Sociology Research Methodology

1
vuqla/kku fof/k
¼Research Methodology½
ch- ,-&II
nwjLFk f’k{kk funs’kky;

egf”kZ n;kuUn fo’ofo|ky;
jksgrd&124 001
2
Copyright © 2003, Maharshi Dayanand University, ROHTAK

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Maharshi Dayanand University

ROHTAK – 124 001
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3
fo"k; lwph
v/;k; 1 lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ewyHkwr vo/kkj.kk,¡

Basic Concepts of Social Research 5
v/;k; 2 lkekftd ?kVukvksa dk oSKkfud v/;;u

Scientific Study of Social Phenomena 27
v/;k; 3 'kks/k fof/k rFkk vkadM+s ,df=kr djus dh rduhdh

Methods of Research and Techniques of Data Collection 53
v/;k; 4 lzksr] oxhZdj.k rFkk vk¡dM+ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k

Sources, Classification and Presentation of Data 87
v/;k; 5 lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k

Statistical Methods in Social Research 109
4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Max. Marks : 100

Time : 3 Hours
Unit – I
Basic Concepts in Social Research: Meaning, Scope and Significance of Social Research; Concept, Hypothesis,
Fact and Theory.
Unit – II
Scientific Study of Social Phenomena: Nature and Characteristics of Scientific Method; Objectivity and Subjectivity
in Social Research; Empiricism in Sociology; Social Survey, Social Research and its Steps; Research Design.
Unit – III
Methods of Research and Techniques of Data Collection: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods; Comparative Method,
Observation, Case Study and Content Analysis; Techniques of Data Collection; Sampling, Questionnaire, Schedule
and Interview.
Unit – IV
Sources, Classification and presentation of Data: Primary and Secondary Sources of Data; Classification; Coding,
Tabulation, Graphical Representation, Histograph, Polygon, Pie-chart.
Unit – V
Statistical Methods in Social Research: Significance of Statistics in Social Research; Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean, Mode and Median; Measures of Dispersion: Range, Mean Deviation, Standard Deviation.
lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ewyHkwr vo/kkj.kk,¡ 5
v/;k;&1
lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ewyHkwr vo/kkj.kk,¡
(Basic Concepts of Social Research)
lkekftd vuqla/kku dk vFkZ

