study. The present Sannidhanam
combines in himself all the knowledge and experiences of his predecessors,
and enlivens the religious life of this region. I consider this as an honour and
privilege to present this volume as an imperishable fragrant flower of offering
on his 81 •t birthday
This work bases its analysis on two rare Sanskrit texts, Sarva-
siddhanta-viveka, (Critical understanding of all religious systems) and Jfiiina-
siddhi (Achievement of Knowledge), through which the meaning and
identification of some of the immortal sculptures of India like Elephanta
Trimurti are rexamined. After introducing as many as thirty various Schools
of Saivism and •Sakta-Vdma tantras", the date and authorship of the Sanskrit
texts are detailed both from North and South Indian perspective.
The Jfiiina-siddhi is an unknown Sakta-tantra while the other text

Sarva-siddhiinta-viveka is a 11th cent digest giving extraordinary insight into

various Saiva systems. No other text, so far known, gives such detailed
information on Bhairava, Ka.palika, Kalamukha, Soma, and other schools of
$aivam as this one. Both the texts are given in original in the available form.
The Svacchanda Bhairava tantra, the authoritative text is cited extensively to
provide a clear picture of Vama-$akta ideology and Bhairava school of
thought.
It is seen that Madhya Pradesh (Central India) and other regions

including Kashmir leaned very heavily on Bhairava worship and so their
temples and sculptures are studied from that angle. The study also
reinterprets and corrects many doubtful identifications of Tantric and other
sculptures displayed in great museums of the world like USA, UK, Germany,
France and other Western countries, and also in Indian Museums. All the
revisions are based on textual and inscriptional sources. The art and history
of the ancient city of Uijaini, which seemed to have played a leading role in
Bhairava Saivism is lucidly explained. With over 24 colour plates and over
100 black and white illustrations, the book revolutionizes the study of the
monumental art of India.
I express my profound heartfelt thanks, to Dr. Bettina Baumer, who

presented me with Svacchanda Bhairava tantra with kindness and
encouragement. Prof. R.N. Misra, of Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla,
Dr. Kamalesa Dutt Tripati, the Director of Kalidasa Academy, Uijaini,
Sri Muhammad, Superintending Archaeologist, Bhopal Circle, Archaeological
Survey of India, Prof. Dwivedi, University of Gwalior and a large number of
other enthusiastic scholars who evinced great interest in this research.
I am greatly indebted to Sri. C.V.N. Ravi, the Proprietor of Jai Ganesh

Offset Printers, Mylapore, in seeing this book printed neatly with great
patience and dedication.
R. Nagaswam.y
5.5.2006

Preface
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Sarva-siddhanta-viveka 41
3. Jnana-siddhi 75
4. The Art of the Bhairavas 87
5. Illustrations 151
6. Sanskrit Text- Sarva-siddhanta-viveka S1
7. Sanskrit Text - Jnana-siddhi S 69
8. Bibliography 1
9. General Index V

1
Introduction
Sarva-siddhAnta-viveka
and JftAna-siddhi
Two Sanskrit texts, Sarva-siddhiinta-viveka and Jniina-siddhi, both of great

importance to the study of history of Indian Sivaism are included in this volume. This
work also gives a brief history about where these texts are found, the texts in original,
followed by brief summaries of the contents of both texts and a crtical evaluation and
their use to Saiva art and religion.
The text is found in a Tamil Commentary on Jniina-iivaral}a-vi/akkam' by
VeJ!i-ambala-v8Qar Tambiran who was an extraordinary Saiva exponent. According to
tradition he was a contemporary of the celebrated Kumara guruparar who lived in the
time of Tirumalai Nayak of Madurai who ruled in the middle of 17th cent. VeHi-
ambala-v~ar belonged to 17th cent. He is said to have gone to Varanasi to learn Saiva
systems, studied under Kumaraguruparar and has written an exhaustive commentary
on the Tamil Jnaniivarapa text. 2 The interesting part of the text is he cites many
important Sanskrit texts in a Tamil work. VeHi-ambala-v8Qar cites more than 180
texts.
Sanskrit and Tamil texts cited in Jniiniivarapa vi/akkam by VeUiyambalavil)a
Tambiran:-

2
1. Acintya-visvq-sadakhya- 34. Jnana-ratnavali 1134

dakshilJ{igama 253 35. Jnana-saram 65
2. Aditya-pura~am S 98 ! 36. Jnanasastra-pancakam
3. Ajitagamam 340 37. Jiiana-siddhi 114
4. Amba-sthavam 10 38. Jnana-siddhi(Prasada-
5. Anmartha-piija paddhati S 767 prakara~am) 78
6. Arivananda-siddhi T 126 39. Jnana-vaci!.tam T 165
7. Bhavi~iya-purapam 981 40. Jiianavara,:,a bhashyam 331
8. Bhima-samhita 41 3 41. JMnavara,:,am 53
9. Bhoga-kiirikii 737 42. Kalidasa 672
10. Bhuvana Tattvam 30 43. Kalottaram 402
11. Brahadaranyaka-bha~yam 103 44. Kamikam 228
12. Brahad-kiilottara 1055 45. Kanchi-manmyam 5
13. Brahmq~(b pura~am 413 46. Kanda-kiilottaram 646
14. Candra-dipam 65 47. Kanda-pura,:,am 229
15. Chidambara-mahatmyam S 1003 48. Kandha (SJ 646
16. Chidambara-manmyam 247 49. Kanmavara,:,am 53
17. Dakshi~a 1132 50. Kara~am 1003
18. Dakshi~agamam 252 51. Kira,:,am 806
19. Devi-kalottaram 348 52. Kriya-krama-dyotikii T 1009
20. Diksha-vivekam 53. Kriya-sara 727
21. Diptam 186 54. Kumara-guruparar T
22. D{k-drsya-vivekam 55. Kurum-tira(fu T 164
23. Gauflapadiya-vivara~na by 56. K ii(astha-dipikii 148
Bhagavadpada 104 57. Mahimnam 413
24. Gaufla-padiya-vivara~am 104 58. Mahimna-sthavam 424
25. Guru-sthuti 115 59. Makutam 674
26. Halasya-mahatmya 787 60. Makutottaram 257
27. Hira~ya-garbha-vedantam 71 61. Malini-vijaya 517
28. Hitopadesa 62. Matangam 656
29. .livaka-cintama~i 411 63. Mey-jnana- vi/akkam T 1168
30. Jnana-diksha-prakiisika 383 64. M_rgendra 663
31. Jnana-dipikii 72 65. MudumoJimevaippu T
32. Jiianadipikii T 83 7 66. Mukti niscayam 325
33. Jnananta-paribha~a 661 67. Nada-kiirikii 622

3
68. Navalinga-lilai T 181 103. Sarva-jnanottaram 218

69. Niriimaya-devar-(work) T 131 104. Sarva-mata-upanyiisam 185
70. Nisviipa-siiram 65 105. Sarva-siddhiinta-rahasya 1136
71. Nisviisa-karika - 26 106. Sarva-siddhiinta-sangraha 1135
72. Nisvasottaram 596 107. Sarva-siddhiinta-vivelcam
73. Paripur,:,a-siddhi T 107 108. Shad-padiirtha-dipika 1054
74. Panca-dasi 349 109. Shad-sahasra-kalatara 611
75. Panca-pra,:,ava-vivekam - 52 110. Siddhiinta-bodam 402
76. Pancanada-miinmyam 349 111. Siddhanta-cintya-visva-
77. Panciivara,:,a-sthava 1054 Sadakhya 95
78. Pariikhya 255 112. Siddhanta-dipika 186
79. Paramoksha-niriisa-karikai 227 113. Siddhanta-rahasya S 1130
80. Pariisaram 514 114. Siddhanta-samuccayam 187
81. Paushkaram 223 115. Siddhiinta-siiriivali T 1068
82. Ponvappattu-antiiti T 1003 116. Siddha-tantra 595
.
83. Prakatartha-vivaranam . 102 117. Siddha-tantra-agama 606
84. Prasada-vivara,:,am 118. Siddha-tantram 456
85. Prasiida-vifakkam T 119. Siva-dhanrmottaram T 900
86. Pujii-sthavam 684 120. Siva-dharmam 229
87. Pujii-sthava-vyiikhyiinam 1054 121. Siva-gila 784
88. Pundarilcapura-miinmyam 2 31 122. Siva-Jnana-bodham 390, 415
89. Ratna-trayam 633 123. Siva-Jnana- bodha-sangraham
90. Raurava vritti vivekam 224 228
91. Raurava-iigamam 217 124. Siva-jnana- siddhiyiir T 170
92. Rauravottaram 579 125. Siva-pralcasam
93. Rupiisvar iipa-ahava/ T 63 7 126. Siva-prakasam T 676
94. Saddsiva-r iipam 1054 127. Siva-pujii-sthavam 236
95. Saiva-nilcap_tu T 169 128. Siva-puranam also called
96. Siva-purii{Jtlm 404 Brahmiipfla-puriipam 32
97. Sakti-nipiita-ahava/ T 361 129. Siva-tantra-rahasya 665
98. Siililcanatha 430 1~0. Srimaku.tam 249
99. Sambandar-tevaram 595 131. Sriman mrgendram 255
100. Chiindo/chya-upanipuld 132. Suddhakhya 623
101. Samkp,ipa-siirirakam 102 133. Suprabhedham 341
102. Sankalpa-niriilcara,:,am 298 134. Suresvara-viirtik

4
135. Suta-samhita 170 154. Tolakappiyam T 715

136. Svacchanda-Bhairavam 26 155. Tiruvacakam T 960
13 7. Svacchandam 10 156. Tolakappiyam T 715
138. Svayambhuvam 472 157. Uttara-kamikam 507
139. Svetara,:,ya manmiyam 220 158. Vaise~ika-mata 611
140. Tarkka-paribha~a 459 159. Vakya-vritti 106
141. Tattva-dipam 65 160. Varna-tantra 1131
142. Tattvamirtam T 106 161. Varga-rahasya 729
143. Tattvaprakasa vritti ofAghora 162. Vasi~.ta-laingam 19
siva 830 163. Vatula-suddhakhyam 254
144. Tattva-prakasam T 189 164. Vatulottaram 341
145. Tattva-sangraham S 745 165. Vayavfya-puja-paddhati 692
146. Tattvasaram 65 166. Viiyu-pura~m 220
147. Tattva-siddhi 65 167. Vedanta prakara,:,am 111
148. Tattva-vivekam 102 168. nra-tantram 2 45
149. Tevaram T815 169. Visva-sarottaram 653
150. Thiru-mantra-malai 81 5 170. Vriddhagiri-manmyam 345
151. Thirup-puha/ T 7 171. Yogajam 413
152. Thiruve,:,kattu-manmyam 417 172. Yoga-saram S 720
153. Tiruvacakam T 960 173. Yoga-siddhi 65
(The numbers after the titles denote the page number of the book Jnana-
vara,:,a vifakkam. "T" denotes the work is in Tamil) (unless otherwise stated
numbers given in brackets in this and two more chapters refer to page number
of the book Jnana- vara~ vifakkam.

5
The Tamil Saiva Siddhanta school was founded by Meyk&J}ta Devar in his
Tamil work "Siva-jnona-bodham" written in the thirteenth cent. Arul Nandi in his
"Siva-Jifona-siddhiyor" 1 elaborated this text. These two works put together constitute
the basis of Tamil Saiva Siddhanta system. Another Saiva Siddhanta text, Jnona-
avarana-dipika was written as a supplement to the Siddhanta text Siva-Jnona-
siddhiyar by Guru Jft.ana-sambanda-miirtikal, the Founder Head of the Dharmapuram
Adhinam Ma!}la ofTamilnadu.
VeHi-ambala-vaI_tar who is mentioned as "Siva-Jiiani" and also "Rajata-

Sabhanatha-yogi" wrote this commentary on the Jnona-avaraJJa-dipika as vyakhyana-
vifakkam. He belonged to the Sanat-kumara-santana which elucidated Jnana-
avaraJJa-siddhanta4 (School). This was a tradition established by one Satya-Jftana-
darsi, followed by Paranjyoti who initiated Meykar_ll&', the founder of the Saiva
siddhanta tradition through his Tamil Work Siva-jnana-bodham. This was a translation
into Tamil of the Sanskrit text · Siva-jnona-bodham. In this line of teachers came
Kamalai-jiiana-prakasa who initiated Guru Jft.anasambanda who established the
Dharmapuram Adinam ma!}la. He wrote a text called Jiianavarar_la dipiki. VeHi-
ambala-vanar the author of this commentary obtained initiation from Masilamani
desika, the fourth head of the Dhannapuram ma!}la.
From this it is evident he had another but famous name Satya-jiiani and that he
was an Ati-vamasrami a recluse.
Sarva-siddhlnta-vivfka
The Sarva-siddhanta-viveka is a rare Sanskrit text dealing with various Saiva and
Sakta sub-sects that existed in mediaeval India. It deals with more than thirty sub-sects
among the Saiva and Sikta schools, their basic philosophy, the concept of Supreme in
each school, their mode of worship, and the texts they followed, that are of great value
to Indian religious history. They help in understanding monumental temples and
sculptures through out India that have come up in mediaeval times based on these
schools. The name of the author is not available but the date of composition can be
fixed with an amount of certainty. The available text consists of more than 840 verses
in anu~·qub metre with a few prose passages in between. In its original form it dealt
with other schools as well like Advaita, Mimamsa, Samkhya, Yoga, Dvaita, Bauddha,
Jaina and others, as its name "Sarva-siddhanta-viveka" suggests, like the ''Sarva-
darsana-sangraha" of Sayana Madhava,5 which has been published in more than two

6
editions The later text Sarva-darsana-sangraha is well known and extensively cited by
scholars but Sarva-siddhimta-viveka is not known. The present text shows that there
has been a tradition of compiling basic tenets of all schools for the better
understanding of serious students of philosophy.
JiUlna-siddhi
The other text Jnana-s iddhl' is an important source for the study of Saivism and
is also found in the same commentary on Dipika by VelJi-ambala-viJ).a-svamikaJ. It is
mentioned in the commentary that it is an Agama included among 224 secondary
Agamas and follows tbs agamic structure in its arrangement. This text in its original
contained more details but the available parts have been used to supplement what is
not found in the Sarva-siddhanta-viveka. Jnana-siddhi is in the form of a dialogue
between Siva and Devi and is ascribed to divine origin that parries authority as the
other agamas.
Both the texts available for us have neither the beginning nor the end and
presented here as found in the citations in their incomplete forms. As the citations are
selective there are gaps and also loss of continuity. In some instances same verses are
cited more than once. Such repetitions have been removed in this volume. The
citations occur along with many other quotations thus seem to fail in their
cohesiveness. VeHi-ambala-vaJ)ar has taken extraordinary care to cite the name of the
text and even the chapter from which he quotes, that makes the collection easy and
authentic. In one or two instances there still persist doubts as to the citations and its
text. Inspite of such difficulties the volume of verses cited from both the works is so
great that they stand out as monumental texts. As these two texts are not cited in any
study so far including the recent exhaustive Saiva studies by Sanderson7 or Goodal8 it
is obvious that these texts are not known to any and deserve to be brought to the notice
of the scholars in their present state of availability with notes and comments.
The Jnanavara,:,a had a bha~ya in Sanskrit from which VelJi-ambala-viQar

draws citations. At the beginning of the text, he makes it clear that he was composing
Pada-viveka (a commentary with meaning for words) for the Tamil Jnanavara,:,a-
vifakkam that was composed by Guru Jnanasambanda-desika,9 the founder of the
Dharmapuram Saiva siddhanta ma!}ta. This Acarya wrote three great works- Siva-
bhoga-saram, mukti-niscayarm and Jnanavara,:,a-vi/alclcam. As the contribution of Sri
Guru Jnana-sambanda, the founder of the Dhannapuram mat}la is a land mark in the

7
history of Tamil society and deserves to be properly appreciated it is dealt with in the
sequence. It is not known how close Jfianavar81.la Vi}akkam in Tamil, is to bhaplya in
Sanskrit. Obviously it is evident that Guru Jfianasambanda desika was steeped in
Jnanavara~ tradition, which is also called Jniinanta school, different from the
Karmanta school. Jniinanta School is also called Siddhinta Saivam. VeUi-ambala-
v~ar was also an ardent follower of the same school and hence wrote this Pada-
vivelca, now well known as Maha-bha,>tya. 10 As VeUi-ambala-vil}ar cites extensively
from both Tamil and Sanskrit texts, there could be no doubt that his work is a Maha-
bhapiya.
The benedictory verse of the Maha-bha,>t),a seems to sugges that

"Jnanavara~-vifakkam" of Guru Jfiana-sambanda-desika was known as
"Jnanavara~-dipikii in Sanskrit and that Ve!Ji-ambala-vil}ar's own work called
Arump-pada-vive/ca or shortly pada-vive/ca.
This work is an exposition of Siva-jnana-bodham and its great exposition Siva-

jniina-siddhi by Arulnandi Sivacaryar. The later work Siva-jnana-siddhi is in two
parts, as Parapakplll and Supak,na (the external schools and the Internal schools).
This text begins with the Supakplll of Aru}nandi. As the external schools have already
been dealt with elaborately in his Para pakplll, he begins discussing supakkam or what
we may call the internal schools and their refutation and finally establishes his own
School firmly.
So both the Sanskrit and Tamil texts dealing with the external schools have not
been elaborately discussed here. It is in a way a great loss to our knowledge, because
those portions dealing ·with Lokiyatas, Arhatas, Baudhdhas, Miyividins and others in
such text as Sarva-siddhanta-vivelca and Jnanasiddhi are lost.
It is however a matter of satisfaction that the extensive citations especially of

Sarva-siddhatanta-vivSca and Jnanasiddhi provided in this portion help us greatly in
understanding the Saiva Siddhanta in an all India perspective the like of which is not
furnished by other sources. This part establishes that by Siddhinta Saiva, it means the
Saiva _system that is based mainly on tenets of igamas like Kamikagama which in
essence is a combination of both Vedic and A.gamic path. In this school there is no
question of rejecting Veda or A.gamas. It also categorically states that Vedas are
considered the general texts" and A.gamas are the "specific texts". Secondly it also
holds that Siddhanta Saivas were classified as "the benign school" (Saumya) while all

8
the others were considered Raudra schools "the wild schools". Thirdly even among the
saumya schools, there are ~o distinct sub schools; one "the Karmiinta school" and the
other Jiiiiniinta school. Kannanta school is also considered external school and
"Jniiniinta" is called Siddhanta Saivam. This Siddhanta Saivam thus holds that the
observance of caryii, kriyii, and yoga as enunciated in the agamas, culminate in Jfiana-
knowledge like Vedanta, and that alone is the path of liberation. So Siddhanta Saiva is
called Jfiananta Saivam through out this text. The supremacy of Jniiniinta is
· consistently maintained and all ·other Saiva schools are held Purva-paksha i.e the
tenets of the schools are outlined and logically disproved. This means the followers of
other Saiva schools will reach certain stages in the path of Saiva liberation called
pada-priipti, while Siddhanta alone is considered the fruition of Supreme liberation.
Date of Tamil Siva-Jillna-bodbam
In the history of Tamil Saivam, the text Sivajiiana-bodham by Meyk~!a deva

is the foremost, assigned to the 13 th cent11 It is in 12 sutras. Earlier, the Tamil authors
and poets considered this text as a translation of the Sanskrit text Sivajiiana-bodha of
Rauraviigama. 12 However in recent times they are claiming that the Tamil Sivajnana-
bodham is not a translation but an original work. The 1956 publications of the Tamil
Saiva ma!}la published the Sanskrit text along with the Tamil text. 13
We have seen that VeHi-ambala-viQ.ar is catagoric in stating that the Tamil

Sivajniina-bodham is a translation from the Sanskrit Siva-Jiiana-bodha, found in the
pasa-vimocana-pa_tala of Rauravottara-iigama. 14 Another great commentator on the
Tamil Sivajnana-bodham was Siva-jfiana Yogi, whose work Siva-Jniina-bhii?tyam
and called also as Driivi~-mahabhii?tyam, lived in the 18th cent. At the very
beginning of the· first siitra he maintains that the Tamil work is a translation of the
Sanskrit Siva-jnana-bodham. 15 In his long introduction it is said that ~andikesvara
received this Sivajnana-bodham in Sanskrit from Srik~~ paramesvara. 16 N andi taught
this to Saint Sanatkumara, who transmitted this to Satyajfiana-dar§i from whom it
came to Param-jyoti, the teacher of Meyk~ta-deva. 17 Paramjyoti directed
Meyk~!adeva to translate this into Tamil, which he did and from then on the Tamil
School took firm root. Arulnandi Sivacarya wrote the exhaustive commentary on this
Tamil Sivajnana-bodham in his Sivajnana~siddhiyiir. Siva-jniina-yogi in his bhii?tya
mentions that this original Sanskrit text is found · in Rauravagama (and not
Raurvaottara iigama) (Also see another publication of Tamil Siva Jniina Bodham with

9
a commentary, Vedanta dipika, published in 1922 at Kumbakonam which says at the

title page" Vedanta dipika a commentary on Siva-jnana-bodham trans,ated into Tamil
by Meyk~!a Devar.) Whatever be the variations in the name of the original source it
was believed until 20th cent, that the Tamil Sivajnana-bodham was a translation from
Sanskrit. Thiru V. Kalyanasundara mudaliyar, the noted Tamil Scholar wrote in the
Samajam edition (1936) that the Siva-Jnana-upadesa was received from his Gurunitha
by Meykar:i!3-Devar who wrote the Tamil version (pl l). However it was M.
Balasubramanya mudaliyar who wrote the biography of Siva-Jftana-yogi in the same
1936 edition, asserted that the Tamil Sivajnana-bodham was not a translation, but an
original Tamil work (p. 24). From then on, the now populist scholars started asserting
that it is not a translation. But any one who reads the available original texts and
understands chronology will not be convinced by the present advocacy of independent
work.
Sri N .R. Bhat, who has edited many Saiva-agamas for the Frerich Institute of
Indology, Pondichery stated that the Sanskrit Sivajnana-bodham text is not found in
any known Raurava-agama mss and so the Tamil text should be considered an
original. The Sarva•siddhanta-viveka, published here which is earlier than Aghora-
Sivacarya, quotes three sutras verbatim from the Sanskrit Siva-jniina bodham. 18 So the
existing Sanskrit Sivajniina bodham is certainly earlier .than 11 th cent. We must now
agree with the earlier Tamil poets and scholars and hold that the Tamil Sivajnana-
bodham is a Tamil translation from the original Sanskrit text. The controversy may
now be set at rest.
The entire text of Sqrva-siddhiinta-viveka is based on this Siva-jnana- bodham

and hence should be viewed as a Siddhanta Saiva text per excellence. A careful study
of this school and the texts cited indicate that both the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta and
Siddhanta Saiva of rest of India are identical. It also shows that Saiva Siddhanta of the
Tamil region produced an enormous body of Saiva sastra literature in Tamil language
that spread Saivism among a vast population not fluent with Sanskrit language and
never struck an independent or conflicting path..
The Tamil soil was most fertile for this movement by its great devotional
popular upsurge created by the Saiva Nayanmars e_specially Tevaram saints Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and the Thiruvacakam of saint Mai:iikkavacakar. The age of the
Tevaram saints showed that Saivism went beyond caste and that trend remained

through out the centuries. In one and the same santiina paramparii- hierarchy· of
.Aciryas, we find both non-Brahmins and Brahmins as gurus. Eminent Acaryas, of the
agricultural Siidra caste were held as the most venerated Acaryas by even the most
eminent Brahmin Saivaciryas as in the case of Meyk&J.l!if and his disciple Arulnandi
Sivaciryir. The one distinct contribution of the Tamil Saivam is the total integration of
the Indian society under the banner of Saivism, beyond caste and creed.
This also gives a negation to the populist movement that Sanskrit is a

Brahminical language that was not available to the non-Brahmin community. The
shear volume of Tamil Saiva sastric texts, considerable number being excellent
translations from Sanskrit originals, by eminent Acaryas belonging to Vellala caste
(Siidras) shows that there was no linguistic divide. This text Jnaniivara,:za dipika by
Guru Jftanasambanda desika and VeHi-ambala-viQar is the best example of such a
great system.
S.N .Dasgupta has done yeomen service to the history of Indian philosophical
systems by publishing five volumes. 19 While he has dealt with all the major schools in
detail, the history of Saivam has not received adequate attention in his series. The
learned professor had a desire to treat the Saiva systems more exhaustively and was
obviously collecting data but could not complete the task in his lifetime. 20 .
Monumental temples dedicated to Siva were built and sculptures portrayed in

the whole of India and South East Asia. There had been overwhelming numbers of
Siva temples when compared to all other systems put together, but the history of Saiva
system has not received the attention it deserves. The present text gives more
infonnation and picture about this system than hitherto known. It is thus a very
valuable text.
The available text also gives the tenets of sub sects among the Sakta Varna
schools, which is another notable usefulness of this text. It gives nine sub-sects among
them throwing light on their diverse approaches. Interestingly it includes the Sakta
Varna school as a sub school of Saiva system and is thus a valuable source for the
history of Sikta traditionas as well
Different schools of Philosophies: Summarizing Tradition
The tradition of summarizing different systems of philosophy either for study or

for purpose of refutation may be traced to the siitra period. The "Brahma sutra" for

11
example refers to various systems and their refutations. The commentators like
Sankara have elaborated these various systems in the course of their refutation. This
gives us an insight into these systems and helps us in understanding the history of
· various schools.
Agamic tradition: M.Jigendra lgama
The Saivagamas taditionally list the exte1·11al schools from early times. The
th
Mfgendra igama for example which is an early text (earlier than the 10 cent) refers to
the following schools, the views of which are refuted from the Saiva siddhanta
standpoint.
1. Vedanta-vadi
2. Kapila's Samkhya school
3. Kanada School (Vaise~hikas)
4. Hiranya garbha school
5. Pltaftjala (Y~ga) school
6. Anekantika vAdi (Jains)
7. Saugatas (Buddhist school)
8. Sadasad-vidi
9. Panca-ratra school (Vai~~ava school) and
10. Padirtika-darsana
The Great Kashmiri scholar NArayw,akanJa (10th cent) has an elaborate

commentary on Mfgendra in which he gives more details about all these schools. 21
Svaccbanda-tantra
Another important text that gives similarly a list of different schools is the
Svacchanda tantra. This text is held by some scholars as not the original Svacchanda
bhairava tantra22 but should be considered a later work. However as the present text
has a detailed commentary on it by K~hemaraj~ a desciple of Abhinavagupta there
could be no doubt that it is earlier than 10th cent. The Svacchanda tantra is called
Mahamahesvara darsana and also as Svacchanda-naya. K~hemaraja himself was
called Mahmnahesvara icarya and his commentary called udyota. While the text
Svacchanda gives briefly the list of different schools K~hemaraji in his commentary

12
provides n1ore insight into the schools so listed. The following are the schools listed in
the text.
1. Samk.hya
2. Yoga
3. Pancaratrikas
4. Svabhava-vadis
5. Karma-vadis
6. Samsaya-vadis
7. Nagna-k~hapai;iakas
8. Bhuta-vadis
9. Laukika-vadis
10. Atma-cintakas
11. Tarka-pravadis
12. Vaiseshikas (also called Shad-padartha-parayai;ias)
13. Nyaya-vadis
14. Hetu-drishtanta-vadis
•
15. Eka-janma-vadis
16. Eka-vadis
17. Dhurta-vadis
K~hemaraja gives the following details on these schools.
Slmkhyas are those who hold that ignorance about the principles, Pralqiti and
Puru~ha leads on to worldly sufferings and their correct knowledge leads to liberation.
(prk(iti puru?lay6r aviveka miitriit samsiirah; vivekiit tu muktih ).
Yoga
are those who hold that realization of the nature of ones own self by the manifestation
of union of soul and the mind by steadfast retention bestows liberation :
cittaikagryiitma-yoga iivesa sampriipya- dri?lfa svarupiivasthiti muktih

13
Plllca-rltrikas The Paflca-ratris accept 26 principles. They hold that VAsudeva who is
of the nature of great splendour and who is the soul of Para-prakriti constitutes the
world.
(~imsati tattva - rupa mahavibhutyotmaka - Vasudevakhya -paraprak:riti

parinamatmaka -prak:rityodi jagad-vadi)
Svabhlva-vldl Contents that there is no such entity called God other than Nature that
causes bodily-fonn, instruments of perceptions and worldly spheres:
(Prithvyadayah svabh.ivma tanu-karalJ(J-bhuvana-kiiryam pravartante. Na punah

lsvarah asti iti evam vadl).
Karma-vAdi This school contends that action alone is the cause of the Universe and
nothing else. (It is not clear whether Karma here refers to Vedic sacrifices (yajfla-
karma) or simple worldly action. For there are many agamic texts that list Mimamsa
karma Saktas who emphasize karma and are known as Karma Mimiimsa/cas. But there
is no other mention of MimAmsakas in this list. In all probability it is the Mimamsakas
who are referred to here.
( karmaiva visvakiira!J(Im. na anyat iti acak~vanah)
Samsaya-vAdis are those who express doubts about all tenets.
Nagna-kshapanakas Are the Jains who argue as "asti nastl''
BhOta-vldis are the CMVruca.s who hold that there are only four basic elements namely
earth, water, air and fire that are seen visible and there is nothing else (prithvi app,
tejah vayu iti bhuta catu~_tayam eva pratyak~ drishtam asti iti kathayadbhih
carvakair)
Atma-cintakas: These are the Vaidika's who hold that all that have come into
existence and are likely to appear again are none other than the Supreme (p~ha
evedam sarvam yadbhutam yad ca bhavyam ityodi cintayadbhir vaidikais)
Tarka-pravldis Inferring causes for principles that are not known by other means is
called "uhah tarkah" a fonn of deduction. Those who insist on such a deduction are
the Tarka-vadis (avijilata tattve arthe karai:ri utpatti tattvajnanartham uhah-tarkah)
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14
Vai6,.atikas also called ~had-padlrtha-parly1n:,as: this school holds that there arc
only six principles namely material, quality, action, commonality, special
characteristics, and coherence (dravya, guiia, karma, siimanya, visi~ha, samaviiya
padiirthiikhya ~hadkam iva tattvam iti abhidadabhih kaniida s4hyiiih)
Nylya-vldas: This school is different from the Tarka School. The Naiyiiyikas believe
that knowledge of evidence about 16 principles provides source of liberation
(pramaniidi padiirtha _shodasa tattva jiiiiniit nissriyaso bhavati iti bhruviinaih
Naiyiiyikaih)
Hetu-drifh!lnta-vldi : Buddhist (Saugatas)
Ekajanma-vldi: this school asserts that there is no other birth than the present
(vartamiinam eva ekam idam janma; na tu janmantaram abhilt bhiivi vii iti
uditavadbhih)
Ekltma-vldi : This is the Advaita school which holds that consciousness is only one
and that is what Siviidvaitin holds as non dualism of the self-luminous consciouness
and independent Piiramesvara-siistra. (Piiramesvara-siistra-pratipiidita-svaprakasa-
svatantra - cid - advaya - viida - vyatir8:ena sattiidyadvaya viidibhih )
Dhorta-vlda lokaih : The texts expounded by Dhiirtas like Mlecchas (dhurta-

viracita-mlicchiidi siistra-ni~hfaih)
The above schools mentioned in the Svacchanda tantra and the commentary by
Kf!himariijii around 1000 CE would show that many sub sects were active at that point
of time.
Though the names of these different schools are listed, there were more such
schools which may number more than three hundred, says the Svacchanda Tantra".
The Tarka school starts with their questioning and always engaged in clearing
doubts rather than realizing the truth. Their concentration is on arguments and all ways
interested in winning over others. Those who do not have devotion towards the
preceptor, god and the Siistras, and waste their time in arguments are dry logicians,24
they abandon the true path and hence go to the nether world, as they pursue ignorant
path laid on unrighteous tenets. The four principles are Dharma, Jf'lana, Vairagya and
Aigvarya, righteous conduct, knowledge, determined rejection of desires and command
over self, unrighteous conduct; attachment to desires and non-control over self arise
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1S
out o( tamogu.!)Cl. Those who pursue Tarka system are over taken by Tamogu.!JCl. The
laukika knowledge is based only on right conduct dharmas. (Viirtii). The paftcaratrins
have the righteous knowledge. They (abhygamana, upiidana, yajna and a conclusion
that god himself becomes worldly element. Vaidikas preach both rituals
(kormiinu~fii.!JCl) and knowledge; the Bauddhas and Jainas are bound by rejection of
desires. The S~yas, emphasize, both prii.!JCl (knowledge and rejection of desires
(Valriigyam). The Piitaifjala yogin emphasizes Prii.!JCl Vairagyan and in addition self-
control. All these followers are born again after their demise.
The Paramesvara Sastra crosses these boundaries and so is called 'Atiinarga';

those who go beyond birth and death are Atimargins.
The Kapalavratins and PMupatas are not born again, as they remain steadfast in
lsvara. By the knowledge obtained through initiation (DJ1c§hii) and observing that
Saiva code of conduct the Kapalavratins go to their chosen abode. Similarly the
PMupatas who perform action like smearing their body with sacred ashes and repeat
god's name constantly, reach the abode of lord lsvara. 25 They attain liberation and are
not reborn, the Laukikas die and are born again and again.
PanmOkaba-nirl!l-klrikl
•
A text of another category in the Saiva system, that is of interest to this study, is
Para-mok~-niriitii-kiirilcii of Sadyojyoti Sivacirya, an eminent Kashmiri scholar
(10th cent). He begins his work with a citation from the Rauarava-iigama which he
calls Raurava sutra, and refers to Samkhya, Yoga, Vedantaji'lana, Pliflcaratra,
Mlihesvara yogis, Pramar_ia-agneya-kartritva, and Visikharnala-karaka schools.
Obviously these schools were earlier schools that prevailed in the time of early stage
of the Raurava iigama. BhaTT3-Rlirnak~!3 who was a desciple of Abhinava-gupta,
second half of 10th cent, wrote a commentary on Sadyojyoti-siva's work. As
mentioned earlier Sadyojyoti lists a number of schools external to Saiva siddhanta but
also many internal Saiva schools as well. Rarnak~~ elaborates all these schools. The
following are the Schools thus listed in the work. 26
I. Sarnkhyas
2. Pram31,1a-kartritva (Yogis)
3. Agntya-kartritvas (These hold that they will attain equality with Siirya and
Agni (Aditya agniyiidi samatii) by following their respective agamas)
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4. PravMla-nityesvaras
S. Pradipa nirv~a-vadi
6. Samana-tantrikas
7. Samutpatti-samkranti-vada
8. Utpatti-sama-vada-pak~ha
9. Sikha-samkranti-vadi (Pasupatas)
I0. Abhivyakti-samata
11 .Samata-samkranti-pak~ha
12. Avesa-samata-pak~ha
13. Ga1_1endra-sama-pak~ha
14. Svarupavapti-pak~ha
,
Is. Sivad-adikhya-pakl/ha
16. Guna-samkranti-vada
17. Ji'iana-samkranti-vada
18. Utpatti-samkranti-pak~ha
19. Gu1_1a-samkranti (Pasupatas)
20. Parama-avesa-pak~ha
21. Parinama-vada
22. Siddhanta-vadi
Maku!Agama
The Maku~gama provides the following list ofSaivas in order.
I. Ordhva Saivam
,
2. Adi-Saivam
,
3. Mahli Saivam
4. A1_1u Saivam
,
s. Avlinatara Saivam
,
6. Misra Saivam
7. Bheda Saivam
, .
8. Guna Satvam
,
9. Aji'ili Saivam
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17
The Maku!Agama is called a Mahiitantra, which is said to deal with Ordhva
Saivas. It also mentions divisions among the Saiva system as four namely Saivam,
,
Pliupatam, Somam, and Lakulam and holds Saivam as the best among the four. This
division is further categorized into two as Raudra and Saumya schools. The Saumya
'
• school is further divided into Dak~hir;ia (right) and Varna (sub- school). The discipline
enjoined in the Vedas is called Dak~hi,:ilicara while the system advocated opposite to
Dak~ir;ia is called Varna system. There are some systems in which there is found
mixture of both the systems that goes by the name Misra. (Makuta Tantravatara
Pa~a27 The Maku!3 is declared as the essence of Veda (and falls under Dak~hi,:ia
school.)
The Maku~gama defines Tantra as that which weaves expanding knowledge

found in rituals and mental imagery into a carpet and protects the follower. (The word
Tantra is split into Tan (weave) and Tra (protect) on the basis of which the above
meaning is derived.)
Sarva dariana sangraba
The most outstanding work on different schools of Indian philosophy in the

Sanskrit tradition is no doubt the "Sarva darsana sangraha" of various schools.
Siiyana's work, assigned to 14th cent is an admirable history of Indian philosophy and
scholars have drawn on it for an understanding of different systems.28 Sayana deals
with the following systems in his work.
1. Caruvakas 9. Rasesvara
2. Bauddhas 10. Vaiseshika or Auliikya
3. Arhatas (Jainas) 11. ~hapiida or Nyaya
4. Ramanujiya system 12. Jaiminrya
S. Puma Prajfla system 13. Paniniya
6. Nakulisa Pasupata 14. Samkhya and
7. Saiva IS. Patanjali yoga siitra.
8. Pratyabhijfla
Sayana mentions the sub sects among the Bauddhas and their tenets briefly as:
I. Vaibh~hikas 3. Sautrantika
2. Yogacara and 4. Madhyamika
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18
Dealing with Jainas, Siyana mentions the two m~in divisions amongst them
namely Svetambaras and Digambaras and their life style. Siyana also refers to
Vai~h1_1ava system as Ramanuja darsana, and mentions in the text Venkatanitha
(Vedanta desika) and Yimuna. The Dvaita school of VaiJhJ}avism is called Purna-
Prajna darsanam, at the beginning of which Midhvacirya is called Ananda-tirtha. ·
Four different Saiva schools namely Nakulisa Pasupata system, Saiva, Pratya bhinjna
system and Rasesvara system are dealt with. In the Pasupata school the Gana-kari/ca,
Haradattacarya, and N akule§a are cited as authorities, In the Saiva system Siddha-
guru, Bhojarija, · Somasambhu, Nariy&Qa-kal)!&, Saurabheya, M_rgendra-agama,
Pau~kara-agama, Karapa-agama, Tattva-prakasa, Tattva-sangraha, Kalatara,
Kirai;rz-agama, and Jnana- ratnava/i are cited as authorities. Somanandanitha,
Utpalacarya, Udayikara's son, Siva sutras and Kriyadhikara appear as authorities in
Pratybhijila School. The Rase§vara-vadins are also considered Mahesvaras. Govinda-
bhagavad-pada, Rasirl_lava, Rasa-brdaya, Rasesvara-s iddhanta and Sarvajila, and
Sarvajila Ramesvara bha!~aka, Sikara siddhi appear as authorities. The other schools
are cited mainly as respective Sutrakaras. The most important point is that Siyana does
not import his own conclusion on any of the schools, but reflects truly the respective
schools, though he has cited in each school the views of opposing schools and answers
them from the respective stand point.
On account of its objectivity, clarity and comprehensiveness, Sarva darsana

sangraha remains a leading text on history of Indian philosophy.
Sivlgrayogi's Saiva-pari-bhll{lhll
Sivigrayogi, who was almost a contemporary of VeJ!i-imbala-vil)ar, the

commentator, and lived in Tamilnad, has composed a Sanskrit text called Salva
Paribha~a'. 29
He deals with the opposing schools and establishes his own school based on
Saivagamas, mainly on Pau~kara. He deals with the following schools.
1. Bauddhas 11. Prabhikaras

2. Bhanas 12. Naiyiyikas
3. Pancaratras 13. K~hap&Qakas
4. Vaise,hikas 14. Samkhya
5. Caruvikas 15. Midhyamikas

19
6. Yogiciras 16. Sivasimya vadins

7. Pasupatas 17. Kapilikas
8. Mahavratis 18. Abhivyakti
9. Gu1_1a- Saiva 19. Utpatti Sarnya
10. Sankrantavadi 20. Samavesa
According to his school, experiencing the joy of Siva through union with Siva
is liberation, Sivakyabhavena, Sivananda anubhava eva mok~h.
We have seen that Sarva-siddhanta-viveka , brings the Varna systems under

Saiva group. The Kulamava tantra has the following to say on the subject. 30
"This world is constituted of both Siva and Sakti, consciousness and power, and
established in such a world is the Kula-dharma which is therefore the highest of all. It
bases itself on the truth of both Siva and Sakti and therefore it is the most truthful and
most wholesome. The six darianas are my limbs. He who differentiates among them
cuts across "my body". Therefore the Sastra of the Kula is none other than the Sastra
of the Veda.
"Vedantamakam Sas tram Viddhi Kaulatmalcam ".
There are seven recognized religious systems bestowing spiri~al merits on the
followers. The first is the path of Karma - the Vedic ritual; the second is V ai,h1_1avism
that emphasizes. Bhalcti, devotion to god; the third is Saiva which is a path of
meditation (dhyana) and Jnana (knowledge); the fourth is the Dakshi1_1a system that
harmonizes karma, bhakti and jnana. The fifth is the Varna school where
externalization (Pravrtti is turned into Nivritti (internal); the Dakfhi1_1a and Varna
schools are intended for a man of evolved nature. The Siddhanta is still for a higher
nature. The final is said to be the Kaula system which is claimed to be the essence of
all, the very Siva. It has been extracted from the ocean of the Vedas and Agamas with
the churning rod ofjnana by Siva himself. 31
Dealing with Dua-kirya thejnanasiddhi, shows that the text was in the form of
questions by the Devi and the answers provided by lsvara,32 as seen in many agamic
texts).

20
The Tamil tradition
The Tamil language has also a long-standing tradition of referring to different

view points of philosophical systems almost from the beginning of the current era. A
verse in the Purananiiru anthology of the Sangam age refers to a Brahmana of
Pfiftcarriir, whose family was Vedic Saivas, who were reputed for their mastery of
logic with which they refuted the other schools of thoughts and established the system
of Saivag~as taught by Siva33 • There are references in other Sangam poems to such
philosophical disputations.
Maipmekhalai
The most striking example of listing systematically other schools of thoughts is

found in the Tamil epic, MaJJimekhalai, the date of which is not certain, but probably
ascribable to 3rd 4 th cent CE. 34 It is a Buddhist text in which the heroine,
MaJ).imekhalai, visits different philosophers, and listens to the exposition of their
systems. Enumerating the schools she listened to, the text mentions first six ~ystems
and their authors, which are as follows:
1. Lokayata- Brahaspati
2. Bauddha- Jina (Buddha)
3. Samkhya- Kapila
4. Naiyayika- Ak~hapada
5. Vaise~hika- Kanada and
6. Mimamsa- Jaimini
The text then details briefly their tenets. Besides these six schools, (which are
considered ~hanmatas later), the text also says she met Saiva-vadi, Brahma-vadi (of
Hirru;iya garbha), Vai~hr:iava-vadi, Veda -vadi, Ajivaka-vadi and NighaJ).!a-vadi, who
seem to ·have formed another group of six systems. As she was not convinced of their
expositions she finally embraced Buddhism and became a nun.
Mar:iimekhalai says though they are not convincing systems, she is not refuting
any, as it is not her mission. (Ch., 27)35 Thus this text summarises 12 schools without
any debate, and would thus constitutes an attempt to give history of philosophies,
known to them then. But what is surprising is that it deals in long passages, the
Naiyayikas, Ajivikas, Jainas (Nighan!a-vadis), Samkhyas and Vaise~hikas and Bhfita-

21
vadis whereas the other schools like Saiva, Vai~hQava, and Veda -vadis are only
cursorily mentioned. There is no mention of sub-sects among various schools either.
Tivlram hymns
The Teva.ram saints, have given references to Buddhist and Jains, and their life
style in their devotional songs though in a negative way by ridiculing them.
Three texts of the Saiva canon, belonging to the mediaeval period, I 2th to 14th
cent, deserve attention in this regard. They are Jniiniimirtan by Vagisamuni, Siva-
jnana-siddhiyiir by Arulnandi-Sivaca.ryar 13 th cent, and Sivaprakasam. by Umapati-
Sivam, of 14th cent. ·
Jftlnlmirtam
Vagisa-muni, the author of this Tamil-text, hailed from Kodampakkam, a part

of Madras and later moved to Thiruvorriyur, an. outskirt of Madras, where he
expounded Soma-siddhiinta school of Saivam. 36 He wrote his work Jniinamirtam,
around 117 5 CE which belongs to the Saumya school of Saivam. The author refers to
Lokayata, Mimam.sa and Maya-vada, the last one was identified by one commentator
as Sivadvaita school. The treatment of these three schools is not exhaustive in this text
but gives only a bare outline.
Sivajftlna- siddhiylr
The second text, which is of great importance, is Siva-Jniina-Siddhiyiir by

Aru!nandi Sivacarya. The Tamil Saiva Siddhanta school, was founded by MeykaQ!3-
deva with his Sivajniina bodham in Tamil in the 13 th cent. Aru!nandi Sivam was his
·desciple who wrote an exhaustive treatise, expanding the Sivajniina- bodha . These
two texts form the main plank of Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. Aru!fiandi wrote his text37 in
two parts as (a) External schools and (para-pakkam) (b) own Siddhanta (su-pakkan;
Sva-pak!,a). It is in part I, the Para-pak!,a, he details various schools differing from
Saiva Siddhanta system. The later is considered the Jniiniinta-iivarana, school, which
emphasizes, path of knowledge. Consisting of 300 Tamil verses, it deals with views of
fourteen opposing systems and refutes them in detail.
The following are the systems that are detailed.
1. Lokayata 8. Sautrantika

22
2. Vaibh~hika 9. Yogicara
3. Madyamikas 10. Nighanta vidi
4. Ajivaka 11. Bhanacarya
5. Prabhakara 12. Sabda Brahma vadi
6. Maya vada 13. Bhaskara
7. Nirisvara Samkhya 14. Pancaratri
Among them are the four branches of Buddhism: Sautrantika, Vaibh~hika,

Yogacara, and Madhyamikas. The tenets of each system are first given in outline
followed by point-by-point refutation. While most of the other schools are dealt with
in detail Vaibh~hika, Yogacara, and Madhyamika Schools are treated rather
summarily in just two verses each. It may be seen that Naiyayikas, and Vaise,hika and
other schools of Saiva system are not dealt with at all in this text. However this may be
considered as an exhaustive text that throws light on different systems that held the
field in the 13 th cent.
Sankalpa-nirlkara911m of Umlpati
The third text of importance is San/ca/pa nirakarapam by that great and prolific
Tamil Saiva Siddhanta exponent, Umapati Siva, who wrote that work in Saka 1235 38
( 1313 CE). He mentions the date of this composition in the text. This whole work is
meant to refute the opposing views like the Para-pakp,D of AruJnandi, but with this
difference that he does not state or refute the well known opposing schools like
Lokayata, Bauddha, Jaina, Mimamsa, (Vaise~hika and Samkhya) as these are
considered external (purac-camayam). On the contrary he concentrates on the sub-
sects among the Saiva system. The following Saiva sub-sects are thus detailed in the
text and rejected.
1. Maya vada.
2. Aikya vada
3. P~h~a vada
4. Bheda vada
5. Sivasama vada
6. Sankranta vada
7. lsvara Avikara vada
8. Nimitta KaraJ].a Paril}ama vada, and
9. Saiva vada

23
Thus it is evident that_by about 1300 CE, several sub sects among the Saivas
have cropped up, each emphasizing their own system. If one takes the work of
Sivajniina Siddhiyar of AruJnandi and this Sankalpa-nirakaranam of Umapati, we get
a complete picture of history of philosophy, opposed to the Saiva Siddhanta school.
Even Sankalpa-nirakaralJllm does not deal with Kapalika, Mahavrata and other such
schools. The number of Sub Schools among the Saivas treated in the Sarva-siddhanta-
viveka is far more than in any of the texts mentioned above.
Ve1P-ambala-vl99r on Agamas
Some of the observations of Velli-ambala-vit}.ar on Agamas are interesting and

of historic interest. The Siddha-tantra from which he quotes extensively is called an
igama (606). Svacchanda tantra is called at places as Svacchanda Bhairava,
Svacchanda lalita, Svacchanda-lalita-bhairava-maha-tantra at other places. That it is
identical with the now available text is seen in a number of instapces for example
Tattva vijnana pafala from which he quotes is verbatim found in the available
published text. 39 Virtually the entire Svacchanda text is cited all over this work that
would enable one to take up a critical comparison and even edition of Svacchanda is
possible. However it is not attempted here as it is outside the scope of this work. The
followingpa_talas of Svacchanda are mentioned in this text.
l. Tantravatara pa/ala (43) 2. Gangavatara pa.ta/a (42)

3. Dik!za pa/ala (38) 4. Priisiida vidhi patala (38)
5. Sivaprapti patala (3 8) 6. Tattva-vijniina pa/ala (36) etc.
Svacchanda holds that Siva-tattva is sunya as it is the base of Laya-Siva (Laya

Siva adhi~ha.f.lll).There are many common factors between Svacchanda and Siddhanta
Saivam. Siva is called Bhairava Sadasiva, who is Rudra-miirti who remains in
Sadasiva form and not in other Rudra forms. Bhairava is also identified with Srikanta-
natha Rudramiirti. The Svacchanda also holds that one who meditates on Svacchanda
Bhairava deva will attain moksha quickly. There is also variation in the D ik~ among
the followers of the Bhairava School. B-hairava also had five faces. All schools
proclaim that their Supreme has five faces. The Bhairava school also hold that
Pasupatas, Rudras and others fall under piirva pak~ins. The Agama Jnana siddhi is a
Varna Dak~hiQ.a Tantra bheda. 40

24
Srauta Pasupatam was propagated by Upamanyu muni. 41 It was taught by Siva to
Siva in accordance with Sruti. Nilakanfa Sivacarya is a Vaidika Pasupata. Pasupata
system is divided into Vaidika Pasupatam and Tantrika Pasupatam. The Sarva-
jnanottara is a Suddha Saiva agama. It is also called Yoga samkhya agama42 • Some
authorities hold Soma siddhaIJ(a as a sub-sect of Kalamukha system. At places VeHi-
ambala-vru;tar refutes Aghora Sivacarya's views. 43 The teachings like Bheda, Mukti etc
are not found in contemporary texts. 44
Matsyendranltha Kania
Regardirig Matsyendranatha's date attention may be drawn to the view of

Gopimath Kaviraj, "Some Aspects of the History and Doctrines of the Nathas" 45
Gopinath Kaviraj discusses the possible age of Matsyendranatha and seems to hold
12th cent as a possible date46 though he also refers to 6th or 7th cent or even 1000 CE
held by others. In the light of the present text Sarva-siddhanta-viveka the 12th cent date
may have to be discarded. This text says that they belonged to the Kaula school of the
Siddha's path Matsyendra natha siddha matah kaulaka sm(lah41, who followed eight
texts listed as
Mantresvara Saiva,
Yantra Saiva
Divya Saiva
~ha-g~a?
Arka Saiva and
Yogini Siddhanta.
A gap 'in the text unfortunately, leaves a lacuna in the list but it consisted of
eight texts is made clear. The school is brought under Bhairava Saivam.
"Bhairavasyapi bhedasti". 48 The adherents of this school reach the abode of Bhairava
at the time of liberation.
Paftca mfirta are different from Paftca Brahmans;49 the Paftca mfirtas are Siva,
Sakti, Nada, Bindu and Sadasiva, whereas Paftca Brahmans are Tatpuru~ha, Aghora,
Sadyojata, Vamadeva, and lsana50
ThiruvaJluvar is called ThiruvaUuva nayanar. 51 There are two schools, that

bring Vidya Tattvas and Siva tattvas expounded in Siddhanta, under Vedanta.

25
Tattvariya school brings these tattvas directly under Vedanta, while the school of
Nirimayadeva includes them in their detailed exposition. So both Tattvariya and
Niramaya deva were Vedanta Saivas. 52
The five sacred acts of Siva Paiica Krityas are divided into three as Sthula
panca Krityam, Siik~ma Panca Krityam 53 and Anugraha-Pancakrityam and Siva
perfonns Suk~ma Panca kritya during the stage of samhara.
The school of Niramaya deva, who was an exponent of Vedantic Saivism, is
considered as "Nimitta karaJJa Parinama vadi" 54 • Though it is mostly akin to
Siddhanta, the Siva Vedanta is held to be a Parinama vada, of the Ekanma-vada. The
work of Tattva-rayar another school of Siva Vedanta, in which one attains the vision
of the guru- standing at the stage ofOmkara (prapava), expounds 68 tattvas. The work
of Niramaya Devar expounds 36 tattvas.
The text Jnana-siddhi is an Agama55 (Sakti Parinama vada)- Siva himself is
considered the guru svariipa. 56 J"'nana-siddhi expounds Guru-paduki at the end of
detailing Kali riipas. 57
Tbiru-mantiram
The Tamil text Thiru-mantiram cited in this text gives the following Suddha
Saiva lineage.· The lineage begins from Para Siva, and down upo Nandikesvara, falls
under divine origin.
Paruiva
.&.
Para Saldi
.&.
Sadasiva
.&.
Mahe§a
.&.
Rudra
.&.
vi,hl}u
.&.
Brahma and
.&.
Nandi

26
Nandi taught this Jftanamarga to four sages, who were also called Nandis.
Nandi
I
Sanatkumarar
I
Sanandar
I
Sanakar
I
Sanandanar
This Jftana school branched into two broad divisions - Vedanta marga and
Sidclhanta marga. Besides these four sages, four other sages also received this
knowledge from Nandi. They were Pataftjali, Vyagrapadar, Sivayoga mamuni, and
Thirumiilar. Vyaghrapadar was the giver of Jftanavarana school. (The other two were
probably the originators of Sudclha Siva yoga and Suddha Siva jftana schools)
Thirumiilar had the following desciples; Malangan, Indran, Soman, Brahman, Rudran,
Kanduru, Kalangi, and Kaftca malaiyan.
Jolla mlrga
How the main school of Jftana branched are detailed below in charts.
1. Sanatkumlra (Kumlra bbagavln)
Vedlnta mlrga Siddhlnta mlrga

~<;ladevar Santanam 1. MeykaJ}!a devar
(of the Sivajftana bodha school).
2. Malaiyaman devar santanam
2.Sanandar
San.Lam (the name of this Santanarn is not given)

3.Sanakar
Vedlnta mlrga Siddhlnta mlrga

Meyjftana devar santanam 1. Sivananda devar
santanam
2. Paramananda nayanar
santanam
4.Sanandanar
Vedlnta mlrga Siddblnta mlrga

Svariipanandar santanam Santanam
27
Among those mentioned, Siva-yoga-mimuni is probably identical with

Upamanyu-mahimuni who is mentioned as the teacher of Vaidika (Vedanta) Pasupata
system in many texts. The Pasupata system is known as Pasupata-yoga. Thiru-miilar in
his own work Thiru-mantram, states (in verse 102 of the Payiram) that eight maJhas
were established, including the one under his own name. The other seven were headed
by 1) Kalangi (Kalagni), 2) Aghora 3) Thirumalikai devar, 4) Nadantar. 5) Bhoga
devar, 6) Paramanandar and 7) Niramaya devar. The works of Thirumalikai devar,
Toiru miilar, and Nirimaya devar have survived and are in Tamil language. It is not
known whether the others wrote treatises in Tamil.
A total of eight belonging to Nandikesvara school are thus known.
Besides Nandikesvara, Vijftina-devar also known as Rudra-devar was the

originator of another branch that gave birth to the following branches. 58
1. ThirumaJikai devar santanam 2. VelikaJ)ta devar santanam

3. Vima devar santanam 4. Uttamanathar santinam
5. Karuviir devar santanam 6. ldaikkattu devar santanam
7. ThiruvaJ!uva devar santanam 8. Sivavakya devar santanam
These eight and the eight of Nandikesvar santanam, making a total of 16 were
called ancient Jftana santanams.
A few later santanams that came up are also listed. They are.
1. Thiru neri santanam

2. Thirup perunturai santanam
3. Thiru malapa<;Ii santanam
4. Nirainta devanar santanam
5. Singanatha devar santanam
and so many others. These five were probably active during the 17th cent.
It is seen that eight Santanam lineages are traced to Nandikesvara. 59 Of these

three Santanam that came through Sanat kumara had atleast two distinct branches as
Vedanta school and Siddhanta school. MeykaJJta devar is said to belong to Siddhanta
school. An interesting note says that this Meyka~tadeva of the Siddhanta school
followed the Siva-jnana-bodha marga which suggests that there was a specific lineage

28
before him that went by the name Siva-jnana-bodha marga. This is obviously identical
with the Sanskrit Sivajnana bodham of Raurava agama and that explains why he
translated it into Tamil.
From other sources it is learnt that Meykai,tar learnt Sivajnana-bodham from

Paranjoti munivar, who came in the lineage ofNandikesvara through Satyajfiana darii.
The other point of interest seen from this account of VeHi-ambala-vm,ar is four
out of the 16 Santanas that came out of Vijfiana devar alias Bhoganatha- were well
known to Tamils as great Siddhas. They are Karuvur devar, Idaikka4ar, ThiruvaHuvar
and Siva-vakyar. From this we learn they were also Santana acaryas. It may be noted
that Thiruva}Juvar, the great exponent of Thirukkura/ was recognized as a Saivite
Nayanar of the Santana Category. 60 Among the · other notables, Thirumilikai-devar
sang a delightful Thiru-visaippa poem on Siva included in an anthology of Saiva
canonical text. The other lineages mentioned are otherwise not so well known.
The Dak~hi1_1a school is included as a branch of Varna school. (Vama bhedam

and Dak~ipa matam)61 VeHi-ambala-va1_1ar cites an interesting passage from
Cintyagamam which divides Suddha Saiva school into three categories as (I) Varna
saivam, (2) Dak~hi1_1a saivam and (3) Siddhanta saivam. The school that follows the
Miilavatilra tantras is called Varna Saivam; that which follows Svacchanda school is
Dak~hi1_1a saivam and the one that follows Agamas like Kamika etc. is Siddhanta
saivam.
Vilma dakshilJtl Siddhantam Tridhatah Suddha Saivakam

Miilavatilra tantram Sastram Yad Vilma Saivakam
Svacchandildi Silstram Dak~iIJOm Saivam ucyate
Kamikadlni tantrani Siddhantam Saivam ucyate
VeJli-ambala-v~ar seems to suggest that there existed a Saiva nighap,U that

was cited in Cintyagama. 62
The Agama like Sarva Jnanatara were considered a branch of Saiva Samkhya
in the Jnana siddhi. 63
VeHi-ambala-vaJ}iir has quoted the important part of Navalinga lilai, a Tamil

text of the Vira-Saivas. The Kamikagama also refers to Garuda saivam, Bhiita tantra,
Dak~ipa saivam, and Vilma tantra. 64

29
VeHi-ambala-vaqar says Kalamukha school was also called by some as Soma

Saivam.65
The Vatulagama according VeHi-ambala-vaQar is called a Mahavrata tantra. 66

Wearing a linga on the body is also mentioned in Kami/ca that speaks of Suddha Saiva.
The linga dharana is also prescribed for Mahavratis and for Pasupatas. Even as the
Sri-Parvata mountain (now in Andhra Pradesh) is important for Virasaivas, the
Thiruvorriyur a part of Madras is very important for Mahavratis.
The Tantrika Pasupata system is divided into three branches as Candra vada,
Surya vada, and Sama vada. 67
The Vaidika Pasupata system originally taught by Siva to Devi, was propagated
by saint Upamanyu (Srauta Pasupatam ~ama Srutyanusarena Sivayai Sivena priiktah
Upamanyu adibhih Pravartitah iti Jneyam).
VeHi-ambala-vil_lar holds that Nilakanta Sivacarya was a Vaidika Pasupata.

Also he says that Candra vadi were a branch of Pasupata system, and Kalesvara
Vadins are a branch ofKapala Saivas. VeHi-ambala-vil_lar says that Soma Siddhanta is
a branch of Kalamukha bheda.
These schools are not now in practise says Ve}!i-ambala-v~ar68 obviously

these schools of Pasupatas and Kipalikas went out of existence by 17th cent.
VeHi-ambala-vat_1ar says Makutagama is considered Dak~hil}a Saiva. The 25

Agamas beginning from the Kami/ca are divided into three as Dak~hil}a, Varna, and
Mi,ra. Among them Makuta is brought under Dak~hil}a branch.
The Yoga Saivam is called Saha-margam. The Yoga-jftana-matam, Parayoga-

matam, Ni~hkala-yoga-matam, Paramukti-vida-matam, and Saiva Samkhya-
Siddhanta-bhedam are all synonyms.
The Vaidika-vedanta has Jnana samkhya also known as Kapila sankhyas as its
limb, while the Yoga Samkhya is known as Patanjala samkhya. Similarly there are
Saiva Samkhya a limb of Karmavara1Jll Siddhanta and the Joana and Yoga Samkhya
as limbs of Jnanavara{JQ Siddhanta.

30
VeHi-ambala-vaQar holds Siva-jnana-budha as a Jnanavarapa Siddhanta

iigama. 69 That Sivajniina biidha ( obviously the Sanskrit one) is called Agama points to
its importance and its place in Agama literature.
VJra Saivam
VeHi-ambala-vaQar, gives some important details about Dak~hit_1a-mata

Siddhanta. He says the Dak~hi1_1a Saiva School, is now known as Y--ira saivas in modem
times. 70 That the Vira §aivas were recognized as Dak~hi1_1a §aivas in the time of VeJli-
ambala-vaQar in 17th cent, who however does not cite any Sanskrit text, to outline the
Virasaiva school. On the other hand he cites a Tamil work 'Navalinga Lilai' in which
the ViraSaivas subsume the Dasiivasthii in their system. He cites as many as 92 Tamil
verses from this text; an examination of the verses suggests the· work is self contained
and probably the text is complete. According to the editors of Jnanavarapa-vifakkam,
this Tamil work is not found in other sources and is not available except in this form.
Thus it is a rare text.
The first verse abruptly begins with the statement that "this text was originally
taught by Siva to Umadevi on Kailasa, which was taught to Basavesvara by
Prabhudeva in Karnata language which was translated into Tamil by me" ... name of
the translator is not available.
The second verse says that this text was traqslated as expounded in the
Navalinga cakra, and is appropriately called Navalinga Lilai. The same Siva manifests
in nine forms by internal divisions for the removal of pasa of the souls shrouded in
ignorance. The text mentions the nine Tattvas as Para§iva, Para Sak.ti, Nada, Bindu,
Sadasiva with five faces, Mahe§a, Rudra, Vi~h1_1u, and Brahma.
The Ekamiirti (supreme) splits itself into three as guru, lingam and Jangama
continuing to detail the tenets of the school, it mentions I~h!3-linga, PraQa-linga and
Bhava-lingas. These three branch into six as Acara-linga, Guru-linga, Siva-linga,
Jangama-linga, Prasada-linga, and Maha-linga. These six further undergo division due
to Tattvas into 36 and further sub divided into 216. 71 These are Srotas; crossing these
six Srotas one attains Jftana-samadhi which is called "reaching the cave of Nira1_1jana"
(niranjiiniidi guhai ci!rdal). 12

31
The Suddha/chya tantra gives the following account of Y-rra saivas. Vira saivam
is superior to all other Saivam which is also called Y-rra mahe§varam. The worship of
God is very easy and so is the process of worship. 73
Vira saiva tantra · is divided into three c_ategories as Samanya, Vise~ha, and
Nirihara. 74 By touching the head with hand and wearing sacred ash, the addhrent's
body is considered a Siva-deha. He is absolved of all sins. He should wear the linga
given by his guru either on his head, neck, hand, forearm, heart, navel or in any one of
these places. He should always be filled with devotion to Guru and Linga and worship
it once, twice or thrice a day. These are the common categories.
The Vi§esha category consists of initiation by a guru, by invoking Siva in a

Kumbha and following the process of dik~ha. In this process consecration of Pra~a
linga is advocated.
The two categories of Nirihara consists of abandoning all worldly comforts but
concentrate on Siva in mind. He should wear a rag of cloth, a suffron cloth, Ja!A
(matted locks of hair) or shaven head, and of trees, staff and Saiva signs. He should eat
food obtained through begging moderately and reject all comforts and this observance
is called Nirahari. Such an adherent is himself considered Parama Siva (Supreme
Siva). Vira Mahesvaras have some common code of conduct. They should devote
themselves to the Siva mudras, with mind and material. One should never commit sin
towards them at any cost. He should not be indifferent to a sin if committed by another
person but if he is a strong well-built man, punish the wrongdoer. If he is not strong
enough should move away from that place. He should constantly unite his pra1_1a with
the linga from the moment he receives the linga from his guru. Every breadth is linga
for him. 75
Adi Saivas follow Aghora-Sivacarya-paddhali.16 Maha-Saivas follow

Karw:iagama; 77 Ordhva-saivas, though perform atmartha and Parartha piijas and also
Vedic sacrifices, are different from Adi-saivas and Mahasaivas. Among the habitations
of Sivacaryas, Dak~hi~aranya identical with Tillai irm)ya is the abode of Ordhva
saivas. The Maku!3gama followed by Ordhva saivas, is a Dak~hi~a agama. 78 They are
Advaita vadins.
The Siva-Jnana-bodham is considered an Agama of Jftanavarm)a siddhanta. 79

The texts like M6/c~a kiirikii of Sadyojyoti, and Tattva prakiisa of Bhojaraja are

32
considered Advaitawidam by teachers. 80 But Aghora Sivachirya treats them as

Dualistic systems. The Siva-jnana-bodham was taught through bhavana dilc~ which
is mentioned in Rauravagama: The Jpananta paribhasha cites Sivajnana bodha siilra.
Sirasthane padam ahptya pralJlltO dapt;bvat guruh,

Bhavana dik~a cainam suddham kritva yatha vidhi,
Sivajnana bodha sastram dadyat patyadi antaram
Anugrahyastu yah si~yah Varimana kaya karmabhih
Artha pranabhimanani sadguribhyo nivedayet. 81
Sivavakya and PaUinattu Pillai are nai~_tikar. Maraijilana Par,<;taram and

Umapati sivacaryar had knowledge of Saiva system but no Saiva experience Jnananta-
anubhavam. 82 Thirumula-devar is called Thiru Muladeva-sivicaryar and Meykar,~-
siva as Meykcll)~-sivacaryar83 •
Tivrabheda saktipilta was obtained m Saumya Saiva, by Mahe§vara, Devi,

Vighne§vara, and Guba. 84
Maku.ta, Devi Kalottara, Suprakheda, Sarva-Jnilnottara are dak~ii;xi agamas.

The meaning expounded in them namely the Advaita system does not contradict
Vedanta. 85
Bharadvaja, Malanga and others who had mild Sakti-bheda were taught
M_rgendra, and Miltanga which are Vamagamas. They teach Dvaita system, that
contradict what is taught in Vedas and so they are considered P iirva pak~as. 86
VeHi-ambala-va.J)ar discusses in a lengthy passage that the Sanskrit Sivajniina

bodham is the original text and that the Tamil Siva-jniina-bodham of Meykal}!af and
the Tamil Siva-jniina siddhi follow the original Sanskrit text87 The original Sanskrit
text is found in the chapter "Piisa-vim6cana pa{ala" of the Rauravagama which is the
"Adi siitra',s 8 The original Siva-jnana-bodha (in Sanskrit) was taught by Siva. 89 VeHi-
ambala-va.J)ar is following the Jnanavarana-bhiishya in Sanskrit as his tradition which
he cites. The Sanskrit bha~hya holds that Sanaka and others understood this Sutra,
expounded by "Siva".
"Siva viikyena pratiyilpiiditatviit, panca rupa upapanniit /ingiit, paraih

Sanakiidibhih Jagatah Sakartrkii{Yam jna)Jate" 90

33
Again the same position is asserted that the original Siva-jnana-bodha was
. ,.
taught by Siva.
"Atra Siva Jnana-bodhe harasya Prabhutva ukteh Jagat kar.tftva anadi nirmala
cidriipakena sarvajnatvadi saktimatvam api siddham" .91
VeHi-ambala-vaJ)ar, says Siva-jnana-bodha constituted an upagama bheda

called as Rauravottara thus suggesting that itself is an agama92 •
The Svacchandra Tanta text gives interesting data about Pasupata93
It speaks of three schools of Pasupatas Lakula, Mausala and Vaimalas and

commentary on this verse by K~hemaraja says that one school was established by
Lakuli§a, and the other established by Lakuli§a's disciple Musalendra. The difference
between the two schools lies in the ultimate stage of salvation. The Lakulisa school
hold the adherent of the school will reach the abode of isvara, A isvaram-padam in
which the emphasis seems to have been onjapa and dhyana (repetition of god's name
and meditation)
But the Mausala school seems to have emphasized rituals (Kriya pradhana) and
hold the follower will reach Maya tattva considered the ultimate. The Svacchanta
Tantra itself refers to this difference.
It evidently shows, very early in the Pa§upata School, may be in the time of
Lakulisa, or immediately after his passing away, there arose differences in Pasupata
system, headed by Musala. It is also seen that there were other schools that sprang up
like Karuka also mentioned in Svacchanda text. It seems that the Mausala school held
that the ultimate stage was K~hemesa, while Karuka held it is Brahma srami.
There were also other schools among Pasupatas like Vaimala, who follow the
rituals. The text 'Pancartha Prama.1Jl1 a~_taka' and hold that Dhruva is the ultimate
stage. This school is identical with Kapalavratins. Kapalikas those who become pure
through knowledge obtained by initiation, and observe Kapala-vrata till the end of
their life, reach their salvation presented in their respective schools. K~hemaraja says
that Mausala and Karuka emphasized only rituals, while Vaimalas emphasized Jnana
through diksha. They wore kapala and bone ornaments as Vrata and this seems to have
been prescribed in Kakutamnaya. They also postulate Tejesa as the ultimate while the

34
Lakulisa school- lsvara tattva pada prapti; Mausulah- Mayiitattva pada Prapti and
Vaimalas- Jsvara tattva tejasa prapti. 94
Bhairavam has also two broad divisions namely (I) the Varna Bhairava and (2)
Dak~hii:ia Suddha Bhairava. VeHi-ambala-vai:iar cites extensively from Svacchanda
Bhairava text. There is a long discussion by VeHi-ambala-vai:iar, on the tenets of
Svacchanda, the prasada vidhi pa_tala referring to it as Svacchanda Siva prapti.
Svacchanda Bhairava is also called Sadasiva Bhairava. The follower will also attain
both Siddhi and Mukti95 . The texts cite verses giving the avar~as of Bhairava. 96 There
are eight Bhairavas in the second avarai:ia for Bhairava whose names and also places
are also mentioned.
Kapalisa - East.
Sikhivahanam- South east
Krodharaja- South
Vikarala- South west
Manmatha- West
Meghanadesvara- North West
Sauma Raja- North
Vidyaraja- North East.
Each of them has five faces, ten arms, kapala ma/a, twinkling anklets etc,
Bhairavi should be seated on the lap of Bhairava, and should have the same form as
Bhairava with a slightly gasping mouth, and graceful smiling face.
The text Jniina sidhi, published here speaks of the two broad divisions of the
Bhairava system as Varna and Dak~hii:ia Bhairava schools (p.46). Bhairava is also said
to have five faces. The Bhairava school holds the Pasupata, and Rudra systems as
Pfirva-pak~ha.
The work also deals with three kinds of dik~has m the Bhairava school.
Different branches of the Bhairava Saiva Siddhanta are:-
LakulI
VaidikI
Adhyatmiki

35
Atimirga and
Mantra
All these schools were also considered as piirva-pak~a for in worship they
advocate nara-mamsa etc. A rare text named "Bhairava Siddhanta Siddhi" and
"Siddhanta rahasya" 91 are also mentioned. As the school concentrates on achievement
of mystic powers (siddhis) its aim is not liberation. Varna, Bhairava and the Kaula
schools reach pisaca pada. As in the case of Varna and Bhairava systems, the Saumya
Siddhanta is also a tantranu~_tana siddhi.
Sivajnana bodha is a siitra text like the (Brahma) sutras of Vyisa. The Tamil
works Sivajnana bodha and the "Sivajnana Siddhiyar" follow the original Sanskrit text
as the source. (p.529) The authority attributed to the original source is equally
applicable to its translation. VeHi-ambala-va1.1ar repeatedly mentions that the Sanskrit
Siva-jnana bodha is the original text98 (pp.578, 579, 581, 583). He also holds Siva-
jfzana-siddhiyar also should be considered an uddesa siitra) He cites also from
Jnanavara{JQ-bha~ya in Sanskrit. It is important to trace this full text giving it the
authority of the Sutra literature.
End notes
1. Jffaniivarapa vilalclcam and Mahii. bha~am. VeHi-ambala-v~ar, Dharmapuram Adhinam, Vol.

I, 1957, and Vol II 1959.
2. The tenth year Sovenir of Srila Sri Shanmukha desika Paramacharya Svamikal, Dhanna puram,
Adhinam, 1943, p.83.
3. Siva-jffiina-siddhiyar in Siva-Jffana-bodham, Meykai,ta sastram, Dhannapuram Adhinam, 1956.
4. Jffiiniivarapa-vi/alclcamum Maba_tiamum, of Ve!Ji-ambala-viJ:iar, Dharmapuram, p.407, the

following colophon is found.
Dharmapura sthite Sri-jffiinasambandha gw-u carapa nf.shalJlJO sains/riira vi/asad. Alcalamlca muni
bhagavadpada h[daya sambaddha sadacara upadesa samprapta. Siviinanda rasanubhava jata
varpiisramatita nip,fa ni~{Jiita Satya jffana iti prasiddha Rajatll-Sllbha-niitha yogi vimcita.
.IIJaniivarll{la dipika vyakhyiina asphap,fa-pada-biidhaniye sanmarga vive/rah"

36
5. Sarva darsana-sangraha of Sayana Madhava Ed. Cowell E.B and Gough A.E., Parimal
Publication, New Delhi, 1986. Also pub by Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1986.
6. Jniina-siddhi cited in this text, Jniinii-vara!Jt:l vilaklcam - miibiifiyam.

7. Ale~is Sanderson, "History through Textual criticism" in the study of Saivism, Pancaratra, and
Buddhist yogini Tantras, Les Sourus des Temples, Ed. Francoise Grimmal, IFP, Pondichery, 2001.
8. Kira!Jt:lVfilh - Bhatta Ramak.anta's commentary on Kirana Tantra, Ed. Dominic Goodall, IFP,
Pondichery, 1998.
9. Arunachalam M., Guru Jnanasambandhar, Dharmapuram, 1981, pp.85 - 86.
10. Ibid - p.86
11. Mey/canta Siithram, Pub. Dharmapuram, Preface, P V.
12. Jniiniivarana vi/akkam - P .421. (This text will be referred to in its abridged form as jv.
13. MeykalJ.fa Sattiram , 1956
14. J.v.p.581
J6L~·
i4i;~ al6ll<91TAT <:ur~ (Y>~ pa> 6ll~C:w ~YI
al6lJ<91TAT <:ur~w al6lJ<91T•
~~ QJLQlDrry}WITAT al6ll(91TAT Curr~ @QrQllJCQJIT~ 6TAT!l)JD LUTffilD
6TATl)JD U6'1f~82JU) mlUJTe: ~IJU) Curra> ulf61Q~~ JiJfa>fflO 6TATpj>
lflUl11.1reu,
~~pa
a~
(!pa>~ (:QJQRJT@"'61• lOJDJD Li;<:~ ~IJ(Y>U> $fjlTCAT IIUl~• ~ 6ffa>
Curra> 6ll~l2J5~U> LAMLm.i> 6TQJT5. J.v.p.579
15. Siva-Jniina-bhii~am of Siva-jftina-yogi, Saiva Siddhinta mahasamajam, Chennai, 1936, p.73
16. MeykaIJla Sattiram, 1956, p.15
17. Ibid, p.16

18. Jv. p.297, p.333, and p.337
19. Surendranath Das Gupta, A History oflndian Philosophy, Five volumes, Motilal Banarsi dass,
Delhi; 1975.
20. Ibid, vol.5, intro p.XI
21. Sri Mrigendra Tantra-Vidyiipiida and Yoga-piida, with the commentary of Niriyai,ak&Qta ..Ed by
Madhusudan Kaul Sastri, published by Meharchand Lakshman dass, New Delhi, 1982.
22. Svacchanda Tantra, with the commentory of ~hemariji, Five volumes, Sampuminand Sanskrit
visva vidyalaya, .Varanisi, 1992.
23. Sri Svacchanda Tantram- Pt. 11 with the commentary of ~hemariji, Pub. by Sampumanand Skt.
University. Varanasi, 1993, Patala 10, verses 676-681.
24. Su~ tarlciivalambinah (10/1149);
25. Svacchanda Tantram, Patala 11, v. 74

37
26. Paramok~-nirosa-lcarilca in Ap,_ta-pralcalJO Ed. By Pandit Vraja vallabha Dwivedi,

Sampumanad Sanskrit University, Varanasi, 1988.
27. Makutogama, Purva bhaga, Ed. S. Svaminatha Sivacharya, South Indian Arccakar Association,
Chennai - 1977, Tantravatara Patala, Verses 16 - 22
28. Sarva-darsana-Sangraha, of Siyana Madhava ed Cowell E.B. and Gough A.E., New Delhi, 1986.
29. The Saiva Paribhasha of Sivgra yogin. Text and Translation by S. Suryanaryana Sastri, Pub.
University of Madras, 1982.
30. Kularnava Tantra, Ed. Sri John Woodroff, and M.P. Pandit, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Reprint,
1984, p. 35.
31. Ibid. pp. 30 - 3 1
32. J.v p.144
33. Purananihl, Ed. Svaminatha Iyer, U.V., Tyagarajavilasam Publication, Chennai, 1962, Reprint,
Verse-166.
34. Mapimikhalai; Svaminatha Iyer, U.V., UVS Library, Chennai, 7th Reprint, 1998.
35. Mapimekhalai; Murray S. Rajam Edition, Chennai, 1957, Chapter 27.
36. Jnapiimritam, of Vagisamuni with an ancient commentary (in Tamil), Ed. by Avvai
S. Duraiswami Pillai, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, 1987, 2nd Edition.
31. Sivajnana siddhiyar in MeykaJ)~ Sathrarn, Dharmapurarn, 1956.
38. San/ca/pa niralcaranam, of Umipati sivam, in Meyk&J)~ Dharma Puram, 1956. p. 316
" " ~ ~ a ) I "~J, 4ui~th

6UrQPl51D 6-56'ffU) 1!>®6lll' Abu"
39. Jv.p.638,867, 1051, 1106etc.,
40. Jnanasiddhi, cited in Jv. p. 46,
41. Jv. p. 193
42. Jv.p.329
43. Jv.p.219
44. Jv.p.219
45. Notes on Religion and philosophy of Gopinath Kaviraj, Ed. Gaurinath Sastri, Sampumanand
Sanskrit University; Varanasi, 1987- P.56-62).
46. Ibid p. 61
47. Jv. p. 48
48. Jv. p. 48.
49. Jv.p.67
50. Jv.p.67

38
51. Jv.p. 75
52. Jv.p. 76
53. Jv.p.99
54. Jv. p. 101
55. Jv. p. 114
56. Jv. p. 114
57. Jv. p. 116
58. Jv.p. 167
59. Jv.p. 167
60. Jv.p. 169
61. Jv.p. 169
62. Jv. p. 171
63. Jv.p. 173
64. Jv. p. 183
65. Jv.p. 184
66. Jv.p. 189
67. Jv.p. 189
68. Jv.p.219
69. Jv.p.329
70. Jv.p. 173
71. Jv. p. 181
72. Jv. p. 181
73. Jv.p. 189;244
74. Jv. p. 244 the text pertaining to this school is called Vira miihesvara - Tantra.
75. Jv. pp. 243 - 245
76. Jv.p.247
77. Jv. p. 247
78. Jv.p.245
79. Jv.p.291
80. Jv. pp. 311 - 329
81. Raurava cited in Jv. 421
82. Jv.p.422
83. Jv.p.423
84. Jv. p. 351

39
85. Jv.p.351
86. Jv.p.351
87. Jv. pp. 578 - 579
88. Jv.p.581
89. Jv.p.583
90. Jv.p.583
91. Jv. p. SIS
92. Jv.p.579
93. Svacchanda, vol. S, Patala II, verse,.70
94. Ibid, patala X, 675 - 680 also, I 084 wherein Kapilijvara is called Bhililuvara
9S. Svacchanda, cited in Jv. pp. 37 - 45
96. Ibid p. 44
97. Ibid p. 49
98. Jv. pp. 578, 579, 581, 583 etc., On page 583 he makes a specific mention that the Sanskrit
Sivajftlna bodhan is the original text or root text as " • purar ~ • Cur• YJIA"
and gives the first Sanskrit sOtra as
Stripum napu,,uakaditvat
Jagatah karya darJanat
a.Jti karta ,a hritvaiva
srjatyQ.fmiin prabhur harah

2
Sarva-siddhlnta-viveka
The original text Sarva-siddhanta-vivelca is not known to any other source apart
from these citations in the commentary of Jnanavara,µJ-dipilca. It is a very lucid
commentary mainly meant to be useful to an ardent student of Saiva system.
The available text begins abruptly with "Mantravada" also known as

Mantravami, and deals with nine sub-sects of Varna schools of the Siktas_~ However
from the first sub sect described it is seen that the original should have contained
several chapters preceding the present portion as it mentions, "as described earlier"
(prak ukta vartmana) in the very first verse.
The lost portion should have contained the name of the author, and perhaps his
date and other biographical details, and may be details about other schools. The name
of the author of Sarva-siddhanta-viveka is not known. It is also not known whether the
author has dealt with other schools of philosophy like -Vedanta, · Mimimsa, Nyaya,
Bauddha, etc., as has been done by Sayana Madhava, the author of_"Sarv_a-darsana-
sangraha". The Saiva Siddhanta School mentions traditionally the systeins of other
schools, and refutes them before detailing their own system. It is possible this text
Sarva-siddhanta-viveka, also had details about other schoo~, that have been lost. The
name of the text Sarva-siddhanta-viveka "understanding all philosophical schools,
warrants the as~umption. What has swvived is only the portion relating to Saiva
schools and a part of Sikta schools.
Sayana does not seem to have known either the text or the author of this Sarva-
siddhanta-viveka for there is no mention of this text in his work Sarva-darsana-
sangraha assigned to 14th cent. Sayana does not confine his study only to Saiva system

42
though he treats three sub schools among Saivas namely Saiva, Pasupata-Saivam and
Vira-Saivam. He gives other schools, like Bauddham, Arhatam etc.
Date of Sarva-siddhlnta-vivfka
The available text is, as mentioned earlier, found only in a Tamil commentary
by VeJJi-amabala-val)a-tambiran. As he went to Varanasi and studied Saiva systems
there he should have had access to the vast body of Sanskrit texts on Saiva systems
there. The Sanskrit text Sarva-siddhanta-viveka is evidently one such work he found at
Varanasi, where it was available in 17th cent. Inquiries at Varanasi and other
institutions of Sanskrit manuscripts yielded no result, as none of them are aware of
such a text. It is either lost or still in some library yet to be identified. It is also not
mentioned in any of the other ably and critically edited igamas or commentaries
published so far as for example the Svacchanda-tantra, Kiral'J,(l-vritti, A~hla-
prakaral'J,(l, Matanga-paramesvara with the commentary of Bhana R.imakai)la etc. It
does not figure also in the exhaustive bibliography listed by Sanderson in his recent
article. 1
Regarding the date of the composition, an interesting light is available in the

text. At one place the author cites the author of "Ratna-traya" as his guru, and also
cites two siitras from Ratna-traya2. Ratna-traya was composed by Sri-Kania-suri, a
disciple of the well-known Saiva commentator Sri-Rama-kaJJla I, who is considered
different from Bhana R.ima-kaJJla II, the son of Naraya~-kaJJ.ta. R.ima-kaJJla I is
assigned to the· second half of the 10th cent. 3 Sri-Kat).ta-siiri, ought to have lived then
and written his work Ratna-traya some time in the end of 10th or beginning of the 11th
cent. So Sarva-siddhanta-::viveka should be assigned to a date closer to that period,
probably to the beginning of 11 th cent.
The ''Ratna-traya" has a gloss by Aghora-sivicirya who lived in the 12th cent.
We may therefore conclude that this Sarva-siddhanta-viveka was written earlier than
Aghora Siva, in the 11 th cent. As Sri-kaJJta-suri was a disciple of Rima-kat)ta, he may
be held to be a Kashmiri scholar or ~ho had gone to Kashmir for study. As the. author
of Sarva-siddhanta-viveka does not mention Kashmir Saivam or any of_the well
known Kashmir authors, it is likely he was a scholar from Central India, as seems to be
indicated by his writings. The great Acirya Abhinava-gupta holds Madhya pradesh as
the spring of Saiva scholarship.

43
The Tamil commentator on Jnana-avaraip-dipika, cites extensively from the

other text named Jnana- siddhi. Though some texts with this name are available it is
not known whether the cited text is identical with any of them. The author of Sarva-
siddhanta-viveka mentions this text at one place. Obviously it must be identical with
the text cited in this Tamil work.
It is pertinent to point out that the work Sarva-siddhanta-viveka and Jnana-siddhi

are important for Art-historians to identify many unidentified sculptures of mediaeval
India and also correct some of the identification already provided. For example the
Sarva-siddhanta-vivelca says that the Kilinm~has should wear red sandal paste on
their forehead and decorate themselves with spha.tika Jcun4alas ( crystal ear pendents).
The School holds Mahideva as Rudra and not Bhairava. Everything emanates as an
atom (aJJU) ofRudra who is the Primordial deity-Miila-vigraha. Sadisiva, the lord of
the Universe, is eternal: Pasu are of three kinds while the bondage are also three kinds.
Pasu adores Siva for release from the bondage. The aspirant should observe austerities
on days of A~_tami, Caturdasi, Sivaratri, and Somaviira. This system of observance is
called Kalamukha-vrata. Initiated by Siva-dilcyha and by attaining Sakti-pata (descent
of divine grace) there arise equality in action from which the soul attains freedom.
Lord Siva shines as sun while the individual shines as a star. The unity of Atma-Siva-
samyoga is called para-mo/cyha. The commentator VeJHi-ambala-v81)ar adds a foot
note to this Sarva-siddhanta-viveka portion saying Kalimukha school is also known as
S6ma Siddhantam. 4
Thiruvorriyur, a village near Madras and which is now a part of the city has an
ancient Siva temple that is celebrated by the Saivite Teva.ram Saints. It houses an
interesting sculpture of Siva -11 th cent. The sculpture is seated in Yogasana pose
holding his front arms in chin-mudra like the Dharma cakra pravartana mudra of
Buddha images. The rear arms hold tris ii/a in the right and kapala in the left. The
upper part of the trident is broken showing only the lower part. This has led to wrong
identification of the sculpture as Lakulisa rarely seen in Tamil nadu. There is a similar
portrayal in the original vimana of the same temple, in the griva, which shows all
attributes in the same manner wherein the trisula is clearly visible. I have shown that
this is a form of D~hil)a-miirti. Both from inscriptions and literature it is known that
Sana-Siddhanta was expounded in the temple of Thiruvorriyur in Chola times. From
this text it is now possible to confirm that the sculpture represents D~hiQimiirti the

44
Supreme Deity of the Kili-mukhas. There are other such identifications possible. The
available text of Sarva-siddhanta-viveka is summarized in the following pages.
This text Sarva-siddhanta-viveka is important from another angle. It focuses on

five sub-sects among the Saivas named after the sages Kausika, Kasyapa, Gautama,
Bharadvaja, and Agastya. Among the different schools the Vaidika Pasupata school
receives long passages.
Introduction to Vlma school
Ve!Ji-ambala-vil)ar provides valuable information about the Sikta system,

before dealing with the Saiva sub sects enumerated in the Sarva-siddhanta-viveka .
The Saiva school divides various schools of philosophies into two broad categories as
"Inner school" and "Outer school". This division is also called in Sanskrit as "Subtle
school" or "Inner school" (Su/qhmam or abhyantara) and "Gross Outer school"
(Sthulam or Bahyam). In each school, six systems are grouped. The external school
consists of the following six schools:
I. Lokayata
2. Bauddha
3. Jaina (A.rliata)
4. Mimimsa
5. Mayavada (Advaita)
6. Pancaratra (Vai$1u)ava)
The following six are broadly brought under Internal systems
l. Saivam
2. Pisupatam
3. Vimam
4. Bhairavam
5. Mahivratam
6. Kalamukham
The Saiva school mentioned at the beginning is called Suddha Saiva "pure Saiva"
and the rest five beginning with Pasupatam are considered as Asuddha Saivam
"Impure Saivam". The "Pure Saiva" system also known as Saumya Saivam, "Benign
Saivam" is further divided into two parts as "Karmanta Saivam" and "Jiiananta

45
Saivam ", on analogy with . the Mimamsa school called Karma-mimamsa (Purva-
mimamsa) and Jnana mimamsa (Uttara-mimamsa) ". 5 The Saiva Siddhantis are .the
followers of Jnana marga. It may be illustrated in the following chart.
Saivam
I
Abhyantara -Inner Bahya-Outer
I
Saivam P~upatam Varnam Bhairavam Mahavratam Kalarnukham

I
I
Saumya
I
Raudra
I
Kannanta Jnanantam
(Ritual based) (knowledge based)
I
Siddhanta-Saiva
All schools of Saivas, except Siddhanta Saivas, are called abhyantara

(Ahaccamaya). The Karmanta Saivam based on ritual is also clubbed with the other
five schools that are counted as six systems and held Purva-pa/qha6 by the
Siddhantins. There is also an alternative definition. The Kapalika School is considered
a branch of Raudra School and a separate sect and so it is counted with Pasupata,
Bhairava, Varna, Mahavrata and Kalarnukha schools, and designated as a Raudra
school. The Saivas (both Karmanta school and Jnananta school) are counted together
as Saumya schools, so the schools expounded by the Agamas, beginning with Kami/ca
are considered "Siddhanta Saiva ".
The Agamas are not uniform in their approach to classifications. For example
the Agama "Acintya-visva-sadakhya" 1 divides Varna (Sakta) school into three
branches as "Eastern school" (Purva), "Western school" (Pascima) and
"Beginningless" (Amidi).