(Meaning of Social Research)
lkekftd vuqla/kku (Social Research) dk lekt'kkL=k esa ,d fo'ks"k egÙo gSA lekt esa ?kVus okyh fØ;kvksa ds
O;ofLFkr v/;;u ds fy, lkekftd vuqla/kku dh fof/k dks ysdj dbZ er O;Dr fd, x, gSaA dqN lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us ;g
eglwl fd;k fd lekt'kkL=k esa lkekftd vuqla/kku dks fof/kor LFkkfir djus ds fy, foKku esa viuk;s x;h fof/k dk
iz;ksx dkQh mi;ksxh gks ldrk gSA og nwljh vksj lekt'kkL=k ds dqN ,sls Hkh fopkjd Fks] ftUgksaus bl er dk [kaMu
djrs gq, ;g crk;k fd lkekftd 'kks/k dh fof/k foKku ls fHkUu gksuh pkfg,A ftu yksxksa us foKku ds fof/k dks mÙke
ekudj lkekftd vuqla/kku ij tksj fn;k muesa Ýkal ds lekt'kkL=kh vxLr dkEV] bekby nw£[ke ds uke eq[; :i ls
fy;s tkrs gSaA
lkekftd vuqla/kku dh izÑfr
(Nature of Social Research)
lkekftd vuql/a kku ds izÑfr dh O;k[;k djrs gq, vxLr dkEV ¼1798&1857½ dk fopkj Fkk fd ftl izdkj izÑfr foKku
esa rF;ksa dk fo'ys"k.k oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gS mlh izdkj lkekftd fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u Hkh lekt'kkL=k
esa oSKkfud fof/k dks viukdj lkekftd 'kks/k djuk laHko gSA dkEV ds vuqlkj lkekftd vuqla/kku ds fuEu pkj fofèk
dk vuqlj.k djuk vko';d gS&
a. fujh{k.k (Observation)
b. iz;ksx (Experiment)
c. rqyukRed fof/k (Comparative Method)
d. ,sfrgkfld fof/k (Historical Method)
fujh{k.k (Observation): fujh{k.k dk lh/kk laca/k lkekftd fØ;kvksa ds voyksdu ls gSA bl fof/k dk iz;ksx
gekjs KkusfUæ;ksa ds bLrseky ls tqM+k gSA ?kVukvksa dks ge vius vk¡[kksa ls ns[kdj ml ?kVuk] fØ;k rFkk izfØ;k
ds ckjs esa vuqeku yxkrs gSaA ftu rF;ksa dk voyksdu ug fd;k tk lds mls foKku dh dlkSVh ij fo'oluh;
ug ekuk tk ldrk gSA blfy, fujh{k.k dks lkekftd vuqla/kku dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ vax ekuk tkrk gSA
iz;ksx (Experiment): iz;ksx fof/k dk bLrseky ;|fi foKku esa fo'ks"kdj inkFkZ foKku] jlk;u foKku rFkk
tho foKku esa iz;ksx'kkyk esa fu;af=kr okrkoj.k esa fd;k tkrk gSA lekt'kkL=k esa foKku ds Lrj dk iz;ksx laHko
ug gks ldrkA blfy, ;g dgk tkrk gS fd lekt foKku esa iz;ksx djuk rFkk izÑfr foKku esa iz;ksx fd;k
tkuk vyx fLFkfr dks n'kkZrs gSaA lekt'kkL=k esa iz;ksx ls rkRi;Z dkjd rÙoksa ds fu;a=k.k ls gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,
,d xk¡o esa ifjokj fu;kstu dh lQyrk ds fy, ml xk¡o dks ifjokj fu;kstu ij vk/kkfjr fQYe o mlls
lacafèkr tkudkjh nh tk, vkSj nwljs xk¡o dks blls oafpr j[kk tk;s rks ;g ,d izdkj ds fu;a=k.k dh izfØ;k
ekuh tk;sxhA
6 vuql/a kku fof/k
rqyukRed fof/k (Comparative Method): rqyukRed fof/k dk bLrseky vDlj foKku esa ekuo lekt vkSj
izk.kh txr ds chp rqyuk ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA lekt'kkL=k esa rqyukRed fof/k dk iz;ksx ijaijkxr lekt
vkSj vk/kqfud lekt ftls xzkeh.k rFkk 'kgjh lekt dgk tkrk gS & ds fy, fd;k x;kA ,d gh lekt dh rqyuk
nks fofHké le; rFkk dky ds lanHkZ esa Hkh dh tk ldrh gSA bfrgkl ds lanHkZ esa gh ,d lekt dk v/;;u nks
fofHké le; dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k tkrk gSA eqxy dky rFkk fczfV'k dky ds le; lekt ds Lo:i esa dkQh
varj ik;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj lekt'kkL=k esa Hkh rqyukRed fof/k dk iz;ksx dj egÙoiw.kZ fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs
gSaA
,sfrgkfld fof/k (Historical Method): ,sfrgkfld fof/k ls dkEV dk rkRi;Z lekt'kkL=k esa fl)kUr
izfrikfnr djus ls FkkA ekuoh; fopkjksa esa tks cnyko vkrs gSa ml cnyko dk v/;;u lekt dks vk/kkj ekudj
fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;|fi dkEV us bl fof/k dk iz;ksx lhfer Lrj ij fd;k Fkk ijarq lkekftd vuqla/kku ds
fy, bldk o‘gr Lrj ij iz;ksx dj egÙoiw.kZ midYiuk,a cuk;s tk ldrs gSaA
lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ijaijk o vo/kkj.kk,a
(Traditions & Concepts of Social Research)
vxLr dkEV ds }kjk fn;s x;s fopkj ls ;g Li"V gS fd mudk er lekt'kkL=k esa oSKkfud fof/k dks viukus ls FkkA
lekt'kkL=k esa vuqla/kku dh tks nwljh ijaijk gS mlls ftu lekt'kkfL=k;ksa ds fopkjksa dks tksM+dj ns[kk tkrk gS mlesa
fo'ks"kdj teZuh ds lekt'kkL=kh eSDl oscj ¼1864&1920½ dk uke fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gSA eSDl oscj dk ;g ekuuk
Fkk fd lkekftd fØ;k dk fo'ys"k.k O;fDr fo'ks"k ds lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k rFkk lekthdj.k dh izfØ;k esa fd;k tkuk
pkfg,A mUgksaus vuqHko ij vk/kkfjr Kku ftldk ,d vewÙkZ Lo:i gksrk gS mlds fy, ,d fo'ks"k izdkj ds v/;;u fofèk
dks viukus dh is'kd'k dhA /kk£ed fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u yksxksa ds fo'okl o vkLFkk ls tqMs+ fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u oLrqfu"B
(objective) rjhds ls djuk laHko ug gSA ;s euq"; ds vkRefu"B (subjective) lksp ls tqM+s gSa blfy, eSDl oscj dk er
Fkk fd euq"; us lkekftd O;ogkj ds v/;;u esa mUg rjhdksa dk bLrseky v{kjl% mlh :i esa ug gks ldrk ftl :i
esa izÑfr foKku vius v/;;u fof/k dk iz;ksx dj ldrs gSAa lkekftd vuql/a kku ds {ks=k esa bu nks ijaijkvksa ls tqMs+ vè;;u
fof/k dk fo'ks"k egÙo gS vkSj bl izdkj ds lksp us vuqla/kku fof/k ls tqM+s mlds oSKkfud lanHkZ dks lhfer ug fd;k
gSA cfYd blds foifjr vuqla/kku fof/k ds oSKkfud i{k dks T;knk izklafxd Hkh cuk;k gSA
lkekftd vuqla/kku dh mi;qZDr ijaijk dks /;ku esa j[kdj fuEu iwoZ voLFkkvksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gSa&
1- lkekftd ?kVuk dk ,d Øec) Lo:i gksrk gSA
2- vKkuh gksus ls Kkuh gksuk csgrj gSA
3- 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk cká txr ds lkFk laidZ vko';d gSA
4- HkkSfrd txr ;k lkekftd txr ds lanHkZ esa lkekftd 'kks/k ds fy, dk;Z&dkjd laca/k LFkkfir fd;k tkuk
vko';d gSA
5- 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds dqN mís'; gksrs gSa&
(i) 'kks/kdÙkkZ 'kks/k ds vk/kkj ij ekuoh; fLFkfr dks lq/kkjus dk mik; crkrk gSA
(ii) 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius 'kks/k laca/kh fujh{k.k dks ?kVuk Øe ls tksM+dj dqN fl)kUr cukus dk iz;kl dj ldrk
gSA
(iii) lekt] 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds 'kks/k&dk;Z dks izksRlkfgr djrk gSA
fdlh Hkh 'kks/k dk ,d [kkl mís'; gksrk gSA 'kks/k ds mís'; lS)kfUrd gks ldrs gSa ;k fQj O;ogkfjdA 'kks/kdÙkkZ bu nksuksa
ds chp ,d laca/k LFkkfir djus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, fiNys fnuksa ekpZ] 2003 esa gkaxdkax esa 'okl dh
fcekjh ls tqM+s ,d okbjl dk irk pyk ftls lklZ (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA
bl fcekjh esa fueksfu;k ds y{k.k ik;s tkrs gSa vkSj blds dkjxj bykt ug gksus ds dkj.k phu esa lSdM+ksa yksxksa dh tku
pyh x;hA bl tkuysok fcekjh ds fu;a=k.k ds fy, rFkk bl fcekjh ls xzflr yksxksa ds mipkj ds fy, tks vuql/a kku fd;k
tkuk pkfg, mlds egÙo dks vkt lHkh yksx igpkurs gSaA
lkekftd vuqla/kku esa rF;ksa dk fof/kor p;u fd;k tkrk gSA rF;ksa dk fof/kor p;u euq"; dks ,d bdkbZ ekudj fd;k
tk ldrk gS ;k fQj mlds lkekftd lanHkZ dks /;ku esa j[kdj mlds lkewfgd thou ls tqMs+ O;ogkj dks /;ku esa j[kdj
fd;k tk ldrk gSA la{ksi esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lkekftd vuql/a kku ,d oSKkfud i)fr ls [kkst djus dh izfØ;k