46
The Acintya-visva-sadalchya also divides Dakfhiqa school into four sub

schools. 8
1. Mahivratam
2. Kilimukham
3. Kipilam
4. Pisupatam
Saiva is also divided into four schools, but Siddhinta is divided into two sub-
schools.
The Suprabhida-agama divides the Saiva schools9 into four as
1. Saivam
2. Pisupatam
3. Ukulam
4. Somam
However the Jftlnlnta school which is considered a Saumya school, is called
Parama Siddhanta. 10
The Author of Sarva-siddhanta-vivika cites a number of verses from Ratna-

trayam and also from Siva-yoga-ratnam, 11 the later authored by Marai-jftina-
sambandar. The following Vima Slkta schools are dealt with by the Author of Sarva-
siddhanta-vivika.
1. Mantra-vlmi 2. Yantra-vimi
3. AU$hada-vimi 4. Karma-siddhlnta-vlmi
5. Advaita-vimi 6. Dvaita-vimi
7. Misra-vimi 8. Vima-siddhinti and
9. Siddhinta-vimi
Among th~ Saiva Schools the following Sub-sects are detailed in the Sarva-
siddhanta-vivika
I. Kaulam 16. Siddhinta-Saiva-yogam

2. Drithlirtham 17. GUQ.a-Saivam
3. Giru<Jam 18. Para-kaivalyam
4. Vimam 19. lsvara-Aikyam

47
5. Dak~hil)am 20. PA$h81)a-vidam
6. Bhiita tantram 21. Bheda-vadam
7. Kalamukham 22. Sama-vidam
8. Kapalam 23. Kausiikam
9. Mahivratam 24. Bharadvaja
10. Puupatam 25. Agastyam
11. GUI)a-Sankrintam 26. Kasyapam
12. Praviha-nityesvaram 27. Siva-sankrantam
13. V aidika-Pisupatam 28. lsvara-avikaram
14. Yoga-Saivam 29. Parinama-vidam
15. Suddha-Saiva-yogam 30. Saiva-Siddhantam
There were some more sub-schools between the Saivas mentioned by VeHi-\
ambala-v81)ar but they are not cited by the Sarva-siddhanta-viveka. Either they are not
mentioned in the original Sarva-siddhanta-viveka or VeJJi-ambala-val)ar does not
mention them. Instead he cites extensively from Jnana-siddhi and some from
Svacchanda-tantram, which also appears in the commentary. The understanding of all
the schools of Saiva system is possible only with all these citations. As Svacchanda-
tantram is in print, I am dealing with them only in my introduction and am not
providing the text. But as rnana-siddhi is not available I am including that text also in
this book.
Importance of Sarva -siddhlnta- viveka
The importance of Sarva-siddhanta-viveka may be gauged against this

background. It deals with not less than 30 sub schools among the Saivas that include
Kipilika, Kilarnukha, Soma etc. As stated earlier the Sarva-darsana-sangraha of
Siyana Midhava, deals with only three schools, Nakulisa Pasupata, Saiva, and
Pratyabhijfla School. The Sarva-siddhanta-viveka turns out to be a very valuable text
that throws greater light on Saiva system that flowered in India by about 1200 CE.
The Vlma Slkta Schools
The Varna and Dak~hil)a divisions of the Varna school are also called the
Simbhava school. The Bhairava school is called Dak~hiqa. There is a third category in
this school called Misra, which is known as Yarnalam that relates to the worship of
Sapta-mitas. 12 Some schools of the Saiva system are called by the Siddhintins as

48
"Inner-outsiders" (abhyantara-biihya or Ahap-purac-camayam) because they adopt a

life style such as eating fish, meat and drink liquor which is not acceptable to the
Saumya Siddhanta Saivas. The Suddha Saivas do not include them among their
groups.
·Common factors among Vlma school
It has been stated earlier that following six systems are "Inner-outsiders" . 13
I. Saivam 4. Pasupatam
2. Vamam 5. Bhairavam
3. Mahavratam 6. Kalamukham.
We have also noted that the Varna school (Sarnbhava) and the Bhairava school
(DalqhirJ,a) are categories of Varna schools. The third in the Varna school namely
Misram (Yiimalam) is generally counted with the Varna- Bhairava school.
The Varna school is explained mainly with Svacchandra Tantra and Ambii
sthuti.
Yantra vlmi : This school considering magical diagrams (yantra), follows the
general tenets of the Varna tantras but holds, liberation is possible only through it.
"Yantra sarva siddhi" the acquisition of mystic powers is the main objective of this
school. It lists the following eight great Siddhis.
I. Aqima 5. Mahima
2. Garima 6. Laghimi
3. Hitva 7. Va§itva
4. Prapti 8. Prakamya
They are achieved by
I . Kar~hat}a 4. Mohana
2. Sthambhana 5. Miraqam
3. Vidve~hat}a 6. Bhedana
The follower of this school will acquire both bhakti and mukti. As Yantra is
directly the manifestation of Sakti, Siddhi is obtained through it and not by other
means, though mantra etc., can be used as auxilaries.

49
Authada vlma : By taking recourse to A~hada (medicines) that protects the

body disordors one obtains a shining body. This school even holds that movement
through space is possible by administering medicines. The school speaks of what it
calls 'Kaya kalpa '. On the whole we may say this school is dealt with rather cursorily.
Karma-siddhlnta : It may even be called the school of fatalists. It holds no

one can control birth, decay, comfort, suffering, old age and death. What is to happen
will always happen. So one should act rightly, and act wherever one's mind goes.
However one should not be lethargic in comfort or suffering.
Siddhlnta vlmi : The Siddhanta vami school rejects the eight sub-schools
mentioned, that are called external schools. In this text reference is made to 'Suddha
wvas' who are the "DalqhifJ,Q Varna Siddhantins". But as this school also advocates
eating meat, fish, drinking, sacrificing human flesh as offerings etc the Siddhanta
wvas do not accept this school of Da/qhi1J,a Varna Siddhanta. The Bhairava school is
enumerated in Dalqhil)Qgama which emanated from the Bhairava lsana face 14
(P. 21) The Bhairava school has eight sub-divisions and six auxiliary divisions (upa
bhedas), according to the Jnana-siddhi 15 •
Mantra vlmi The sub sect Mantra-vama of the Sakta tradition, holds that
reciting sacred hymns alone in preference to other modes will obtain liberation. The
mantras used differently by them are Namah, Svaha, Svadha, Vau~a{I, Va~fl,
hwnpaq. There are seven cores of such great hymns called Maha-mantras employed in
all sacrifices. All of them are different manifestation of power (Sakti). It is called
"Mantra" because the word manana stands for all comprehending nature, and the word
tra.r:xz stands for bestowing grace on woi;ldly men. When both these functions of
manana, and trar,a are unitted it is called 'Mantra'. It is clear from this that when one
practices Mantra sadhana, by obtaining the knowledge of mantra first, salvation is
obtained in Mantra-vada.
Advaita-vlmi Advaita-vami holds that everything is a transformation of Sakti.

Without such a transformation of Sakti, nothing exists either as karma, Maya, world,
soul, god, Siva, Pasu, Pasa etc. Man attains salvation by this knowledge, even if he is a
murderer of Brahmins, drunkard or debauch. There is no question of salvation only
through knowledge. The results of action (ritualistic action) do not disappear without
being suffered. Not even crores of action can remove its effects. It is only an ignorant
(ajnani) who will say that liberation through knowledge is possible.

50
Dvaita-vlmi: According Dvaita-vami school there are only three entities Sakti,
Pasu, and Pasa. Sakti is not one. The individual soul has all knowledge like Sakti but
this knowledge does not shine because of association with beginningless impurities
(anadi-mala). One should receive initiation in Sakta-dik.rha from a guru in order to
obtain knowledge and observe the Tantra taught by him. He should worship through
carya (observances) or yoga, or image worship of either various forms of Saktis or
Sakti alone. Such a person will certainly be liberated but not by rituals. Being liberated
by knowledge (Jnana) he shines with Sakti. He enjoys freedom from impurities
(su-nirmala) and gains all round knowledge and righteousness, which are considered
their Siddhanta. It is clear that though this school prescribes image worship, and right
observances and yoga, it believes that liberation is possible only through Jnana. In the
ultimate state, the adherent attains all round knowledge sarvajnata and similarity with
Sakti but does not totally merge with Sakti. Hence the school goes by the name
Dvaita-varni, dualistic Vami.
Misra-vlmi: The mixed school of Vami, holds that the categories remain
mutually separate from each other but are pervaded by Sakti. The main tenets of this
school is that everything is S~ti, Siva, his body, the concealment of knowledge, the
soul, its body, and the worlds, are all forms of Sakti. The adherent should practice the
path of Sakti tantra, should gather liquor (madhu) meat (mamsa), fish (matsya) etc.,
perform image worship (puja), fire sacrifice (homa), repetition of sacred names Uapa)
or meditation (dhyana) and by worshipping Sakti attains liberation. The liberated
person becomes the abode of Sakti, Saktyatma. Sakti becomes his atma. He is not
separate from Sakti, but is dissolved in Sak.ti. He also does not believe in multiple
lords (aneka-'isa-vadam) equal to Sak.ti. He is pervaded by Sak.ti as his atma, but is
never equal to Sak.ti, the ultimate, and hence goes by the name Misra-Vami.
VAma-siddhAnta: The adherent of the Varna school accepts appropriate

teachings of the eight Varna agamas (which are not listed). The instruments of
cognitions are as described earlier (this early part is not available). Their categories are
namely Sakti, Pasu, and Pasa. The unparalleled Sakti, remains pervading everything.
The adherent, practicing Varna and other (eight) agamic prescriptions, obtains
Saktipata (grace of Sak.ti) of either the intense or higher intense catagory, (1ivra, or
1ivratara), and attains liberation by Sambhavi dik.rha (initiation). This is further aided
by sad-upaya, which means the right course; defined as right path (san-morga), right
knowledge (sad-jnana) and right yoga (sad-yoga). The root of this system, which is

51
grace (Anugraha ), takes different fonns. Salcti should be meditated as Surya, the
supreme Power. This school, though not explicit, also seems to advocate liquor, meat,
fish etc., as it directs the adherents to follow Varna texts.
Siddblnta-vlmi: Accepting appropriately the tenets of Saktam commonly told,

this school holds Sakti as the creator of the universe, who sppears in thousand forms.
Beginning from Para-Sakti and ending with Kriya-Sakti the mobile and immobile
beings of the entire world are varied manifestations of that Sak.ti; crores of living
beings, beginning from Mantresvaras and others are all her transformation. The
different sounds like "Vas" that sq,arate the meanings, and various knowledge and the
act of knowing, are all forms of Sak.ti. What ever exists including the world are the
forms of Sak.ti. Even the form of Siva is Sakti. The follower of this school should
adopt the path prescribed in the nine basic agama texts with meaningful understanding.
One who followed earlier either the external schools like Vai~lu)avism or different
internal Saiva system like Bhairava schools and receives the grace of Sak.ti (Sakti pata)
through good merits, and commonality of practices, becomes eligible to achieve
liberation by initiation (diqha) from a good guru in observances of Vama-tantra, and
also by understanding the religious observances like carya, kriya etc. Thus Siddhanta-
vami does not reject the followers of other schools and states that there are certain
common observances between them that give them the eligibility, but ultimately they
have to accept the texts of Vama-tantras, and be initiated by a Guru.
Daqhiqa Saivas
The aspect of Dak~hil)a system are demonstrated in texts like Kamikagama, to
exhibit achievements of mystic powers visibly and invisibly, as there is a necessity to
create confidence among people. It is for this purpose four different texts namely,
Garuda tantra, Da/qhif}{J tantra, Vama tantra, and Bhuta tantras, emanated from four
faces of Siva namely Puru~ha and other manifestations (Tatplll11$ha, Aghora,
Sadyojita and Vamadeva). These Saiva schools are considered "down stream" (adhah-
sraas) schools, expounded by such Murtis like Tatpuru~ha and others called Vijftina
kevala (manifestations of pure knowledge). These texts were expounded in conformity
with igamas like Kamikagama as dependent texts.
Glruda tantra: The Giruda tantra among the four mentioned above, advocates
the worship of Tatpuru~ha Brahman, who is the lord of the universe, by which siddhis-
mystic powers-are obtained.

52
Klllmukha: Kalamukha's should wear crystal ear ornaments, smear their body
with red Sandal powder, putradfpa. (there is a gap in the text at this point). Kalamukha
(the Aghora face) should be worshipped with these emblems. The instruments of·
cognition are mentioned earlier. Pati, Pasu and Pasa are the three entities that need to
be comprehended. Mahadeva who is none other than Rudra and not Bhairava, is the
Pati (lord). As he does not manifest independently with out Rudramsa this Rudra
Mahadeva alone assumes forms like Dak$hiqamfirti who is the main deity (mula-
vigraha). He is Sadasiva, eternal (nitya), auspicious (Siva}, and the universal lord
(Jagat-pati). Depending upon his functions, he is called by different names.
Pasas, Mala and Maya, as mentioned earlier are different. The world appears as
a result of Maya. Siva is worshipped for release from the bondage of Pasa. The
Kalamukhas worship Siva on a~_tami day (8 th day of the fortnight), caturdasi,
(fourteenth day of the fortnight), on Sivaratri day of each month, and S omavara
(Mondays) regularly by fasting and other means. This kind of worship is called Ka/ii-
mukha-vrata. After initiation with Siva di~ha and depending upon the descend of
grace (Sakti-piita) the individual becomes pure, when the individual soul shines like a
star, while Siva like the sun. The coming together of individual soul and Siva is called
supreme liberation, Para-mo~ha. This observance and path is called Kala-mukha
system.
Klplla School: The Kapala system follows the appropriate Kalamuka texts in
which the adherent guided by the Kapala-Saiva-tantra and considering himself as
Mahesa at the end of (samhara) final dissolution, dances in the great cemetery. The
follower of Kapala school goes abegging with human skull in one hand, singing
Samagana. One who practices this Kapala mode of observance is called Kapali. .
Paiicartha, puriikalpa, Siva guhya, prama11,a, vyuha, adars~na, padmlz, karaka,

sailaka, nritta sud~hpriipa and siddhlzrtha, which are difficult to obtain, are the
fourteen means for achieving mystic powers. The Lakula school is then detailed. The
three principles of this school are Pati, Pasu, and Pasa. Mahesvara who dances at the
end of deluge in the great eometry is Rudra, the lord of the universe. He is Sadasiva,
the omniscient and omnipotent lord. The ordinary souls are innumerable and are
endowed with knowledge only. Siva alone, has both knowledge and action not others.
Karma and Maya are the Pasas. Akasa is called ta.(tva (entity); Time (kala) is Maya.
There is no difference between time and Maya. One who desires release from bondage

53
initiated through Sivadfksha should perform daily rites as enshrined in Kapa/a sostra.
He should acquire extreme determination, be indifferent to praise and ridicule; follow
the path mentioned earlier and eat food obtained through begging. Such a person
attains liberation acquiring equality with Siva. He does not shine like a star but like the
sun; the liberation gives him omniscience different from the earlier stage. So he attains
knowledge like Siva.
Mahlvrata Saivas: Mahavrata Saivas accept appropriately the texts of the

Kapala school. The Mahavrata has kurµ/ika, kuf)</,alam, snake, head ornament (sikho-
maf)i), upavfta made of (human) hairs, which are called the five mudras, the signs of
Mahavrata. The three basic principles in this system are Pati, Pasu and Pasa; the
instruments of cognition in this system are as detailed earlier; among all pramof)as
(cognitive process) the Mahavrata is considered the best. The omniscient, omnipotent
Sadasiva is Pati, pure and blemishless, cause of all causes. Individual souls are many
but possessed of knowledge alone. The omnipotence is only with the Lord Pati, not
with individual souls. The bondages are only karma and mayo not ego (of)ava)
accepted in other· schools. One obtaining grace of Sakti, (Sakti pata), should get
initiated into the Siva dfksha, as specified in the tantra of this school. The individual
observing caryo (personal ritual discipline) and acquisition of knowledge get
liberation. He should wear linga (Unga dhari) either on his head, neck, heart, or above
the navel as prescribed in the sastra. There is no use of pujo etc. but wearing linga
alone is sufficient to bestow liberation. He should show devotion towards all human
beings and his guru, as he would adore Siva. Even among these, devotion towards
human beings, Gangamas), is considered the best. The Mahavratin obtains salvation,
:within one birth by following the daily rites etc., as found in Mahiivrata sostra.
Siva-yoga mata
In the Sivayoga school, the adherents attains equality with Siva in form. There
are some schools wherein their followers believe that they either reach the same world
as Siva (solo/ca) or proximity to Siva (samfpya} but the adherents of those schools do
not attain their ultimate longings. In this school Siva-yoga mata which speaks of
equality with Siva in form, the follower attains "oneness with Siva " (he becomes
Siva). Equality with Siva means he assumes Siva's form, which is also called one-ness
with Siva (Siva-s«yujyam ). Siva sarupya and Siva-s«yujya are synonyms in this
school. Accepting as many adherents can achieve Siva-hood as possible does not lead

54
to contradiction or multiplicity of Siva, as the soul attains equality by only the grace of
Siva. The liberated souls are also Siva but achieve Sivahood by Siva's grace. Whereas
Sivahood is beginningless in Siva, who is made of the body of panca-mantras the
Sivayogi who achieves liberation through Siva siirupya attains mystic powers like
Animii, Mahima etc.
There are several Schools of Yoga Saivas. However four branches of this
system, namely Siddhiinta-saiva-yoga, Aniidi Saiva yoga, Aviintara-Saiva-yoga and
Yoga-Saiva are dealt with in this text.
Avlntara Saiva y6ga
This school accepts appropriate to this tenet what has been told by Para-
kaivalya school. PraT)ava according to this school, is considered . inert as it i~ in the
form of sound consisting of five syllables. It is the cause of knowledge for all living
beings, inspired by Brahma and other divinities who stimulate their senses towards
objects of experience. It constitutes the supreme bondage. Composed of the syllables
"a", "u ", "ma", "bindu" and "niida ". PraJJ.ava is realized through yoga. It is
pervaded by five gods as souls 'akara' is "egoism" (ahamakara), ''u" "kara" is analytical
knowledge (buddhi).
The five syllables of pral)QVa are constituted this way. The self knowledge,
obtained through these instruments of cognition, comes like waves of waters. "A" has
Brahma as its god; "U" has Vi~lu)u; 'Ma' has Rudra, 'bindu' has lsvara and nada has
Sadasiva as their gods. These are the five divinities. They have four~ourses of action,
which pervade the three life breadth (priiT)a), the accumulation of all these is bondage
and release from bondage is salvation and nothing else; because actions like seeing can
be prevented by getting rid of them. So niida is not the supreme Lord. Siva, who is
sentient and different from them. It is he who acts through the five acts in the fonn of
"ma kara" etc. As all of them are in essence Siva, there is no difference among them.
All these omniscient Gods, should be meditated in various forms. Brahma, Vi$hl)u,
Rudra, lsvara, and Sadasiva are the five manifested gods. In what ever fonn the
devotee worships him he takes that form and like cintiimaT)i (wish fullfulling gem)
bestows salvation. Brahma who resides in 'muliidhiira~ pervades up to the navel
through his own power. Vi~lu)u, pervades from the navel to neck, Rudra pervades unto
the forehead, Mahesa remains in forehead unto the Brahma-randhra. Sadasiva remains
engulfing in the midst of them. One should meditate on each a~ thei~ appropriate seats.

55
Ylga-saivas
I
Siddhanta Saiva Anidi Saiva Avantara Saiva Yoga Saiva
Yogi Yogi Yogi
Suddha Saiva yoga
Among the Putra margas mentioned earlier this school accepts that which is
appropriate. Pasu and Pisa have already been defined earlier. Pati the Lord is Sadasiva
in this school. The other gods like Mahesvara execute his orders. Among the Panca-
Sadakhyas, (the five Brahmans) that which is to be worshipped with rituals is called
Siva. He is the Lord of 36 Tattvas; one reaches proximity to Siva by worshipping him
through arcca rituals (samipya); one achieves the very form of Siva (sarilpya) by
meditation which bestows equality with him and that is considered salvation, the
ultimate goal of this school. By sarilpyam it is meant that one achieves equality with
Siva and the form of Siva (Siva-samanata and Siva-vigraham) Among the
punqharthas, (the ultimate achievement of human goals) sarilpya is considered the
supreme for one to practice. That yoga should be practis~ according to the Agamas
like Mfgendra.
Alternately learned men who would like to obtain self-realization can practice
the same, though it is a difficult path. This self-realization is called Yogic state that is
obtained by "one who has conquered perceptions" (Jita/qha) the state of jitak!}ha is
attained gradually by practicing control of breadth" (prarJ,Q)'ama). This consists of
eight fold path- pra,,.ayama, pratyahara, dhara11,a, dhyal)(1, i/qhal)(1, japa, samadhi and
Yoga. The following are the definition of these words.
PraQiyama consists of two words Pra11,a- the vital breath, ayama i.e inhalation
and exhalation. Pratyahara is turning away the mind from all experiences of comforts
and tastes. The mind is trained in this process to prevent the senses from attachments
to external pleasures. Dhara11,a stands for controlling to fix the mind on one's chosen
entity, to think about it constantly and fix· it again and again on the same. Dhri~hrJ,a
(jitak!}ha) means to think about the mantras hymns always. Through these mantras the
five Brahmans -Tatpuru$ha, Aghora, Sadyojita, Vamadeva and lsana should be

56
invoked in the east, south, west, north and above. The four faces are as prescribed in
the chapter on arccana (worship) whereas the top one that is lsana will have no face
but is made to manifest only through hymnal invocation. When one is able to steady
his mind in that particular state it is called Samadhi. Japa is to recite its name; dhyana
is to meditate on that, which involves creating face to face relationship or
visualization. This realization of the supreme state and cultivating the same is the
ultimate, which is known as Suddha-saiva-yoga. The same process is also acceptable
to other yogis who can follow their own system.
Anidi Saiva Y6ga
Anadi Saiva yogis accepts the tenets from that which is suited to their needs.
They hold the suddha vidya tattvas as inert beings that do not have the nature of Siva.
On the other hand Nada is considered I~ana Svariipa, knowledge form and he is held
Siva. There is no knowledge of object without sound for human beings. Sivajftana is
obtained through sabda only (sound). That knowledge is obtained gradually from
subtle to gross form. The mystic sound Omkara, is created by nada and bindu. The
pure knowledge comes through pure path. The seed of knowledge is Omkara, its lord
is Isvara, that is Sadasiva composed of five kalas (parts) as a, u, m, bindu and nada.
The nada emanates from the great subtle entity (maha sukshma) and from the
subtle form bindu originates. Pasyanti creates ma kiira; 'u' comes from Madhyama,
and 'akiira' is produced by Vaikari. In the midst of it is Mahesa, Rudra, Vi~hqu and
Brahma. From the five emanate the five great acts of creations, sustenance,
dissolution, concealment, and grace, and for the five acts Brahma and other Gods
emanate. Ku.ti/a Sakti, comes into being from 36 tattvas. Ku.ti/a encompasses Ku,u/alr
Sakti. Kunqali emanates from PrarJ,ava. Thus the creator of the whole world is Siva
who is nada, which is considered his category. One is called pure Brahman and the
other Sabda Brahman the later known as Sadasiva. Sadasiva is PrarJ,ava the cause of
everything. So one should meditate on Omkara as mentioned in Vedas and Sivagamas.
The yogins who desire salvation, always meditate on nada, which is Siva's supreme
form. When the Sabda ta.(tva merges with the supreme, yogins attain supreme
liberation. When he attains that state he is called "Laya yogi".
The Vedic scholars are hundred times more merritorious than Brahmins. Those
who are initiated into the Saiva tantras, are thousand times better than Veda-vadins.
The patron is superior to the initiates into Saiva systems. One who wears sacred ash is

57
superior to patrons. The one · who performs worship to the Lord is thousand times
better than the one wearing sacred ash; the one who knows mantras is far superior to
all the Pfijakas. The one who knows the spiritual path is superior to the one who knows
mantras. One who knows Priisiida (mantras) is superior to the knowers of spiritual
path. Better than Prasada Jftani, Laya yogi is considered superior. Among the Laya
yogins, the Prit}a-lingin is great. Therefore this mode of practice should be known
from the Guru. Those who follow this system are called Anidi Saiva Yogi.
Siddhlnta Saiva Ynga
The Siddhanta-Siva-Yogins accept whatever is suited from the common yoga·

system. There are three principles-Pati, Pasu and Pisa. Pisa is called an impure sphere
that forms the wall of division. Human life is called Pasu, other living beings are
considered without thinking faculty and so categorized as insentient. Enjoyment of
pleasures is not possible without human life. If, however, they are referred to as their
souls at place,s it is purely contextual, as the Suddha Saivas have defined this position
clearly. The human self strengthened by Pisa (kalii), following the path shown by
learning, enjoying through senses like buddhi and desire (riiga), partakes all pleasures
found in tattvas, beginning from Maya upto the world.
... The human being's are fond enjoying pleasures. It is Siva tattva that induces
· them to enjoy the worldly life so much so Siva tattva is known as preralca in texts.
The ~ndividual soul realizes the worldly things not by their own powers but
through Siva's act. The five fold path of action of the Lord (Pati) called Siva tattva, is
based on the functions. Jnana is nada svarupa, while kriya is through power. When
Jnana and Kriya are equal the Sadakhya tattva emanates. The Mahesvara tattva
emanates whero there is more of action than knowledge (Jnana). The Rudra tattva
emanates when there is more yoga and less action. Rudra is also called Suddha vidya.
Here the word Yoga that stands for knowledge is called Suddha vidya. The Suddha
Tanva is eternal and is totally independent. Without actions the above categories do
not exist.
Siva is meditated in his multiple forms in this manner. He is NiraftjaJ)a, Santa,

Sarvajfta, and Sarvaga. lsvara should therefore be meditated in these different forms.
So among the five categories (panca-tattvas) the prominance of Siva and Sakti are
recognized. In Suddha Saiva system Vidya is recognized either individually or

58
collectively. Suddha Vidya is golden in colour while Mahesvara is white and Sadasiva
is crystal in colour; Bindu is white, while Nada is red. While meditating .seperately
they should be invoked in colours as above. Their collective form appears as a faded
moon-light that sho_ws everything. Siva of this form has five faces and four arms,
which should be meditated for liberation. The insentient beings that exist only help and
so should be considered as Siva's body. The Siddhanta Saiva yoga is also called Adi
saivam.
Suddha Saiva schools

Suddha Saiva
Guqa Saiva Para-kaivalya lsvara-aikya PashaQ.a-Saiva Bheda Saivam
Samavlda Saivas
Kausika - Bharadvaja - Agastya - Kasyapa - Gautamiya -

Samavesa Utpatti Samavada Abhivya/cti Samya Samlcriinti Samaviida Sivadadhilcya viida
Guqa Saiva schools
Guqa Saivas consider the whole world is permeated by gu,µzs- sattva, rajas and
tamas. Salvation for the adherents of this system comes through the worship of
Trimurti. This school is considered a branch of Suddha-Saiva. In fact they are none
other than Suddha Saivas. There is nothing in this world, which has not got the gul)Qs,
either alone or in combination with other gul)Qs. The text M,:gendra sastra clearly
states that the ~hole world is pervaded by gu,µzs. Pradhana in this school is the cause
of action. Pasa is that which shrouds the intellect (tirodhayi). Pasus are called. Sakalas.
From Gods to trees and plants are considered of Vijnana - pralayakalas. The creator

59
of the universe is Brahma-Vi§hqu and Rudra. The Pradhana is said to be 24 ta.(tvas and
are for the enjoyment and salvation of humans. God wills. From Pradhana, Buddhi
emanates and that is the cause of the world. From the agitation of Buddhi comes
egoism Ahamkiira in three forms. The subtle Tanmiitras and senses are born out of
egoism. From these subtle entities the five basic elements earth, water, air, fire and
akasa are born. From these five elements the gross world comes into being; the
unmanifest are 24 and Puru$ha constitutes the 25 th tattva. Puru$ha performs only
limited action, and has limited knowledge. Since he doesn't act fully he also creates
enjoyments. So he is considered an independent entity, performs only limited
functions and is atomic in state (ar,.u) As he does not understand everything, he is
considered ignorant. Salvation is attained only by the worship of Trimurti. No other
deities like Mahesvara etc are recognised here. In this school of Guqa Saivas, Rudra
.
alone functions due to the possession of GUl)8S; he dissolves the world, protects it and
creates it. There is only one supreme that is Rudra. This concept is postulated in
Sviiyambhuva iigama and Siva dharmatara. So Rudra constitutes the 26th tattva. He is
the ultimate cause of everything.
Rudra is born of Pradhiina and then Vi$ht)U and Brahma are born. As they are
the functionaries of pure acts, they are called pure Mahesvaras. The Trinity equal
among themselves are established as the gods for the sake of the world. By
worshipping them, following their schools of text, salvation is obtained. Even Vaidikas
attain salvation through Saiva path. The Gods like Indra and others are the executors
of their (Trinity's) orders. This system is described as Guna Saivam in the text Jniina-
siddhi. The followers of the school wear Ja.tacuqa (malted locks), wear sacred ashes,
smear themselves with ashes and adore Trimurti.
Para-mukti mata
This school called Para-mukti believes by adoring a formless supreme. The

Para-mukti is obtained in the Suddha Saiva School by Karma-iivarar,.a. They accept
whatever is appropriate from among the common texts mentioned earlier and
recognize the three categories as Pati, Pasu and Pasa. Pati is formless lord, who is
absolutely pure. He is expressed through various words like Aprameya, Anirdesya,
Anaupamya, Anamaya, Sfik~hma, Sarvagata, Nitya, Dhruva, Avyaya and lsvara. The
meanings of these words are defined. He removes the bondage of individual soul who
is considered Al')u; the instrument through which he acts is Sakti which is sentient. His

60
body is made up of "Five mantras" (panca mantras) which performs the five acts
(Paftca-krityas-creation, sustenance, dissolution, concealment and bestowal of grace).
These forms are lsana, Tatpuru$ha, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata (Aja). Time has
no form and yet performs many things. Similarly though Siva is formless, he performs
action out of his own will. He assumes forms for helping yogins, and for creating all
•tattvas for the world. So it_is said that he assumes form, it is not considered a blemish.
The individual souls, called Pasu are eternal and all pervasive. They are categorized
into three as Sa-kala, Pralaya-kala, Vijiiana- kala.
Innumerable souls who are sentient beings, are with forms and without forms.
One who is covered by three impurities namely, miiya, karma, and ma/a is called
Sakala. Pralayakalas are those who have only two impurities namely ma/a and karma.
Those who have only one ma/a are called Vijiiana-kalas. They enjoy all comforts and
joy by being in the body. The Pasas are said to be of five kinds in this school as
defined earlier. So if one achieves Suddha-adhva, pure state it is still considered
bondage; when equality of action is attained, (karma samya) and Siva's grace
descends, the individual qualifies himself for initiation (diqha) from a Guru. Initiation
is through the path of a~h.tanga yoga and not through rituals (karma-miiya). By this
process one devotes himself to adoration of formless supreme and attains Para-mukti,
Supreme liberation. The yogi need not perform rituals but turn his attention from
external acts and concentrate on his inner vision. The yogi should meditate on formless
supreme, which is like the outer space, a great void maha-sunya. Otherwise he would
become a· worldly man like insects among the heaps of grain. If one abandons Siva
who resides in his own self and worships him externally it is a useless exercise, like
one having food in hand licks his elbow. Yogis see Siva in their heart and not in idols,
which are created for ignorant people. Yoga jiiana malta, Para yoga mata, Ni$hkaJa
yoga mata, Para mukti mata, and Saiva sankhya siddhanta mata are all synonyms .
.lsvara- Aikya- Siddhlnta
lsvara aikya means identity of the soul with lsvara in this school, which also
accepts common sayings of early schools. lsvara is blemishless from the beginning in
this school; the Individual soul is likewise blemishless; though he is also eternal like
Siva and pure he is without the power to create; Pasa is considered four fold, but
al)Q'Va ma/a is not accepted in this system.

61
Maya is like Kambuka, and kalas are like Tushas. Mayii is the inborn impurity,
sahaja mala. So the soul is covered with Maya-moha and other impurities are
considered, the qualities of Mayii, moha, mada, naga, vishiida, sosluta, harshaka, and
vaicitrya are the seven inborn impurities Sahaja malas. Individual is pure from the
very beginning and yet by the will of Siva he is bound by the pure and impure acts of
Maya. The individual acquires merit and demerit (puwa and papa) when there
happens equality of karma, he attains Saktipiita; and he is initiated into jniina-di/qha
(knowledge initiation) by a Mumuk~hu or Nai$hlikacirya and is liberated in this
system. Identity of the individual soul with Siva (Siva-aikyam) is kaivalya-aikyam.
That is achieved through practise of formless meditation. The adherent should think of
Siva as supremely auspicious, formless, pure, lord, eternally joyful in the form of an
effulgent luminary. He must abandon the idea that he is a Pasu (bound) and should
consider 'I am Siva'. He is liberated without any suffering. When he is liberated in
course of time his form is merged with Siva inseperably in siiyujyam. This inseperable
union is like water dissolved in water. When he unites with Siva, he performs his
actions, enjoys his own nature untouched by Maya ma/a.
PlfhlQ.8 Saiva Siddhlnta
Accepting appropriately what has been laid down in lsvara-aikya school this
system holds Lord (Pati) as an ever liberated entity, but the individual soul (Pasu) is
inpure (samalah) bound by five bondages (paifca Pasa) that are ma/a, karma, maya,
tirodhika-sakti and bindu. When the soul is devoid of maya it is considered fettered
with inborn impurities. Maya is called Mohini different from al)QVa-mala. Pati protects
Pasu and Pisa.
The soul that remains bound, approaches a knowledgeable guru when it attains
equality in karma and receives jniina-di/qhii also called siistra-di~kshii. Ritual-
initiation (karma-dilqhii) is meant for those who are too strongly embedded in
bondage butjniina-di!Qha is for souls with aspirations. By teaching sastra-jniina alone
initiation is bestowed and not by other means. There is no sacrificial fire or fire-
offering rituals etc in this process. Jnana-di!Qha means understanding the tattvas
through knowledge, whereas ritual initiation is through mind that should be avoided.
Liberation is attained through knowledge, which is called kaivalyam. The worldly life
(samsiira) comes as a result of ignorance (ajnana) and men deeply embedded in
worldly life are called ignorant men. A knowledgeable man escapes from samsiira

62
(worldly bondage). One goes to heaven by simply reciting Veda, but returns after
hundred manu years whereas, one attains unity with Siva siiyujya by Siva-jftana.
It is the dictum of Saiva Siddhanta that Jftana is supreme. There is no yoga

equal to Jnana and no Vrata (ritual observance) equal to Jiiana. There is no personal
purity equal to Jnana and no ritual equal to jffana; there is no sacred centre like Jnana
and no penance equal to Jnana; there is no sacrifice equal to jiiana. Similarly the soul
achieves supreme liberation only through jftana even in Vedic tradition and not by
even millions of rituals (karma). Therefore it is necessary that the guru should be a
knowledgeable person and not otherwise. Such a guru is obtained by Siva's grace. The
Vedas could be taught for those who are initiated but for the uninitiated Siva bhaktas,
Siva piana should not be withheld but taught properly. When liberation is obtained,
one remains like a stone. (Pa~hana-vat). The incoming impurities of soul are
eradicated but the inborn impurities (sahaja ma/a) remain. All other pleasures and
pains disappear except that of ma/a and that liberation means remaining like a stone
which is termination of mental suffering in this system.
Bb&ta Saiva School
This school accepts the tenets of P~hiQ.a Saivas but selectively and holds Pati,
Pasu, and Pisa are independent. Pasu- the individual soul is shrouded with A.l)QVa
ma/a. By repetition of mantras and by receiving Sakti nipata liberation is obtained
through initiation and not either by Jiiana, Yiiga or carya. One who is initiated belongs
to Saiva caste. There is only one caste that is Saiva caste and no other. This school
does not accept that iiberation comes only through Jnana, but is attained by Siva's
Sakti-pata. Those wh~ devote themselves to Siva through devotion (bhakti), among all
castes, are eligible to recelve this di/cyha. The devotee is equal to Siva and Siva is
equal to the devotee in the Bheda Saivam, as liberation is assured for all living beings.
Direct initiation is advocated for less knowledgeable human beings while for others
liberation is immediate. So two kinds of liberations are recognized namely immediate
liberation through Nirvana dik.fha and the other liberation when the body dies.
Extreme renunciation nirvana dik.fha, itself is considered liberation for those who have
adopted it.
Renunciation through Vijiiana yoga destroys sins committed knowingly.

63
Yoga etc are observances or methods to achieve liberation, but are not mukti.
Impurities can be destroyed only through initiation. Also it cannot be removed through
Jnana but only through d~ha. Dilcyha can also be attained through sight- cak~h-
dik.fha.
Sama-vida School
This school contends that liberation is not only through dilqha initiation but
also through Jnana etc. Siva-piija confers eligibility for it. The initiates are also
expected to follow certain observances (carya). They have to do daily rites of the
Saiva system. The liberation that would come at the death of a body can be obtained
only by observing routine rituals. When it is said that only initiation (dlksha) confers
liberation and not Jnana, Yoga, or Carya, it is only to praise dllqhii and not to dismiss
Jnana, Caryii and Yoga.
When one is liberated he attains equality with Siva with six kinds of qualities
(gul)Qs) that are Sarvajnatii, Trupti, Aniidi-bodhah, Svatantratii, Aluptasakti and
Anantasakti. The liberated souls obtain these qualities equal to Sadasiva. This
liberation is called in this school Para-mukti that admits only equality with Siva (Siva-
samya) and not identity.
Kausika Siddhlnta
The Kausika school also called Samiivesa school, has Mahipati as Rishi who
was initiated by Tatpuru~ha face (eastern face of Sadasiva). This school consisting of
Agamas, beginning from Amsumadbhediigama to Viriigama, was taught by the
Tatpuru~ha face. A liberated soul is possessed of all auspices qualities, becomes
omniscient, omnipotent and equal to Siva. By following Yoga system that is detailed
in Viiyav-01a samhitii he appears as if possessed by Siva.
Bbaradvlja School
Bharadvaja School, also called Utpatti-sama-viida, is found in Sarvottara to

Viitula iigamas that emanated from the Sadyojata face. Bharadvaja ri~hi was initiated
through siitras. The liberation consists in this school of equality with Siva, is created
and not obtained through other means. The soul should abandon its old feelings and
hold "I am Siva" (Sivoham) considered Samadhi. Feeling that he is Siva, the soul will
become Siva and this process is also called Sivayoga. By this process, the soul obtains

64
equality with Siva which did not exist before. It obtains all comprehensive knowledge
(sarvajnatii) and other important dharmas from Siva and is liberated in this life itself
as Jzvan muktah'
Agastya School
This school promulgated by saint Agastya goes by the name, 'Abhitrskti

samaviida'. According to this school Abhivyakti which is a reflection is considered
beginningless, and it emanated from Vamadeva face. The Vamadeva face initiated
Agastya, who is a Brahmaqa Rishi. The individual soul reflects the six qualities found
in Siva by offering ghee with the ladle in sacrificial fire. When the reflection takes
place, he shines like Siva, the Brahman, called Saccidananda riipi, (existance,
knowledge and bliss) sad-asad vyakti varjita (He is neither a manifest nor a non
manifest) and sarvagah, omnipresent. So far as soul is concerned, there is no dispute
about its existence and knowledge, that also experiences bliss. By action (karma) and
knowledge (Jnana) the soul also gains bliss. This school employs the words
samriddhih, paripurti, vyiipti, akhandatii and tripti as synonyms of bliss. This is
detailed in "Ratna-traya" and also in Vedantas. Ones inherent bliss is obtained by
samadhi. So the soul is also considered Sat-cid-ananda-rupi. The soul experiences its
own bliss in the stage of Brahman realization, (atmananda). By this the individual soul
obtains equality with Siva (Siva-siimya) in all round knowledge and the.six qualities of
Siva.
Gautamlya School
The Gautamiya school is called Sivad-adhikya-vada (Beyond Siva). This school

holds even Siva is Pasu, because he is engaged in the five kinds of actions-
Pancakrityas- (creation, sustenance, dissolution, concealment and grace). He can
perform these acts only by assuming a form and so bound by bondage as these are
different actions. In the case of Sadasiva there are two Pasas namely anugraha and
tirobhava (bestowing grace and concealment). Therefore Sadasiva is considered the
first Pasu. The liberated individual soul cannot create like Siva for he reaches a stage
beyond action. So this school considers that the soul goes beyond Siva (Sivad-adhikya-
vada) in the state of liberation.

65
Klsyaplya
This school known as Kasyapiya is also called Siva-sankranta-vada. It is

expounded by Mah~hi Kasyapa. The five faces of Sadasiva initiated the five Rishis
Kausika, Kasyapa, Bharadvaja, Gautama, and Agastya. Out of the lsana face emanated
the .Agamas like sahasragama. Kasyapa is called Brahma rishi, who was initiated by
the top Tsan.a face. The Raurava agama calls Kasyapa school as "Sankranti Saiva"
This school accepts appropriately the Sama-vada school, but holds Pati the lord alone
as sentient, while other two Pasu and Pasa are considered insentient Jaqas, Pasu is not
a sentient being but is eternal without guqas, without actions and without lordship, and
doesn't undergo change. However inside the body it shines like a light by its own
brightness. It gets yoga-siddhi in the body. When it receives ~aktipata through practise
of Pra,µiyama etc., through supreme yoga, and through the teachings of a good Guru,
he attains samadhi. Through that yoga he is abl~ to see the supreme in his own body as
a reflection of moon in water. He obtains good knowledge and never returns to the
state of Pa§u, pasutva. In this stage though he is in the midst of objects and sound etc.,
they do not affect him. When he !lttains complete liberation, he is dissolved totally in
Siva, like salt dissolved in water. He loses his individual identity and becomes equal to
Siva. As Siva himself is both in Saka/a and N4hkala form, this liberation is also
known as Identity, sayujyam.
Siva-aikya-vlda
This school accepts appropriately what is said by Siva sankrantayadis, but

holds Siva alone is the cause of the world. As the individual soul is also sentient the
Pasa alone is insentient in this system. The soul follows the Pasa dharma, as it is
totally bound by it. It enters the body by itself. In the presence of Siva and with the
help of agama he acts by his own efforts, and enjoys all pleasures through intellect,
buddhi and other senses. When Saktinipata is obtained through knowledge, practise,
and understanding of the tattvas (principles) he abandons residing in village houses.
He acquires shadanga yoga, discards Pasu-bhiiva and goes after Siva in exclusion. He
sees Siva in his conscience attains the abode of Siva and meditates on Pancakshara.
He reaches a stage, which is neither void nor non-void but Peace-santi. He retires to an
isolated place, abandons all bondages and obtains liberation.

66
Saiva Palqha
This school accepts the earlier system appropriately, namely that Pati, Pasu, and
Pasa are mutually related to each other. The soul is self-luminant and is of the nature
of consciousness. He is shrouded by the beginningless impurities, enjoys pains and
pleasures in his worldly life. When he attains Saktipata, Siva himself assumes the role
of Guru and initiates him and also teaches him how to get rid of ma/a, maya etc.,
Attaining knowledge through that he loses the state of knower, known and knowledge.
At that stage the soul and the supreme are united inseperably. There is no question of
enjoyment as there is no existence of individuality. When the body dies, he becomes
one with Siva. He stands above all paths. He is not sakala with parts, performs all
actions but has no beginningless impurities.
Pisupata System
GuJJ.8- Sankrlnta-vldin
The Pasupatas, have ash (bhasmam) (medhyam), shoulder scarf, book, rag of
cloth and waist band. These five are ca11ed Pasupata-signs. Great men adore and
observe this system. Pratyalqha and other instruments of cognition have been detailed
earlier. Among them the Pasupata agama is the best. The following sixteen texts
enumerated in the D iptagama constitute the Pasupata system.
I. Prajapatya 9. Pasupata
2. Prabuddha ..
10. Vasishta
3. Kasyapa 11. Kalpa
4. Bhargavottara 12. Praphullam
5: Vasavam 13. Vayaviyam
6. Varunam 14. Barhaspatyam
7. Padmasamhita 15. Varaha
8. Paramesam 16. Sadagama
This system accepts the three entities Pati, Pasu, and Pasa. The Pasus are
considered omnipresent, but are bound by maya and karma, by cause and effect, that
are generated by their known action. At some stage and cause they develop self-denial
Vairagya. Then they take Saiva initiation Siva-dilqha as prescribed in the Pasupata
system from a learned Acarya, and obtain liberation and hecomes equal to Siva, siva-

67
sama. Orginally they were endowed with limited knowledge, but when liberated attain
all knowing power. The one who obtained blemishless state and liberation attains
equality with Siva and kaivalya. All the qualities of Siva, manifest in his soul, who is
now considered a freed soul. Even if he does not act like Siva he remains always in his
own self. This system is called Gur,a-sankranta branch of the Pasupatas.
Pravlha-Nityfsvaras
There is another school named Pravaha-nityesvaras that differs from the

Sankranti School. They consider the relationship of soul with Siva as postulated by
Ekanmavada. They follow what is said in the Pasupata system for the rest. The soul
becomes Siva when liberated and he begins performing celestial actions. Siva retires
from his powers and does not act then. When the individual soul becomes pure all
gul}as of Siva manifest in him. So he understands Siva's actions like creating the
universe etc., and performs them himself. It is like a father seeing his son intelligent
and able to manage the family affairs, retires from his supervisory power, and becomes
a recluse so also Siva retires after entrusting his powers to the liberated soul. This
school is called Pravaha- nityesvara, Eternal Sivahood like a stream.
Srauta Pliupata
Srauta Pasupata system is also called Vaidika Pasupata, which was taught by Siva
to Parvati in accordance with the Vedas. Propounded by Upamanyu, the Vaidika
Pasupata system is very extensive. The best exposition is found in Vayaviya samhita.
Like all other Saiva system this also holds three entities as Pati, Pasu, and Pasa.
Liberation is considered Utpatti-samavada in this school.
Agamas are classified into two branches I. Srauta (Vedic) and (2) Asrauta (non
Vedic); the Vedic branches are the very essence of Vedas (Veda -sara). The non Vedic
branches are said to be independent (svatantra). The independent works are ten and
eighteen (constituting a total of 28 in number) beginning from Kamikagama and so on,
which are called the Siddhanta.
The Srauta branch is a vast school with several hundred branches. The one that
speaks of the supreme Pasupata observance and knowledge is called Srautam
(Vaidikam) and this is detailed in Atharva-siras (upani~had) which holds that the
supreme mode is in four parts as carya, kriya, yoga and Jnana. Following this four

68
fold path, the Pasupata devotee will behold Siva. Therefore in Pasupata yoga system is
considered the best observance. Sn""'kaQfa Siva taught this system to Parvati. Among all
the paths prescribed in Saiva system, the singularly best practise is said to be the
Srauta Pilsupata system. Siva who himself manifests in the cycle of yugas as
Yogacarya, expounds this system. Four supreme Ri~his, Ruru, Dadhici, Agastya and
Upamanyu of great fame and called Pasupatas, abridged this system and i,ropagated
the practise. Out of tqese four came hundreds of thousands of gurus in their lineages.
The Vaidika Pasupata system, accepts three entities (Pati, Pasu, Pisa), realized
through pratya/c.rha, and other instruments of cognition pramal)QS based on Vedanta-
vilkyas, which are interpreted through Visi~htadvaita tenets. They also briefly accept
the principles relating to Pati, Pasu, and Pasa, detailed in Agamas like Kilmilca.
The instruments of cognition like pratya/c.rha, anumilna, upamilna, ilgama and

arttilpatti, are accepted as valid pramilr,as in Srauta Pasupata system like the Vaidika
s.aivam. Pasu is considered intelligent (ajaqa) but Pasa is non-intelligent while Pati is
the controller (niyantil). Eminent teachers of this system describe these as immortal,
mortal and immortal-mortal. Pasu, the individual (soul) is immortal (akshara), Pasa is
mortal (kshara) and Pati is immortal-mortal (kshara-akshara). These are also
identified with Prakriti (kshara) Puru~ha (akshara) and Parame§vara is k.thara-
akshara. Prakriti is maya-Puru~ha enveloped with Maya is related to mayil through
\
ma/a (impurity and action (karma). Maya is also called the power of Mahesvara
(Milhesvari-Sakti); the individual consciousness is enveloped by milyil; eradication of
impurity is purification. (Puru$ha is identified with the form of consciousness, (cid-
rupa ). Purity of consciousness is called Sivahood.
Though the individual soul is omni-present, it is enveloped by ma/a. Enjoyment

of pleasures through action is the cause of this envelopment. When the ma/a is
removed the soul returns to its original state. Five categories are recognised in this
regard; they are kalil, kala (time), vidyil (knowledge) rilga (passion), and :niyati (?)
these are attached to Puru~ha; meritorious and sinful acts result in happiness or sorrow;
one takes recourse to Jfiana to enjoy the beginningless results till it is ended;
enjoyment is for the termination of Karma; enjoyment is unmanifest; the body is the
vehicle for experiencing enjoyment through organs of actions (karmendriyas) and
organs of perceptions Onanendriyas); the former being external and the later internal
organs.

69
The impurities are wiped out by deep feelings (bhiiva) when grace dawns and
with it the impurity of the soul is gone; he becomes one like Siva (Siva-sama ). Vidya
fastens actions and sight as a string together; kalii, induces passions; lea/a breaks, and
niyati-induces. Unmanifest is the cause though it is overwhelmed by the three guqas;
those who are shrouded by pleasure or pain are divided into three catagries on the
basis of three gul)as, sattva, rajas, and tamas, which arise due to natural causes.
Pleasures and their causes are called siittvikas, the opposite namely pain and causes of
pain are called tiimasa gu1J,as. That which produces both is called riijasa. Siittva is
called the ascending path; tiimasa is called the descending path; while riijasa is called
the middle path. Tanmiitras are the five subtle elements, (sound, taste, sight, smell,
touch); Earth, water, fire, air and ether are five basic elements; organs of knowledge
are five, skin, mouth, eye, ear, and nose; organs of action are five, hands, legs, anus,
generative organ; mind (mana), buddhi critical faculty and egoism ahamkara and three
gunas. By the combination of all these, that which is unmanifest is made manifest.
When these tattvas are in causal state they are unmanifest but when in manifested
stage, they are the effects. The soul called antaryiimi, which pervades everything, is
different from intellect, senses, and body. Even eyes cannot see it. It can be perceived
only by an illumined mind. The soul is a man, a woman or an inert being. The soul,
which has no body, resides in a body that is mobile. One becomes an enjoyer of
pleasure or suffers pains, due to his own action. The soul sees the body but the body
cannot see the soul. All beings from God Brahma to plants and vegetation are called
Pasus. One who is bound by Pasa (bondage) apd enjoys pleasures or suffers pain is
called a Pasu. He has all instruments of actions like Isvara, but because of ignorance
he acts like an animal. By the inducement of God he can go to heaven.
Pati is different from Pasu and Pasa. (The text goes to enumerate the nature of
Pati in a long passage citing extensively Vedic and Upani~hadic passages). Pati is an
endless beauty and possessed of endless guqas. He supports the whole manifest and
unmanifest beings of this universe. There is nothing that needs to be known beyond
him. He is different from the souls of even Mahatmas. One who is ever engaged in
truth and penance beholds him; he is one Lord who controls all these by himself
through his various powers (Saktis). He is the one Rudra and there is no other. Having
created this universe he protects this and dissolves it. He eyes everything (Visvatas
ca!Qhuh). He has faces everywhere; similarly he has hands every where and legs every
where (visvato biihuh visvatah piidam ucyate). He creates heaven and earth; he is lord
of all gods and creator of all gods. He creates first Hiraqya-garbha among gods. So
70
Rudra is greater than all the universe and is called Mahar~hi. He is beyond darkness
and is of the colour of the sun (adityavarYJ,an tamasah parastad). He is subtler than the
subtlest and greater than the greatest. He resides in the cave of human soul. One
should know miiya as the Prak.riti, and miiyin is Mahesvara. Having known him one
attains supreme peace (Param santim ). Having known this lord of the universe, one is
relieved of bondage of death. He resides in ones heart and having known him, one
attains immortality. There is Siva alone who is the embodiment of most ancient
knowledge. There is no image of him (na tasya pratima asti). There is no name for
him; he is immortal; he is unborn. Those who are afraid of birth and long for liberation
adore the southern face Rudra.
This Visvariipa, Abhava (unmanifest) becomes Bhava (manifest) Prajapati. He

is Deva-deva, and lord of the universe. He remains in our consciousness and we
worship him (Sva-cittastham upasmahe). Those mahatmas (great men) who perceive
him in their own self, they alone enjoy supreme happiness. This supreme lord created
Brahma and taught him Vedas. Those who know this through their bright knowledge
take recourse to Siva. So the Mahar~his through their penance and the grace of Lord
reach the end of suffering (duhkiinta) that is the teaching of Vedanta).
The supreme lord of all the above is one. Three classification are attempted on
the basis of place (sthana), action (karya) and delegated power (adhikiira). Upto the
world tattvas (Jagat) is ruled by Sata Rudras; the antariksha is ruled by Indira and
other devas upto the end of Maha mayas. The Saktis like Vamas and also
Bhuvanadhipas who rule these are the emanations in space.
There is nothing that needs to be done by the Supreme Siva (karya). He acts
only for bestowing grace on the world. Various gods manifest to execute these graces
on men through various forms. The various forms of gods are visualized for the sake
of worship. (Pujartham murtyatma parikalpanam ). That which is offered to these
different images reaches Siva himself. Those who offer anything to linga or acarya
worship Siva. It is for these reason we worship different images. Siva bestows grace
through those manifestations. Sadasiva and other forms manifest only to bestow grace
on earth. Raga and other blemishes are present even in manifested images and yet they
remain with them but do not affect Siva. As Siva is pure and is the soul (atma) of the
individual, the duality is not acc~pted. Therefore this school considers that Siva's

71
manifestation in individual soul leads to inseparable unity (advaita) as taught by

Vedanta vakya. So individual is said to be equal to Siva- (Siva-samya).
Liberation is possible only for those who are practioners of this system, who
have received Saktinipata due to the equalizing influence of the impurities of action,
karma ma/as following carya, kriya and yoga. Only those who observe Saiva lcriya,
carya, and yoga and are purified by Saktipata become eligible for Nirva,,a diksha
(ultimate initiation) and obtain liberation. The disciple is qualified to receive initiation
according to the Saktipata, for only such initiation purifies the candidate. So without
Sivacara and Sivajndna there is no liberation. So it is incumbant on the guru to
examine the disciple for his knowledge and action. Guru's examination appropriately is
essential for knowing the Saktipata for it is the instrument of bestowing knowledge of
bliss. For ananda (bliss) and yoga are the functions of inner consciousness. This
attainment gives the practitioner a shiver in his body, limbs, honipulation, sound and
eyes. The Guru should examine the disciple for such changes in body before initiating
him. The dilqha is so called because it gives (aiyate) special knowledge and eradicates
the bondage (kshiyate Pasa bandhanam).
.
There are three kinds of diksha (initiations) mentioned in Agamas namely
Sambhavi-diksha, Sakti diksha and Mantra tliksha. It should be understood that diksha
is taught by Siva himself. By the guru's sight, touch or speech, the disciple gets
awakening and such an instantaneous initiation is called Sambavidiksha. This is again
divided into two categories as tivra, and tivratara. The one that bestows immediate
release is called rivratara while the other is continued upto the end of the
practitioner's life. The Sakti initiation is one in which the guru enters the body of the
disciple through yogic means and bestows knowledge. The Mantra diksha is the one in
which sacrificial altar is prepared, homa is offered and the initiation given lightly or
more intensely suited to his capacity. A non-saivite initiate should not practise Saiva
discipline, Siva puja or meditate on Siva, as he will not obtain Sivahood. So one has to
transform ones body into a Saivite body, abandon the feeling that he is bound by Pisa
(fettered), consider that "I am Siva" (Sivoham) and perform Saiva-lcriyas actions.
There are five 'yajnas' ritual practices, namely karma-yajna (action as ritual),
tapo-yajna (penance as ritual), japa-yajna (repetition of Siva's names as ritual),
dhyana-yajna (meditation as ritual) and jniina- yajna (knowing as a ritual). There are
practitioners of one or the other of these yajffas (rituals), but the ones mentioned in the

72
above order are superior to the earlier ones. One who performs Jnana Yajna will
obtain Siva-sayujya (unity with Siva) very quickly out of this five yajnas; practicing
meditation (dhyana yajna) one attains Jnana yajna and crosses the ocean of worldly
life samsara. One who leaving aside Siva who resides in his own self, worships him in
outside images is like one having a fruit in his hand tries to obtain it by licking his
elbow. Siva-jnana is obtained by meditation and so one should practise meditation on
Siva. One should meditate either on the top of the head, forehead, between the
eyebrows; tip of the nose, neck, heart, navel or on the permanent seat, worshipping
Siva and Parvati devi. It is called a~h.tanga yoga and by this, Saiva awareness dawns
and through it Siva Jniina. Siva is pleased with such a practioner so that he is able to
perceive Siva. The liberated by this process becomes equal to Siva. Whether in the
ultimate stage, there is unity with Siva or equality with Siva is the question that is
posed. If one attains unity with Siva in the Visi~h,tadvaita mode, he again returns to
action as in the case of ekatmaviida and gets into samsara. So this system does not
accept the concept of unity, but holds Siva-samyatii i.e. equality with Siva as the
ultimate end. This system does not accept Ekatma-viida or Sankriinta-viida and accepts
only equality with Siva for the soul.
End notes
1. Alexis Sanderson "History through textual criticism" in "His sources Et le Temps" ed. Francais
Grimal, Institute Francais de Pondichery, Pondichery, PP 1-47, 2001.
2. Jv. p. 322. Ratnatrayadau gurubhih eva hi; gurubhih api tathaiva prat'ipiidyate. p. 321;
sutras 47 and 87.
3. Goodall Ibid, Introduction.
4. Jv.p. 184
5. Jv.p.3
6. Jv.p.2
7. Jv.p.3
8. Jv.p. 3

73
9. Jv. p. 3
10. Jv. p.3
11. Jv. p. 321 - 323 Verses of Siva yoga ralpa cited are 171, 146, 21
12. Jv. p8 Vamam hi sambhavam sastram

dalcyhi,,am Bhairavatmakam
misram yamalam ityuktam
Sapia matr pradhanalcam
13. Jv. p. 8 Saivam piisupatam viimam
Bhairavam tu mahiivralam
Kalamukham iii khyalam
anlah samaya shdlcakam
14. Jv.p.21
15. Jv. p. 21

3
Jiiina-siddhi
Jnanasiddhi, a text included in this volume is a rare work which may be called
a lost agama retrieved. Ve!Ji-ambala-vil}ar Svimika! has done a yeomen service by
extensive citation from this text. From various references to this text in the
commentary it is seen that it contained several chapters that have not been cited and
what we have is only a part. According to VeHi-ambala-vil}ar the Jnanasiddhi is an
Agama, counted among 224 secondary Agamas, the 28 sub Agamas and the nine main
igamas. It is listed along with the following Agamas.
I. Jftana saram
2. Nirva1_1a siram
3. Tattva dipam
4. Tattva Siddhi
5. Tattva siram
6. Candra dipam
7. Yoga Siddhi
The text in its original format followed other well known Agamic texts in its .
structure. At one place it is seen addressing the goddess Haimavatisvari (p. 84). It is
considered a text dealing with Vima D~hil}.a Saiva branch dealing with the benign
school of Bhairava mata. The names of the following chapters have survived as they
are mentioned in.the citations.

76
>
1. Tantravatara Patalam 1
2. Jftinivatara Pata}am2
3. Murtyamsa Patalam3
4. Saiva Prakar~a4
5. Tattvamniya prakar~a5
6. Prasada prakar~a6
7. Bhinni-bhinna-vivekam7
The nine main agamas on which this Varna Sakta text is based are mentioned.
1. Kulan;iava 6. Kaulikam
2. Kulottirna 7. Kula sasanam
3. Kula Sambhava 8. Siddhimfta
4. Kulimfta 9. Amnaya Siddhi
5. Parinuttara igama
The nine (mfila) mian igamas are:-
1. Paratattva ragam 6. Paramagamam

2. Sivigamam 7. Saktyigamarn
3. Kalagamam 8. Deva prasidam
4. Paratantravataram 9. Sivajna saram
5. Sivasadhakhya prasadam
Though this text is mainly cited while dealing with Dak~hit_1a Saiva (Bhairava),
school it is considered a San-marga school (P. 65) almost akin to the great text in
Tamil, Thirumantiram, and is mentioned as Suddha Saiva system. It is also designated
as Vedanta Siddhanta, that it emphasizes. 8
The Jnana siddhi considers eight schools namely 1. Nyaya 2. Vaige~hika,

3. Buddha, 4. Arhatas, 5. Lokiyatas, 6. Samkhyas, 7. Mimimsa and 8. Vai~ht_1avas as
external schools, while the following eight are grouped as internal schools.

77
I. Saivam
2. Siva Sammelanam
3. Mahavratam
4. Bhairavam
5. Sivadvaitam
6. Pa§upatam
7. Kalamukham
8. Vamabheda
This Saiva system is also divided in a different way into fourteen branches as
1. Ordhva Saivam 9. Maha Saivam

2. Anadi Saivam 10. Adi Saivam
3. Bheda Saivam 11. Abheda Saivam
,
4. Guna Saivam 12. AQU Saivam
5. Ajfta Saivam 13. Kriya Sa1vam
6. A vantara Saivam 14. Yoga Saivam
7. Jfiana Saivam 15. Siva Saivam
8. Siddhanta Saivam (Suddha -Saivam)
To this list is added Tattva Saiva and thus totaling 16 in numbers, under
Dik~-viveka. The Pancak~ara PralJllVa-viveka states the three entities. Pati, Pasu,
and Pasa are common categories for all the Saivas. Similarly the sacred ash (Vibhiiti)
and five ma/as are in all Saivam. Among all the divisions Suddha Saiva is considered
the most important.
I . Ordhva Saivas wear all their hairs into matted locks, smear their body with ashes,
wear rudrak~a, perform daily rites, and perform worship of Siva. These are the
Saiva signs of Ordhva Saivas, who emphasize mantras.
2. Anadi Saivas practice mantra and yoga (mantra yogapara) emphasize right
conduct and the meaning of Var.pa and padas, syllables and meanings; wear their
hair into eleven matted locks; wear sacred ash and rudrak~a; spend their time in
Saiva acts by attending on the ·guru (susr a~a) study $aiva §astras and be
78
established in Siva yoga, always move around practicing the three principles
devoid of fetters, keep looking at Siva images and practice penance daily and
follow virtuous conduct. They are called Anadi Saivas also called by an interesting
epithat Sthanupati y6gya ak~artha nir iipakiih that means fix their mind on
Sthanupti-Siva, and prove the meaning of Ak~ha, the eye-denoting that he was
looking at an image of Siva for meditation as a part of his daily penance. This
would indicate that Anadi Saiva is not a practitioner and not Siva himself. The
Kamikiigama seems to hold Anidi Saiva denotes Siva himself.
3. Adi Saiva is an acarya, who establishes the independent authority of the Agamas, is
a Tantrika, Mantrika, and Yantrika; is of good qualities, wears his hair into 12
jata5; wears sacred ashes and rudrak~; performs image worship (Kriya),
inquiries into the nature of truth; performs everything as enjoined in Sivajnana
Saiva Siddhant.a, and is desirous of attaining liberation.
4. A1_1u Saivas wear their hair into twelveja{as, wear rudrak~as and vibhuti, devoted
to the practioners of carya, kriya, yoga and jnana. They emphasize devotion
towards practioners.
5. Avantara Saivas, emphasize Kriya yoga and Jnana yoga, wear nine Jatas, ash and
rudrakshas, hold Siva as the doer of all acts, and attain the nature of Siva at
liberation.
6. Mi§ra Saivas pay equal attention to Kriya and Piija with their mind established in
Siva. They surrender all actions as a process of conduct.
7. Bheda Saivas, hold that everything is the manifestation of Siva and Sakti, wears
seven Jala5, ashes, and rudrak~ under all conditions. They believe that
liberation is attained by reaching the abode of the lord.
8. GUl_la Saivas wear a crest jewel (sikhama.pi) on his Jatas and hold that Trimurtis
emanate as a result of three gu1_1as. There is an emphasis on the three gu1_1as in this
school.

79
9. The Ajfti Saivas emphasize the five sacred acts of Siva (Panca-krityas ). They wear
either three or five Jatas and prefer either PDja (Kriyo) or Yoga, hold devotion
(bhakti), knowledge (jnana) and determination (vairagya) as important for
perfonning Jcriya and daily observance that leads to liberation. They consider that
one should obey the order of Siva, follow Carya, Kriyo, Yoga and Jnana through
which they attain the abode of Siva, pada-mukti.
10. Yoga saivas wear five jatas, follow the eight fold observances of Yoga (a~to,:,ga
Yoga), wears rudrak~a,. and bhasma, perform daily rites, follow also Suddha
Satya that results in non-violance (ahimsa) and at the end achieves Siva's form
(Sariipya-mulcti) in every respect.
11. Jftana Saivas wear fourteen jatas, worship linga (Lingarccana), wear rudrak~has,
smear their body with ashes, eradicate five fetters (Panca ma/as) and reach a stage
of feelingless state and enter into samadhi with a view to attain liberation. They
steady their mind, renounce the world (Sanyasa) shave their head, and remain
devoid of the three tri~piis.
12. Adhva Saivas wear their hair into four jatas, worship lingas, wear rudrak~has and
ashes, circumambulate temples, prasadas, prostrate before the deities, perform
daily rites, and hold reaching the abode of Siva as the ultimate liberation.
13. Samanya Saivas believe in maJJ(ras as prescribed in scriptures and believe that
Pasupati and other manifestations are taught by Siva. They may retain their hairs,
wear jatas, or shave off their hairs, follow the four fold path of Carya, Kriya, Yoga
and Jnana, smear their body with ashes and wear rudrok~a.
14. Suddha Saivas may wear jatas or retain their hairs, perform Siva piija, wear
rudrok~ and ashes, get initiated into knowledge Jnana-diksha, hold five 'gu'
(panca guhas?) and cultivate compassion and practice the four fold path carya,
/criyo, yoga and jnana. The five mudras (signs) of Suddha Saivas are
1. rudra/csha 2. Sacred thread, 3. Tuft of hairs, 4. Upper garment, and 5. Sacred
ashes considered the Saiva Ve~.

80
It is not clear from the available text whether these verses giving the Mudriis
(signs) and observances of the fourteen divisions are part of the Jnana Siddhi text or
another text. Two other texts mentioned, giving the list of Saiva divisions, are Dik~-
viveka and Panciik~ara-pralJ(1va-viveka. The first Dik~ii-viveka gives sixteen
divisions (~odasa) among the Saivites, while the later Panciik~ara-pralJ(lVa-viveka,
lists 12 divisions. The details of fourteen divisions mentioned are not from these two
texts. It is also not clear whether these two texts form parts of Jniina-siddhi or different
texts. As mentioned earlier, several chapters of the Jniina-siddhi are mentioned in the
commentary of VeHi-ambala-vaQar, but these are not specifically said to be part of
Jniina-siddhi. However I have included these here so that further research on Jniina-
siddhi might clear the doubt.
The Jniina-siddhi as mentioned says that the Saivas are classified into fourteen
divisions (Saiva bhedam caturdasa) and later adds Suddha Saivam which would make
the total fifteen. We may have to assume that the fourteen Saiva divisions mentioned
are external to Suddha Saiva tradition, known as "internal- external" (iibhyantara-
biihyas). Out of the fourteen mentioned as Saivas, details about the signs and
observances of the Maha Saivas are not given in the text. Either the original Jniina-
s iddhi did not include the details or VeHi-ambala-vaQars, the commentator did not give
that portion here.
According to Jniina-siddhi the Suddha Saiva effects a unity between Vedanta

and Siddhanta (Vediinta-Siddhiinta Samarasa). It holds that the three Vedas, Rik,
Yajus, and Sama are meant for rituals- (Karma-Kiii;uja) and are the form of the Vedas.
The end of the Vedas namely Vedanta expound the supreme nature of Para-Brahman
and Jiva (antaram Para Jiviitmayoh aikyam Pariitparam) In order to obtain that
tradition (Sampradiiya) are expounded the ten states (dasa-avasthii). The respective
path are prescribed for attaining the respective good path (tattad-sanmiirga-
siddhyartham ). The Vedanta teaches those Supreme knowledge (Mahiividyii) for the
respective systems. The unity of Vedanta and Saiva Siddhanta are superior to the
(common) Saivam. Suddha Saivam should be understood as Suddha-san-miirga.

81
Vedantam Saiva Siddhantam dvaycr aikyam Sivatparam

Suddha Saivam Sivasamvedyam Suddha Sanmarga riipakam
It should be understood that Vedanta Saiva Siddhanta is identical with Suddha

san-margam.
The Jnana-sitldhi goes on to enumerate the tattvas, the process of creation, the •
Yoga system, and the ultimate liberation. The summary of the whole system is not
attempted here but some salient points alone are touched.
The Para (Parai in Tamil) emanated from Paratpara which is also called "cit".
Parasakti emanates from Parai. The three Saktis (lcca, Jnana, Kriya), will, knowledge
and action emanate from para-sakti. Between (after), Iccha, Jnana, and Kriya
emanante; Sivasakti and Sadosiva; from Sadasiva the six tattvas like Nada and bindu
emanate; from Sadasiva emanates Mahesa, from him emanates Rudra, and from Rudra
comes Vi~hQ.u, from whom emanates Brahma. This is considered the order of creation.
The reverse order is Brahma, Vi~hQ.u Rudra, Mahesa, Sadasiva, Bindu, Nada, Para
Sakti and Para Siva, constituting nine principles. The fQur principles above Sadasiva
(namely Parabindu, Paranada, Parasakti and Para Siva) are generally taken together
with Sadasiva and hence the five principles are called generally Paiicamfirtis in Suddha
Saiva.
The text also enumerates 96 principles, which are common to both Vedanta and
Siddhanta. The knowledge of these 96 Tattvas is necessary for attaining svariipa
Jnana. The text also deals with the three basic tattvas- Prakfti Tattva, Vidya Tattva
and Siva Tattva.
VeHi-ambala-viQ.ar cites Svacchanda text which seems to be the Svacchanda

tantra that has come down to us as for example that the Gangavatara pa_tala cited is
found in the Siva Tantra, tenth patala. 9 Similarly the verses cited mentioning the
origin of Svacchanda tantra cited by Ve!Ji-ambala-viQ.ar is seen verbatim in the
Svacchanta tantra that has survived.

82
The Svacchanda tantra gives the dhytina slokas of Tatpuru~ha, Aghora,

Sadyojata, Vamadeva, and Isana, their meditation and the fruits derived from their
worship.
Kumkumtibham ca ntiresam trinetram caja_tadharam

P iirvtinanam abhidhytiyet vtiyubhak~asya yat phalam 10
Tatpuru~ha, called Naresa, faces east, is saffron in colour, three eyed and wears
matted loks of hair. The devotee meditating on him, obtains immediate results. The
fruits of his worship may equal several thousand Asvamedha yaga. K~hemaraja
defines the term Naresa as Nara¢m Jsvara-Ntiresa. He is Tatpurusha Bhanaraka. If
there was a variant reading mentioning Ardhanarisa in the place of Naresa,
Kshemaraja holds that reading is not appropriate. He points out that Devi is said to be
seated on the lap of the lord and the identification, as. Ardhanari does not arise. The
meditator on Naresa obtains siddhis within six months.
The southern face, Aghora called Bahuriipa is blue black in colour, wears
reddish beard and moustache, terrifying face with uplifted brows, wears snakes and
Kapala as ornaments with hairs matted. He is meditated for the removal pain and
pleasure and removal feever-Jvara and poisons etc. The one who meditates, shines like
a glowing fire. He attains siddhis and liberation simultaneously.
The western face Sadyojata is white in colour, with three eyes, and holds
ak~amti/ti, and KamaJJflalu. He bestows divine siddhis, removes all sins and bestows
siddhis like Anima, Mahima etc and at the end becomes Siva. His meditation is
resorted to for expiation of sins prtiyascitta'.
The northern manifestation of Vamadeva face is like a reddish lilly (rakta-

utpala) and is endowed with three eyes. The meditator, dhytini will attain the power to
attract the world. He attains the power of attraction in one year.
The fifth face on top, is white, holds trisiila and wears Jatadhara, snake as
upavila skin, and holds ak~amti/ti and KamaJJflalu, Vf.na and damaru, and linga on
head. K~hemaraja says the head will be in the form of a linga (maulistham

83
lingakaram ). Mahe§vara may mean Eaka-Vaktra. It is the devotee who will attain all
knowledge Sarvajftana and attractive form in this life .
.t.
e.:
The Sarva-siddhanta-viveka provides a slightly different account of
worshipping the five faced Sadasiva, under Garu<;ta and other Saivas. It holds that the
four faces are worshipped by those who aspire for worldly achievements for whom the
four sastras, Garuc;la, Dak~hil}a, Varna, and Bhiita Tantra Sastras were taught by
Tatpuru~ha and other faces and as such these · are called Adhas-srotas downward
stream. The Tatpuru~ha, Aghora, Sadyojata Vamadeva are Vijftana Kevalas. These
texts are not independent authority but depende~t on texts like Kamikagama.
Among them GaruC,a relates to the worship of Tatpuru~ha. The worship of this
deity bestows Siddhis immediately. The Svacchanda does not mention GaruC,a Sastra
but agrees with the result of worship, that would be conferred namely attainment of
siddhis.
The South face is mentioned in Sarva-siddhanta-viveka as Ghora riipa, and Para

Brahman, would bestow cure from diseases, that are attained through mantra and
medicines. This also is in agreement with Svacchanda trantra which however does not
mention the text Dakshil}a Tantra. The Sarva-siddhanta-viveka states that the Varna
face should be worshipped with Varna sastra for achieving all longings and prosperity.
The text Jnana-siddhi was probably available in full in the 17th cent for Ve//i-
ambala-va1Jl1r, who has cited extensively from the same. It is mostly in poetic form but
in two or three instances, prose portions are also found. VeUi-ambala-vil}ar citations
are interspersed with quotation from other works, both in Tamil and Sanskrit, the
continuity is interrupted and in some instances only a part of the cited verse is
available making it different.to give continuous numbers. For facility of reference the
number is given partially for such verses. In most cases VeHi-ambala-vil}ar gives
specific reference to the text from which he cites. When the citation is from the same
text, he also mentions "in the above text" that helps in reconstructing the text. In one or
two instances however doubt arises whether the citation is from rnana-siddhi or other
text. Such instances are included in the text. The editors have done commendable job

84
of transcribing the manuscript from palm leaf manuscript. Sri Rajagopala Sastri the
editor of Sanskrit text has done great service in the Sanskrit portion and explains in the
introduction the difficulties encountered in transcription. However there are a few
misprints as well. I have corrected such passages. In some portions some parts that
were missing have been reconstructed from the later portions, where definitions are
provided.
As the portions cited relate mostly to Dak~hil}.a Bhairava school, Jniina-siddhi

is found mostly in the Piirva Pak~ha part. It is possible that the text in full may still be
available in some library especially in Banaras region and when found would throw
flood of light on the Saumya school of Bhairava worship.
It also cites verbatim or summarises in many places other texts like Upani~hads,
Vedanta or PuraJ)as.
End notes
1. Jftanasiddhi cited in Jv. p.50

2. Ibid. p. 51
3. Ibid. p. 52
4. Ibid. p. 50
5. Ibid. p. 75
6. Ibid. p. 78
7. Ibid. p. 171
8. Jv.p.56
9. Svacchanda, cited in Jv. verses 172 - 180
10. Svacchanda, patala 12, verse 125

85
A saiva Acarya, in the fiont mandapa of the temple at Survaya.
Original from
1 Parvat giving milk to the child Ji'iana-samabandar who became the first and greatest
devotional poet at the age of three and went on to sing 4000 Tamil poems that
constitute the first book of Tevaram. The Dharmapuram Saiva Matha was inspired by
his name and all Pontiffs have this name attached t~ them. P. 87 (Photo R.N.)

2 The Unga of Mahakala, in the Sanctum of Mahakala temple, Ujjaini. This main Unga
is dressed differently at different times to present various manifestations of Siva.
3 Mahakala dressed as Aghora/Bhairava. P. 95-98

4 The Unga of Mahakala, in the sanctum of Mahakala temple, Ujjaini,
dressed as Ardhanari. P. 96
s The Omkaresvar Unga under worship in the sanctum above the Mahakala
sanctum, Ujjaini. He represents the Sadasiva Tattva. P. 96 (Photo R.N.)

6 The main Image of Kala-Bhairava at the back and the silver face of the same deity in front
in the sanctum of the Kala-Bhairava temple receiving worship, Ujjaini. P. 98 (Photo R.N.)
7 The Kala-Bhairava image, represented by the face, made of silver Pl. note
the mouth and the lips. See F.77. P. 98 (Photo R.N.)

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8 The main deity of Kala-Bhairava in the sanctum of 9 The Image of Aghora Bhairava at the root of the
the temple of Kala-Bhairava, Ujjaini. The plate in banyan tree, at Siddha-vatam, on the bank of the
front is filled with wine that is offered to the deity. river Kshipra, Ujjaini. P. 103 (Photo R.N.)
P. 98 (Photo R.N.)
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sanctum of the Hara-Siddhi temple, Ujjaini. She is a of Ghada Kali. She blessed Kalidasa who became the greatest
Saumya Devata. P. 100 (Photo R.N .) of Poets. She is an Ugra devata. P. 99 (Photo R.N .)
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12 The marble image of Saint Gorakshanath, in the 13 The original Kala-Bhairava image placed on an
temple of Goraknath in the Bhartrhari cave complex, architectural slab now called Vikramaditya Vetala in
on the banks of river Kshipra. P. 99 (Photo R.N.) the Bhartrhari cave complex. P. 100 (Photo R.N.)
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14 Sadyojata-murti, Tumain, Gwalior Museum, 2 cent. BCE depicting vegetation and
four heads (All the four heads are chopped off) with a bull. P. 107 (Photo R.N .)

15 Bull (with its head chopped off) beneath Sadyojata murti, P. 107 (Photo R.N.)
16 The lower part of the Mahishasura-Mardini panel, the Mahishasura

mardini temple, Naresvar Madhya Pradesh. P. 144 (Photo R.N.)

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17 Sady6jata Bhairava with four palm leaves issuing from its trunk 18 Sady6jata Bhairava, with plants on either side
resembling a linga shaft. Mauryan age, 2'd cent. BCE. From Gwalior, from Madhya Pradesh, now in the Museum of
now in the State Museum, Bhopal. P. 108-109 (Photo R.N.) Indian Art, Berlin, Germany. P. 108
19 Tatpuru~ha Mahadeva, now in the State museum, Bhopal, 8th , 9th cent. P. 112 (Photo R.N.)

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20 Sadyojata, Nandi-vaktra, Gyaraspur, dist-Vidisa, now in the State Museum, Bhopal. P. 123 (Photo R.N.)
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21 Varna deva / Uma Vaktra showing the femenine 22 Aghora / Bhairava like a skeleton, to the left-
breast to the right. P. 124 (Photo R.N.) Gyaraspur, dist Vidisa, M.P. P. 124 (Photo R.N.)
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23 Agh6ra Bhairava, 6 cent, Talagaon, dist. Bilaspur, Madhya Pradesh,
in the local temple under worship. P. 109 (Photo R.N.)

24 Aghora Bhairavi/Rudrani now in the National Museum, New Delhi, said to come from
Madhya Pradesh, probably from Bilaspur region, 6th cent. P. 109-110 (Photo R.N.)

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25 Mahesvari Durga, Vidisa, Govt Central Museum, Gwalior 5-6 cent. One of
the tallest free standing sculpture of imposing size M.P. P. 141 (Photo R.N.)

26 Yogini with the face of a bird, Naresvar, now in the State Central Museum,
Gwalior. (Photo R.N.)

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27 Dancing Matrika, and isana dikpala, on the wall 28 Bhairava, Andhakasura samhara in a niche of the
of the west facing temple, at survaya dist. west facing temple, temple 2, Survaya, dist.
- -Shivapuri, M.P. 10th cent. P. 145-147 (Photo R.N.) Shivapuri 10th cent. P. 145-147 (Photo R.N.)
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29 Teli ka mandir, dedicated to Sapta matas following 30 A monk of the Gorakshanath school, residing at
Yamala tantra, a temple of the Varna sect, The the Bhartrihari cave, Ujjaini, M.P. P. 100 (Photo R.N.)
biggest temple dedicated to Saptamata worship
known to exist, Gwalior. P. 142 (Photo R.N.)
31 Vayu dikpala holding Kapala and Khatvanga in hands; from Padavali, dist.
Shivapuri, now in the State Central Museum, Gwalior, 10th cent. (Photo R.N.)

32 A beautiful image of Kalapriya/Aghora, consecrated by the Rashtrakuta Krishna III, at
(Melacceri). Kaverippakkam, near Kanchipuram, Tamilnadu, mid 10th cent. P. 91 (Photo R.N.)

33 Gajasamhara / Bhairava, bronze, in the Virasthana temple, Valuvlir, near
Thiruvarur, now under worship. Chola period, 10th cent. P. 90 (Photo Gurumurti)

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34 Nritta mOrti, bronze, now under worship in Melakkadambur, near 35 One of the Yogini sculputres, now under worship in a
Chidambaram TamilNadu, orginally from Bengal, Pala period, local temple, Tanjavur. 9th cent. P. 91
9th Cent. On the pedestats are the Bhairavas dancing. (Photo R.N.)
36 Nandikesvara receiving sivajiiana from Siva, painting, 1960s, on the wall of
Pujaikkattu, Dharmapuram Adheenam Mutt, Mayiladuturai. (Photo R.N.)
37 Gurujnanasambandar merging with siva, at the end. He was the founder

of the Dharma puram Adhinam mutt, Mayiladuturai. Painted in 1960s on
the wall of the Pujaikkattu, Dharmapuram Adhinam mutt. (Photo R.N.)

38 Sadasiva caturmukha linga with the Unga Vedi; under
worship as Pingalesvara, at the outskirt of Ujjain, Sunga
period, 2nd cent BCE. P. 101-102 (Photo R.N.)
39 Nandi, the bull of Siva, under worship in the Sandipani temple

complex Ujjain, Mauryan period, 3rd cent BCE. P. 95 (Photo R.N.)

40 Sadyojata and Vamadeva faces of Pingalesvar, Ujjain. P. 101-102 (Photo R.N.)
41 Sadyojata and Aghora faces, Pingalesvar, Ujjain. P. 101-102 (Photo R.N.)

42 Aghora face of Pingalesa, Pingalesvar, Ujjain,
Sunga period, 2nd Cent BCE. P. 101-102
(Photo R.N.)
43 Vamadeva face of Pingalesra Sunga period,

2nd cent. BCE. P. 101-102 (Photo R.N.)
44 Sadyojata face, Pingalesvara, Pingalevar,

Ujjaini, 2nd cent BCE. P. 101-102 (Photo R.N.)

45 Tatpurusha Mahadeva, Eka-mukha-linga in the collection of
Museum of Indian Art, Berlin Germany, Pl note the benign face.

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46 The lovely image of Tatpurusha/Mahadeva 47 Tatpurusha-Mahadeva from Kashmir in the Pan

from Maru, now in the State Museum, Asian Collection (published by Pratapaditya Pal.
th th
Bhopal, 6 7 cent.(Photo R.N.) 1973), 8th and 9th cent. P. 110-113
48 Sadasiva caturmukha linga, caturmukha Mahadev temple, Nachna, M.P.

49 Tatpurusha/Mahadeva with Parvati, from Champa, lOlh cent. The central face is that of
Tatpurusha, as the face to the right is Aghora/Bhairava and left Vamadeva/Umavaktra,
worshipped according to Garuda tantra. P. 115

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50 An Image of Tatpurusha/Mahadeva as Bhadra mukha in the State Museym, Shimla, 11th cent. P. 133 (Photo R.N.)
51 Sadyojata/ Nandivaktra, with Vamadeva/Umavaktra to the right and
Aghora/Bhairava to the left, Padavali, now in the State Central Museum,
Gwalior. P. 126 (Photo R.N.)
52 Note Vamadeva/Umavaktia is to the right and Aghora/Bhairava to the left

of central face (representing Sadyojatamurti,) gyaraspur worshipped
according to Bhutta-tantra. P. 123-133 (Photo R.N.)

53 Sadyojata/Nandivaktra, with Umavaktra to the right and Aghora/Bhairava to the
left from Padavali, now in the State Central Museum, Gwalior. P. 127 (Photo R.N.)
54 Sadyojata from Padavali, in the State Museum, Bhopal. P. 126 (Photo R.N.)

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55 Sadyojata Nandivaktra, from Gyaraspur, Dist Vidisa, Now in 56 Tatpurusha-Mahadeva Trimukha, Elephanta cave
the State Museum, Bhopal, 10• cent. P. 125-126 (Photo R.N.) 6° cent. P. 125-126
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Elenberg collection, New York, Published by Dr. P. Pal.
Please note the front face on the Rudra-bhaga is that 58 Back view of Sadasiva-Bhairava
of Aghora/Bhairava the face on top is that of Isana. (Courtesy Pratapaditya pal}. P. 116-117
The whole represent SadaSiva Bhairava.
59 Aghora Bhairava face from Nemad, Now in the Central Museum,
Nagpur, courtesy Central museum, Nagpur. P. 105-106

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60 Harihara Bhairava, Gandhara Kushan period, 2"' BCE, Now in 61 Harihara-Bhairava, from Kashmir. Now in the
the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin, Germany., Pl note the side Museum of Indian Art, Bertin, Germany, 10• cent.
face on the right as a lion and the left as a boar. P. 110-111 Courtesy, Museum of Indian Art, Bertin. P. 112-122
62 Bhairava Sculputre from Naresvar, now in the Central Museum,
Gwalior, 10th-11 th cent. P. 146 (Photo R.N.)

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63 Kshetrapala with pots placed one over the other by 64 Bhairava, now in the State Museum, Bhopal. He is
his side, 11 th cent; probably it comes from Mandasor, shown with a garland of bones. (Photo R.N.)
now in the State Museum, Bhopal. (Photo R.N.)
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65 River goddess Kalindi-Yamuna, an attendent, behind them is 66 Bhairava, Gaja samhara, from Madhya Pradesh,
Mahakala door keeper, Teli ka mandir, Gwalior M.P. (Photo R.N.) now in the ASI Museum, Gwalior. (Photo R.N.)
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67 Bhairava; Andhakasura samhara, in a niche of the west 68 Bhairava, Andhakasura samhara, 11 th cent., from cattisgarh,
facing temple, Survaya, near Gwalior, M.P. (Photo R.N.) Dist Mandasor. Now in State Museum, Bhopal. (PhotoR.N.)
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69 Nritta Ganapati as a member of the Matr gana, Padavali. Gwalior. Vayu also holds a Khatvanga and Kapala. In the
now in the State Central Museum, Gwalior. (Photo R.N.) worship of Svacchanda Bhairava, the Dikpalas are also
called manifestations of Bhairava. (Photo R.N.)
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71 Nrrithi from Padavali, now in the State Central Museum, 72 Isana-Dikpala, Padavali, M.P., Govt Central Museum,
Gwalior, holding a severed head on one hand and a bone on Gwalior. Isana also holds a Khatvanga and Kapala. In
the other. Other two hold sword and shield. (Photo R.N.) the worship of Svacchanda Bhairava, the Palas are
also called manifestations of Bhairava. (Photo R.N.)
Kapala Nritta dance of Siva, in a panel of 73
Sukha-nasa, near Vikramaditya vetala, in the
Bhartrihari guha complex, Ujjain, 11 th cent.
P. 104 (Photo R.N.)
74 Kapala Nritta dance of Siva, generally

worshipped by Kapalika followers, from
Mandasor, Central India; now in the State
Museum, Bhopal, 11 th cent. P. 104 (Photo R.N.)

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75 Kapala nritta dance of Siva, Indra garh, dist Mandasor 76 Dakshinamurti of the Soma siddhantins (Kalamukhas), at
th
8 cent. Now in the State museum, Bhopal. P. 105 Thiruvorriyur, near Madras, Chola period, 11th cent.
(Photo R.N.) P. 38 (Photo R.N.)
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77 Aghora Bhairava, metal, such metal faces 78 Goddess Gauri, made of metal, now in the Museum of
represent the god in full, under worship in north Indian Art, Berlin, Germany. Such faces are regularly
Indian temples, (see kala Bhairava at Ujjaini F.7), found in North Indian temples, and are under worship
P. 118 ( courtesy, Pratapaditya Pal). (courtesy Museum of Indian Art. Berlin) P. 116
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79 Brahma , Vishnu, and Mahesana of the Bhairava school. The followers of Bhairava school worship the
Trinity, before worshipping Svacchanda Bhairava Bhattara. P. 119-121 (Courtesy P. Pal)
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80 Umamahesvara, now in State Museum, Bhopal. The 81 Siva Tatpurusha-Trimukha Parvati, Kashmir 11 th cent.
figure to the right of Siva seems to be Bhairava. Pan Asian collection, P. 137 ( courtesy P. Pal)
This group was probarly worshipped by the follows
of Bhairava school. P.137 -138 (Photo R.N.)
82 Harihara, Mandasor, 5th cent, now in the 83 Harihara, Sivapuri, 11 th cent. Now in the
State Museum, Bhopal. P. 122 (Photo R.N.) State Museum, Bhopal. P. 122 (Photo R.N.)

. 84 Siva- surya: Two of his Saktis are shown one on either side at his waist
height. By the side of his head Brahma is on his right and Vishnu on his left
indicating the central figure is Siva-surya. From Mandasor, 10th cent, now in
the State Museum, Bhopal, MP. P. 138 (Photo R.N.)
85 Siva-surya, four armed image of Siva-surya standing

wearing high shoes, udicya vesha. (western attire),
State Museum, Bhopal. Beneath his legs is Aruna? On
either side are his male attendants and also consorts
Usha and Pratyusha. P. 138 (Photo R.N.)
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86 Lakulisa, Gajendragarrh, dist. Mandasor, 5th cent. Now 87 Srikantamurti, before mainfesting as Lakulisa, Hingalajagarh,
th
in the State museum, Bhopal. P. 138-139 (Photo R.N.) dist Mandasor, 10 cent. To his right above is Bhairava and left
is devi, now in state museum, Bhopal. P. 138-139 (Photo R.N.)
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88 Kumara as Panca Brahmam, emanating from 89 Kumara as Panca Brahmam, emanating from
a linga, from Naresvar, now in the Central durga, from Naresvar, now in the Central
Museum, Gwalior ASI, P. 138 (Photo R.N.) Museum, Gwalior ASI, P. 138 (Photo R.N.)
90 In between two heads is a seated image of 91 In between two heads is a four armed
Siva with a bull beneath. An ascetic is standing seated Siva, holding a Khatuanga, to
to the left in adoration. (Photo R.N.) the left stands an ascetic in adoration.
(Photo R.N.)
92 Severed hands and feet beneath the seated yogi. See severed
hands between the skulls, on the head of Aghora Bhairava
from Gyaraspur, (F.55 of this book) Photo R.N.

93 The row of sculptures, on the base of the Teli-ka-mandir, Gwalior; these images in
a row are called Bhuvanesvaras occupying Bhuvana mandala. P. 142 (Photo R.N.)
94 The base of the Telika mandir, dedicated the Saptamatas. The worship tought
to have taken place on the basis of Yamala-tantra. P. 142 (Photo R.N.)

95 The Goddess Lalita Tripurasundari, generally
called Lajja Gauri, from Mandasor, Now in the
State Museum, Bhopal, 5-6th cent. (Photo R.N.)
96 Durga as Vishnu Maya from Bhajer,

now in the State Museum, Bhopal,
12th cent. Please note the head of
Mahisha in her upper hand. (Photo R.N.)

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97 Mahesvari, from Vidisa, one of the Matrika 5-6tt, cent. Now 98 Kaumari from Vidisa, one of the Matrika 5-6 cent,
in State Central Museum, Gwalior. P. 141 (Photo R.N.) State Central Museum, Gwalior. P. 141 (Photo R.N.)
99 Devi, seated in yoga pose, holding pasa and ankusa in the upper
arms. The other two held probably akshamala and kamandalu,
now in State Museum, Bhopal 11th cent. (Photo R.N.)

100 Bird headed Yogini 101 Naiririti
Nareswar now in the State Central Museum, Gwalior. P. 141 (Photo R.N.)
102 Aindri . 102 (a) Narayani

103 Bhartrihari Cave, with the image of Bhartrihari; the seated
ascetic belongs to the Natha sect, Ujjain. (Photo R.N.)
104 The gigantic linga devoted to Sadyojata/Nandivaktra in the sanctum of the great
temple built by Bhoja Paramara at Bhojapuri near Bhopal. 11111 cent. (Photo R.N.)

105 caturumukha Sadasiva, Virattana temple, Thiruvadikai,
Tamilnadu Pallava period, c. 600 CE. (Photo R.N.)

106 The three temples built so close to each other. Monastery
(Sankhamathika), Survaya, 10th Cent. (Courtesy R.N. Mishra)
107 A duster of temples, built at the same place Naresar,

Dist. Morena M.P. 8th Century. This group shows they
are dedicatory temples. (Courtesy R.N. Mishra)

108 Three temples in a row, at the same place. Naresvar. P. 140 (Photo R.N.)
109 A group of two temples as one approaches the main group of Nareswar, Madhya
Pradesh. These clusters show they are dedicatory temples. P. 140 (Photo R.N.)

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110 West facing temple, with the temple of 111 The east facing temple at the same place. Probarly
Mahishasura-mardini at the back. This west facing dedicated to Tatpurusha, Naresvar. P. 141-145 (Photo R.N.)
temple of Siva was probably dedicated to Sadyojata
of the Bhairava school. P. 141-145 (Photo R.N.)
112 Sikhara of the Mahisha Suramardini temple, Naresvar, M.P. (Photo R.N.)
Original from
113 Interior of the monastry, survaya, 10th cent. M. P. P. 145-147 (Photo R. N.)
114 The temple of Mahishasura mardini, and the monastry building by its
side, Naresvar, near Gwalior. P. 144 (Photo R.N.)

115 Temple No.1 and temple No.2 facing each other at Survaya, dist.
Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh. P. 145-147 (Photo R.N.)
116 An image of Vishnu, Survaya, temple No.1 on the north side.

P.145-146 (Photo R.N.)

117 Entrance to garbha graha, lintel showing Gc!rudaroda Vishnu below and
dancing Siva, above temple No.1 Survaya P. 146 (Photo R.N.)
118 Entrance to the Garbhagrha, lower part, showing Ganga and Yamuna flanking
the entrance. The stepping slab showing, the Vidya Padma in the center flanked
by lions standing for Dharma and Jnana, temple 1, Survaya. P. 146 (Photo R.N.)

119 Entrance to the sanctum of temple 1, Survaya. Showing the full compliment of
deities adorning the sakha frames, under and the base above. P. 146 (Photo R.N.)
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120 Garudarudha Vishnu in the centre of the entrance 121 Entrance to the sanctum of Mahishasura marni temple, lower
to the sanctum, temple 1, survaya. Siva tandava part, showing Yamuna standing on a turtle. P. 144 (Photo R.N.)
takes place above. P. 146 (Photo R.N.)
122 Vishnu on Garuda, on the lintel of the entrance to the
garbhagraha, t~mple No. 2, Survaya. P. 147 (Photo R.N.)
123 Temple No. 2, facing west, probably dedicated to Sady6jata,

Survaya, dist. Shivpuri, M.P. P. 145 (Photo R.N.)

124 Girls performing dance, accompanied by Natya acaryas and
instumental musicans,Frieze in the ceiling of the temple mandapa,
temple no.1 Surwaya, 10th century (Courtesy R.N. Mishra)
125 Dance of Pretas (top, two friezes),

Padhavali, 10th Century.
Original from
ERSITY OF MICHIGAN
126 Grotesque Preta figures (top frieze), Padhavali, 10th Century,
Courtesy, R.N. Mishra
127 Preta and Yogini couples in dalliance

(Upper register), Terahi, 11th Century.

128 Linga-abhisheka, and the Tandava above, in a mandapa
Padhavali, 10th Century. (Courtesy R.N. Mishra)

129 Sivacaryas performing abhisheka and puja to a sivalinga.
130 The pancacaryas, sounding the panca mahasabdas, on the right.
131 Girls performing dance, accompanied by musicians and dance masters.

A panel now in the National Museum, New Delhi. (Photo R.N.)

4
The Art of the Bhairavas

A careful study of the history of Saivism reveals that there were many sub-sects
among Saivas that came into existence due to diverse approaches to the realization of
the Supreme, though all accepted Siva as the Supreme God. Time and space
contributed to these variations as well. Two broad divisions were accepted among
these systems one following the calm and quiet path called Saumya School and the
second, the wild path called the Raudra School. Both were suited to individual taste
and environment. Tamilnadu is mainly a flat country with not much wild forest or
intractable regions. People lived on cultivated lands that did not offer that much of
terror or fear to them as some other parts of India, which were infested with thick
jungles, forests and hills in which people were living in constant fear and expectation
of divine support to free them from enemies and natural disasters. The peaceful
regional environment was conducive for Tamilnadu seeking after higher knowledge,
Joana, through the path of Jftana Mirga Saivism.
Jllna-sambandar (F. 1)
The devotional movement of the great Saiva saints who lived between sixth and
ninth cent CE further enhanced this trend. Over twenty thousand delightful songs were
composed and sung by the realized souls who propagated knowledge based on
devotion as the most important path to attain salvation. The First among the Saiva
niyanmir was Jftana-sambandar the poet-child who started singing from his third year
due to the grace of God. He received divine milk from Goddess Pirvati which made
him the greatest of Saiva poets. Ever since he started singing (when he was three), he
came to be called Jftina-sambandar i.e "Poet of Knoweldge". His four thousand and

88
odd songs are sung even to this day. He lived around 650 CE. He belonged to Vedic
Smarta Brahmana family of Sirkali in Tanjore district. Vaidika Brahmanas followed
the Jftananta system of the Vedas, that is the Upanishadic teachings emphasizing
Jftana. One could follow any system of religion or adore all gods as mentioned in
Smritis, the dharma siistras but must realize that ultimate liberation comes through
knowledge. Jftana-sambandar was steeped in Vedantic thought from his birth and
followed the same and blended it with Agamic tradition. Agamas are ritual treatises
that were popular even from the beginning of the CE. Therefore, it is said that he came
into this world to uphold the Vedic path and blend it with Agamic system. The
Supreme principle for the Vedic Brahmins was Knowledge which they visualized as
Savita, the Sun. The only prayer they recite (which is a Vedic hymn) for the past four
thousand years is addressed to Savita, the Sun God, requesting him to bestow critical
knowledge. They recite this every day during the three sandhi times (morning, mid day
and evening). So Jftana-sambandar sings in one of his songs that the essence of this
hymn is nothing but the five sacred syllables of Siva, "Nama Siviiya".
The story of a child .drinking divine milk is associated with three boys in the
Saiva Canon. :rtie first is l(~hetrapala identified some times with Bhairava. According
to the Linga-puriina when Kali fought a severe battle with Tarakasura and killed him,
her anger did not wane. Instead, she started dancing a ferociously when the whole
world started trembling, Siva took the form of a child, sat in the midst of a field and
started weeping. It kindled the compassion of the goddess who fed her milk to the
child. Siva is said to have drunk all the anger of Kali along with her milk and ever
since, he became the protector of cultivated field as K~hetra-pala. Interestingly Sirkali
the birthplace of Jftana-sambandar is associated with Bhairava who receives regular
worship to this day.
The second episode is also narrated in the Linga-puriina and concerns Saint
Upamanyu. Lord Siva is said to have offered the entire ocean of milk for the child
Upamanyu to drink. As a result Upamanyu became immortal and the principal
exponent of Pasupata cult. Jftina-sambandar was the third to receive divine milk and
he is praised as one who came to spread Saivam in the world.
Plsupatas and Klpllikas in Tamilnad
Similarly his elder contemporary Saint Appar, who lived between the end of 6th
and mid Seventh cent, gave foremost importance to knowledge-based devotion. He.
89
belonged to a traditional agriculturist family that adored Siva. However, he for some
time embraced Jainism and soon mastered all branches of Jaina tho~ght. He was
considered the leading luminary of Jaina knowledge. When he returned to his parent
faith, he was full of analytical knowledge. Yet he has sung a song that shows his
preference for knowledge in an interesting way. He addresses Si~a then.
"Lord, some people worship Thee with knowledge but I am not so

knowledgeable. Yet seeing that these men of learning worship Thee, as knowledge
incarnate, I too worship Thee with knowledge". It is clear that liberation for the Saiva
saints lay in Jftana-marga. There are several hundred poems in the collections of these
early saints that extol the greatness of Jftana. The Tamil country was echoing their
verses and thought throughout the length and breadth of the region.
However, it is not that the wild devotees were not in existence in Tamilnaciu.
Saint Appar himself sings in one of his verses that beautiful dancing girls, singers,
priests, other servants of Saiva temples (called Rudra-gapas) along with Saivas,
Brihmanas, Mahavratins, Pasupatas, and Kapalikas.accompanied the procession of the
Lord of Thiruvarur, during the annual festival. This is a clear indication that around
600 CE there were Saivas, Pasupatas, Mahivratins and Kapilikas mingling freely with
others in Tamilnadu. Some Agamas like Ajita-agama divide Saiva system into mainly
six divisions as Saiva, Pasupata, Soma Vimam, Bhairavam, and Lakula. There are
variations in the list in different .ag~as but these divisions are the early divisions
noticed. Of these "Soma" also known as Soma-siddhanta is considered identical with
Maha-vratins, also called Kalimukhas, according · Ve\li-ambala-vinar, the
commentator who is the principal contributor to this study. That shows that as early as
sixth cent this six-fold division existed in Tamilnadu.
Temples ofMahlklla in Tamilnad
A few important facts deserve attention at this stage. The Saiva saints of the
seventh cent speak of Makalam (Maha-kilam) obviously referring to the temples of
Bhairava form of Siva, (like the Uijaini Mahakila), It is possible that these Mahakala
temples followed the Dalc&hiqa Bhairava system considered more saumya oriented
than the Varna Bhairavam. In addition, some temples in Tamilnadu were called
"Karonam" (They were in Kudantai (modem Kumbakonam), and Nagappattinam.
Karonam in Tamil stands for Kayavarohan. It is well known that this term denotes the
temple of Lakulisa Pasupata who is said to have descended with his own body (kaya-
90
avarohana) into this world as a Brahmacarin. The temples that followed Pasupata
system and became centres ofLakulam are the Karonam in Tamilnadu. These temples
were in existence before the seventh century and had attained fame by the turn of 600
CE. Yet we do not come across the image of Lakulisa in any of these temples or in
thousands of other temples that have survived except in some very rare cases. Hardly
two or three Lakulisa sculptures are noticed in Tamilnadu. That perhaps is an
in~ication that Lakulisa Pasupata system was not so influential in Tamilnadu which
preferred the benign path. Though the Pasupatas also worship Siva as the Primordial
deity some branches of them did not find perceptible favour with the people since the
food habits associated with them like eating meat and drinking etc were not acceptable
to Siddhanta Saivas.
Furth(?r the great Pallava ruler Mahendra-varman (590-630) wrote a fine

Sanskrit farce named Mattavilasa prahasana ridiculing the then existing religious
systems like the Kapalikam, Mahesvaram, Bauddham, and others. He gave a clear
picture of the Kapalika way of life and their philosophy which shows that they did
exist at that time in some pockets like Kanchipuram. Except for one small shrine in the
Ekamranatha temple complex assignable to the beginning of the 8th cent wherein Siva
and Parvati seated are shown holding Kapalas and sword, not much has come down to
us. On the other hand, the Kailasanatha temple of Kanchipuram built by Pallava
Rajasimha carries an inscription which says that the king was a follower of "Saiva-
siddhanta-marga" showing he was a follower of Vedanta Agamic marga.
Mention may also be made of the existence of eight important temples that
existed prior to seventh cent. They are V-trananms. (F. 33) (Vira-sthanas) dedicated to
Siva's manifestations in his ferocious fonn with which he annihilated eight enemies.
These relate to the classical puranic stories of samharas and are listed below.
1. Thirukkoyilur Andhakasura-vadha
2. Thirukkadaiyur - Kala-samhara
3. Thiruvadigai Tripura-samhara
4. Kurukkai Kamantaka
5. Virkudi Jalandhara-vadha
6. Valuvur Gaja-samhara
7. Pariyalur Dak~ha-yajfta-samhara
8. Kandiyur Brahma-siras-ceda

91
As these are temples where Siva manifested in his ferocious form, it is natural
to hold that they followed the Raudra philosophy and worship. But in the present state
of our knowledge we are not able to say which Agamas they followed.
Two or three other illustrations deserve notice as well. The temple Inscriptions
.
of the King Nandivarman III in the ninth cent at Niyamam near Tanjavur, refers to
"Mahakalattu Pi4ari" probably dedicated to Kali in her Bhairavi aspect. Three
dynasties of rulers are seen paying obeisance to her. The Muttaraiyar Chieftains who
ruled Tanjavur before it was taken over by the Imperial Cholas were great devotees of
Mahakali as seen from their inscriptions. The second is the Pallava King Nandi-
vannan who visited the temple and paid obeisance to her, gifted some kalanjus of
gold. The third ruler is Nandivarman's contemporary Ko-Maran-caqaiyan who (was
called Varaguna II,) also visited the same temple and made a gift to it. As this temple
is called Mahakila it should have been a Bhairava temple and the Pi4ari of this
Mahakala should be considered an associate temple with Kala-Bhairava as the main
deity, surrounded by Yoginis. Niyamam is a village near Tanjavur. This writer made a
search in the region for locating this sculpture and Yogini sculpture but could not find
any.
Another illustration is the installation of Nisumbhasudani by Vijayalaya-chola

the founder of the Imperial Chola line. According to a Chola record he captured
Tanjavur and installed an image of Nisumbhasiidani and through her blessings ruled
the earth. Luckily, this sculpture is still under worship in Tanjavur as Vata-bhadrakili,
one of the finest sculptures of this theme. It is possible this also accommodated
Yoginis. Some Yogini sculptures are still found in Tanjavur town. (Fig. 15) It is
possible that the cult of sixty four Yoginis was prevelant in the great city of Tanjavur
in the 9th cent.
Kllapriya deva (Fig 32)
I happened to examine a fine sculpture of Siva with three faces when the
Tamilnadu police brought to me some photographs of that sculpture along with over
50 antiquities that were seized by them from an antique dealer. Under instruction from
the Inspector General of Police tliey wanted my expert report on the antiquitites. I
could identify the three-faced Siva immediately as the same one that has been
illustrated by T.A.Gopinatha Rao in his "Elements of Hindu Iconography". Rao
illustrated this image as from Kaverippakkam in Vol II pt.II. The Police handed over

92
the sculpture subs~uently to the Madras Museum where it is now kept in a lawn. Rao
published this image as Mahesamiirti. Because of its historic interest and association, I
reproduce the good description of this image here.
"Four photographs are reproduced in illustration of the Mahesa aspect of Siva:

the first is a beautiful figure of stone lying in a ruined Siva temple at Melaccheri near
Kaverippakkam in N .Arcot district. It has suffered damage at the hands of Mussalmans
during the troublesome period of the contest for succession to the Navabship of
Kamatic. It has, as required, four faces of which three are visible in the photograph.
On the crown of the left face could be distinctly seen a big human skull and just below
it is the hood of a cobra whereas the middle head has a beautifully tied up ja(amaku(a
connected with a jewelled disc flower garlands and inevitable crescent moon. At the
base of the maku(a may be noticed a row of five or six spherical objects which appears
to be the skulls comprising a garland. The. third eye is very clearly marked on the
forehead of the central face. There are as usual haras, udara bandhas, and yajnopavita
etc. Close to the neck is also a hara of snake. In the unbroken right hand is visible the
damaru. One other hand seems to hold a long sword whose upper part is. visible on the
crown near human skull; this latter itself appears to be the head of a khatvanga held by
the image in one of its right hand, for it might be noticed there is a base attached to the
capital of the handle. Perhaps one hand was held in abhaya pose; it is impossible to
say what the remaining two other hands might have held; in the unbroken left hands
are to be seen the pasa, the khetaka· the kapa/a and something which resembles a fruit.
One of the left hands showed also carries a long handled object, perhaps a trisiila or
parasu. There are two legs as described in our authority. The image is seated in a
.comparatively rare posture. The right and the left faces are pacific, while the middle
face is terrific. Pair of knitted eyebrows surmounts its• circular eyes; its wide mouth
having side tusks; all these indicate according to the rules of the agamas, the terrific
ugra aspect that in this instance is that of the Aghora' s face. This fine piece of
sculpture belongs to the later phase of the Pallava period, perhaps to the reign of
Nandivarman, son ofDantivarman (about AD eighth cent)."
Barring a few discrepancies, the account given by Gopinatha Rao is accurate.

Even the identification of the central face as terrific Aghora is correct. However, a few
points deserve attention in the light of personal examination of the sculpture. Rao says,
"The image has four faces though only three faces are visible". At the back is present
an aureole but the sculpture has no fourth face. Therefore, it must be considered a

93
Trimukha image and not a four-faced image. No small skull is there on the left face as
suggested by Rao. It is only the hood of a damaged snake held in the hand of the main
image. The left arms show a pasa, shield, head and kapa/a, the fifth hand handles a
vina. The right arms hold a katvanga, damaru, dagger, and two objects that are not
clear as the hands are damaged. Thus, the figure has ten arms. Rao has drawn our
attention to a snake worn as a necklace and the image seated in a peculiar pose, almost
like yogasana. In addition,. Rao is right in saying that the central face represents
Aghora' s face and the other two are pacific. As the Aghora face is in the centre, the
right face represents Sadyojata face and the left one, Tat-puru~ha face. As Tri-mukhas
(also called Tri-vaktras) are now known, this image should be identified with three
faces only. As the central face is that of Aghora, the sculpture is Aghora Bhairava,
belonging to the Bhairava school of Saivism and worshipped according to D~hiQ.a
tantra.
Kllapriya Temple
It would be interesting to study the village Melaccheri near Kaverippak.kam that

is the original find spot of this sculpture. The history of Kaverippakkam goes back to
the eighth cent as we have an inscription of the Pallava ruler, Nandi-varman II there.
Subsequently dwing the time of Nandi-varman III, in the ninth cent, a portion of the
village was reconstituted as a new colony and gifted to a number of Brahmins under
the name caturvedi-mangalam. The Rashtraldita emperor, Kri~lu}a III wrested the
region from the Imperial Cholas. Bhutuka, a feudatory of Kri~lu}a killed the Chola
crown prince Rajaditya, in a battle at Takkolam near this place. A copper plate charter
of this ruler issued from Karhad, furnishes a very important information. The record
says that at Melpadi (also not far away from this village) he established his camp and
built three temples named Kalapriya, Kri~qesvaram and Ganda-martancJam. An
inscription of the chola dynasty dated in the reign of Rajak~sari-varman, Sundara
Chola, found on the walls of the Sundaravarada-perumal temple in Kaverippakkam,
refers to a locality in that village as Kalapriyam which seems to have been a market
place. It was more specifically called "KirtimartaQ.cJa-kalapriya. It is also seen from
that record, that the locality housed a deity named Kirtimartal)qa Kalapriya deva and it
mentions a gift made to the deity by a certain merchant in Sirutimiri naqu, a
subdivision of Paqfivur kottam. Sri Venkayya the then Government Epigraphist
surmised this temple owed its e~istence to Kri~hQa III (Sil x 111-130) Evidently the
R~htrakfita Kri~hl).a built three temples; one was this Kalapriya temple after his title

94
Kirtimirtir}<la, another to Surya named "G81l<la martaQ<la", the third a Siva temple
after his own name "Kri~hqa isvaram. The manifestation of Siva as Kala is an attribute
of the south facing Aghora face, which is also identical with Bhairava, called variously
as Kala Bhairava, or Aghora Bhairava. There could be no doubt that the epigraphical
reference is to this sculpture now under discussion. The fight between the Chola and
Kri$hQa ought to have been a very severe one in which the Ri$lttrakuta defeated the
powerful Chola and dislodged him from the region and that was why probably Kri$hqa
built this temple to Kala Bhairava. Also the temple of Mart81)(Ja built by him was a
Bhairava temple.
Yogini Sculptures
It is well known that Jouvew Dubreuil, the French scholar some time before
1930 collected a number of Yogini sculptures from here which later found their way to
western countries. These Yoginis are now housed in different museums of the world
particulary in US, UK, France and others. Obviouly all of them formed a group with
this Aghora Bhairava image as Kalapriya deva. There were other sculptures from the
same locality and of the same period that were collected by the Madras Government
Museum and they are now exhibited in the Hindu sculpture gallery. Probably the
Yoginis belonged to this temple of Kilapriya erected by Kri~hr}a III. Most scholars
assign all the Yogini figures found here (and are now in various Museums of the
world) to Pallava-Chola time, ninth cent. However, they belong to the early part of
tenth cent is now confirmed by this study. As is clear from the sculptural installation
the Bhairava cult flowered in northern part ofTamilnadu.
Kodunabal■r Klllmakha Temple
We have seen that from as early as sixth century various sects of Saivas were
present in Tamilnadu. A few inscriptions suggest that these sects continued to be
active in a small way upto the middle of twelfth cent. A village called Kodumbalur
near Pudukkottai town, has three lovely temples known to art historians as Muvar
Koyil built by one chieftain Bhuti alias Vikramakesari. He built the temple group after
his own name and after the names of two of his queens. A certain acirya named
Mallikarjuna, of the Kalimukha sect (Kalamukhadana and Tapodhana) who was
greatly venerated by this chieftain, inspired him to build this temple complex. The
euology of this Acarya inscribed on the wall of the temple praises him as a great Vedic
scholar. The temple and its sculptures are known for their beauty and sobriety. But
95
nothing here suggests a Raudra system. It shows that there were saumya followers in
the Kalamfikha School as well.
UJJAINI - Mahlkllesvar (F 2-5)
Central India, especially Ujjaini is a very important area in the study of various
ramifications of Saiva Schools. The earliest portrayal of Siva in India is said to be
found at Ujjaini, in a coin, known as "Ujjaini coin". Called Avanti in ancient times, it
has served as an important pilgrim centre for Saivism to this day, in spite of the
ravages of time and constant and ruthless destruction in the hands of Muslims. The
great Asoka Maurya, started his career as a crown prince here. It seems that this place
was a Siva-k&hetra even before Asoka. After his conversion to Buddhism, Asoka
established a Buddha vihara at Krishnagiri hill near this town. Huge slabs have been
unearthed from here with Brahmi inscriptions, recording gift of Buddha Bhikshus.
Several antiquarian remains that reveal the saivite association of the town establish the
continuation of the town since then.
One of the most striking find is that of a Nandi, (F.39) the bull mount of Siva,
assignable to Maurya-Sunga period 3n1_ 2nd cent BCE, now in a temple in the
Sandipani Maharishi temple complex. This Nandi, standing, shows early
characteristics, very close to Asokan art, but at the same time distinctly different from
the Buddhist works of Asoka. The presence of this Nandi is an indication of the Saiva
character and judging from the early tradition of associating Ujjaini with Mahakila,
the temple of Mahikala had been the centre even then. Ever since, the cult of
Mahakala has left an overwhelming presence in the city of Avanti-Ujjayini. The
temple of Mahikalesvar is one of the 12-jyothir lingas of India, where Siva emanated
as a shaft of glowing fire that speaks of the concept of Linga rooted in shaft of fire and
not otherwise. Mahakalesvar linga is considered a Svayambhu self manifest. The
present Mahakila temple is a huge complex, with the main linga facing south and that
points to many important branches of Saivism that are associated with it.
In the worship of Siva linga the five Brahmams - Panca Brahmams are
invoked in order as Tat-puru&ha facing .east, Aghora facing south, Sadyojata facing
west, Vamadeva facing north, and lsina the sky. Aghora, is also called Bhairava. It is
evident that Mahakala is identical with Bhairava (F.3) and his worship is based on
Bhairava Saiva school. In addition, there are many faiths, concepts, and rituals
associated with the Bhairava cult. People hold that Mahakila of Ujjaini is Siva as

96
Dak~hil).amiirti. In the Pcisupata siitras of Lakulis~ there is one sOtra, which adores
Dak$hinamiirti, Mahadevasya Da/qhir,amurteh. It seems that Mahakala linga could
have been adored in ancient times from all the four sides and above. All the five faces
were adored but now in the first floor of the Vimana above the Mahakala linga, is
enshrined Omkaresvara. (F.5) The name Omkaresvara is significant. The Paftca
Brahmam jointly represent Sadasiva form. Sadasiva according to Agamas, is the first
emanation of Siv~ as "nada" the primordial sound "Omkara ". The name
Omkaresvara of the linga enshrined above Mahakala indicates that all the five faces
were invoked as prescribed with the Panca-Brahma-mantras. "Tatpurushaya
Vidmahe; "Aghorebhyo" "Sadyojatam prapadyami ", "Vtima devtiya namo " and
"Jsana sarva vidyanam ". It is known that the Pasupata siitras are divided into five
chapters, each chapter with one of the Panca-Brahma-mantras. Also according to the
Agamas, Aghora is the hrdaya sthana, heart of the Supreme 'Aghora hrdaya'. So
Mahakala is the heart of the Supreme while Omkara is the head.
The name Aghora is often misunderstood as ferocious or terrific but it is exactly

the opposite of ghora (terrific). The term Aghora "na-ghora iti Aghora" means one
who is not terrific or ferocious but benign. But the term is employed to show that this
god is furious against the enemies of his devotees. The devotee who is extremely and
mortally afraid of his enemy takes refuge in this deity who gives him comfort and
security and so men in fear of particularly forest infested or mountainous regions hold
this deity as their succor. Mahakala affords protection to this region.
Mahakala is also identified with Rudra, as the destroyer of Kala (time) and
(death). Rudra is Agni. I have shown that Agni has two aspects- the terrific and
benign, the Ghora and Siva of the Vedas. The forms of Ardhanari and Harihara are
visualized from this inseperable nature of Siva. In the worship of Mahakala of Ujjain
the priest at times decorates the linga as Ardhanarisa that emphasizes this concept.
Sometimes the decoration takes the combined colour of half-black and half-yellow,
Kri~hQa-Pingala. (F.4) Sometimes it appears as Ohora the terrific. In the city ofUjjaini
there are many wayside temples where the locals worship Bhairavanath. There are two
sculptures of stucco, tastefully painted and worshipped, and the people call one as
white and the other as black Bhairavanath. These seem to be the reflection of Kri~hqa
and Pingala.

97
Yet another interesting tradition at the Mahakala temple is the Piija that takes
place around 4.30 a.m. in the early morning. After all the abhi~hekas like milk, curd,
etc., are performed the deity is decorated. Then is giv~n the bhasma snana-bathing the
deity with sacred ash. A cloth is used to cover the decoration, and then the sacred ash
is sprinkled all over the linga. This bhasma snana is held very sacred. Though the
bhasma snana is given in every Siva temple as a routine, the special sanctity attached
to it at Ujjain Mahakila temple suggests that it is a Pasupata tradition that is
emphasized. 'trishavanam snayita' i.e bathe three times a day with ashes, is one of the
Pasupata sfitra. It is a Pasupata vrata. Another extraordinary tradition was prevalent
here till very recent times.
According to sources, ash from a cemetery used to be brought and used for the
early morning bath ofMahakala. Bhasma from smasana (cemetery) was believed to be
sacred for Kala Bhairava but the modem secular government interfered and stopped it.
A bearded recluse who was probably a Bhairava ve&hadhari used to bring the smasana
bhasma.
Yet another interesting occurrence at the time of bathing Mahakala with ash in
the Mahakala temple is that women attending the worship in the early morning Puja
are asked to close their eyes till the bhasma snana is over. Siva at this stage assumes
the fonn of a naked mendicant, BhikshataQa and it is believed that a woman should not
see him thus. After the_ bhasma snana one of the priests carrrying a silver vase in his
hand moves in the midst of devotees collecting offerings in cash or kind. The
significance of this is generally missed. At this stage the story of Siva taking the fonn
of Bhik~haµll)a in the Darukavana forest is re-enacted here.
I have shown elsewhere that Siva assumed the fonn ofBhi~ha~a and showed
the efficacy of Pasupata vrata. The mature Pasupata-vratins move naked in the midst
of men without minding praise or ridicule. The linga purana which narrates this
episode, shows that Siva was behaving as prescribed in the Pasupata siitras, moving
naked, singing, dancing, enticing women with his beauty but remaining absolutely
indifferent to anything at this stage. This episode is enacted in the morning worship
that calls the women to close their eyes. This episode seems to confirm that the
worship ofMahakala was influenced by the Pasupata system.
In addition, it is recorded that during the Mughal invasion, the temple of

Mahakila was destroyed; the linga was uprooted and thrown into a tank which was

98
filled and leveled so that none could know the location. When the Marathas drove out
the Mughals and established their rule, the generation of temple priests who had
retained the memory of the desecration, pointed out the location, and they dug where
the priests pointed out. They were surprised to see the temple tank and the original
linga of Mah~ala lying buried. They restored the linga and the worship connected
with it.
One may say with certain amount of authenticity, that what is practiced to this
day in the Mahakala temple was what was prevalent before its destruction. It must also
be said the temple of Mahakala has inspired all the temples and worship at Ujjain.
KAia Bhairava (F. 6 - 8)
The Kala Bhairava temple too requires attention. Situated on the banks of the
Kshipra river, the temple is said to have been built by Bhadrasena. The Avanti-kanda
of the Skandha purafla refers to a Kala Bhairava temple here. It is said to be one of the
eight Bhairavas and Avanti is said to have these eight Bhairavas. The priest is a
Caturvedin, a Vedic Brahmin. He told this writer, that panca makiiras were offered in
the temple in early days, but of late these have been removed from the temple
premises, and if needed offered far away from the temple. However liquor is offered to
the deity every day. The main deity is a big stone face (F.6) of Bhairava with no body
or limbs, which is adorned with cloth and garland. The mouth of the deity is wide open
(F. 7) into which liquor-wine (F.8) is poured in as offering frequently. In front of this
deity is a face of the same Bhairava made of silver, decorated and garlanded and is on
a pedestal. Regular worship is performed to this processional image.
The agamic texts, give the names of the eight Bhairavas. The Svacchanda
Bhairava text divides the worship of Bhairava into two categories as Vama-Bhairava
and Dak~hiqa Bhairava. It also gives t_he circle of eight secondary deities around
Bhairava bhattara.
1. Kapalisa
2. Sikhi Vahana
3. Krodharaja
4. Vikarala
5. Manmatha
6.Meghanadhesvara

99
7. Saumariji and
8. Vidyariji
Kala Bhairava does not figure among the eight Parivara Bhairavas. The
Vikarala Bhairava might probably be identical with Kala Bhairava. One important
point about this Kala Bhairava is that it is shown with its mouth wide open. (see page
119) As this Kala Bhairava temple used to offer the Paiica makiira, till recent times it
is likely that it followed the Varna Bhairava system.
According to the Svacchanda bhairava text, all the lokapilas and attendants of
Bhairava, are the emanations of Bhairava.
Ghad-kllikl temple (F.11)
Ujjaini is associated with the famous Sanskrit poet-Kalidasa. According to

tradition, Kilidasa was blessed by Kali, which enabled him to flower into the greatest
poet of India. Kali is said to have written a mantra on his tongue that gave him the
poetic faculty. The temple of Ghad-kili is of the goddess who blessed Kilidasa in this
manner. In the sanctum, only a head represents the goddess with her mouth open, and
her tongue thrown out. In front, she has a tiger as her mount. She has two attendant
goddesses one on either side. Her temple is well built with the usual northern sikhara.
On the back wall of the enclosure are some mediaeval sculptures embedded into the
wall, showing that the original temple was located at the same site.
Bhartribari cave. ( F 12, 13, 30, 103)
Near the Ghad-Kiliki temple, situated on the bank of the river Kshipri is the
Bhartrihari cave complex monument. There obviously remained an ancient temple at
this site as evidenced by several architectural pieces found scattered and also
embedded into later walls. In addition, a mound has formed completely covering some
ancient buildings. It therefore looks like caves (guhos)
At present it is occupied by the followers of Gorakshanatha who reside there

and perform worship etc. It has grown into a complex of unplanned building clusters.
The famous Sanskrit poet Bhartrihari is believed to have been a follower of Goraks-
hanAtha, and is said to have undertaken penance in one of the underground cellars here
and hence the complex goes by the name Bhartrihari guha.

100
One has to ascend a few steps and enter into an open yard. On one side of the
yard is a modem shrine of Gorakshanatha, which houses a fine marble image of that
saint (F.12) that is regularly worshipped. In front of him are a number of small objects
of worship including a small Caturmukha linga. In modem times, this is the principal
deity of the group. In front of him on the other side of the courtyard is a small shrine
housing Kala Bhairava in stone. In front of it is a pit in which a linga with Vedi is
found. At the end of the spout of the vedi is embedded on the sidewall an ancient
sculpture of Parvati. By the side of this group are two interesting sculptures; one
represents an architectural piece of the upper part of a temple si/chara of north Indian
variety, with a sculpture of Siva performing Kapila dance The piece is rested on the
wall. Over that architectural piece is seen a huge face with rounded eyeballs and open
mouth which is now called the Vetala (F.13) (goblin) of the Vikramaditya legend.
However, it seems this face was the original Bhairava that was enshrined in the ancient
temple and this face, as in the case of Kila Bhairava, should have been the original
principal deity of worship here.
A little away ·are two underground cellars. These. were originally residential
rooms, the ceilings of which have now become the floor level. The two cells can be
reached by climbing down steps. In one of the rooms so entered one may see an image
of Bhartrihari of recent origin that has given the name to the temple complex. In front
of it is a Yajna-ku1_1qa - sacrificial altar, (F.103) in which dried cow dung cakes are
burnt continuously and according to tradition this is being continued from the time of
Bhartihari. By the side is a trisfila - (trident) planted. One of the monks of the
Ghorah~hanath school stays here. 1111.1:s this· temple complex turns out to be the abode
of the Natha panthis (F.30).
•
Matsyfndranltha shrine
A little away from Gorakshanath temple, is Matsyendranath temple. This is

worshipped by both Hindus and Muslims, the latter claiming it as a darga.
Hara-siddhi temple (F.10)
This is a full-fledged temple with a new vimana. According to tradition, it is

one of the Saktipitha; the deity is Parvati in her benign form. Only the head of Parvatl
is found in the sanctum. Two goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswati stand flanking the
main goddess. According to tradition after the destruction of Dak&ha' s sacrifice, when

101
Siva took the dismembered parts of Gauri and roamed around unable to bear her
separation, one of her parts fell here. Even girls belonging to the priests family
perform piiji to the goddess here which is interesting.
Pingalesvar Temple (F.38, 40 - 44)
About ten km from Ujjaini is the village Pingalesvar, which stands at the start
of the Paiica-krosi-yatra of Ujjaini. The village derives its name from a linga now
called Pingalesvar. This is a remarkable linga of Sadasiva miirti, which is dated to the
Sunga period 2nd cent BCE. It consists of a tall cylindrical linga with four faces carved
at its root. All the four faces are intact and there is no doubt that stylistically it could
be assigned to the Sunga period. The four faces exhibit perceptible differences. One
face that is pivotal to the identification is shown with beard and prominent jatas. The
moustache is has pronounced. No third eye is seen on the forehead and the right side
of the head· has a protruding part, partly damaged and mostly worn out. That might
represent a skull. The beard, moustache and jatas clearly point out that the face is that
of Aghoramurti. Though the linga is not in its original position, but placed in a later
structure the orientation of the linga is correct and the present bearded face, is facing
the south, the direction of Aghora.
The west facing face looks like a young man with a smile and the facial
treatment is distinct from the other three faces; there is a big rounded sikha like knot; a
prominent earring is seen on the ears, which is treated differently from the ears of
Vamadeva. The head dress seems to resemble the Barhut sculptures. The ears are
shown longer. The Jatas are also treated well.
The face on the north has a feminine countenance with no moustache nor has it
a third eye. The eyes seems to be half closed in meditative mood; the difference in
expression can be seen when compared to the two other faces. It represents the
Vimadeva face. The fourth face is unfortunately placed too close to the wall leaving
no room for a closer examination. Studied with the help of a mirror reflection, the
fourth face is also intact but there seems to be no third eye or moustache. It is Tat-
p~ha face facing east. Unusually the four faces are at the root of the cylindrical
shaft immediately above the linga pitha, which also seems to be original with a long
spout and circular Vedi. What is further striking is that the top cylindrical shaft is tall
well executed with no fifth face. A slight damage on the top rounded part of the linga
head, has been cemented, that is noticed on the eastern part. The cylindrical shaft

102
obviously represents lsana. The importance of the linga is in the lsana aspect and may
therefore be identified as a perfect example of a Sadasiva-murti. There is no line or
suggestion of a phallus in the upper shaft. This Sadasiva-murti is an important image
from many points of view. As mentioned earlier the lsana part i.e. the cylindrical part
is the main part (pradhiina) and all the other faces including that Agora exhibit
calmness. The image was obviously worshipped by the benign followers of Saivism
(Saumya) and not the Raudra, who emphasized the knowledge (Jnana - siddhanta). As
the image is dated stylistically to 2nd cent BCE it is evident the Saumya branch of
saivam had taken deep root even during the Sunga period. The second point that
deserves attention is the non-phallic imagery of the linga. Neither phallic form is
noticed nor the lines that suggest the same are found. It is known that the phallic form
of linga is found at Gudimallam, and that image is also ascribed to 2nd cent. BCE. It
must now be accepted that two schools of Saivas, one worshipping non phallic
,
Sivalinga, and the other worshipping phallic form were in existence in the Sunga
period. It is also seen that the Linga purana speaks of different schools of Saivas
including the followers of nudity. It mentions the followers of nudity should not be
ridiculed. It suggests that not all were followers of nudity, and some even ridiculed
such followers, hence Linga purlina prohibits disrespect.
The third point that emerges from the image is the emphasis on Jftina. Lakulisa
is generally ascribed to first cent BCE on the basis of an inscription mentioning his
disciples. The Linga purlina and other puranas show that he was not the only teacher
who expounded the Pasupata system but there were many before him. We have also
seen that even in the time of Lakulisa or immediately following him, different sects
arose like Vaimalas, Karushya and others. The present study admits that even before
the current era (BCE) different sub schools among the Saiva were prevalent and •
1
different forms ofLinga worship was also prevalent. The origin of the Pasupata system
is rooted in the Vedic system, and that it is as a result of Rudra destroying Tripuras,
during the course of which he assumed the leadership of devas as Pasupati. I have also
shown that the concept of Rudra as Pasupati arose from the concept of Agni Rudra
identity mentioned several times in the Vedas.
Further, the earliest legend mentions Rudra emanating from Linga, appearing in
the Lingodbhava form when Brahma and Vi~hQu were quarrelling among themselves
over Lordship. The Lingodbhava form arises from the identification of linga with a
shaft of fire as Jyotir-linga and not as phallus. This sculpture of Pingalesvara from

• 103
Uijaini and its analysis would show that the origin of linga is not rooted in phallic cult
. .
but in adoration of fire.
Siddhavata (F.9)
On the banks of the Kshipra river at Uijaini is another important site named
Siddhavata. At the root of a banyan tree here is an image of Agora/Bhairava
worshipped by the people of Uijaini. According to tradition when Aurangazeb
conquered Uijaini, he was struck by the influence of the site on the people and wanted
to destroy their faith and considered this tree as the important symbol he should
destroy. He cut the tree up to its root and further poured molten iron on the root so that
the tree would never again sprout. However, the tree gr~w up again to the surprise of
all and that is the tree now under worship. There are a few ancient sculptures at the site
pointing to its antiquity. Above all the people ofUijaini offer last rites to their departed
parents and relatives here and so the site is held very sacred.
Mangalnlth temple. Another interesting temple at Uijaini is the tei11ple dedicated to

•
Mangala, the planet Mars (presiding deity of Tuesday). It has a regular silchara and
other features where the main deity is the Planet. The sanctum enshrines a Linga
representing the planet Mars. The name of the deity is called Mangal-nath, the
appellation ''nath'' showing its connection with Varna School of Bhairavam, identical
with Natha Panthis. We have noted that all deities in the worship of Bhairava are a
form of Bhairava. The representation of the Planet as a Linga would serve as an
illustration here.
Sindipani Ashram (F.39)
Very great sanctity is attached to the complex of a building called Sindipani

ashram, where Lord Sri Krishna, and his brother Balarama are said to have studied
under Maharishi Sindipani, in the company of Sudhima. Mode111 images of Maharishi
Sindipani, Kri$hQa, Balarama and Sudhama installed receive worship. There is an
ancient temple in the complex, which is the oldest in the group. A linga occupies the
centre of the sanctum. There are three sculptures of Vi$hQU inside on the back wall of
the sanctum. The central image is that of Vamana, which is of considerable antiquity.
The other two sculptures are mediaeval ones, probably of 12th cent. On the sidewall is
another sculpture of a dwarfish God, probably Kubera, coeval with Vimana. Facing
this on the other wall, is an image of Vi$ru}U, of the same age.

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104
An image of Siva on one side and Uma Mahesvara on the other, both assignable
to l 0th cent, are in the ma11qapa outside flanking the entrance. It is here the vehicle of
,
Siva, Nandi of the Mauryan age stands facing the linga inside.
It may be mentioned that lord Krilihqa learned Pasupata yoga of worshipping

,
Siva-linga from lJpamanyu Maharishi. Many puranas and Mahabharata portray
Kri~hqa as a great Pasupata. It is therefore not surprising the place of his studentship,
namely Uijaini was also the place of Krilihqa's boyhood. The Siva-linga and Nandi in
the temple at the Sandipani ashram, recalls Kri~hqa as a Pasupata. Another interesting
point is the form of Vamana of Vi~hqu. Vamana is Brahmacari, who is a student. The
· presence of Vamana inside the sanctum with the Siva linga in the centre thus assumes
significance.
Klplla dance (F. 73 - 75)
There is an architectural piece, probably belonging to the sukhaniisa part of a

temple sikhara in the Bhartihari cave complex by the side of Kala Bhairava and what
is now called Vikramaditya vetala. It depicts eight-armed Siva dancing in the centre.
(F.73) It is a Catura-tiindava Siva holding a kapiila, in his front right arm and a
Khatvanga in the main left. The fmgers of the main left arm are touching the kapiila,
held in the right arm suggesting the importance of kapii/a. The second pair of arms at
the back holds what seems to be a parasu and is also fastened to a handle. Beneath the
front right ann is another ann holding trisula and correspondingly the left holds a
khatvanga. The fourth pair of anns at the rear are raised up and hold a snake. The face
of Siva lightly tilted to the right is charming and benign. The head wears a garland of
,
skulls; to the right of Siva is a human figure dancing by his side and to the left stands
the Nandi, with its head turned and looking up to its master dancing. This central panel
of Siva is framed by two pilasters and beyond are seen two camara-dharinis dancing
on either side. The whole group is enclosed by three rows of circular prabha probably
representing Candra, Surya, and Agni maq<talas. The dance pose of Siva is depicted by
a master artist who had absolute control and perception of dance kara{JQS and also had
the ability to portray it in stone. It is certainly a great depiction of the Kapala dance of
Siva, adored, worshipped and imitated by Kapalika vratins. It would also suggest the
th th
presence of Kapalika followers at Uijaini in mediaeval times l 0 - 11 cent.
The sculpture of Kapalika dance at Uijaini, should also be seen in the light of
another superb sculpture of the same dance, at Bhopal State Museum. (F. 74) The
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105
sculpture comes from in Madhya Pradesh. Unfortunately, the right leg and the
principal right arm are broken. It is a remarkable piece, representing probably catura-
tandava. The left leg is probably planted on the back of a dwarf. The left arin extended
is partially damaged but points down. As the hands are badly damaged, it is difficult to
be precise but it seems the God is eight armed, holding trisula, lchatvanga, pasa and
other emblems. The turn of the body and bend of the head, portray perfect rhythm and
delightful movement. The gentle tum of the head to the left is graceful and shows a
master hand at work. The head is adorned with a prominent garland of Kapa.las,
suggesting the dance is the kapala dance. Two pilasters frame the image suggesting it
was on the wall part of the temple. Above the pilasters are shown two garland bearers
on either side. The god has a prabhavali around his head. Kapa.la dance the presence.
of this sculpture and the one at U.ijain shows that Kipalika sect had considerable
following in Central India.
An enchanting representation (F. 75) of the same theme in stone, coming from
Indragar dist Mandasor, is now in the State museum, Bhopal. Dated to 8th cent, this
sculpture portrays a four armed Siva dancing the Kipila dance. The God holds the
Kapa.la in the left hand, and probably dhvaja on a long handle in the left arms and
Akshamala and trisula on the right hand. To the left of the god is seated the goddess.
playing on lute while to the right is kneeling patron devotee in adoration. The Kapila
and akshamali in the main right arms indicate the nature of Siva's dance. Yet another
illustration points to the influence of Kipilika in central India.
AgbGra / Bhairava (F.59)
An important image of Aghora is in the central museum, Nagpur, illustrated as

fig. 81, in the Centenary volume (Satabdi Kaumudi) published by the centenary
.
celebration.committee, Central museum, Nagpur, 1964. There is only a brief mention
th
of it as "Mukhalinga from Nemar 12 cent A.D. included among the noteworthy
sculptures of the Museum''. (p.184). It represents a bold face, with a high Japmakufa,
.
emerging from a linga. The Ja.tiimaku.ta is well treated and with two chains crossing
each other in the front; on its upper part is shown the crescent moon, and beneath it is
a silchama11,i. The bottom of the Japmakufa is adorned with a band of awful skulls,
interspersed with precious jewels, a fine suggestion of the embodiment of Rudra, the
te11ific, and Saumya the benign, both appearing in the same ornament. Both the eyes
are wide open while the third eye on the forehead is treated equally boldly. The mouth
•

106
is slightly open with the teeth visible, adding a fierce look. On both the ears are seen
serpents as ear ornaments. What is impressive is the cylindrical shaft of the linga
gently rising at the back, almost appearing as the crown of the figure. The image is
shown only upto the neck and hence the authorities have described it as just Mukha
linga.
Dr. Stella Kramrisch published the same image in her book "The Art of India"
Tradition of Indian sculpture, painting and Architecture, published in London Fig. 142
almost ten years prior to this publication. In her illustration the raised eyebrows, the
fully opened eyes, the opened mouth and the protruding teeth are very well brought
out. Stella Kramrisch gives the following description in the book.
"Mukhalingain from Nemad, now in Nagpur museum; black basalt, highly

twelfth century or earlier, height 22 1/2 inches. The linga has one face, it is an
Ekamukha linga, the face is that of Bhairava, a diadem of skull circles the linga of
which the crown of matted hair forms a frontal shield as the face emanates from the
Linga,''
It is undoubtedly one of the Paftca Brahman, the Aghora face facing South.
Aghora is also called, Rudra or Bhairava, and represents the fierce for1n. According to
texts he is terrific and destroys all impurities and impediments thereby bestowing
grace on the devotee to whom he is benign The Aghora is defined as one who is
benign and not ferocious na-ghora iii Aghora. The correct identification of this figure
of mukhalinga is Aghora-Bahuriipa.
The presence of Aghora is invoked through Aghora mantra that is said to be

very effective. Mention has been ,made earlier that tho text Sarva Siddhiinta vive/ca
.
speaks of four kinds of Bhairava Saivam, Dalcyhinam, Giirwlam Viimam and Bhuta-
tantram. The southern face namely the Aghora face should be worshipped according
to Dalcyhina Tantra, for the successful cure of fever, poison etc, through medicine and
incantations and also success. The same results are also mentioned for the worship of
. .
Aghora face by the Svacchanda Bairava tantra, though it does not refer to the
Dalcyhina tantram by name .
•
Tan mantra aushada samsiddham cikitsii jilam uttamam
aghora rupam tu param Brahma Dalcyhinam tu jagatpatih
Sadhakaih pujaniyah syiid sviibhishfa prasiddhaye. SSV.

107
It may also be mentioned that the Aghora face is also called the Kil!mukha and
the worshippers of the Aghora face are Kilimukhas (see page 38, 94) It may therefore
be called Aghora linga that was wotshipped by the Kalamukha school of Saivas and
probably used Dalcyhir,a tantra. It may not be wrong in considering this Aghora as
belonging to the Dalqhiqa Bhairava sect.
Sadyftjlta (F.14,15,18)
A remarkable sculpture in the Gwalior museum represents a cylindrical shaft,

with leaves like fans and slates on all the four sides. There were originally four faces,
one in each direction; all of them have been chopped off, indicating a clear case of
vandalism. Beneath one of the lost faces, is a beautiful reclining bull, whose head has
also been lost. However that it represents a bull is clear from its legs and the reclining
posture. The sculpture has not yet been properly identified. It comes from Tumain,
Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. Before we attempt identification, it is necessary to mention
that it is an excellent work of art, bold in perception and execution. Every line and
fonn are well defined and deeply incised to give it a fine plasticity.
The sculpture represents a very well executed palm tree with its leaves well
spread as fans but what is more significant, it had four faces, each facing a cardinal
direction. Unfortunately, vandals have chopped off all the four faces. Exactly beneath
one face, is depicted a beautiful reclining Nandi whose head has also been destroyed. I
must mention that it is an excellent study of the animal, almost reaching the same
perfection as that of Rampurva bull of the Asokan age.
Jitendranath Banerjee has described this sculpture in his book on "Development

of Hindu iconography." (Reprinted Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers New Delhi
1973, p. 424).
"A figure of Balarama, somewhat similar to the above was discovered at

Tumain Gwalior, Madhya pradesh and is now in the Gwalior Museum. A very striking
exhibit in the same museum is the Fan-Palm capital (tala-dhvaja) which is the special
cognizance of this god. It is of about the second century BCE. A bunch of palm leaves
are very realistically depicted, but what is of particular interest in this sculpture is the
headless figure of a donkey which evidently is the ass-demon Dhenuka killed by
Balarama by hurling it against a fan-palm tree (pl. XVII - F.3, p. 424)".

108
The sculpture is assigned to first cent CE, and is identified as the Taladhvaja of
Balarama. Fascinating as the identification is, it does not refer to the four head-like
portions found exactly in four directions with the upper part of the tree surviving as the
central shaft. Also the presence of the animal exactly beneath one of the faces .
I would identify this image as a Catunnukha linga, with the face of the animal
below serving as the main front face and this face is that of Sadyojata Siva. Sadyojata,
it must be remembered is Nandi-vaktra. Sadyojata is otherwise called alternately
Nandi and the face is Nandivaktra. ( Vi~hr,u-dharmottara-purana Ed. Priyabala sha,
Gackwad- Oriental series Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1994 - P. 166 Ch. 48, V. 5)
Paschimam yanmulcham tasy..i, Nandi vaktram taducyate (5)

..... Nandi valctram tatha vayuh (8-1)
This indicates that the Sadyojata/Nandi face is the personification of wind -

Viyu who is indicated by the palm fan. In all probability, the sculpture in the Gwalior
. Museum represents Sadyojata fo1·111.
That it does represent Sadyojita may be demonstrated from a few other

examples. A fine image of Bhairava now in the Berlin museum (F.18) is a good
example of· this representation. It represents a standing Bhairava with four arms
holding sula, damaru, kapala and hand on thigh. That it represents Bhairava is
evident. But the most important factor is that the image is flanked by two palms which
are unusual. (Treasures of Indian Art, Germany's Tribute to India's cultural heritage,
National museum, New Delhi, 1998, No. 46, p. 48). That this image is said to come
from Madhya Pradesh (Central India) That gives the clue to the identification of the
'
sculpture with Sadyojita. As the representation is that of Bhairava, it is evidently an
image belonging to the school called the Bhairavam with each face worshipped as per
Bhairava School. Sadyojata is worshipped according to Bhuta tantra to drive away the
evil effects of bhOta, pr!ta, and pisAca. shows that the Dak$hiqa Bhairava School was
very influential there in that past.
The Sadyojita / Palm tree / Catunniikha in the Gwalior Museum would be one
of the earliest representation of this theme.
Another palm tree - SadyGjlta (F.17) There is another example of this type
now on exhibition in the Bhopal State Museum. It also portrays a central tree-like
shaft around which four palm leaf like fans are shown. The central shaft clearly looks
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109
like a linga. It has no other carving. Both in form and style it is almost exactly the
same as the Gwalior one. According to the Museum authorities the Gwalior one came
from Gwalior region. The Museum authorities at Bhopal told me that the one at
Bhopal came from Gwalior. What ever the case may be the worship of Sadyojita as a
deity of importance in the region is proved by both these sculptures which need to be
placed in the second cent. BCE. This should be studied in the light of some other
interesting sculptures coming from the same region.
Rudra Siva (F.23)
An extraordinary but awesome figure of Bhairava from Talegaon, Dist.

Bilaspur is under worship in the local temple. A replica of this sculpture is on diplay at
the Bhopal Museum. It is one of the rare figures of Indian Art. Even a most modem
artist, would be astonished to see this visualization of Central Indian Art of the sixth
cent.
It portryas a gigantic standing image, clearly that of Siva. The robust figure
wears Ja{amaku.ta with a coiling serpent at the base ofjata. The raised eyebrows and
rounded eyeballs have in between what looks like a lizard forming its nose, the tail
stretching over the jata-makiita. Between the thick lips protrude serrated canine teeth.
The earlobe is made up of a peacock while the shoulders are made up of crocodile
mouths. Two well spread hoods of snakes rise from the shoulders; the chest is made of
two human heads and the round big belly is made of a head resembling a pot; the two
plump hands hanging down hold lengthy snakes, one on each side. The penis is shown
erect almost touching the lower lip of belly. Both the thighs show a belt of skulls going
around and falling on them. On the knees are lion faces.
This extraordinary figure, a masterpiece that probably represents Aghora

Bhairava, should have inspired a sense of security and comfort in the forest dwellers.
Bhairavi Rudrlni (F.24)
This sculpture should be studied in association with another sculpture in similar

style, acquired by the National Museum, New Delhi. The sculpture portrays a standing
Aghora Bhairavi with four arms, the right arms holding sula and snake, while the left
holds kamai;x!alu and a dapdq. Both the rear anns hold severed human heads by their
hair. The head wears a huge garland of skulls, while in the centre of the matted head is
seen a crescent moon. A third eye is seen on the forehead of the goddess who is shown
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110
with plumes like Rudra Siva. On either side of the leg lions are portrayed. According
to the Museum label, the sculpture is said to come from Madhya Pradesh. It is not
unlikely this sculpture also comes from the same region of Madhya pradesh as the
Aghora Bhairava / Rudta Siva.
Obviously the inspiration for such awesome portrayals should have come from
the dacoit-infested wild forests of Madhya-pradesh.
Three headed - Siva (F.60)
A three-headed Siva image in grey schist, ascribed to 2nd cent, and to Gandhara
school, now in the collection of Berlin Museum, was exhibited in "Treasures of Indian
Art, Germany's tribute to India's cultural heritage". It is also illustrated in the
Catalogue of the exhibition, (pub. by National Museum, New Delhi, 1998). It appears
as figure 19. As it is a very important sculpture, I give below the salient points of the
image as given in the catalogue entry by Raffel Dado Gadebusch.
"This rather rare figure of a Hindu deity represents Shiva, one of the Hindu
.
trinity. Like all stone sculptures from Gandhara, this small figure, worked in high
relief is made of grey schist typical of the sculptures of the region. Stylistically it
reveals Hellenistic Roman influence. This sculpture of high aesthetic quality, despite
its small size, and irrespective of damage is very expressive. The wide open eyes and
the moustache, are features which can also be found in the early Buddha and
Bodhisattva images.
The identity of the sculpted figure as Shiva is confirmed by the characteristic

attributes. Originally, the figure had four arms, now only two remains; he holds the
trident (trisula) in the right hand and a small receptcle (kamai;x!alu) ~e elixir of life or
holy water in his left. The long hair is petted high on top of the head in the ascetic style
with the help of a hair band and is stylistically in the shape of flames. In the centre of
the forehead, is a horizontal third eye. There is no doubt that this figure of Shiva
seeks to emphasize his image as an ascetic. The figure wears no ornament except the
sacred thread ( upavita) which passes from the left shoulder across the naked torso and
a piece of cloth draped over the left upper arm. The figure is clothed only in a striped
tiger skin loin cloth out of which protrudes an erect phallus.
The very complex iconography of Shiva which is difficult to explain is further

complicated by two animal heads, emerging laterally from behind his human head.
111
The head on the right is that of a lion while the other seems to be of an antelope"
(p. 29).
Two interpretations are suggested in this catalogue. One suggests that the two
1
animal heads portray Shiva as lord of animals, Pasupati. The second suggests the
sculpture could denote a composite figure meant to symbolize the Hindu trinity. Siva
is at the centre, Vi~hqu represented by the lion's head, and Pasupati or Brahma by the
head of the antelope. This interpretation was suggested by Heartel. A third
interpretation is also suggested that it could be both the theriomorphic heads
embodying the two opposing aspects of Shiva's nature - the antelope indicative of the
mild and the kindly (saumya) while the lion representing the powerful and the
aggressive (ugra ).
But as has been identified by me with the help of /siina-gurudeva-Paddhati,

this represents Bhairava, whose right head is that of a lion as prescribed. The left, head
.
identified as an antelope, is in reality a wild boar. In both the cases this head represents
the Varna deva / Uma. The head gear resembling the flames, accentuate the Agni /
Rudra aspect of Bhairava. As this sculpture is assignable to 2nd cent, CE, the sculpture
also shows the antiquity of Bhairava cult.
A Rare form ofTrivaktra (F.61)
A remarkable three headed image of Siva from Kashmir was included in an

exhibition 'Manifestation of Siva' organised at Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1981.
The image was identified as Harihara in the Catalogue (Fig. 19). The sculpture has a
human head in the front, a lion's face on the right and a V araha face on the left.
In this connection it is interesting to note the description. of a Sadisivamurti or

the Caturmukha linga as given in the Jsiina-gurudeva-paddhati. The face should have
three eyes and a·matted head dress (P.389). The head on the right should have a lion's
face representing Aghora. The face should have a terrifying look and with manes. The
tongue should be thrown out licking. The headdress should have snakes and a garland
of skulls. The Vamadeva face should resemble that of a beautiful woman and the
Sadyojata face that of a full moon.
The Mukhalingas could have one, two, three, four or five faces. A temple with
a single entrance could have Eka-miikhalinga or Tri-vaktra enshrined. From this
presecription we learn that three faced images (now called Tri-mukhas) were accepted
112
canonically for worship and represented as Tri-vaktra. The point of interest is the
description of Aghora face appearing as a lion. This is a rare but recorded tradition.
The right face in the Kashmir sculpture is that of lion, Aghora. The face on the left is
evidently that of Vamadeva Vi~hr).u since the right is shown as a lion and the front as a
human face, the one form of Vi~hqu that could be taken to balance the left is obviously
the Varaha. Its presence shows that textual tradition describing the face as Varaha
could have existed but has not been identified so far. The front face is that of Tat
purusha. (See Page 122)
Tat-purm1ha (F.47)
Pratapaditya pal illustrates a delightful Eka-mukha linga in Pan Asian collection

(Bronzes of Kashmir, Mushiram Manoharlal, New Delhi - 1975). He assigns the
sculpture to 8th - 9th cent. The image consists of a pifha from which emanates a linga,
and a two armed Siva shown up to the waist appears in the front. The right hand holds
a rosary of beads which at the same time is suggestive of both cin-mudra (expounding
the highest knowledge) and abhaya-mudra. The left holds b'ija-puraka citron fruit. The
upav'ita on his body seems to be a snake going over the left shoulder and falling over
the waist. The keyura (armlet) is pear the shoulder. A garland of heads adorns his
neck. Pal draws our attention to two snakes cascading his locks. The prominent ear
ornaments are studded with precious gems. Pal also notes that the eyes are highly
suggestive. A crescent moon is shown in the front above the face band. Facing the
front it adds a beauty to the crown and above the moon is seen a circular wheel which
might represent the sun and within the sun seems to be a skull and a lotus bud topping
the headgear. The sun, moon, and the lotus bud are so harmoniously blended, that their
distinctness escapes the attention of the onlooker. There are also two broad flowers
one on either side of the headgear giving the impression of a crown. This is no doubt a
unique representation as has been pointed out by P. Pal.
In general, mukha-lingas appear smaller than the linga shaft and emanate from
the shaft but in this image the figure of Siva is taller than linga indicating the
importance of the rupa (form) of the image is greater than the linga. It is known that
the linga form is called rupa-arupa as it is devoid of any limbs or figure while the
image of Siva in any human form is called rupa. Though such mukha-lingas combine
both these aspects, the emphasis is laid on the linga form that seems to indicate the
nature of worship for which the image was made. (F.19) This must be taken as an

113
additional factor in identifying the image. For example in the Lingodbhava form, in
which Siva emanates from the middle of the linga, the linga is not a phallus but is an
immeasureable shaft of fire that appeared before Brahma and Vi~hqu when they were
quarrelling among themselves about their superiority. To call the linga in the
Lingodbhava form as a phallus would be unscientific. There is no suggestion of
phallus in this image.
As the face of the image is not ferocious, he cannot be identified with

Aghoramiirti nor is he Vimadeva as no suggestion of feminine nature is depicted. In
all probability, the image represents Tatpurqsha form of Siva as he holds matulinga
fruit and akshamala.
The Vi~hr,u dharmottara purar,a a gives the following names as synonyms of

the five manifestations of Siva.
Tatpuru~ha / Mahadeva
Aghora / Bhairava
Sadyojata / Nandi vaktra
Vamadeva / Uma vaktra
Isana / Sadasiva.
The Kamikagama prescribes rosary of beads in the right hand and bija-pura, in
the left hand for Tat-puru~ha. Sadyojata should have abhaya and varada gestures in
his hands. (chapter 37 v. 175-180).
Tasya purvamukham subhru sukapolam smitadharam

Jambunada pratikasam kalpayet tu bhuja dvayam 175
dak.fha haste ak.f hasutram tu vame vai bija purakam 176-1
pasciman rajata prabham (179-2)
bala vesha samiiyuktam pundarika nibhek.fhar,am

varabhaya karopetam dhyanasaktam ivas sthitam - (180)
We may identify this sculpture more specifically as Tat-puru~ha Mahadeva.
We have seen that more importance is given to the image rather than the linga
in the bronze under discussion. That shows that it represents Tat-puru~ha Mahadeva
fonn. Worship of Tat-puru~ha according to Garuqa tantra would bestow siddhis

114
obtained through the mantras, and other methods. As this is a Kashmiri bronze
ascribed to 8th - 9 th cent. the text Svacchanda Tantra would be the most appropriate, to
give the clue to an understanding of this image, as it was used widely in Kashmir.
Tiie Svacchanda Tantra gives the dhyana s/oka of Tat-puru&ha which it calls
Naresa, Tat-puru~ha represents earth and its worship bestows fruits of several thousand
Asvamedha sacrifices. The worshippers of Naresa are brought under the school known
as Dak$hiqa Saivam by Sarva Siddhanta viveka. On the basis of this text we may
identify this bronze as Tat-pu111&ha Naresa, worshipped by Garu<ta school of Saivam
which is a branch of Bhairava School. This Bhairava School dominated Kashmir
before the Pratyabhijna School emerged in the 8th cent. K&hemaraja, a leading disciple
of Abhinava gupta who wrote a commentary on Svacchanda Bhairava School, points
to the importance of this school. By identifying the bronze as Tat-puru&ha Mahadeva
of the Garu<ta Bhairavam in the Saiva branch the purpose of making the image is well
understood. (Also see the write up in the sequence on Naresvar a place of historic
interest in Madhya Pradesh, (Pages 140 - 145)
The dhyana s/oka of Tat-puru&ha as given by Svacchanda Bhairava is as

follows
Kumkumabham ca Naresam trinetram tu Ja(adharam

Purvananam abhidhyayet Vayubhakshasya tadphalam
Tat punya phalam apnoti Asvamedha ayutasya ca
Jagacca vasam apnoti Kramato Siddhimetica
Shadbhir masaih asandeh (Ch.IO, v. 125-127)
Commenting on this term Naresa, K&hemaraja says it refers to Tatpuru&ha,

Bhairava.
Naranan isvarasya anugrahadi kartuh Tat-puru.rha bhat(arakasya idam

Naresam (vol. II. P.111)

115
Siva Plrvatl (P. 49)
The superb bronze image of Siva Parvati under worship in Gauri shankar
temple of Chmpa, illustrated by many scholars, also deserves attention in this context.
Assignable to 10th cent it has attracted the attention of the world by its enchanting
form. The description of the image as given by Pal (fig. 85) in "Bronzes of Kashmir"
is as follows.
"In this spectacular group of bronzes Siva· and Parvati are shown standing close
together in graceful postures. Siva has four heads, two of which are ferocious the head
facing Parvati is that of a female and no doubt represents the Uma-vaktra as mentioned
in the text. With three of his hands, Siva holds the rosary, th~ trident, and the bija-
puraka, which symbolizes the seed of the universe, and emphasizes his creative aspect.
The elbow of his bent upper left hand rests on the right shoulder of Parvati in a gesture
of affection. His sacred thread is a snake, and like Vi~hqu he wears a floral garland" -
(p.218).
As he wears a snake as upavita he should be brought under Garu<la Bhairava

School. Pal notes that the left face of Siva that faces Parvati is that of a female
obviously that of Vamadeva. He mentions that two other faces are ferocious but does
not mention which are those other two faces. The front face is calm and benign. So the
face on the right is obviously ferocious representing that of Aghora Bhairava.
Certainly the back face cannot be a ferocious one. The right is ferocious and the left is
that of a female while the front is benign. There could be no doubt that the front face is
that of Tat-puru~ha Naresa. There is no fifth face on top. The ferocious face that of
Aghora is on the right and Vamadeva with feminine face is on the left. This image
should be identified more accurately as Tat-puru~ha Mahadeva as the front face is that
of Tatpuru~ha.
Such identification becomes necessary to distinguish one manifestation from

the other as in the case of images with either Aghora face or the Sadyojata face in
front, each made for different purpose. This publication of Sarva-Siddhanta viveka,
and Jnana siddhi enable us to grasp these differences more closely. Writing on the hill
bronzes from the Champa area in "Indian Bronze Masterpieces" published by the
Festival of India, New Delhi, 1988, P.110, Vishva Chander Ohri states that "this group
is most popular of all the deities in worship in various temples in Champa town,
particularly with the women". Women are mostly devout and pray for cure of their

116
children, their husbands and other family members from diseases. The worship of this
deity is not unlikely to have followed the Garut:/a tantra, according to which the
effects of all round siddhis are bestowed by this manifestation of Siva.
Face of Siva's Mask ( F. 78)
A number of beautiful faces of Siva or of Devi as masks have been published

by many scholars. Such plaques are also found now in many museum collections.
(Ohri F.13 P.114 said to be in a private collection at Bombay; Pal F.86. said to come
from Kulu valley, 12th cent; and cat no 108, Museum fur Indische kunst Berlin,
Catalog 1986, Augustellte). The Berlin one does represent two breasts emphasizing
that it represents the Devi aspect.
Pal rightly remarks that such figures are "often referred to as masks which is
totally incorrect. They are used exactly as regular images are". The one from Champa
illustrated by Ohri, has Jata clearly falling on the shoulders, and rosary of beads in the
hands held in vyakhyana pose and is that of a male god. The third eye is clearly visible
on the forehead.
Judging from the fact that this region was greatly influenced by the Bhairava
tantra, it is likely that these images were originally worshipped by the followers of
Bhairava school. It is seen that there were four sub schools among the Bhairavas
namely Garut:/a, Da/cyhir,a, Vama and Bhuta tantras. They were worshipped for
achievement of siddhis. The Vama tantra was used for worshipping Vamadeva face
for attracting people. Some of the feminine faces might represent Vamadeva which
could be mistaken as Devi or Siva. Representing Vamadeva form in Trimukha lingas
is known from Central India, where, two breasts are shown prominently in addition to
a mirror in hand and feminine coiffure.
Patlca-mukha-linga (F. 57 -58)
Included in the catalogue of Kashmir Bronzes by Pal, is a Paftca-mukha-linga,

87 a and b. Pal points out that this type of Siva linga was quite popular in this part of
the Himalayas, and gives the following description "Paftca-mukha-linga is a phallic
emblem of Siva with five faces or busts as we see in this bronze. Such linga with faces
are rare and the type seems to have been prevalent in north western Himalayas.
Normally only four of Siva's five faces are represented, the fifth being considered
invisible. Four of the faces of this bronze have a placid expression while the fifth has a

117
fierce appearance. The hands in each instance holds a rosary and a pot in a manner
typical of Kashmiri bronzes. The hair on each of the four side heads is similarly
delineated with a chignon and plated strands falling down the shoulders. Circular rings
adorn the ears of each figure except those of the ferocious face. The ear ornaments are
formed with serpents. Serpents also decorate the bust on top, and in addition, he is
given the crescent moon as a crowning element. The five forms of Siva are
traditionally known as Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tat-p~ha and lsana. They are
also said represent the five elements (Panca-bhutas) such as earth, water, fire, wind
and ether. Appropriately, the awesome face represents fire and hence, emphasizes the
identification of Siva with Agni, the god of fire." (p.222 of Bronzes of Kashmiri).
The bronze is said to be in Samuel Eilenberg collection at New York. It seems

from the illustration and description, the fig (a) of the Paftca-mukha-linga, ferocious
face is facing the front. It also seems to have clearly a moustache. The bust on top,
also facing the front has a benign simile and the crescent moon on his head. The face
at the back is quite calm and has what looks like a Namil - ( urdhva-pundra) vertical
facial mark. We are led to conclude that this mark usually seen on Vi~hqu identical
with Vimadeva. The front face which is ferocious thus surely is that of Aghora. The
Aghora face should face south and Vamadeva the north. This iconographic ' feature is
of utmost importance to the identify the cult that made the image. In the light of the
present study of relevant text, I am certain that this image represents what is known as
Sadisiva-Bhairava a unique image. The five-faced linga is generally called Sadasiva,
in which the top image will be lsana. However the text, Svacchanda Bhairava states
that in the Paftca-mukha-linga's of the Bhairava School, the top bust would represent
Sadasiva Bhairava.
We find the Aghora facing front, indicating that it represents the main deity in
the Paftca-mukha-linga under discussion. It is well known that Aghora is also called
Aghora Bhairava and there is no doubt, that Bhairava followers worshiped this linga. It
is further confirmed by the top image also facing the same direction as the Aghora face
below. The top figure also has serpents as earrings. It is the Sadasiva of the Bhairava
school, called Sadasiva Bhairava. Theologically, Bhairava Bhattara is superior to all
manifestation of Siva including Sadasiva. Bhairava is said to occupy a space above
Sadasiva and hence called Sadasiva Bhairava Thus the bronze may represent
Svacchanda Bhairava of the Bhairava school.

118
Catur-mOkha-linga
A stone image of catur-miikha-linga with four faces is illustrated by P. Pal (cat

no. 9) in his book "A Collecting Odyssey" published by the Art Institute of Chicago,
1997. The figure consists of a shaft of stone that is square at the bottom, octagonal in
the middle, and cylindrical with four faces on top. The lower square part representing
Brahma goes inside a socket on the ground, while the middle octagonal part should
have been encased by the pedestal representing the aspect of goddess Manonmani
(Parvati). The pedestal with the water spout could have been either square or circular.
The top portion with four faces is interesting. The four faces represented are Tat-
puru~ha Aghora, Sadyojata, and Vamadeva. The top cylindrical part without the face
represents lsina, who represents the ether (akasa) as the embodiment of knowledge.
The illustration seems to show the bust of Sadyojata in the front as the fierce face of
Aghora is found to the left while the benign and feminine face is to the right of the
central face. The fierce Aghora face has to be to its right (da/cyhir,a) and the Vamadeva
face to the left with reference to Tat-puru~ha. If one looks at the figure from the other
side of this illustrated image, the faces would be duly on the right and left. It is
possible that the illustration has been shown with . the Sadyojita face in front
unintentionally. If this was its original position (there are illustrations of Trimukha
lingas with Sadyojata face in the front) then the linga should have been in a sanctum
facing the west. Depending upon orientation the nature of worship would vary
according to either Garuqa tantra, Vama tantra, Bhilta tantra or Da/qhir,a tantra. If
the Sadyojata face was facing the main entrance, the image would have been
worshipped according to Bhilta tantra to ward of affliction from Bhuta, Preta or .
Pisacas ( mental afflictions believed to have been caused by demons, manes, or imps).
There are temples where the sanctum has openings on all the four cardinal directions.
Bhairava- mukha - linga (F. 77)
P. Pal illustrates a plaque from Himachal pradesh in "A Collecting Odyssey"

(cat no 11 ). It represents the head of Siva with the crescent moon on its head. The
plaque is assigned to 8th , 9th cent. The image is undoubtedly Siva, as has been
suggested by Pal and as seen from the crescent moon and the third eye. It is possible to
identify this image more closely as Pal has not suggested any specification. The clue to
its identification comes from its mouth that Pal describes as thick lipped. I feel the
mouth is deliberately treated that way to suggest that the God is howling with his

119
mouth. In this aspect, he is Rudra. Rudra is so called because he gives a howling noise
and Rudra is identified with Bhairava in Svacchanda. Thus, the present study shows
that Rudra is Aghora Bhairava, with whom this image may be identified. Kashmir and
Himachal region, were following the Bhairava school of Saivism extensively, with
Svacchanda tantra as the main text.. We may identify this plaque with that of Aghora
Bhairava - A Kala Bhairava face made of silver is placed on a pedestal in front of the
Kala bhairava stone image in the sanctum, and receives regular worship at Ujjaini Kala
Bhairava temple even today (see page 98)
Brahml - Vqhqu - Mahesa (F. 79)
An important bronze from Kashmir, representing the Trinity of Hindu pantheon

- Brahma, Vi~hqu and Siva assignable to 9th cent is illustrated by Pal in his "Bronzes
of Kashmir", (cat.No.2). Pal calls this right "Brahminical Triad" (p.52). All the three
Gods are placed on a common pedestal, over which they are shown seated on lotus
seats separately, with Siva in the centre, Brahma to his right and Vi~hQu to the left. All
the three are shown with their consorts seated on their laps. All the three gods are
endowed with four hands each and wielding their respective emblems. That Siva is
shown in the centre shows that the group has Siva as the central character.
Pal has provided us with an accurate description. The four armed Brahma is
seated in yoga pose over three visible swans. It is not known whether the fourth is
present at the back. In all probability, it has one. Hamsas represent Veda and Brahma
is the God of Vedas. The four swans represent four Vedas, on which the god
manifests. Though the Vedas are four in number they are also sometimes mentioned as
three Vedas, Trayi namely, Rk, Yajur, and Samaveda, excluding the Atharvaveda. As
the number of swans on the pedestal of Brahma is not exactly known, it is not possible
to be precise, however whether there are three or four they represent the Vedas on
which the God is seated. His hands portray akshamala (rosary of beads) and da11qa
vyakhyana mudra and kamal14alu. He is endowed with three heads (probably the
fourth is at the back). His consort Mahasarasvati is seated on his lap looking up to him.
Siva is seated on the back of a bull. The four legs of the bull are said to
represent the four Vedas, and the bull itself represents Vedic dharma. Siva's right hand
is bent and rested on the bull, while the left hangs down. Mahadevi his consort is
seated on the left lap of her lord. With the upper pair of hands, Siva holds a trident and
snake while the front lower hands hold a rosary of beads and also show the vyakhyana

120
mudra (gesture of exposition) and the left holds the bijapiira Siva's third eye is
prominently shown on the forehead. Over his ja(abhara Siva is shown wearing a
crown.
To the left of Siva is Vi&hqu seated on Ganuta who is shown with wings and
hands held in anjali. Vi&QDU holds in his four hands a lotus, mace, conch and cakra. He
wears a crown and on his lap is seated Mahalakshmi. The group is assigned to 9th , I 0th
cent. Pal observes rightly that this is an exceptionally interesting form and calls it
Brahminical Triad.
With Kashmir as its provenance, and assigned to 9th cent it would be interesting
to see whether the Svacchanda Bhairava tantra that was popular in Kashmir has any
iconographic postulation that would help in its identification.
In the first chapter of this text, dealing with the invocation of Bhairava and
Bhairavi, we have the invocation of Brahma Vi&htlu Mahesa in the middle of orbits of
Soma (moon), Surya (sun) and Agni (fire). The common seat on which the three are
seated is called Prar,ava-Omkara.
Trayodasam bindu yutam Anantasanam uttamam,

Anena yojayet sarvam soma sii.ryagni madhyagam
Brahma Vi~h11u Mahesanam Savantam parilcalpayet. Ch. I, 38, 39a.
The commentary of K~hemaraja says that the seat anantasana should be one for
all the three.
Asanamantrena sarvam adharavarti yojayet adhara saktitaya anusamdadhyat

evam soma sii.rya agni madhyagam Brahma Vi~h11u Mahesanam kritva. Vol I, p 15
The seat is one supporting all the three and the three appear in midst of the
orbits of moon, sun and Agni. The aureole behind Brahma represents Candra m&l)cjala,
the one behind Siva represents Surya maJ}<tala, the one behind Vi~hl)u Agni maQcjala.
The bronze group represents a common seat and the three m&Q4alams. Over these
deities Brahma, Vi~lu)u, Mahesa, is to be invoked Bhairava Bhanaraka. As this is a
Bhairava school of worship, K~hemaraja calls the supreme Lordship as Parama -
Bhairava bhanaraka. Over the three deities, combined as causal group. (samagra
kara'}a-grama) Svacchanda Bhairava appears as the supreme Bhairava.

121
Explaining this further the Svacchanda Bhairava tantra says, Brahma, Vi~hQu
and Hara are the deities of the Soma-Surya-Agni mal}qalas; Vi~h71u haras caiva
Brahma ma11t/aleshu adhipa smritah.
Then the Svacchanda tantra gives a detailed description of Brahma, as being

with four heads, red in colour, four handed, wearing deer's skin and upper garment and
seated on a lotus, he must hold kamafl4alu, da'l<la, ak&hamala and padma.
Vi~hqu should have the colour of atasi flower, wield conch and cakra, wear
yellow silken garment, and Vanamala, must wear a crown, bright ear ornaments and a
be seated on Garuqa.
"Siva white in colour, holding a trident, ten armed, should have Jatas and third
eye. His upavita should be the snake. He must cover himself with a lion's skin. He
must be seated on a Bull. He is Rudra". After this the text gives the description of
Bhairava.
Before worshipping Bhairava the Svacchanda tantra prescribes worship of

Brahma, Vi&lutu and Mahesvara as incumbent on the follower of this Bhairava school.
The description comes closer to the bronze under discussion as may be seen
from the verses. The bronze is obviously an icon of the Bhairava school, representing
Brahma, Vi&hQu and Mahesana, worshipped before the final worship of Svacchanda
Bhairava.
In the worship of Svacchanda Bhairava, there are various spheres ( bhuvanas)

and various categories ( tattvas); each of these bhuvanas have different manifestations
of the supreme. For example Devi, Nandi, Mahakala, Ganesa, Vrishabha, Bhringi,
CaQ<lesvara and Kartikeya are described. In the Saumya school of Saivam also this
group appears as avaraJ}a deities of the 3rd circle.
Devi Nandi Maha/ca/au Ganesa, Vrshabhasttha

Bhringi candisvaras caiva Kartikiyo ashtamas smritah l 0th Patalam, 1102

122
Harihara (F. 61, 82, 83)
Similarly the Svacchanda text enumerates the eight Vidyesvaras. In thus order,
Harihara should be worshipped in raga tattva (one among the five tattvas like, kala,
kala, raga, Niyati etc.)
Ata urdhvam hariharau raga tattve nibodha me 10th patala - v. 1112
Kshemaraja the commentator says that Harihara occupies a very important

position in the raga category.
"atah pumranjaki raga tattve Hariharau mukhyau bhuvanesau" S.B. Vol. IV,
P.204
In the worship of cosmic categories under Bhairava worship, a specific place is

thus assigned to Harihara form. There is an important image of Harihara coming from
Kashmir, in the collection of Berlin Museum. (Accn no MIK 3835, cat no.74, cat no.
41) of "Treasures of Indian Art: Germany's tribute to India's Cultural Heritage".
It is a rare representation of Harihara combining the ferocious aspects of

Aghora Bhairava and V araha, among the four faces. On to the right of standing Siva is
portrayed the personified form of Trident on whose head the main deity rests one right
hand. The left hand probably is on a similar attendent of omkara. In between the legs
of the main image is portrayed the goddess of earth; on the right shoulder of the image
falls a snake.
Of the three heads the front one is calm while both the side heads show
ferocious forms with Aghora Bhairava on the right and Varaha with a furious face on
the left. M. Yaldiz describing (no. 41) the image says that the back face (the fourth
one) is also divided into two to emphasize the Harihara form.
I have shown that it is a form of Bhairava manifestation mentioned in the lsana-

siva- gurudeva Paddhati. As mentioned Harihara occupies an important place in the
ascending order as a Bhuvanadhipa among the cosmic entities enumerated in the
worship of Svacchanda Bhairava. As this image comes from Kashmir where the
Svacchanda Bhairava tantra had pronounced influence, we may not be wrong in
identifying this Harihara as a manifestation of Bhairava.

123
Siva -Sadyftjlta from Gyaraspur; Vidisa (F. 20, 21, 22)
An image of Siva Sadyojata, extraordinary by its magnitude, beauty and

Iconography that has not attracted the attention of art historians so far, is discussed
here. It may be necessary to make a cautious note about the name before we proceed
further. We use the Name Siva-Sadyojata here to emphasize its unique character,
though this combined name is not found in any text to denote the present portrayal.
The five forms of Siva called the Paftca-Brahmams are represented horizontally
beginning with Tat-pU111&ha facing east. All the five are generally called from
Sadasiva-miirti in ritual texts. However, according to Vi~hr,u Dharmottara Purana the
lsana head is also called Sadasiva. In the worship of Siva linga there are five deities in
the vertical axis that are invoked in order as Brahma, Vi~hqu, Rudra, Mahesa, and
Sadasiva. Here we find that the sphere above Rudra is called Mahesa and the fifth one
called Sadasiva. We will revert to this in the sequence. However, the famous portrayal
of the Elephanta cave called variously as Trimurti, Mahesa-murti or Sadasiva comes
closer to the sculpture under study.
Siva - Sadyftjlta
The exceptionally beautiful sculpture from Gyaraspur under discussion, a three

faced deity, and fairly well preserved, is now in the Government State Museum,
Bhopal, Madhya pradesh. The label in the museum reads "Sadasiva, from Gyaraspur
Dist, Vidisa, c. l 0th cent. AD". The sculpture with three heads has three pairs of arms
of which three are broken. The figure appears above the waist and has charming faces.
The central face is serene and in meditative pose, crowned by a lovely well treated
Ja(amaku(a Almost at the top of it in the front is the crescent of the moon (Candra-
/ca/a) tucked in the jata. A dimond shaped crest jewel fastens the central part of the
Ja(amaku(a while a well-portrayed dhatura flower above it resembles almost a cup.
The face band -mu/cha-pa((a, consists of a row of probably rudraksha beads (Perhaps
they might be even row of skulls but due to wear the portrayal is not clear). The neck
is well ornamented; a close fitting rudrakshamala is found on the neck while similar
rudrakshamalas or four garlands of beads are seen on the chest, the bottom one being
more ornate. Three strands ofjafiis are falling on each shoulder almost like ornaments.
Both the arms wear armlets (keyiiras). Encircling the waist is the five-hooded cobra.
Its hood is well spread in front in the middle.

124
AgbGra Bbairava (F. 22) The face on to its left is evidently that of Agora-
miirti also identified with Bhairava in texts. The head is fastened with a snake. The
figure is adorned with jafomakufa above the face band with a garland of skulls,
kapola-mala. Curly hairs are dressed as face band. The face strikes terror with ball like
protruding eyes, while the nose is sharp and curved. The centre of the face shows the
third eye while beneath it is seen flames of fire between the two eyes. The gasping
mouth throws its tongue out that licks the middle of a scull cup (kapola), held in the
left hand. The right ear of the image sports a ring made of skull bone that seems to be
an unusual ornament though it fits in with the Bhairava form. The left hand that holds
the skull cup is wearing a snake as bangle. The eye sockets, face, the neck and the
hand holding the skull cup emphasize the skeleton like form of Bhairava. This is an
unusual feature of portraying the Agora form. Beneath the left hand is seen a snake on
the ground with coiled body and spread out hoods.
Uml / Vlmadeva: (F. 21) The charming face to the right of the central figure
is that of a beautiful woman obviously that of Vamadeva. The feminine beauty is
perceptibly brought out by the artist that it contrasts so well with the Bhairava form on
the left and the serene countenance in the middle. The head of Uma is adorned with
well-worked kesa-bandha with a prominent sikhama11i, head jewel, circular in form,
and studded with precious gems. The hairs on the forehead are carefully combed and
divided into the proverbial five parts and adorned with a row of curly hairs forming a
garland of face band. With a plumpy face and sharp chin, bow like eye-brows and the
long eyes the feminine charm is immediately appealing. The neck is adorned with
three garlands of small beads tightly covering the whole neck. The three rows seem to
be fastened into one chain in the front by fasteners. A ring of chain is seen as ear
ornament. Uma is holding a mirror with a handle in her right hand. Her right arm is
bedecked prominently with eight rows of bangles. Above all what is unique in this
sculpture is that the Uma is shown prominently with both her rounded breasts not
noticed in any such sculptures so far.
Scholars like Gopinatha Rao, J.N .Banerjee, Sivaramamurti, Stella Kramrisch,

and B.N.Shnna, who have worked on Sadasiva form have not noticed this
extraordinary figure. I could not get further details like when this image was acquired
and whether this has been noticed or not etc. At any rate its beauty, magnitude and
iconographic importance have not received the attention that it deseres. Undoubtedly,
it is one the greatest piece of Indian art. The sculpture is found carved in red buff stone
_
125
as found in Khajuraho and nearby regions of Madhya pradesh. That it comes from a
village Gyaraspur near Vidisa, the ancient centre of Indin artistic tradition, deserves to
be noted
Mahesa-morti (F. 54 - 56)
Mention has been made ealier that the Elephanta Mahesa-murti / Sadasivamilrti
is the most outstanding figure of this form with three faces. T .A Gopinatha Rao argued
that this can not be called Trimurti but called it Mahesa-murti by giving a number of
reasons. He pointed out that Trimurti represents Brahma, Vi~hqu, and Siva in images
like Ekapida-miirti. Nevertheless, here it conforms to the Paftca-Brahman form of Siva
namely Tat-purusha, Aghora, Vamdeva and Sadyojita. He also pointed out that the
number of hands is generally based on number of faces and that the Sadasiva form
with five faces will have ten arms. As Elephanta cave image has only six arms' he
concluded it should be considered having three faces only. That prompted him to
identify the Elephanta image with Mahesa-murti. "The most important position
occupied by this sculpture in the cave temple with reference to other manifestations of
Siva such as those of Ardhanarisvara, Kalyaqa-sundara, Rivaninugraha, Gangidhara,
and other milrtis, found surrounding him, bear incontrovertible evidence to the
conclusion that the sculpture represents only the Mahesa or the most important aspect
of Siva. Regarding the face on the right of the Elephanta image, Rao said "this face
certainly represents Aghora-murti. The central face is calm and dignified. This is the
face representing Sadyojita. The face on the left side is also a calm and pacific one,
There are only six arms represented in the sculpture, which is as many pairs as there
are faces visible." Rao failed to recognize the left face of Elephanta as a feminine face.
J.N. Banerjee pointed out in his "Development of Hindu Iconography" (p.476)

that none of the scholars appears to have understood the real nature of the face on the
left which is undoubtedly feminine in character" and called it Umi.
Stella Kramrisch suggested that the Elephanta image is a sort of Paticamukha

linga and identified the image with Sadisivamurti. Pointing out the four faces of Siva
in Sadasiva, Kramrisch showed that "the four faces of Siva are those of Tat-p~ha /
Mahideva, Aghora / Bhairava, Vamadeva / Umi, and Sadyojita / Nandin." Basing her
conclusion on V~hr,u dharm_ottarr,z pura1)Q, Kramrisch identified the left face of
Elephanta now with Umi. (Stella Kramrisch, The Presense of Siva, Princeton
University Press. I 981, p.446) "Although it has only three faces the Sadisiva image in

126
Elephanta is a kind of Paftcamukha linga, emerging from the dark debth of the rock,
The fourth face at the back of the frontal Tat-puru&ha /Mahadeva can not be seen."
(Ibid). Identifying the front face of Elephanta Kramrisch says ''The Tat-puru~ha /
Mahadeva's face contains fullness of absolute knowledge that is peace. (P.447)
Kramrisch uses the term Mahadeva frequently to denote Tat-puru&ha form. "On the
right of Mahadeva' s face wrigging serpent locks and raised serpent hoods, interspersed
with manifold flowers, and tender leaves lead to a staring skull; the crown jewel of
coiffure, pile high above Aghora Bhairava's face. On the left of Mahadeva's crown by
contrast, rows of small corkscrew curls, surmounted by swags and swirling curves
frame and crown Vamadeva/Uma's countenance (447). Vamadeva the mantra and
beauteous deity on Mahadeva's left is indeed the great Goddess Uma." (448).
Thus we find there are sculptures that portray only three heads the central one
and the side ones representing Aghora/ Bhairava and Vamdeva / Uma who is feminine.
As the Gyaraspur image now in Bhopal clearly portrays the female face and her bust
with two breasts and the other face with skeletal figure but with terrible look with the
skull cup as Aghora/Bhairava, the Elephanta sculpture should be considered as Tri-
mukha and not as Sadasiva. As the Gyaraspur figure has only three faces and three
pairs of arm, we have chosen not to call it Sadasiva but Siva- Sadyojata
Padavali Trimukhas (F. Sl -54)
There are two images of Tri-mukhas coming from Padavali in Mdhya pradesh.
One has been removed to Bhopal in recent times. J.N.Banerjee published one image
from Padavali from Gwalior in 1956. "A sculpture from Padavali now in Bhopal
Museum (F. Sl, 54) also represents a three faced bust. The placid central face and the
terrible right face being masculine in character, the face on left is feminine (the order
of the arrangement in this relief is thus a little different from that of the Elephanta
sculpture)." "Some atleast of these three faced sculptures of the early mediaeval times
really represent a composite form of Siva where his two separate Saumya and Aghora ,
forms are combined with his Sakti Uma." (P.477 Jitendra Nath Banerjee The
development ofHindu Iconography, Reprinted by Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, ·
2002 Pl xxxix.3) It may be seen that the face on the left is that of Aghora in this fi&'1fe
and the face on the right is that ofUma as in the case of Gyaraspur. The Aghora face is
clearly seen with his terrific countenance and his tongue thrown out and licking the

127
skull cup while the right face that ofUma has the femnine face and holding a mirror in
hand.
The other one was illustrated as Sadisiva image (F. 53) by B.N.Shanna in his
book "Iconography ofSadasiva". Ascribed to Pratihara, 10th cent it comes closer to the
Gyaraspur image both in representation and in region. (Pl. VIII) The sculpture is now
housed in the Gwalior Museum (It is also a three faced sculpture with calm face in the
front, a feminine face to its right holding a mirror and the Aghora figure on its left
holding a skull cup in its left hand. Interestingly though both the Padavali images have
three faces they have only four arms holding a/qha-malii and kalasa in the front arms
and a mirror on the rear right arm on the side of Uma and a skull cup on the Aghora
side. In front of them is shown an amrita-kalasa that suggests that the front image is
that of Siva Sadyojata. Attendants carrying garlands flank both the sculptures.
Flanking the image are seen two couples flying above in the air carrying garlands.
Both the Padavali sculptures cannot compete with the Gyaraspur figure in aesthetic
appeal.
SadyOjlta Trimukha from Patbari
A group of temples are noticed in Pathari village in Dist Vidisa. Of this one
particular temple is of very great importance to our study. The temple called
Kiitakesvara is a west facing temple, consisting of a garbha graha, preceded by an
antarala and mu/cha mandapa. The main bhadras niches, carry in order the images of
dancing Gaqesa in the south, Surya in the east and Kirtikeya in the north.
The image of eight armed Gaqesa is shown dancing, but is somewhat damaged.
The head of Surya facing east has been chopped off by vandals so is the body below
the waist. The image of Kirtikeya is standing by the side of his peocock flanked by
attendants. The sikhara over the garbhagraha is the Panca-ratha type but the top
portion has been damaged. The front face of the sikhara houses a four-anned deity
seated in lalitasana on a couch. Two Dvarapala like images are found one on either
side of the entrance to the Mukha-mandapa. The one on the right of the entrance is a
fierce looking Bhairava with four arms, holding khatvanga and a bell in the left arms
and kapala, and damaru in the right arms. The other image on the left holds a snake on
one of its arms. A female attendant is seen accompanying the image.

128
The entrance to the sanctum has five-framed sakha ornamentation. At the

bottom level are on either side, the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna accompanied
by their attendants and parasol holders Chatra dharinis. Over them are seen a pair of
rishis throwing oblations into fire. The five framed sakha ornamentation of the
entrance have a leaf motif first (patra-sakha), followed by a frame of dwarves
(Pramatha sakha) and the third a frame of couples (mithuna sakha) and finally creeper
and leaf designs (Rata). Above the entrance in the centre of lintel (lalata bimba) is an
eight armed dancing image of Siva Natesa. His right and left front arms are in gaja-
hasta and abhaya hasta poses respectively, while the rest of the hands are damaged.
The Natesa is flanked by Vidyadhara couples carrying garlands. Beneath the dancing
god are seen the nine planets (nava-graha) in a row on the lintel. Above Natesa is Siva
as Andhakasura samhara - Bhairava with the Gajasura carried in the hands. Flanking
him are dancing Gaqesa and five Matrikas out of the seven. The Bhairava in the centre
is in ap animated pose piercing forcefully the Asura with his trident; to his left is
noticed CamuqcJa dancing. Correspondingly on the right of Bhairava is dancing
Gaqesa. The other Matrikas are Mahesvari, Kaumari, Vai~hqavi and Varahi. The
Bhairava seems to hold a khatvanga in one of the arms. The other two Matrikas were
probably accommodated on either side. A point of interest is that all these deities are
carrying khatvanga in their arms emphasizing the Bhairava nature of the temple.
But the most important information is furnished by the garbha graha sanctum.
In the centre of the sanctum is a linga with its Vedi. Behind the linga and enshrined on
the back wall, is found a Tri-mukha image of Siva, six armed, resembling the
Gyaraspur and Padavali images. The image is shown above the waist, with a central
face calm and serene and with a short ja(amakufa. To his right is the feminine
Vamadeva face and to the left is the ferocious face of Aghora Bhairava. The god holds
a flower, a mirror, and a~hamala in the three right arms on the Vamadeva side. A
snake, kapala, and probably a kamar,4alu are on the three left arms on the Aghora
side. The left arms are adorned with rudra~has while the right, wear golden bangles.
At the back of the head are three concentric halos representing the three maqcJalas viz
Candra, S iirya and Agni mar,qa/as which is interesting.
The front face is topped by a short jatamakufa, fastened by a cross band of

chain.The Aghora face on the laft has the ferocious look, rounded ball like eyes,
(raudra dri~hti) and its mouth open. A garland of skull adorns his head. The tongue is

129
not thrown out as in the other Tri-mukhas of Gyaraspur, and Padavali but the skull cup
is held close to its mouth.
R.D.Trivedi in his Survey of "Paramara temples of Madhya Pradesh", gives the

following description of this Tri-mukha from Pathari. "Against the back wall is a six-
armed relieved image of Siva Mahideva. According to Vi~h11u-dharmottara-purana
the iconographic form is supposed to have five faces, four facing four cardinal
directions and the fifth the sky. Of these three visible forms of the god are shown here
with jatabhara, ear ornaments, hara, armlets and bracelets. In the background is a
prabha ma,:z<!ala carved with lotus petals. The three faces represent Tat-pU11.1&ha,
Vamadeva and Aghora forms of Mahadeva in the centre, right and left sides
respectively. The central face representing Tat-puru~ha is absorbed in meditation
holding a rosary of beads and a mutilated matulinga fruit in the left one. The
Vimadeva form on the right side facing north and bearing feminine appearance
represent his benign aspect emanating from Pirvati and holds a mirror in her hand.
The face on the left side facing south represents Aghora aspect with terrific appearance
(raudra rlf)a) and holds a snake and kapila in his hands" (p.135; pl 137) Evidently
Trivedi holds the front face of this image as Tat-ptJrWiha. However, as has been shown
by me earlier with the Gyaraspur and Padavali images, the front emanation facing here
facing west is Sadyojita and not Tat-ptJrWiha. This is further confirmed by the image,
sanctum and the temple all facing west.
Further, this is the only sculpture nocticed so far that is still in its original
position in situ and gives ·us an irrefutable understanding of its identification. Based on
the temple we come to the following conclusions. Such sculptures are with three faces
representing Sadyojita form. Such images, from Gyaraspur and Padavali and Pathari
and also the Tri-mukha at Elephanta cave are neither Catur-mukha nor Paflca mukha
manifestations but were intended to be only Tri-mukhas to emphasize Tat-p\ll'Wiha or
Sadyojata aspect. The orientation of the temple, west facing, or east facing do have
specific meaning and should not be treateds as general trend. Particularly when
clusters of temples are found in one and the same place and their orientation differs,
the form of the deity should be held as different. As for example, some temples of
Naresvar face west and some temples east and yet others face north, all built in the
same place. Even when three temples are in one row, two face east and the third face
north. Evidently, the priests have oriented these temples depending on the prayers of
patrons and the nature of worship in each. It is similar to different yajna ku"4as

130
(sacrificial altars) in the same place built to invoke different deities. These temples are
differently orientated to suit prayers. Reversely one can identify the temples and their
main deity based on the orientation as well. This is possible by the study of texts like
Sarva-siddhiinta-viveka, and Jniina-siddhi. That gives the inner meaning of ritual basis
for temple orientation. Thirdly the temples of Madhya Pradesh show predominantly
Bhairava sculptures that points out that there were large group of Bhairava followers
active in mediaeval times. They may be identified as the followers of Bhairava branch
of Saivism. The texts Sarva-siddhiinta-viveka and Jiiana-siddhi demonstrate that there
has been a lot of mutual borrowing as well between the Bhairavas, Lakula Pasupatas
and Varna Saivites that are reflected in the Madhya Pradesh monuments.
The image of dancing Siva on the lintel above the entrance to the sanctum
should be considered the dance of Sadyojata. The "Bhairava nritta" on the lintel of
Pathari temple would suggest that the 'Saiva system followed there was indeed the
Bhairava School with its of text Bhiita tantra. As most of the agamas give importance
to the Bhiarava Saivam among the four fold divisions as Saiva, Varna, Bhairavam and
Kapalikam the central Indian Temples seem to have been greatly influenced by this
School. It is seen that the Vidisa area which was a centre of Sadyojata worship, from
very early times as evidenced by the two illustrious Palm tree type of representation,
followed by the great portrayal of Sakti images and a number of the Tri-mukhas found
in_ the region show the influence of Sadyojata cult. Finally, the magnificent temple at
Bhojapuri built by Bhoja Paramara but which unfortuanately remained unfinished, is
facing west and it is not unlikely that the inspiration for such a orientation arose from
the adoration of Sadyojlta (F. 104) in the region.
Comparison (F. 20, 21, 22, 51-56)
The Gyaraspur, Pathari and both Padavali Tri-mukha-mfirtis are from Madhya
Pradesh. The Uma face is on to the right of the central face in all the four figures. Uma
holds mirror in her arm in the figures. Similarly, the hair of Uma is made into kes(rla-
mukuta in the figures. The third eye is not shown on Uma's face. However, the
Gyaraspur image shows the feminine features of Uma more elegantly by showing both
the breasts and the hand wearing a broad band of bangles. The Gyaraspur figure has a
female attendant standing by her side. In all the three figures the Aghora/Bhairava face
is shown to the left of the central figure with terrifying look and licking the skull cup.
However the Aghora form is shown as a skeleton in the Gyaraspur figure while it is

131
not so in others. In addition, the Gyaraspur figure shows the snakes prominently while
the others do not.
The agamic texts mention that the Uma face must be depicted to the left of the
central face in all Sadasiva images, which is natural, and in conformity with the name
Varna / Vamadeva (left). Nevertheless, in these figures from Madhya Pradesh, the
Vamadeva /Uma face is to the right of central face. Similar is the case with
Aghora/Bhairava face that should appear to the right, appears on the left in the
Madhya pradesh images. The only possible explanation for such a variation is that the
Madhya-pradesh images were originally enshrined in a west-facing sanctum in which
case the central face would represent Sadyojita. With Sadyojata in the centre, the Uma
face will take its position to the right of Sadyojita while Aghora face will appear on its
left. Vamadeva /Uma should face normally north while Aghora/Bhaiarava will face
south. Uma to the right and Agora to the left is possible only when the central image
faces west and is Sadyojata and not Tat- puru&ha.
Erroneous identification of Elephanta image (F. 56)
The study. also points to a minor error in Stella Kramisch identification of

Elephanta cave image. According to Barbara Stoller Miller, Kramrisch has further
revised her identification in 1981. According to Barbara Miller, Kramsrisch's revision
was made in a lecture she delivered at the Pennylvania University in 1981. Barbara in
a foot note to the article published in a collection of Kramrisch articles (published by
IGNCA and Motilal Banarsi dass in 1994,) says:- "This essay first appeared in Ancient
India no 2, (July 1946) with an introductory note of Sir Mortimer Wheeler by
permission. More recent evidences make the cave sculptures datable to mid 6th cent
AD. Kramrisch in her paper ''the Great cave temple of Siva" in the symposium at the
University of Pennsylvania in May refers to the centre face as Sadyojata rather than
Tat-puru~ha face. And this revision has been made here". This seems to be an error
committed by Barabara Miller for Kramrisch' s article was published on the same
occasion under the same title "The Great Cave temple of Siva on the island of
Elephanta included in her book released on the same occasion under the title "The
presence of Siva" (p.443-468). Kramrisch has identified the central face as Tat-
puru~ha Mahadeva. (446-7). It is not known whether K.ramrisch has published any
article subsequently. If so the reference is not available in Barabara's article. The end
note on this identification in Barabara' s edited version refers to lsana-gurudeva-

132
paddhati 3-12-35 (p 145) as the source for revising Kramrisch siew. But the above
reference does not identify an image with aksha-ma/a and bija-pura (matulinga fruit)
with Sadyojata but holds him Tat-puru~ha/Mahadeva. The -reference is wrong. In
addition, the description given below for Elephanta and ascribed to Stella Kramrisch,
• • • •
1s 1n my op1n1on. wrong.
''The body of Siva, the sign (linga) of he who pervades the universe, faces all
directions is given a face in every direction; the faces are summed up and represented
at the cardinal points and in the fifth direction. Each face conveys a particular aspect of
Siva, and its psyiognomy indicates its nature. Certain signs also of identification are
laid down in the textrs; Sadyojata holds the matulinga or bija puralca, a citron, in one
hand and a rosary (alcshama/a) in the other. The bija pura is full of atoms of the seeds
of this universe; rosary is a symbol of reintegration of this world. In his crown of
matted locks Tat-purw!iha wears the cresent of the moon; it is its sixteenth digit (ama
kala) symbol of perfectedness and the power of lord (aiswarya). Aghora is fierce,
trerrific, like time (kala) itself; serpent skull belong to him. Vamadeva is handsome
and the women's delight.''
''The great sculpture of Mahadeva is an image of the fully manifest supreme

Siva. In the middle is the face of Sadyojata, the faces of Aghora and Vamadeva are
correlated. (p.142) ''Explaoring India's sacred past. Selected writings of Stella
Kramrisch, Ed by Barbara stoler Miller. First Published in 1983 by the University of
Philadelphia. Reprinted by IGNCA and Motilal Banarsidas 1994, p.142)'' It would
appear that the views ·attributed Kramrisch are not her views.
The term Mahadeva is used generally to the Linga form of Siva but in the
context of Mukha-lingas or in the representations as at Elephan1' it is used only for
the Tat-puru~ha manifestation that faces east. When the central image is Tat-p~ha
facing east the Aghora face should be to his right and Vamadeva Uma to the left.
When Sa~yojata face is in the centre, the Aghora face will appear to his left and Uma
to his right. In the case of Elephanta cave Aghora is to the right of central figure and
\
Uma is to his left and so is not Sadyojata. The centre face of Elephanta can only be
Tat- p~ha and not Sadyojata. I think this error has crept in and possibly made by
Barbara and not by Kramrisch. When Sadyojata face appears in the centre as in the
case of Madhya-pradesh images under discussion, the images will face west.
Kramrisch herself in her work ''The presence ofSiva" takes this position. (P.146) ''The

133
four faces of Siva are Tat-puru&ha Aghora / Bhairava, VAmadeva/Uma and
Sadyojata/Nandi. ''The footnotes'' on the same page says ''Mahadeva refers to the head
in the middle of the three heads in Elephanta of the five faced Sadasiva''. As
mentioned by me earlier the Elephanta figure cannot be identified as Sadasiva or five
faced linga, nor as Sadyojata but was intended to be only a three-faced image (Tri-
mukha) ofTat-puru~ha.
Three faced image in Himachal Pradesh (P.50)
I may also point out that three faces appearing for Siva is a common trait in
Himachal-pradesh where the three faced Siva is not only in central shrines _but also
found in kapota ornaments and such representations are called in bhadra-mukhas The
Shimla museum has two bhadra-mukhas out of which atleast two of them have three
mukhas. But in both the cases the central face of Siva is Tat- puru~ha as the Vamadeva
face is to the left of the central figure and Aghora face is to the right. I have not been
able to study the temples of Himachal-pradesh and am not able to say whether there
exits west facing bhadra-mukhas.
Emphasis on Mukhas
Importance of Central Face
There is a main difference in laying emphasis on central face on theological and

religious considerations. The Sanskrit text Sarva-siddhanta-vivelca gives some
interesting details in this regard. It speaks about four schools under raudra systems.
They are called Vamam Dalqhi,:zam Garutlam and Bhuta-tantram. Each face should be
worshipped for specific results and such worships are prescribed in four diiferent texts
that gave rise to the four sub-sects. Worshipping Tat- puru~ha is prescribed Garu4a
tantra by which one attains siddhis. Y antra and, mantra, system are the schools that
worshipped Tat- puru~ha form. The worship of Agora Bhairava form is prescribed in
Da!qhi,:za texts meant for conquest over enemies and achievements of ones desires.
The third is the worship of Vamadeva form prescribed in Varna texts, which is meant
for siddhies through rasa and buddhi schools. The ".Vorship of Sadyojita as the main
face is prescribed in Bhuta tantra for warding off afflictions by bhutas, Pretas, and
Pisacas. These four fold divisions among Bhairavan are based on the four texts that in
turn seem to accept the guidelines of pleasant agamas like Kami/cam they are not
considered wild and yet considered inner outsiders by the Siddhanta Saivas. It is clear

134
from this text that there existed separate categories of Saivas who worshipped any one
of the five manifestations of Siva. The worship of Elephanta Tat-puru&ha is by a
different sect and the worship of Sadyojita Nandi as in the case of Madhya ·Pradesh
images are different. The former is based on Garut/a tantra while the Madhya-pradesh
ones are based Bhuta tantra.
The Isana-gurudeva-paddhati gives some details about the worship of mukha-

lingas. If there is only one entrance to the sanctum Eka-mukha-linga or Tri-mukha-
linga could be consecrated. In this case the Eka-mukha, or the central face of the Tri-
mukha-linga will face the entrance. If the sanctum has four openings, one in each
cardinal ·direction, four faced linga could be established, each face looking towards its
appropriate direction, (like Tat-puru&ha facing east, Aghora facing south, Sadyojita
facing west and Vimadeva north). Twin faced linga or five-faced linga could be
established by a king on a hill in the country for victory and the elimination of
enemies. The twin faced iinga should not be consecrated in ordinary Siva te~ples as it
is an abhicarika form. ( Uttara bhaga, 41 chapter 11-13)
So it is evident that the Trimukha lingas were established in sanctums with

single opening. The Vidisa, Padavali Tri-mukha lingas, ought to have been in a shrine
with a single entrance and the position of Aghora face, and Vimadeva face (in reverse
order) suggest the entrance should have been on the west. This is proved by Pathari
temple (Incidentally we may not be wrong to hold that the five faced Pail.ca mukha
lingas, where ever found, were royal consecrations).
Maheia or Tat-pun1,ha ?
Charles Dillard Collins in his well studied work, "The Iconography and Ritual
of Siva at Elephanta", has discussed in detail, the occurrence of three faced Siva in
greater part of western India. He also cites a number of other scholars who have
worked on the subject. The reader's attention is drawn to to this study for details. It is
clear from this study that the representation of three faced Siva is common in western
India. The author suggested that "it is evident the discussion that the majority of
prototypes for the Mahesamurti images of Siva at Elephanta hail from the north, that is
the Gandhara-Kashmir, Rajasthan - Gujarat region and the type icon became popular
in the Deccan essentially after Elephanta was excavated. The image from Orissa was
the only one cited radically outside this axis from the north of Elephanta, with which it
is roughly contemporary. It probably represents the infusion of another sub sect of

135
Pasupatas from north India, to this region from the east. Therefore the image of
Elephanta seems to have been an importation relating to the spread of the Pasupata
sect in this case as a political patronage of the Kalachuris, quite probably under the
reign of Sankaragana in the last quarter of the sixth cent". (p. 120).
Collins has felt that Trimukha images have something to do with Pasupata sect.
I would suggest that Pasupatas concentrated more on achievement of Yoga though
there was some over lap of philosophical borrowing between them and the Bhairavas.
However, the Bhairavas of Varna and D~hiqa Bhairava schools emphasized
achievement of mystic powers, and as revealed by these two texts discussed in this
book, it is likely to be one of the sub-sects of the Bhairavas who were responsible for
the Elephanta image. Secondly, Collins calls the Elephanta and similar three faced
~mages of Siva as Mahesamurti. The term Mhesamurti is generally employed in Saiva
rituals to the manifestation above Rudra (in the ascending order of Brahma, Vi~hqu,
Rudra, Mahesa and Sadasiva) and below Sadasiva. It is not connected with Tri-mukha
images which are based on the Panca Brahmam concept of Tat-pU11.1&ha , Agora,
Sadyojata, Vamadeva, and lsana. The Tri-mukha images are portrayed to emphasize
the central face of the deity, to which worship is offered to achieve some siddhis
mystic results. The worship of the particular face or manifestation is performed as per
one of the Tantras Garuqa, Dak~hiqa, Varna, or Bhiita Tantras of the Bhairava school.
The Elephanta image is Tat-puru&ha / Mahadeva who ought to have been worshipped
with Garuqa Tantra for general siddhis.
Studies on Mukbalingas
Gerd Kreisel illustrates a large number of Mukha-lingas with sigle face, four
faces and five faces in the collection of many Museums and provides valuable details.
A few points of relevance are mentioned here. Among those discussed, a good number
are single faced (Eka-mukha-lingas) in which case it is difficult to identify either Tat-
puru&ha, Sadyojita, or Vamadeva faces, or even Agora faces (except in the Agora ease
where the fierce aspect of the deity is portrayed with moustache, beard, ball like eyes
and gasping mouths). Most of the single faced Eka-mukha lingas illustrated in the
above book have pleasing countenance and therefore may be Tat-pU11.1&ha -Mahideva.
However the illustrations no 32 and 33 may represent Agora form. The author uses the
term Brahmacarins, Ardhanari, and Agora sometimes. Thus he calls both Tat-pU111&ha
and Sadyojita as Yogins; Vamadeva as Brahmacirin (I am not sure whether the term

136
Brahma-carin could be applied to Vamadeva. For it is only the Sadyojata form which
is named Bala-vesha-dhara of boyish countenance). For example the Caturmukha
linga of the Russak collection "Pl 60 a to h", shows Agora on one side and on the
opposite side Ardhanarisvara. While the Agora face has a long moustache on both
sides of the face and beard, raised eyebrows and has raudra drishti the Ardha-
narisvara side shows moustache on one side only the other side of the face being
feminine. The author has also carefully demonstrated that the right side of the head
dress which is divided into two parts shows the Jata-maku(a on the right and the left
shows kesa bandha. Among the other two faces the one having curly hair, like that of
Buddha, is evidently Tat-puru~ha called Yogin by the author (60c). The other one (60
f), which has a boyish face like almost shaven head and with tuft is that of Sadyojata.
He could be identified as a brahmacarin for he is the one attributed with boyish
countenance. However in the illustratfons the order of the faces are shown reversed. Ill
60 a shows Agora to the left of Tat-puru~ha (60 g), and Vamadeva/Ardhanari to the
right. This is not a correct order. Similarly the Brahmacarin ushnishin (Sadyojata)
appears to the right of Vamadeva / Ardhanari (60f). The illustration 60 b shows Agora
and Ardhanarisvara side by side which is not possible (91t).· It is not known whether
there is any textual authority for such a depiction or there is an error in the illustration.
The correct position may be seen in the illustration 60 a-e.
Vlmadtva Ardbanlrl
This would bring us to two important specimens one in the VA Museum in

London (ill 114a) and the other in Los Angeles County Museum of Art (ill 113) both
showing Ardhanarisvara Image emanating from Linga shaft. We have noticed that
Vamadeva form also appears as Ardhanari emanating from Linga. The two Sanskrit
texts Sarva-siddhanta-viveka and the Jnana-siddhi refers to the worship of Vamadeva
/Uma vaktra by the followers of Bhairava school using Vama-tantra for attracting men
and women. Both the illustrations mentioned above show the membrum virile erect.
Their association with Bhairava Pasupata cult is certain. It seems that both the
illustrations of Ardhanari emanating from Linga represent Vamadeva, worshipped by
the Bhairavas. (Dte Siva- Bildwerke der Mathura kunst. Ptfranzstainer Verlag
Weisbaden, GMBA Stutgart, 1986)

137
Siva Parvati (F. 81)
Stella Kramrisch in "Manifestations of Siva" published by Philadelphia

Museum of Art in 1981 - fig 47, illustrates an important image of Siva-Parvati from
Pan Asian Collection. The provenance of the image is given as Kashmir and the figure
is assigned to eleventh cent. It represents Siva and Parvati standing, Siva standing to
the right and Parvati to the left. Siva is four armed holding trisula and matulinga fruit
in the upper arms and preaching gesture and kama,xialu in the lower arms. The
preaching arm is turned inwards. He wears a head-dress usually seen in Kashmir
images. Siva in the image is three headed, the front head is calm and serene
representing Tatpuru~ha/Mahadeva while the right one is figured with a ferocious look
and represent Agora/Bhairava face. The face to the left is that of Vamadeva/Umi-
vaktra with a feminine countenance. Parvati stands with two arms holding a mirror
with one and the other in preaching pose with the palm turned inwards as in the Siva
image. To the right of Siva stands his vehicle Nandi. Ganesa is seated on the pedestal
to the right of Siva while Kartikeya is·seated to Paravti's left. In the Vedic tradition the
reciters hold their palm inwards even to this day as noticed in this group of Siva
Parvati images. The gesture stands for Vedic recitation.
Stella Kramrisch in her catalogue mentions (p.56) that "the triune heads of the
god show Mahadeva, the Great God (as existence, Tat-puru~ha) in the centre, Agora
/Bhairava in his destructive fury on the right and Vamadeva/Uma central feminine that
dwells in Siva on his left. The three heads stand for a total of five heads, the fourth is
not shown in the relief, though in other images of the same subject is turned on the
nimbus while the fifth head belonging to transparency is invisible."
As has been shown by me earlier, this image of Siva is meant to have only three
faces as a Tri-mukha, the other two heads are not part of the manifestation. This
emphasizes the Tat-p~ha /Mahieva aspect only. It belongs to the Bhairava school to
be worshipped according to the GarUl/a Tantra.
Uml-mahesvara (F.80)
Siva with Uma seated on his lap, looking up to her master with intense
affection, is a common theme. A sculpture of beauty of this theme assigned to 10th cent
is in the State Museum of Bhopal. Siva is seated on a pedestal and on his lap is Uma,
both the couple looking at each other with great love. With one of his hands,, Siva is

138
hugging Uma while with other he wields a trident. With the upper right arm Siva holds
a flower but his lower fore arm of the right hand is broken. The goddess seated is two
·anned holding a flower in one arm and with the other arm embraces Siva. To the right
and left of the couple are seated Ganesa and Kartikeya on the seat. To the right of Siva
·is standing his attendant holding khatvanga; to the left of is the other attendant
holding a sula and behind him stands a lady attendant of the Devi. To the right of Siva
stands a nude Bhiarava above and on the left is a deity with his consort. Vidhyadhara
couples are carrying a garland above. There is a crown above the image of Siva to
show the Lord as Devadihdaeva. The khatvanga bearing attendant and the nude
Bhiarava in the panel suggest that it belongs to the Bhairava school.
Siva Stlrya (F. 84 - 85)
Two Surya images in the State Museum of Bhopal are illustrated here. (F. 84)
One is a seated image with four arms with sula and snake in the rear arms and lotuses
in the front arm. The sula and snake in his hand shows the identity of Surya with Siva.
The god wears high shoes in his udicya vesha. Flanking him are his attendants Dm14i
and Pingala, one with a beard. Flanking Surya are two Camara dhorinis representing
probably his consorts Usha and Pratyusha.
The second one is standing with multiple arms which are broken. (F. 85) He
wears high shoes to indicate his udicya ve~ha; beneath his legs stands a goddess;
flanking him are his attendants Dall<li and Pingala. Further behind are one woman each
on each side. They are probably wielding bow and arrow who are Surya- Saktis.
Brahma with three heads is above to the right, while Vi~hqu is seated on to his left.
These two gods Brahma and Vi~hqu flanking Surya in the centre suggest that Surya in
this panel is identical with Siva worshipped as Siva-Surya, as the Trimurti concept is
suggested in such panels. The sculpture mentioned above portrays the same concept of
Siva Surya by the weapons in the hands - sula and snake. Surya is adored as Martanda
identical with Bhairava embodying in himself the aspects of Trimurti need to be
recalled here.
Lakuhsa (F. 86- 87)
Most of the temples of Siva in Madhya Pradesh incorporate the sculptures of

Lakulisa images that show their affiliations with Bhairava, Pasupata, or the allied
subsects of the Saivas. Two of the sculptures identified with Lakulisa illustrated here

139
are now in the State Museum of Bhopal. The earlier one among them, (F.86) assigned
to fifth cent, comes from Gajendragar, dist. Mandasor. The figure looks like a
Kumara, a young boy - Brahmacarin with two arms holding a lakuda (club) in his right
hand while the other hand is placed on the thigh. He is seated on a high pedestal with
legs hanging cross-legged. There is a necklace of rudraksha-mala around his neck
with a pendent. His finely combed curly hairs fall on either side. A cross chain fastens
the hairs above the fore head. This is certainly a fine representation of Lakulisa
appearing as a youth and yet in a human form.
The second comes from Hinglajgar, dist. Mandasor (F. 87) and assigned to 10th
cent. The representation is four armed and hence a deified image. He holds a sfila with
a long handle in the right arm. The foreann of the other right hand is broken. He holds
a club with the front left arm, which is somewhat damged. The other hand holds a long
handle probably a pasa.The god is seated in padmasana pose. His phallus is erect
while his testicles are pressed down by the crossed legs. This is a yogic pose adopted
to control sexual energy. The God wears a high ja(amaku(a fastened by a cross chain
with a flame like buckle. Above is a crescent moon. A snake coiling around the
ja(amaku(a raises its hood elegantly. Among three necklaces, adorning the neck one is
a fine snake with its hood well depicted. In addition, the god wears an upavita of
snake. A snake is coiling around the handle of the trisula. The label of the Museum
identifies the portrayal as that of Lakulisa. But it is not unlikely that the image
represents Siva himself as srik8Qta when he was about to appear as Lakulisa.
Paftca Brahmam (F. 88 - 89)
An interesting sculpture, showing four human ascetics emanating from a linga

on its four sides is now in the Gwalior Central Museum. All are seated in different
asanas in different poses. Beneath the seat of one are seen two severed hands and two
feet. All the four ascetics are with two hands but no one is shown with a lakucja. In
between each ascetic are shown in miniature forms, some deities that seems to be that
of Siva. The sculpture is generally identified with Lakulisa.
In this context it is interesting to note a chapter in the Linga purana, regarding

the emanation of Paiica-Brahmams, Tatpuru$ha, Agora, Sadyojata, Vamadeva and
lsana. All the five are said to be Kumiras likened to human youth. The first to appear
was Sadyojita who is said to have a tuft-sikhi (sikhi-yukta), who was white in colour
and was probably exponent of yoga system. We see from other texts, that Sadyojita

140
taught Pisupata yoga with an emphasis on priindyiima (yoga) to Upamanyu. _T he

second was Vamadeva, who appeared with red garments, red garlands etc. He was the
embodiment of 'dhyana' he was the giver of dhyiina system. The third to appears was
Tat-p~ha , with golden colored costumes, garlands etc., and also with Ufhni~ha. As
Brahma meditated on this form, there appeared Maha Devi, Mahesvari with four legs,
four faces, etc, like a cow. She was called Mati - (mind), Smriti (remembrance) and
dhriti (retention). So Siva told her she would become Rudrani. She became Rauclri
Gayatri, and Brahma - recited the Gayatri as Japa and achieved his prayers. Tat-
puru&ha is associated with Japa. The fourth to appear was Agora with black colour,
garland etc. He wore black garment, and had ushnisha. Brahma beheld him by dhyiina
yoga. Worship of Agora with different kinds of homas absolves the devotee of all his
sins. It seems Agora taught the path of worship through Kriya-Yajnas.
lsina to appear at the end is called Visvariipa who-appeared as a cow with four
legs and personification of Gauri, Maya, Vidya, Kri$hqi, and Haemavati. She
combined in herself Yoga, Siinkhya, Japas, Vidya, Vidhi-kriyii, Ritam, Satyam etc. and
She was SarasvatI and Lakshmi. She was also the supreme bliss- Ananda. So lsana is
Visvariipa represnting all aspects culminating in Ananda.
In the image under discussion, (F. 90, 91, 92) there is the linga in the centre
from which four Kumiras emanate in four directions. Each is shown in a particular
pose like Swastika, Ardha-padma, Ekoru {Ordhva-jiinu) and Samiisana. All of them
show different arrangements of hairs on head. One of them seems to hold an antelope
like animal in hand. It is possible that this sculpture with Kumaras, appearing as
teachers represent the four Brahmams, Tatpuru$ha, Agora, Sadyojata, Vamadeva in
human form the linga representing the lsana form. One of the sculpture has a pair of
severed hands and pada on the pedestal. The severed hand as an ornament along with
human skulls appears on the head of Aghora, in the Gyarasper Trimukha, which
indicates its association with Bhairava cult. It comes from Naresvar where temples to
the three (is not four) manifestations exist.
Naresar Group of Temples (F. 108, 109, 110, 111, 114)
The Naresvar group of temples near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh consists of a

large number of small medium size temples, numbering over 27 built in clusters in the
same place, and evidently suggest that they are dedicatory temples built for the
fulfillment of specific prayers. The earliest of the group is the east facing temple. The

141
presence of Lakulisa sculptures in Siva temples and the recovery of a good number of
Yogini sculptures some of which are now housed in the Gwalior museum (F. 100-103)
suggest that the site was a centre of Bhairava cult. Behind one of the early temples is
the temple of Mahishasura-mardini, that indicates the Bhairava school. We have seen
that the Varna Bhairava school is divided into Gana/a, Dalcyhir,a, Vama and Bhuta
tantra branches, for worshipping, Tat-puru~ha Aghora, Sadyojata Varnadeva f~nns of
Bhairava and that the name of Tat-puru~ha is given as Naresa in Svacchanda-
Bhairava-tantra. We have also seen that K~hemaraja the commentator on this text,
assignable to the end of 10th cent or beginning of 11 th cent, defines Naresa as Naranam
idam-Naresam. The present name of the place is derived by many scholars from
Nalesvara-the lord water drain. This is based on an inscription which calls the name of
the deity as Nalesvara deva. I think the name Naresa itself is the original name of the
site derived from the earliest temple built at that site. The earliest temple faces east and
is dedicated to Naresa Tat-puru~ha. There is an ancient lingustic rule in Sanskrit,
which holds that there is no difference between 'ra' and 'la' Naresvar and Nalesvar are
identical.
Central India seems to have been a great centre of Bhairava Saivam from very
early times as seen from Udayagiri and Vidisa. At Udayagiri we have the Siva temple
and Durga side by side. An imposing Durga, perhaps the tallest (F.25) so far noticed is
now preserved in the Gwalior Museum. The magnitude of the sculpture and the
presence of a remarkable group of early Matrikas (F. 97 - 98) from the same site point
to the over whelming influence of Sakta tradition in the region. The combination of the
th
Varna Bhairava tradition seems to have continued in the region upto probably 11 -
12th cent. A number of monumental sites, like Gyaraspur, Naresvar, Bhatesvar, Terahi,
Padavali, Shivapuri, Survaya, Bheraghat, Bilaspur, Badoh, Pathari, Mahua and early
K.hajuraho, appear to have been influenced by this school. It is also possible to identify
some of these sites by their orientation, and following either the Gana/a Tantra, ·
Da/qhir,a, Varna, or Bhuta tantra. It would be interesting to trace these four texts and
study them for identifying these monuments. As it is beyond the scope of this book, I
am not elaborating further, except to state that they did have a great impact and
wielded great influence in Central India, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and their
neighbouring regions. The same sub schools are mentioned in three texts, namely the
well-known Svacchanda-bhairava-tantra, Kamikagama and the Sarva-siddhanta-
vivelca, so these four sub sects did exist.

142
Based on our study we may say that a atleast a few other temples at Naresvar
were built for Sadyojata, and that the west-facing temples of the group might have
been built for this deity, using Bhuta tantra. The same group of priests might have
built separate dedicatory temples for different deities.
The temple at Padavali that has yielded not only two Tri-mukhas with
Sadyojata as the main deity and the intricately carved sculptured panels depicting
Bhutas, Pretas and Pisacas in exuberance, (F.125 - 128) show that in all probability
Bhua-tantra was followed there.
The Telika mandir at Gwalior is the tallest and biggest temple (F.29, 93-94) to
have been built for Saptamatas obviously based on the Varna "Sakta tantra', called
Yamalam.
The group of temples and monastery at Survaya might also belong to the same
school for we see two groups of temples, oriented in opposite directions one facing
east and the other facing west, at the same place. It may not be wrong to suggest the
orientation of these temples as clusters, built very thoughtfully but for the fulfillment
of specific prayers, are based on specific texts.
N1resvar (F.16)
About 15 km from Gwalior and about three km through rough road is Naresvar
village. One has to halt and go up the hillock and cross the hilltop. At the other end of
the hilltop is the group of temples, called Naresvar. There are about 27 temples of
different sizes, all at one place of the hill that go by the name Naresvar. There is a
pond enroute .with sufficient water said to be potable. On its bank are twelve small
temples nine of which have disappeared leaving only the base lines on the rock. Three
are in position; some of them show Ganesa at the lintel. Inside two of them are linga
pi~as, facing the entrance in one and the other reoriented. As these temples are in a
row on the southern slopes of the pond they all face north. Therefore, the pranala
facing the entrance in one temple is in its original shape. The water chute (varimarga)
is facing east in one and north east in another. These are said to have been repositioned
in later times. These north facing temple, might have been built for Vamadeva / Uma
to obtain Vasikaraf}a for the attractions and favours of women.
Before one reaches the pond, he sees two modest temples in a group and
another a little away. They are devoid of sculptures or architectural embellishment. As

143
one approaches the N~var group there are four in a row all facing west and
obviously dedicated to Sadyojlta form, three of which are fairly well preserved, while
one contains a linga.
From here, one has to cross a small ancient stone bridge and descend through
steps to reach the floor of the main Niresvar group. The floor, cut and flattened, forms
the ground for the temples. There are three levels in which the temples are built.
There are three temples in a row, all of them of the same height. (F.107) Two of
them face east and the third faces north. Among them, the one on the extreme south is
the earliest of this group, which has a simple /capota-bandha-adh~h/ana. It has a
resemblance to South Indian temple mouldings of the early age. It is architecturally the
best among the three. The sanctum is empty now, but the arch above the entrance in
the sikhara, shows a seated Lakulisa image. The entrance to the sanctum has lovely
carvings of Gangi and Yamunl on either side. As in other examples, the heads of both
the river goddesses are chopped off. The wall on the north of entrance shows a
beautiful entwined hanging chain motif. The lintel shows simple rafter marks in
geometric design. This temple considered earlier, and facing east should have been
dedicated to Tat-p~a Ntresa which has given the name to the group.
The central temple is almost a contemporary of the northern one with simple
plain adh~ta1')Q. The one on the north is based on the north Indian type of adhishfd'1Qs
but the superstructure has been conserved, rather haphazardly. There are some
sculptures, but it is not clear whether the positions in which they are seen, are original.
In all probability, they are displaced.
At a lower level of about fifteen feet, is another temple, intact . upto its
amalalca. The enormous amount of debris, show a large number carved stones, and in
all probability there were some more temples of the same dimensions but have
disappeared.
The one in front of the three temples faces west. It consists of a base
(adh~h/a1Jll.) bhitti, and super structure of the Nagara variety. Only a .part of the
sikhara remains, the griva and amala/ca have disappeared. Gangl and Yamunl flank
the entrance to the sanctum with attendants. Vandals have chopped the heads of Gangi
and Yamuni away. The lintel above the entrance carries a Garu<la holding the tail of
cobras winding and coming down on either side but the heads of both the snakes have

144
been damaged. There is nothing in the sanctum. But on both the walls flanking the
entrance are seen Nagari inscriptions in Sanskrit language, giving the samvat and the
king's name and gifts. On the northern sidewall also is seen an inscription of the same
age. Based on a record the temple is assigned to the eighth cent, and is considered one
among the earliest of the group.
At the back of this temple is another early temple, at an elevated level in more
or less fine condition including the sikhara and amalaka. Inside the sanctum of this
temple was the image of goddess Durga, the existing sculpture is completely covered
with saffron but there is evidence that the main image is Durga though the sculpture
above the waist has disappeared. One of her right hands is rested on an attendant. To
the left is a beautiful image bending to the right in an animated pose. At the lower part
is seen a figure resembling the body of the Mahisha upto the neck and from the neck
emanates a diminutive figure. In all probably the main image was that of Mahi$hasura
mardini.
The entrance to the temple has lovely carvings. Beautiful images of Ganga and
. Yamuna (F.121) with their attendants are seen on either side, but unfortunately, the
heads of both the river goddess are chopped off. Above them are seen on either side
three levels musicians and dancers. On the lintel is seen a Garu<la in the center holding
the tails of snakes, which come down either side, framing the entrance to the sanctum.
The heads of the snakes are broken. On a level above the Garu<ta human figures
(gandharvas?) are seen flying towards the centre. On either ends are seated figures,
one on each side, resembling Lakulisa. As the sculptures are worn out, it is difficult to
be assertive but may be the ascetic priests.
This, Mahishasuramardini temple as we may call it, (23 of ASI) has on its
bhadra niche on the south side Ganesa, and on the north Ambika, while the back niche
is completely covered with debris (and probably contained Kartikeya?) The front of
the sikhara portrays a broken image of Simhavahini.
By the side of this temple is a plain three storied structure (F.114) designated as
a monastery. The courses of stone up to the first story are regular and indicate an early
date, but the upper part shows rebuilding. The monastery building has an entrance that
leads to a narrow passage that is blocked after some distance. It is claimed the passage
leads to a cave (guha) in the hill but no one has so far investigated the same. The
building is devoid of architectural embellishment.

145
This remarkable group of temples, built on a remote area after cutting a large
part of hill, quite high at some places, looks like an impregnable hill fort and looks like
hidden from normal onlookers; it seems to give a halo of secret worship to this area.
Survaya Temples (F. 27, 28, 106, 113, 115-120, 122, 123, 124-131)
The group of Survaya temples at Survaya village, dist .Sivapuri is a landmark in

the Central Indian monuments. There are three temples, and a big mediaeval monastry
inside a protected fort, the temples and Saiva priests played a great role not only in the
religious life of the people but also in defending the political power for considerable
length of time. I have discussed elsewhere that the people looked to the Rajaguru as a
saviour of the country - raksha-sakti - in times ~f danger from invasion, epidemics,
natural calamities like fire etc. And this role brought in the danger to the heart of the
temples and the habitations of the Saiva priests. Evidently, the temples were symbols
and places that invited the mystic powers for protection. The deity invoked was
expected to be the most powerful of the Saivite system. It is well known from
monuments, inscriptions and literature that Kala-Bhairava was the embodiment of
ferocious attack on enemies and the most kind to his devotees The Kala-Bhairava
called for some gruesome forms of worship, which was thought to confer victories in
most dreaded battles and disasters. We have noted that most of the region being prone
to frequent attacks from all directions required temples to Bhairava. This is the main
reason for building temples to Bhairava and practicing awesome and secret worship,
within well-fortified areas, that is nowhere better illustrated than in Surwaya and
Naresar in Central India. There are three well built temples within the Surwaya fort,
one facing east and two facing west within few yards. All the three temples are
dedicated to Siva and the portrayal of deities like Andhakasura samhira, (F. 123) a
fonn of Bhairava on the walls confirm that these temples appearing as clusters within a
place are dedicated to some form of Bhairava (F. 27 - 28). No inscription is found on
the temples now but on stylistic consideration, all are assigned to 10th cent. For
convenience, Archaeological Survey of India under whose protection these are now
placed serially numbers the temples. The east facing temple, which is the most ornate
among the group, is beautiful in spite of the dilapidated condition and damages. It
carries some remarkable sculptures. The front marµlapa and the entrance to the
sanctum carry marvelous sculptures. The front marµlapa carries the portraits of the
Saiva Priests who were responsible for constructions. The ceiling of the marµlapa is
carved with beautifully conceived dancing figures and deities. Five superb sikhas

146
(frames) decorate the entrance to the sanctum, with a stepping-stone carrying two lions
one on either side. The classical temples are built over four principles namely dharma,
Jifana, vairagya and aisvarya. (Righteousness, knowledge, sacrifice, and
governorship). The four opposites are also required for the former to exist. So the texts
prescribe eight principles as the Temple form. These principles are visualized as lions.
The lions represented on the base are thus the personification of dharma, Jnana,
vairagya and aisvarya.ln the centre of the entrance to the temple is the lotus also
called vidyapadma. "the lotus of learning". Flanking the entrance are Gangi and
Yamuni follo~ed by Nandi Mahakila, and behind them are the Apsaras. The central
frame of the entrance carries a row of mithuna couples.
Vi$hQU on Giru(ja appears in the centre of the lintel above the entrance
(F. 117, 118, 119, 120). The panel behind is divided into two tiers depicting the nine
planets-Navagrahas including Rahu and Ketu at the extreme left of Vi$hQU. The upper
tier carries Apsaras carrying garlands. At the extreme right is Brahma while at the left
is an image, which is totally damaged. The central panel of the middle lintel carries
Siva-tiQclava. Flanking Siva- tiQ(java to the right is Ganesa with his consort and to the
left is Kartikeya with his consort. At the extreme right of Siva is a deity in dancing
pose with a Vina probably representing Virabhadra while on the extreme left is a
dancing Bhiarava. In between are seen musicians and dancers with drum etc. The top
lintel carries three sikhara like ornaments, and minor deities.
The full description of this temple is not attempted here as it is not the scope of
this work. It would be advantageous to take up a separate study of every detail of the
temple against the text Svacchanda Bhairava tantra that is likely to throw more light.
As mentioned earlier the worship of Bhairava called Dak$hiqa Bhairava School had
four branches as Garudam, Dak$hiqam, Vimam, and Bhiita-tantram. The east-facing
temple that enshrines Tatpuru~ha here might have received worship according to the
Garuda tantra.
At this stage it may be said that according to Svacchanda Bhiarava tantra,

every deity in the circle of Bhiarava worship is invoked as an amsa of Bhairava.
Just a few yards in front, is a second temple in the Survaya complex facing west
located exactly facing temple no 1. Both the temple face each other. This temple fairly
well preserved except its sikhara, carries a sanctum and preceding mandapa. The
entrance to the sanctum has ornate sakha frames with sculptures. The lintel of the

147
entrance above the sanctum catties an image of Vi$hr}U on Garucja. (F.122) The part
behind Vi$hQU is divided into two tiers horizontally portraying the nine planets
(Navagraha) while the upper tier shows the seven mothers Saptamitis dancing along
with Ganesa. This brief account of the temple is to provide an idea as to how a temple
dedicated to Bhairava was conceived in the mediaeval periods.
A little away is the monastic buildings that served as residential portions of the
Temple priests-Acaryas. It consist of a two storied portions with a number of rooms
(F.113) but what is interesting is the central part of the building that was occupied by
the chief Acarya has a sikhara like that of the temple that shows the importance of the
guru who was likened to Siva himself at other places.
Conclusions
The importance of the two Sanskrit texts Sarva-siddhanta-vivelca and Jnana

siddhi have been discussed in the introductory part of this work. A study of many
temples and sculptures, especially in Central India, in the light of these two texts, show
there was a great preference for the Bhairava school in the region that had been
brought out in the fourth chapter of this work. I have also given a given an account of
the Ancient city of Ujjaini, with the temple of Mahikalesvar and the overwhelming
presence of Bhairava school, that continues to this day in some form there.
It is important to recall that the study of Saiva iconography is closely associated

with Ujjaini. The earliest representation of Siva in human form is traced to Ujjaini
coins, in which the god is portrayed with a staff and /cama11</alu. Many Kushan coins
from first cent BCE to 2nd 3n1 cent. CE portrays Siva in front of his vehicle-Nandi in
different forms. Considerable varieties of these coins appear with the legend Osho
(Isa) Siva with three heads. JN. Banerjee has discussed in detail the occurrence of Siva
in Kushan coins and their significance in his development of Hindu iconography,
chapter IV (P .113-128). "Siva appears for the first time in an anthropomorphic form on
the coins hailing from Ujjaini and its environs. The single standing figure on many of
these coins can definitely be identified with him". (P. 117). However Banerjee's
discription of another series is relevant to our study here. The three headed standing
figure on the obverse of a third variety of the Ujjaini coins carrying identical attributes
(staff in the right and vase in the left) further strengthen my hypotheses. Cunningham
no doubt identified the latter as Mahakila but his statement that this coin may be
accepted as a single evidence of Brahminism at Ujjaini" is unjustifiable. Allan is no

148
doubt that this figure and its variants may stand for both the deities, viz, Siva
Mahik.ala and Skanda Kartikeya. The three heads of the figure on some Uijaini coins
have been taken by him to represent partially the six heads of the latter divinity. But
we have three headed Siva figures known from Kushan coins." (P. 117). Banerjee goes
on to describe and discuss many coins of the Kushanas. Gondophares, Wema
Khadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva - Some gold coins of Huvishka show
three faced and four armed Siva, holding water vessel, thunderbolt, trident and club
respectively in the four hands. (p. 123)
Huvishka's gold coins described by Gardner in p. 148 of his look

(p. XXVII, 16) have a type of Siva figure on the reverse which is of outstanding
interest from iconographic as well as cult point of view. His description is as follows
"Siva facing, three-headed nimbate clad only in waist band itiphallic, has four anns
and hands, in which are goat, wheal, trident, and thunder bolt." (p. 124). It was
suggested that this might represent Harihara because of cakra and mace in two hands
and trident and mrga on the other. R Chrisman deciphered the inscription on the coin,
as in charian script and language, read Mihira, Vi~hQu and Siva. Banerjee suggesting
that it represented a composite figure of Siva, Vi~ht}u and Surya that would remind
later composite figures of Brahma, Vi~hqu, Siva and Surya.
Banerjee has dealt with the representation of Siva in Kushan coins in detail.
There is no need to give them again in detail except to say that atleast six different
varieties of coins with Siva are noticed. 1. Single headed Siva with multiple arms. 2.
Three headed Siva with two or four anns 3. Siva and Pirvati with an inscription
reading Osho 4. Siva with bow as a warrior and saint, 5. Siva as Harihara and 6. Siva
with Vi~hQu and Surya.
Primarily, Saivism left tremendous impact on Kushan kings, prevailed in the

N.W. Frontiers of India, and went as far as central Asia. The second point that
deserves attention is the occurrence of three-headed Siva appearing on the Kushan
coins. Three-headed Siva appears not as Trimurti but as one of the manifestations like
Tat-puru~ha, Sadyojata, Vamadeva or Agora/Bhairava. Among the three heads, the
central head is the most important for identification. We have noted that the N. W. and
Kashmir were more inclined towards Bhairava worship, and we may not be wrong in
holding that the coins of Kushanas with three-headed Siva were inspired by the
Bhairava school of Saivism. We have seen that a number of illustrations from

149
Kashmir, discussed in this book are the ·imagery of the Bhairavas. We have also seen
that Cunningham identified the U.ijaini coins with three heads as Mahakila. Probably
he was right. Again the coins of Kushanas with Siva as an archer with Brahmi
inscription reading Ganesa, might represent him as Agora / Bhairava. Judging from the
fact that Kashmiri pratyabhijna system from 8th - 9th cent onwards, absorbed Bhairava
Bhauara as the primordial deity, we are justified in holding that the N. Western
frontier upto central Asia were followers of Bhairava branch of Saivism.
Khajurabo
Finally we may have to examine one of the most fascinating group of temples
from Madhya Pradesh. The question that arises at this stage is when the Bhairava
school was so influential in Central India, in so many sites like Gyaraspur near Vidisa,
U.ijaini, Batesvar, Naresa Padavali, (F. 126, 128) Survaya, Bilaspur, Amrol, Terahi
(F. 127) Pathari etc., did it have any impact on the magnificent monuments of
Khajuraho? Both Krishnadeva and Devangana desai have done yeomen service by
their work on Khajuaraho: They have already pointed out, that the Chausad yogini
temple at the outskirts of Khajuraho, . and which is the earliest of the group, had the
Varna practices. Devangana has argued that other group of temples like Khandariya
Mahadeva temple, Jagadamba temple, Visvanath temple etc., followed the Soumya
Siddhanta Saivam. In fact she has rejected the suggestion of Pramod chandra that it
could have been a Kapalika centre.
It would require a voluminous work to deal with this monumental group, as

such it is not attempted here. However, because of this study, I think it is possible to
evaluate the group, especially the Khandriya Mahadeva temple. In my opinion, it is
possible that the Kharidariya Mahadeva temple was inspired by the Bhairava school
for the following reasons. (a) The distribution of the Sapta matrikas on the base of the
temple niches. (b) The distribution of Bhairava sculpture in the inner ambulatory (c)
The images on the main bhadra niches around the walls of the sanctum and (d) the
distribution of sculptures on the entrance sakha-s and finally (e) The so called
Sadasiva catush pada image. (My full discussion on this identification is under print in
Prof. Gail flicitation volume).
This book focuses on the two rare Sanskrit texts not known to scholars so far
and the need to correlate the Agamic texts with temples for proper identification. It is
hoped this work will stimulate further studies in this field.

SARVA SIDDHANTA VIVEKA
- -
Dr..R. Nagaswamy

S-2

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General Index
abhaya, 128 Aikya vlda, 22 Asrauta (non Vedic), 67

Abheda Saivam, 77 Aisvaram-padam, 33 Q.fh.tanga yoga, 60
lbhiclrikl form, 134 Ajita-lgama, 2, 89 A1h/a-pralcara1JQ, 42
Abhinavagupta, 11, I 5 Amba-sthavam, 2 Atharva-siras, 67
Abhivyakti, 19, 64 A.jTvaka, 22 Ati-vamtirami, 5
Abhivya/cti Samya, 58 Ajivaka-vldi, 20 Atma-cintakas, 12
Abhivyakti-samatl, 16 A.jftl Saivam, 77 Aurangazeb, I 03
Abhyantara, 44 Alesha, 78 Aushada vlma, 49
Abhygamana, 15 Amnaya Siddhi, 76 All$bada-vlmi, 46
Aclra-linga, 30 amrita-kalasa, 127 Avlnatara Saivam, 16, 77
A.clrya Abhinava-gupta, 42 Amswnadbhidagama, 63 Avlntara Saiva y6ga, 54
Acintya-visva-sadalchya- Anidi, 45 Avanti, 95
dalcshinagama, 2 Anadi Saivayoga, 55 Avanti-kanda, 98
Adhtu-srotas, 83 Anidi Saivam, 77 Av!§a-samatl-paksha, 16
A.di Saivam, 16, 77 Ananda-trrtha, 18
Aditya-pur~m, 2 Andadcvar Santin.am, 26 B
Advaita-vlmi, 46 Andhlkasura-vadha, 90 B.N.Shrma, 124
Agastya, 58, 68 Aneklntika vldi (Jains), 11 Blhyam, 44
Agastya, a Brlhm81)a Rishi, 64 Anmartha-puja paddhati, 2 Bairava tantra, l 06
Agastya School, 64 antarlla, 127 Balarlma, I 03, 107, 108
Agastyam, 47 Anu Saivam, 16,77 Balasubramanya mudaliyar, 9
Aghora, 27 Anugraha-Pallcalcrityam, 25 Blla-vesha-dhara, 136
Agh6ra hrdaya, 96 ill)ava-mala, 61 Barbara Stoller Miller, 131
Aghora Sivlclrya, 24 Ardhanlri, 96, 125,135, 136 Blrhaspatyam, 66
Aghora-Sivacarya-paddhali, 31 Arhatas (Jainas), 17 Basav!§vara, 30
Agh6ra, 92, 94, 95, 96, IOI, Arivananda-siddhi, 2 Bauddha- Jina (Buddha), 20
105, 106, 107, 109, 11 I, 112, Arka Saiva, 24 Bauddham, 90
113, 115, 117, 118, 119, 122, Arsha-gana, 24 Bauddbas, 17
124, 125, 126, Anll Nandi, 5 Berlin Museum, I08
127,128,129,130,131,132, Arulnandi-Sivlclryar, 21 bhadra-mukhas, 133
133, 134, 140, 141 Arump-pada-viveka, 7 Bhadrasena., 98
AghOra-Bhairava, 109 Asoka Maurya, 95 Bhairava Bhattlra, 117
A.gn!ya-kartritvas, 1S Asokan art, 95 Bhairava nritta, 130
Original from
vi
Bhairava Sadtiiva, 23 Brahadaranyaka-bhashyam, 2 ~hiqa-Bhairava, 19

Bhalrava Slddhanta Siddhi,35 Brahad-/ca/6ttara, 2 Dantivannan, 92
Bhairava ~ ' 97 Brahmasrami, 33 Dlruklvana, 97
Bhairava, 135, 136, 137, 138, Brahma liitra, l 0 Dasa-klrya, 19
147,148,149 Brahmaclri, 104 Dlvl Kalottara , 2,32
Bhairavam, 77, 103, 108, Brahmaclrin,90, 135,139 dharma jlstras, 88
114, 130 Brahman, 26 Dbarmapuram matha, 6
Bhairavanlth., 96 Brahma-siras-ceda, 90 Dhenuka, 107
Bhairavas, 13S, 136, 149 Brahma-sutras of Vylsa, 35 Dhruva, 33
Bhairavi, 91, 109, Brahma-vldi (of Hiranya Dbarta-vldis, 12
Bhlradvlja, 47,58 garbha), 20 Digambaras, 18
Bharadvlja School, 63 Brahmq,_,da purQfUJm2 Diluha pa,ala, 23
Bhargavonara, 66 Brahminical Triad", 119 Di/rsha-vivelcam, 2
Bbartrihari cave, 99 Buddha Bhikshus, 95 Diptam, 2
Bhlskara, 22 Buddha vihlra, 95 Divya Saiva, 24
Bbasma from smasana, 97 Dr. Stella Kramrisch, 106
bhasma snlna, 97 C Driivida-mahabhashyam 8
Bhatta-Rlmakanta, 15 Candrara dipam, 2, 75 Dri$hiartham, 46
Bhattas,18 Candra vlda, 29 Drk-drlya-vivelcam, 2
Bhana Rlma-kanta, 1142 Candra-kall, 123 Dvaita-vlmi, 46,50
bhavana druha, 32 CaqclMvara, 121
Bhavuhya-p,,rana,n, 2 Clruvlkas, 13, 17 E
Bheda Saivam, 58,77 Catura-tlndava, 104, I 05 eight Bhairavas, 98
Bheda Saivam, 16 Caturmukha, 108, 111, 136 Eka-janma-vldis, 12
Bh&ta vlda, 22 Charles Dillard Collins, 134 Eklmranltha temple, 90
BhiqhlJaQa, 97 Chatra dhlrinis, 128 Eka-m0khalinga, 111, 134
Bhlma-samhita, 2 Chidambara-mahdtmyam, 2 Elcanma-vada, 25
Bhinndbhinna-vivekam, 16 Chidambara-mlinmyam, 2 Eka-vldis, 12
Bh6gadevar,27 Champa, 115 Ekoru, 140
Bhoga-karilca, 2 citron fruit, 112 Elephanta cave, 125, 132
Bhoja Parlmara, 130 Elephanta, 123, 125, 126, 129,
Bhojapuri, 130 D 131, 132, 134, 135, 157
Bhojarljl , 18,31 DadhTci, 68
Bhringi, 121 Daqhil)a tantra, 93,106,118 F
Bhiita-tanlra, 28,S 1, 106, I08, Dok.rhino agama, 2,31 Fan-Palm capital, 107
118, 130, 133, 141, 142, 146 Dakshina Saiva,28, 29,32
BhOta-vldis, 12 Daluhlna-lgamas, 32 G
BhOti alias Vikramakesari, 94 Dakshinlclra, 17 Gaja-samhlra, 90
BhOtuka, 93 Daluhi,:,a, 2 Gajendragar, 139
Blnlvana Tattvam, 2 Daqhiqa-Saivam, 5 I, 114 Gana-/carika, 18
blja pOraka, 112, 115,132 Daqhil)l-mOrti, 43, 96 Ganda-mlrtln<lam, 93
Bilaspur, 109, 141, 149 Dak.fhi1JQtantra,51 Gandhara, 110

vii
Gwndra-sama-paksha, 16 H Jlfana-ovarana-dfpilca, 5
GanMa, 121, 137,138, 142, HaimavatT., 140 Jlfana-avarana-1iddhanta,5
146, 149 Ha/a.rya-mahatmya 2 Jllana-dvarQ1JO-vilalcJcam, I
Gangl, 128, 143, 144, 146 Haradattlclrya, 18 JMna-dibha, 79, 61
Gangldhara, 125 Hara-siddhi, I00 Jlfana-dibha-prakasika, 2
Gangavatara pa,ala, 23 Harihara, 96, 111, 122, 148 Jlfonadipika, 2
Gaq<ta mlrtaq<ta, 94 Hetu-drishslnta-vldis, 12 Jlfonomirtam, 21
garbhagraha, 127 Himachal-pradesh, 133 Jftlnlnta School, 7
Hindulconography,91 Jfllnlnta system, 88
Garuda saivam, 28
Hinglajgar, 139 Jltanonta-paribhlisha, 2
Glruda tantra, 5 I, 113,
Hiranya garbha school, 11 Jlfona-ratnava/i, 2
116, 118
Hira,:,ya-garbha-vedantam, 2 Jftlna-sambandar,87
Glru(jam, 46
Hitopadua, 2 Jtllna-samkrlnti-vlda, 16
Gauda-paa,ya-vivara,:,am, 2
hrdaya sthlna, 96 Jlfona-soram, 2
Gaudapoa,ya-vivara~a by
Huvishka, 148 Jlfanii.fastra-palfca/cam,
Bhagavadplda, 2
Jfllna-siddhlnta, I 02
GaurT, IOI, 115, 140
I Jllona-siddhi, /, 2, 115,
Gautamlya, 58, 64
Idaikklttu devar santlnam, 27 130,147
Gerd Kreisel, 135
Imperial Cholas, 93 Jlfona-siddhi(Prasoda-
Ghad-Kllikl, 99 lndran, 26 pralcara~m) , 2
Goodall, 6 l~a-gurudeva-Paddhati, 111, Jlfona-vocittam, 2
Gopinath Kaviraj, 24 132 Jlfanovarana Siddhanta, 30
Gopinatha Rao, 92, 124, 125 Ttvara Aviklra vlda22 Jlfonovara,:,a-vilalcJcam, 6
GGrakshanltha, 99, I00 ltvara-aikya, 46, 58 Jlfonavarar,a bhashyam, 2
Govinda-bhagavad-plda, 18 Jsvara-tattva-lijasa-prapti, 34 Jlfonavara~am, 2
Guna- Saiva, 19, 77 Jlfonovatora Pata/am, 16
Guna Saivam, 16 J
Guna-samkrlnti (Ptiupatas), J.N.Banerjee, 124, 126 K
16 JaiminTya, 17 Kaillsanltha temple, 90
Guna-samkrlnti-vlda, 16, 66 Jalandhara-vadha, 90 lcaivalya-aikyam, 61
GuQa Saiva, 58 Jangama, 30 Kalwtomnaya, 33
Jangama-linga, 30 Klla Bhairava, 91,94, 97, 98,
GUQa-Saivam, 46
Japas, 140
Gur,a-Sankrlntam, 47 99, 100, 104, I 19, 135, 145
Jitolc.fha, 55
Guru Jftlna-sambanda- Kalagamam, 16
J itendranath Banerjee, 107
mOrtikal, 5, 6, Klllmukha, 52,89,94, 107
Fivalca-cintoma,:,i, 2
Guru-linga, 30 Klllmukhldlna, 94
JN. Banerjee, 147
Guru-pldukl, 25 Jtllna Mlrga Saivism, 87 Klllmukham, 77
Guru-stlnlli, 2 Jlfana- ratnava/i, 18 Klllngi (Klllgni), 26, 27
Gwalior Museum, I 07, I 08, Jftlna Saivam, 77 Kllapriya deva, 93
127, 141 Jlfana saram, 1S Klla-samhlra, 90

Jftlna, 87, 88, I 02, 130, 136, KIIMvara Vldins, 29
Gyaraspur, 123, l25, 126, 127,
146, 156 Klli, 88, 91, 99
129, 130, 141', 149
Original from
viii
Kalidasa, 2, 99 Klronam, 89, 90 Krodharljl- South, 34

Kalonara, 2, 18 Klrtik!ya, 121, 137, 138,127, Krodharljl, 98
Kalpa, 66 144, 146, 148 Kshemarljl, II, 33,114, 120
Kalyanasundara mudaliyar, 9 Klruka, 34 Ksh&ntia, 34
Kalytqa-sundara, 125 Klrushya, 102 Ksh!traplla, 88
Kamalai-jftlna-praklY, 5 Karuvur devar santlnam, 27 Kshiprl river, 98, 103
Klmlntaka, 90 Kashmir, 111, 112, 114, 115, Kudantai, 89
Kamilcagama, 1, 78, 113, 141 116, 119, 120, 122, 134, 137, Kula Sambhava, 16
Kami/cam, 2, 133 141, 148, 155 Kula sasanam, 16
Klnlda-school, KMyapa, 58 ,66 Kula-dharma, I 9
(V~shikas ) 11 Ktiyapam, 47 Kularnava, 16
Kaftca malaiyln, 26 Kaula system, 19
Kularnava tantra, 19
Kalfchi-manmyam, 2 Kaulam, 46
Kulottirna, 16
Kanchipuram, 90 Kaulikam, 76
Kumlra bhagavln, 26
Kanda-lcalottaram, 2 Kausika, 58
Kwnlra, 139
Kanda-pura(Jam, 2 Kamika Siddhlnta 63
Kumaraguruparar, 1, 2
Kandha,2 Kaverippakkam, 91, 92, 93
Kumbalconam, 89
Kandiyur, 90 klya-avarohana, 89, 90
Kurukkai, 90
Kanduru, 26 kesa-bandha, 124
Kurum-tira(lu, 2
Kanishka, 148 Khajuraho, 125, 141, 149, 157
Kushan coins, 147, 148
Kanmavara,,,am, 2 khatvanga, 138
Ku(astha-dipilca, 2
Kaplla dance, 100,105 lchatvanga,92, 104,105,128
Klplla Saivas, 29 Kirana-agama, 18
kaplla-mill, 124 KirQl}a-vritti, 42
L
Lakshmi, 100
Klpllika, 90, 104, 105, 149 Kirtimlrtlr)<la-kllapriya, 93
Klpllikam, 90 Kirtimartlq<la, 94 Likula Ptiupatu, 130
Kaplli§a - East, 34 Kodampakkam, 21 Llkula, 33
Kapllru, 98 Kodumbalur, 94 Llkulam, 90
Kapila sanlchyas, 29 Ko-Mlran-caqaiyan, 91 LakulT~ images, 138

Kapila's Slmkhya school, 11 Kramrisch, 137 LakulBa Ptiupata, 90
Karana-agama, l 8, 3l Kri$Q!svaram, 93 LakulTsa sculptures, 90, 141
Kara,:,am,2 Krishnagiri hill, 95 Laukikas,
Karhad, 93 Kri!iluta as a great Ptiupata, Laukika-vldis 12
Karma Mimlmsakas, 13 104 Laya yogi, 56
Karma-Kanda, 80 ~hqa III, 93, 94 linga dharana, 29
Karmanta Saivam, 45 Kri~ Uvaram, 94 linga, IOI, 136, 139, 140
Karmlnta school, 7 Kriya pradhana, 33 Linga-puriina, 88, 97,102, 155
Kanna-siddhlnta, 49 Kriyl Saivam, 77 Lingarccana, 79
Karma-siddhlnta-vimi, 46 Kriyadhi/cara, 18 Lingodbhava, l 02, 113
Kanna-vldis, 12 Kriya-lcrama-dyotilca, 2 Loklyata- Brahaspati, 20
Karmavarana Siddhanta, 29 Kriya-sara, 2 Loklyatas, 7
Kamltalanguage,30 Kriya-Yajftas, 140 Lord Sri Krishna, 103
Original from
ix
M Mlkllam, 89 Melaccheri, 92, 93

Mldhvlclrya, 18 Makutam, 2,32 Melpldi, 93
Madhya Pradesh, 105, 107, Makutagama, 29 Meyjftlna devar santlnam, 26
108,110,114,129,130,131, Malcutottaram, 2 Mey-jifana- vilalclcam, 2
134, 138, 140, 149 Malaiyamln-devar-santlnam Meykanta devar, 5, 26
Madras Museum, 92 26 Meykanta-siva, 32
Mahl Devi, 140 Mlllnga,26, 32 Meykanta-sivlclrylr, 32
Mahl Saivam, 16,77 Malini-vijaya 2 MTmlmsl- Jaimini, 20
maha siilcshma, 56 Malliklrjuna, 94 Mimlmsa karma Slktas, 13
Mahlbhlrata, 104 Mandasor, 105,139 M~ra Saivam, 16
Maha-bhashya, 7 Mangala, I03 Mi§ra, 47
Mahldevasya, Mangalnlth temple., I 03 Mi§ra-vlmi, 46, 50
D~hiqlmOrteh, 96 Manikkavlcakar, 9 mithuna ~lkhi, 128
Mahldevi, 119 Manimekhalai, 20 Molcsha-lcllrilcll, 3 I
Mahlklla, 89, 91, 95, 96, 97, Manmatha- West 34 Mrgendra, 2
98, 121, 146, 147, 149 Manmatha, 98 Mrgendra-agama, 18
Mahlkllattu Pi41ri, 91 Mantra vlmi, 46, 49 Mudumolimelvalppu, 2
MahlkllHvar, 95, 147 mantra, 99, 106, 126, 133 Mughal invasion, 97
Mahlklli, 91 Mantre§vara Saiva, 24 mukha mandapa, 127
Mahllakshmi, 120 Mantrdvaras, SI Mulcti niscayam, 2, 6
Mahl-linga, 30 Mlntrika, 78 Murtyamsa Pata/am, 16
Mahlmahe§vara lclrya, 1 1 Maraijftlna Pandlram 32 Musalendra, 33
Mahamahdvara darsana, I I Marathas, 98 Muttaraiyar, 91
Maharishi Ktiyapa, 65 Mlsillmani de§ika, 5 MOvar Koyil, 94
Maharishi, 103, 104 Matanga, 32
Mahl-saivas, 31 Matangam,2 N
maha-siinya, 60 Matanga-paramesvara 42 Nada-lcarilca, 2
Mahatantra, 11 Mathura, 136, 158 Nadantar, 27
Mahiividya, 80 Mati, 140 Nagappattinam, 89
Mahlvrata Saivas, 53 Mltrikls, 128 Nagna-kshapanakas, 12
Mahiivrata sastra, 53 Matsyendranltha, 24, 100 Nagpur, 105
Mahiivratatantra,29 Matsyendranltha shrine, 100 Naiylyika- Akshaplda, 20
Mahlvratam,47, 77 Mattavillsa prahasana, 90 Nakulesa Ptiupata, 17
Mahl-vratis, 19,89 Mausala, 33 Nakulesa, 18
Mahendra-varman, 90 Mausala school, 34 Nakuli~ Ptiupata, 47
Mahewnurti, 135 Maya ma/a, 61 NakulT~ Ptiupata system, 18
Mahewnorti, 92 Maya tattva, 34 Nlle§var, 141
Mlhdvara yogis, 15 Mlyl vlda, 21,22 Nandi, 95, 104, 121
Mlhdvaram, 90 Mlyl, 140 Nandike§vara school, 27
M~varas, 18 Miiyatattva-pada-Prapti, 34 Nandi-vaktra, I 08
Mahesvari, 140 Mlylvldins, 7 Nandi-varman, 91,92,93
Mahimna-sthavam, 2 Meghanlde§vara-NW34, 98 Nlrlyanakanta, 11, 18, 42

X
N ~ 114, 115, 141, Paftca murta, 24 PlrvatT, 87, 100, 11S, 118,
143,149 palfca Pala, 61 137,148
Nlre§var, 114, 129, 140, 141, Paftca-bhOtas, 117 pasa,93
142,143 Paftca-Brahma-mantras, 96 Plshlna vlda, 22
National Museum, 109, 110 Pallca-dasi, 3 Plshlna Saiva Siddhlnta, 61
NateA., 128 Paftca-krosi-yatra, 1o1 Plshlr)a-Saiva, 58
Navalinga li/ai, 28 Palfcakshara-Pranava- Ptiupata, 66
Nemad, 106 vivelca 77 Ptiupata sutras, 96, 97
Nighanta-vldi, 20 Paftca-mukha-linga, 116, 117 Ptiupata, 66, 88, 97, 13S, 136,
Nilakanta Sivlclrya, 24 Palfcanada-mdnmyam, 3 138,140
Nimitta KArana, Palfca-pr(lfl(ZVa-vivelcam -3 Plsupatam, 47,77
Parinlma vlda, 22 Paftca-ratha, 127 Ptiupata-sutras, 96
Nimilla karana Parinama Plnca-rltra school, 11 Ptiupata-vrata, 97
vadi, 25 Plftcarltra, 13 Ptiupata-vratins, 97
Nirlhlri, 31 Plftcarltrikas, 12 Ptiupata-yoga, 27, 104
Nirainta devanlr santlnam, 27 Palfcartha-Pramana- Pltaftjala (Yoga) school, 11
Nirlmaya devar, 27 ashlaka 33 Patanjala samlchya, 29
Nirlmayadeva, 25 Palfcavar(J(IQ-sthava 3 Patallja/a yogan, IS
Niramaya-devar-(work), 3 PlninTya, 17 Patanjali yoga sOtra, 17
Nirisvara Slmkhya, 22 Para mukti mata, 60 Pataftjali, 26
NirvanQ-saram, 3 Para-Brahman, 80 Pathari, 127,129,130,134,
Nisumbhasudani, 91 Para-kaivalyam, 46, S8 141, 149
Nilvasa-karilca, - 3 Parakhya, 3 Pattinattu Pillai, 32
Nisvasottaram, 3 Parama SiddhanJa, 46 Pratyabhijftl, 17
N i$hkaJa yoga mata, 60 Parama-avesa-paksha, 16 Paushkara-agama, _18
Niyamam, 91 Paramlgamam, 76 Paushkaram, 3
Nylya-vldis, 12 Paramlnanda nlyanlr, Philadelphia Museum, 111,
santlnam, 26 137
p Paramlnandar, 27 PingalHvar Temple, 101
P. Pal, 112, 118 Plram!sam, 66 Pingalesvar, 10 I
pada-prapti, 8 Plramesvara Sl.,tra, 15 p)tha, 112
Padartilca-darsana, 11 Param-jyoti, 8 planet Mars, I 03
Padavali, 126, 127, 128, 129, Para-moksha-nirasa-kari/ca, 3, Ponvannttu-antali, 3
130, 134, 141, 142, 149 15 Prlbhlkaras, 18
Pada-vivelca, 6 Parlnuttara lgama, 76 Prabhudeva, 30
Padmasamhita 66 Parasaram, 3 Pradtpa nirvlna-vldi, 16
padmlsana, 139 Paratantrlvatlram, 76 Prljlpatya, 66
Pallava Rljasirnha, 90 Paratattva rlgam, 76 Pralcatartha-vivara,:,am, 3
Pallava, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 Parinlma-vlda 16, 4 7 Pra/crti Tattva, 81
Paftca Brahmams, 24,95 Paripurtw-siddhi, 3 Pramana-agniya-kartritva, l 5
Panca Krityas, 25 Parivara Bhairavas, 99 Pramatha slkhl, 128
paftca maklras, 98 Pariyalur, 90 Prana Vairlgyan, IS

xi
prlnlylma, 140 rOpa-arOpa, 112 Samlna-tlntrikas, 16

Prasada, 57 Rupasvarupa-ahaval J Samlsana, 140
Prasada pralcarana, 16 Ruru,68 Samatl-samkrlnti-paksha, 16
Prasada vidhl pa,ala, 23 Samavlda Saivas, 58
Prlslda-linga, 30 s Sama-vlda School, 63
PraJada-vilalclcam, 3 S.N.Dasgupta, I 0 Slmaveda, 119
PraJada-vivara~, 3 Sabda Brahma vldi, 22 Samavua, 19, 58
Pratapaditya pal, 112 Sadagama, 66 Sambandar,9
Pratyabhinjnl, 18 Sadalchya tattva,57 Sambandar-tiviiram, 3
Pratyabhijfll School, 18, 114 Sadasad-vldi, 11 Slmkhya, 12, t 7
Pr{l\laha-nityllvaram, 47,67 Sadtiiva. Bhairava, 117 Slmkhya- Kapila, 20
Priyabala sha, I 08 SadaJiva-rupam, 3 Samlcranti Samavada, 58
Piija-sthavam, J Sadyojyoti, 31 Samkshipa-siiriralcam, 3
Puja-sthava-vyalchyiinam, J Sadyojyoti Sivlclrya, I 5 Samsaya-vldis, 12
Pundarilcapura-ma,unya,n, J Sahaja malas, 61 Samuel Eilenberg, 117
PuranlnOru,20 Saha-mlrgam, 29 Samutpatti-sankrlnti-vlda, 16
Puma Prajfla system, 17 sahasragama. 65 Sanakar,26
Piirna-Prajlla darsanam, 18 Saint Appar, 88, 89 Sanandanar,26
Saiva nighantu, 28 Sanandar, 26
R Saiva Pak$ha, 66 Sanatkumlrar, 26
Rljlditya, 93 Saiva Pralcarana, 16 Sanat-kumlra-santlna, 5
Rajagopala Sastri, 84 Saiva Slmkhya, 28 ,29 Sanderson, 6
rakshl-~ti, 145 Saiva sanlchya siddhonta, 60 Slndipani lshram, 103, 104
Rlmlnuja dariana, 18 Saiva Siddhlnta, 7 Slndipani Mahlrishi temple,
RlmlnujTya system, 17 Saiva vlda, 22 95
R1$htrak0ta Kri$1u)a, 93 Saiva Vesha, 79 Sangam age, 20
Rasa-hrdaya, 18 Saiva, 17 Sangam poems, 20
Raslmava, 18 Saiva-nilcantu, J San/ca/pa nirakaranam, 3.22
Rase§vara, 17 Saiva-pari-bhasha, 18 Slnkhya, 140
Rasuvara-siddhanta, 18 Saivas, 87, 94, I02, I07, Sankrlnta vlda, 22
Rasesvara-vldins, 18 133, 138 Sankrlntavldi, 19
Rlshtrakuta, 93 Saiva-Siddhlntam, 47 Sanlcranti Saiva, 65
Ratna-traya, J, 42 Saiva-siddhlnta-mlrga, 90 Sanskrit poet Bhartrihari, 99
Rauarava-agama,J, 8, 15
Raurava siitra, I5
Saiva-vldi, 20
Saivism, 87, 93,102, 119,148,
.
Sanskrit Siva-jllana bodham, 9
Santina lclryas, 28
Raurava vritti vive/cam, J 156, 157 santana parampara, I 0
Rauravottara-agama, J, 8 Siilcara siddhi, 18 Sapta-mltls, 47
Rlvanlnugraha, 125 Salcti Pariniima viida, 25 Saraswati, I 00
Ritam, 140 Salcti-nipata-ahaval, 3 Sarva JIJanottara 28
Rk, 119 Salctyiigamam, 16 Sarva-darsana-sangraha 5
rudralcsha, 123,139 Salilcanatha, 3 Sarvajfla Rlm~§vara -
Rudran,26 Sama vlda, 29 bhattlraka, 18

xii
Sarvajfta, 18 Siddha-tantram, 3 Siva-jMna-bodham, 2,3, 5, 7,21

Sarva-Jifanottara, 3,24,32 Siddhavata, 103 Siva-JMna-siddhiyar3,, 7,2 I
Sarva-maJa-upanyasam, 3 Siddhis, 35 Siva-Jffiina-upadisa, 9
Sarva-siddhlmta-rahasya 3 sikhlm&lli, 124 Siva-jMna-yogi, a
Sarva-siddhanta-sangraha, 3 Sikhl-samkrlnti-vldi Siva-Jftlni, 5
Sarva-siddhanta-vive/ca, (Ptiuptas), 16 Siva-lcih!tra, 95
1,3,115,130, 133, 136, sikhl-yukta, 139 Siva-linga, 30
141, 147 Sikhi Vlhana, 98 Sivlnanda devar santlnam, 26
sastra-~/rsha, 6I Sikhivlhanam-SE 34 Siva-prakaJam, 3
Satabdi Kaumudi, I 05 Singanltha devar santlnam 27 Sivaprapti-pa1ala, 21
Satyajftlna darsi, 8, 28 Sirklli, 88, 156 Siva-puja-sthavam, 3
Satyam, 140 Siva dharmottara 3, 59 Siva-puranam, 3
Saugatas (Buddhist school), 11 Siva Saivam, 77 Sivasldhlkhya prlsldam, 76
Sauml Rljl- North, 34 Siva Sammelanam 77 Sivasamavlda,22
Saumarljl, 99 Siva sariipya, 53 Siva-samanata, 55
Saumya, 87, 121, 126 Siva Surya, 138 Siva-sankrlntam, 47
Saurabheya, 18 Siva siilras, 18 Siva-sayujya, 53
Savitl, 88 Siva Tattva, 81 Siva-tanlra-rahasya, J
Slyana Mldhava, 5 Siva,87,88,89,91,94,95,96, Sivavlkya devar santlnam, 27
shadanga yoga, 65 97, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, Sivayoga mlmuni, 26
Shad-padartha-dipilca, 3 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, Siva-yoga mata, 53
shad-padlrtha-parlyanas, 14 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, sixty four Voginis, 91
Shad-sahasra-lcalottara, 3 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, Skandha purlQa, 98
Shimla museum, 133 134,135,136,137,138,139, Smriti, 88, 140
Siddha-guru, 18 140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 141, Soma siddhanta, 21, 24,89
Siddhlrnrta 76 Siva-aikya-vlda 65 soma, 120, 121
Siddhlnta mlrga, 26 Siva-bhoga-saram, 6 Soman,26
Siddhanta rahasya, 35 Sivad-adhi/cya-vada, 58, 64 Somlnandlnltha, 18
Siddhimta Saiva, 7, 44, 77 Sivld-ldikhya-paksha, 16 Somlsambhu, 18
Siddhlnta vlmi, 49 Siva-dharmam, 3 Soma-siddhonta, 21,89
Siddhimta-bodam 3 Sivldvaitin, 14 Srauta Ptiupata, 67
Siddhanta-cintya-vi.fva- Sivlgamam, 76 Srikanta param!hara, 8
Sadalchya, 3 Siva-gila, 3 Srikanfa-nltha RudramOrti, 23
SiddhiinJa-dipilca, 3 Sivlgrayogi, 18 Sri-KaQta-sOri, 42
Siddhanta-rahasya S, 3 Sivljnl slram, 76,77 Srimakutam, 3
Siddhanta-saiva-yoga, 46, 54 Sivajifana bodba sutra, 32 Sriman mrgendram, J
Siddhanta-samuccayam, 3 Siva-Jifana- bodha Sri-Parvata mountain, 29
Siddhanta-saravali, 3 -sangraham, 3 Sri-Rlma-kal)Ja, l, 42
Siddhinta-vldi, 16 Siva-Jffana-bhashyam, 8 State Museum of Bhopal,
Siddhlnta-vlmi, 46, 51 Siva-jifana-bodha marga , 27 137,139
Siddha-tantra, 3 Sivajffana-bodham in Stella Kramrisch, 106, 124,
Siddha-tantra-agama, 3 Sanskrit, 8 125,132
Original from
xiii
Suddha Saiva, 58 Tlntrika Ptiupata, 29 Thiruve,:,/cattu-manmyam, 4

Suddha Siva jftlna, 26 Tlntrika, 78 Thiruvorriyur, 29
Suddha Siva yoga, 26,47 TapOdhana, 94 three-faced Siva, 91
Suddha vidyo, 57 Tarka-pravldis, 12 Thiila-palfca-Krityam,2 5
Suddha/chya,3 Tarlclca-paribhiisha, 4 Sukshma-Pallca-Krityam, 25
Suddhakhyatantra,31 Tat-plll'Wlha face, 131 tirodhilca-sa/ai, 61
Suddha-san-miirga, 80 Tattva pralcasa, 31 Tirumalai Nayak, 1
Sudhlma, 103 Tattva siuam, 4, 15 Tiruvacakam, 4
Sundara Chola, 93 Tattva Siddhi, 15 Siva samipya, 53
Sundarar,9 Tattva-dipam, 4 Tollcappiyam, 4
Sunga period, 95, 101, 102 Tattvamirtam, 4 Trayi, 119
Suprabhida-agama,46 Tattvamnaya pralcarana, 16 Trimukha, 93, 111,116, 118,
Suprabhedham, 3, 32 Tattvapralcala vritti 126,127, 129, 130,134, 135,
Suresvara-vartllca, 3 of AghOra siva 140,142
SQrya vida, 29 Tattva-pralcasam, 4, 18 Tripura-samhlra, 90
Siita-samhita, 3 Tattvarlya, 25 trishavanam snlyna, 97
Svabhlva-vldis, 12 Tattva-sangraha, 4, 18 Trishniis, 79
Svacchanda Bhairava tantra, Tattva-siddhi, 4 Tri-vaktra,93, 111
120, 121, 122, 146 Tattva-vijnana-pa,ala, 23 Tumain, 107
Svacchanda bhairava, 99 Tattva-vive/cam, 4
Svacchanda Tantra, 11, 114,42 Teviiram, 4 u
Svacchanda-lalita-bhairava- T!vlram saints, 9, 21 Udaylkara 's son, 18
maha-tantra, 23 Thiru malapldi santlnam 27 uddesa sutra. 35
Svaruplnandar santlnam, 26 Thirukkadaiyur, 90 Uijain Mahlklla temple, 97
Svarilplvlpti-paksha, 16 Thirukkoyilur, 90 Uijaini Mahlklla, 89
Svayambhu, 95 Thiruldcural, 28 Uijaini, 89, 95, 96, 99, 101,
Svayambhuva ligama, 59 Thirumllikai-devar-santlnam, 103, 104, 119, 147, 149
Svayambhuvam, 4 27 Umllpati Siva, 22
Sv!tambaras, 18 Thirumllikai devar, 27 Umlpati Sivlclrylr, 32
Svetiua,:,ya manmiyam, 4 Thiru-mantiram, 25 Umll-vaktra, 115, 137
Swastika, 140 Thiru-mantra-malai, 4 Vpadana, 13
Thiru-MOladeva-!ivlclryar, 32 Upamanyu muni, 24
T ThirumOla-devar, 32 Upamanyu.:mahlmuni, 26
T.A.Gopinatha Rao, 91 Thirumular, 26 Upamanyu, 88, 104, 140
Takkolam, 93 Thirup perunturai santlnam, 27 Urdhva Saivam, 16, 77
tlla-dhvaja, 107 Thirup-puhaz, 4 Ordhva-!aivas, 31
Talegaon, 109 Thiruvaca/cam, 9 Utpallclrya, 18
Tamil Siva Jifana Bodham 8 Thiruvadigai, 90 Utpatti Slmya, 19
Tamilnadu, 87, 89, 91, 94, 157 Thiruvalluva-devar- Utpatti-samavada, 67
Tanjavur, 88,91 santlnam, 27 Utpatti-sama-vlda-paksha, 16
tantranushtana siddhi, 35 Thiruvalluva nlyanlr, 24 Utpatti-samkrinti-paksha, 16
Tantravatiua Patalam,23,16 Thiruvalluvar, 24 Uttamanlthar santlnam, 27
Original from
xiv
Uttara-lcamilcam, 4 Yatula agamas, 63 Yfra-tanlram, 4

Yatulagama, 29 VJrattlnams, 90
V Yatula-suddha/chyam, 4 Virkudi, 90
VA Museum, 136 Yatulottaram, 4 Visbva Chander Obri, 11 S
Vlgisamuni, 21 Vlyavfyam, 66 Vdikhlmala-klraka, IS
Vaibhlshikas, 17 Yiiyavlya-pija-paddhati, 4 VisvarOpa, 140
Vaidika-(V&llnta)-Ptiupata, Yayu-pura(l(lffl, 4 YIJva-sarottaram, 4
24,26 V&la-vldi,20 Vi$hqu, 135, 138, 146, 147,
Vaidika Bnhmanas, 88 V&llnta, 80 148, 156
Vaidika-Ptiupatam, 47 Vedlnta Agamic mlrga, 90 V~u-dhannottara-purlna,
Vaimalas, 33, 102 Yediinta a,pilca, 9 108,123,129
Vai~hika-Klnlda, 20 Vedlnta mlrga, 26 Yriddhagiri-mannlyam, 4
Yaisuhilca-mala, 4 Vedanta pralcara,:,am, 4 I Vrishabha, 121
Vai~shikas (also called Shad- Vedlnta, 8 Vylghrapldar, 26
padlrtha-parlyanas), 12 V&llntajfllna, I 5 Vylgrapadar, 26
Vaishnava-vldi, 20 Yedanta-Siddhiinta-
y
Yakya-vritti, 4 Samarasa, 80
Yajur, 119
Valluwr, 90 Vedlnta-vldi, II
Yaldiz, 122
Vlma Bhairava, 99, 141 Vedic Brahmins, 88
Ylmalam,47
Vlma devar santlnam, 27 Vedic Smlrta Brlhmana, 88
Yamunl, 128, 143, 144, 146
Ymna tantra, 28,51, 116, l/8 Velikanta devar santlnam, 27
Ylmuna, 18
Vlma-Bhairavam, 48,89 Velli-ambala-vlnar
Yantra Saiva, 24
Vlmabh!da, 77 Tambirln, I
Yantra-vlmi, 46
Yiima-Dalcshina-Tantra, 23 Venkatanltha, 18
Vlmadeva Ardhanlri, 136 Vidhi-kriyl, 140 Ylntrika, 78
Yoga, 12
Varnadeva, 135, 136, 137, 139, Vidisa, 123, 125, 127, 130,
Yoga jfllna mata, 60
140,148 134, 141, 149
Yoga Saivam, 29
Vamagama, 32 Yidya Tattva, 81
Yoga Saivam, 47, 77
Vlmam,46 Vidyl, 140, 106, 133, 146
Vlmana, 103, 104 Vidyldhara, 128 Yoga Samlchya, 29
Vlma-siddhlnta, SO Vidylrljl- NE, 34
Yoga siimlchya agama, 24
Vlma-siddhlnti, 46 Vidylrljl, 99
Yoga Siddhi, 75
Vama-tantra, 4 Vidy~varas, 122
yoga, 119, 135,139, 140,
Yoglclra, 17
Vanarnlll, 121 Vijayllaya-chola, 91
YOglclrya, 68
Varlha, 66,111,112,122 Yijllana yoga, 62
Yarga-rahasya, 4 Vikarlla- SW, 34 Yogajam, 4
Vlnmam,66 Vikarlla, 98, 99
Yoga-Saiva, 54
Vlsavam, 66 Vikramlditya vetlla, I04 Yoga-saram, 4
Yasuhta-laingam, 4 Vira Mlhbvaras, 31 Yogini Siddhanla, 24
Yoginis, 91, 94
Vuishta, 66 VTra iaivam, 31
Vasudeva, 148 Vtra-sthlnas, 90

ERRATA
Page Para Line For Read Page Para Line For Read
3 70 Ni~vAtia Nirvlna 122 I Thus this
3 134 vlrtik vlrtikl 122 2 2 KshemarAjA K$h!marAjA
4 156 Tollklppiyam Tolklppiyam 123 1 7 from (delete)
7 2 I sugges suggest 123 2 11 row a row
15 3 They They hold 124 3 5 deseres deserves
17 1 8 Makuta Makuta 125 2 14 the (delete)
19 5 3 ) (delete) 126 I 10 crown crown of
21 5 6 and (para-palcJcam) (para-paksham) and 130 3 7 three Four
25 5 2 upo Upto 133 3 6 prescribed prescribed in
31 2 2 addhrent's adherent's 134 4 6 evident evident from
31 4 11 breadth Breath 138 5 Khatvanga Kha,vanga
33 7 1 shows shows that 138 5 left of left ofUma
36 8 Kinlllavtith KinuJavtitti 138 9 D!vAdihdRva DevAdhideva
37 29 Paribhasha Paribh~ha 138 1 9 khAtvlnga khatylnga
37 29 Sivgra Sivlgra 139 2 13 ~rikaqta Srikar)ta
37 30 Kulamava Kulimava 141 11 lord lord of
37 30 Sri Sir 142 l a (delete)
37 37 Sathram Slttiram 142 5 7 at on
37 38 MeykarJta Meykal)ta slttiram 144 3 3 goddess goddesses
51 2 2 sppears appears 144 3 4 levels levels of
53 3 4 school school of 145 2 like (delete)
70 2 7 (dhu/canta) (duhkanla); 145 2 3 fort, the fort. The
88 2 4 a (delete) 145 2 17 Surwaya Survaya
93 1 4 kltvlnga katylnga 145 18 Surwaya Survaya
93 2 11 Kllapriyl Kllapriya Fig For Read
93 2 18 Pa~vur Paduvilr l Parvat PlrvatT
95 1 2 KlllmOkha Klllmukha 9 Kshipra K$hiprl
100 2 8 Ghorah$hanath Gorak$hanlth 29 Saptl mltls Saptamltls
101 2 8 has (delete) 52 Umlvaktia Umlvaktra
103 2 2 Siddhlvata Siddhavata 52 gyaraspur Gyaraspur
103 4 5 installed installed here 52 BhOtta-tantra BhQta - tantra
104 2 3 surprising surprising that 59 Durga Linga
105 2 7 Yet This is yet 71 Nrrithi Nrriti
105 2 8 points Pointing 91 Khatuanga KhaJvAnga
108 4 12 shows It shows 94 Dedicated the Dedicated to the
108 5 I CatunnOkha Caturmukha 107 Duster cluster
111 6 2 mOkhalinga mukhalinga 112 Mahishl-sura Mahi$hlsura
117 2 6 Vi$hl)U Vishnu is 113 survaya Survaya
117 2 13 linga's lin as

R Nagaswamy - Art and Religion of The Bhairavas - Illumined by Two Rare Sanskrit Texts Sarva-siddhānta-Vivēka and Jñāna-siddhi-Tamil Arts Academy

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R Nagaswamy - Art and Religion of The Bhairavas - Illumined by Two Rare Sanskrit Texts Sarva-siddhānta-Vivēka and Jñāna-siddhi-Tamil Arts Academy

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Art and Religion of the Bhairavas

illumined by Two Rare Sanskrit Texts

Tamil Arts Academy

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Art and Religion of ~be Bbairavas

C With the Author

Price Rs. 2800/-

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The Jfiiina-siddhi is an unknown Sakta-tantra while the other text

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It is seen that Madhya Pradesh (Central India) and other regions

I express my profound heartfelt thanks, to Dr. Bettina Baumer, who

I am greatly indebted to Sri. C.V.N. Ravi, the Proprietor of Jai Ganesh

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4. The Art of the Bhairavas 87

6. Sanskrit Text- Sarva-siddhanta-viveka S1

7. Sanskrit Text - Jnana-siddhi S 69

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Two Sanskrit texts, Sarva-siddhiinta-viveka and Jniina-siddhi, both of great

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1. Acintya-visvq-sadakhya- 34. Jnana-ratnavali 1134

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68. Navalinga-lilai T 181 103. Sarva-jnanottaram 218

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135. Suta-samhita 170 154. Tolakappiyam T 715

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VeHi-ambala-vaI_tar who is mentioned as "Siva-Jiiani" and also "Rajata-

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The Jnanavara,:,a had a bha~ya in Sanskrit from which VelJi-ambala-viQar

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The benedictory verse of the Maha-bha,>t),a seems to sugges that

This work is an exposition of Siva-jnana-bodham and its great exposition Siva-

It is however a matter of satisfaction that the extensive citations especially of

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Date of Tamil Siva-Jillna-bodbam

In the history of Tamil Saivam, the text Sivajiiana-bodham by Meyk~!a deva

We have seen that VeHi-ambala-viQ.ar is catagoric in stating that the Tamil

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a commentary, Vedanta dipika, published in 1922 at Kumbakonam which says at the

The entire text of Sqrva-siddhiinta-viveka is based on this Siva-jnana- bodham

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This also gives a negation to the populist movement that Sanskrit is a

Monumental temples dedicated to Siva were built and sculptures portrayed in

Different schools of Philosophies: Summarizing Tradition

The tradition of summarizing different systems of philosophy either for study or

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Agamic tradition: M.Jigendra lgama

The Great Kashmiri scholar NArayw,akanJa (10th cent) has an elaborate

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K~hemaraja gives the following details on these schools.

(prk(iti puru?lay6r aviveka miitriit samsiirah; vivekiit tu muktih ).

cittaikagryiitma-yoga iivesa sampriipya- dri?lfa svarupiivasthiti muktih

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(~imsati tattva - rupa mahavibhutyotmaka - Vasudevakhya -paraprak:riti

(Prithvyadayah svabh.ivma tanu-karalJ(J-bhuvana-kiiryam pravartante. Na punah

( karmaiva visvakiira!J(Im. na anyat iti acak~vanah)

Samsaya-vAdis are those who express doubts about all tenets.

Nagna-kshapanakas Are the Jains who argue as "asti nastl''

Hetu-drifh!lnta-vldi : Buddhist (Saugatas)

Dhorta-vlda lokaih : The texts expounded by Dhiirtas like Mlecchas (dhurta-

The Paramesvara Sastra crosses these boundaries and so is called 'Atiinarga';

The Maku~gama provides the following list ofSaivas in order.