gSA oSKkfud i)fr ds }kjk ftl rduhfd dk iz;ksx lkekftd 'kks/k ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS mlds fuEu mís';ksa dh ppkZ
djrs gq, ih0oh0 ;ax us dgk gS&
1- lkekftd vuqla/kku dk mís'; u;s rF;ksa dh [kkst ;k iqjkus rF;ksa dk ijh{k.k gSA
2- rF;ksa dk Øec) fo'ys"k.k rFkk blds chp ds lac/a k dks fdlh fl)kUr }kjk izfrikfnr ewY;ksa ds vuq:i Hkh fd;k
tk ldrk gSA
3- blds varxZr u;s oSKkfud rduhfd] vo/kkj.kk rFkk fl)kUr dk fodkl Hkh 'kkfey gS tks ekuo O;ogkj ds
fo'oluh; v/;;u ij cy nsrs gSaA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lkekftd vuqla/kku dk eq[; mís'; ekuoh; O;ogkj dks le>uk rFkk ml O;ogkj
ls lacaf/kr rF;ksa dh tkudkjh izkIr djuk gSA bl izdkj ls v£tr Kku dk p;u ,d izekf.kd] O;ofLFkr fof/k dks
viukdj fd;k tkrk gS rkfd leL;kvksa o ?kVukvksa ds mij fd;s x;s [kkst ds }kjk mu leL;kvksa dks fu;af=kr djus
ds mik; Hkh lksps tk ldsaA blds 'kCnksa esa lkekftd vuqla/kku rF;ksa dks [kkstus dk ,d Øec) rFkk O;ofLFkr rjhdk
gS ftlesa fuEu ckrksa ij fo'ks"k /;ku fn;k tkrk gSa&
1- rF;ksa dk p;u (Selection of Facts)
2- fof/kor rjhds ls u;s rF;ksa dh [kkst (Discovery of New Facts)
3- rF;ksa dk fo'ys"k.k (Analysis of Facts)
4- lkekftd thou ds v/;;u ls tqM+s vo/kkj.kkvksa rFkk fl)kUrksa dk fuekZ.k (Formulation of Concepts &
Theories)
5- Kku ds nk;js dks foLr‘r djuk] fuf'pr djuk rFkk mudk eqY;kadu bl izdkj djuk fd fl)kUrksa rFkk rF;ksa
dks vkSj Hkh iq"V fd;k tk ldsA (Extend, correct or verify knowledge)
bl izdkj ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk izkFkfed mís'; ekuoh; thou ls lacaf/kr mlds O;ogkj dks izHkkfor djus okys rÙoksa dh
[kkst djuk gSA bu rÙoksa dh [kkst djus ds laca/k esa mlds O;fDrxr ;k lkekftd lanHkZ dks /;ku esa j[kdj mlds
lkekftd thou dks izHkkfor djus okys rÙoksa dh [kkst Hkh lfEefyr gksrh gSA mu rÙoksa dh igpku gks tkus ds ckn
'kksèkdÙkkZ dkjd rÙoksa dks fu;af=kr djus ds mik; o rjhdksa ds ckjs esa lksp ldrk gSA la{ksi esa ih0oh0 ;ax ds 'kCnksa esa
lkekftd vuql/a kku o 'kks/k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lkekftd vuql/a kku ,d [kkst djus] fo'ys"k.k
djus rFkk lkekftd thou ls tqMh+ vo/kkj.kkvksa dks fodflr djus dh ,d fof/k gS tks mls Kku dks c<+kus] fuf'pr djus
;k mlds ijh{k.k esa lgk;d gksrh gS ftlds vk/kkj ij fl)kUrksa dk izfriknu Hkh laHko gks tkrk gSA
vr% lkekftd vuqla/kku ds }kjk ftu fØ;kvksa dh igpku ge ug dj ldrs] mldh igpku laHko gks tkrh gS ftlds
}kjk fdlh Hkh iwoZ /kkj.kkvksa rFkk ijaijkxr voSKkfud lksp dks oSKkfud lksp ls tksM+dj Hkzked fopkjksa dk [kaMu fd;k
tk ldrk gSA ,d le; Fkk tc pspd] gStk] fueksfu;k tSls fcekjh dks yksx nSoh izdksi ekuk djrs Fks vkSj ,slh fcekjh
ds f'kdkj yksxksa ds fj'rsnkj iwtk ikB rFkk nSoh izdksi ls cpus ds mik; ds fy, dqN /kk£ed vuq"Bku Hkh fd;k djrs
Fks ijarq foKku dh rjDdh vkSj 'kks/k us bl /kkj.kk dks cnyk vkSj vkt dksbZ Hkh O;fDr bu fcekfj;ksa dks nSoh izdksi ls
tksM+dj ug ns[krkA
8 vuql/a kku fof/k
lkekftd 'kks/k ds mi;qZä mís';ksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k ds fuEu nks mís'; egÙoiw.kZ gSa&
1- ekSfyd 'kks/k (Pure Research): ekSfyd 'kks/k o vuqla/kku dk eq[; mís'; 'kS{kf.kd gksrk gS ftlds vk/kkj ij
'kks/kdÙkkZ ds [kkst ls tks tkudkjh feyrh gS mlds }kjk u;h vo/kkj.kk,a ;k fl)kUr cuk;s tkrs gSaA
mnkgj.kLo:i ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lanHkZ lewg (Reference Group) ds vo/kkj.kk ds vk/kkj ij Hkkjrh;
lekt'kkL=kh ,e0 ,u0 Jhfuokl dk laLd‘frdj.k rFkk if'pedj.k (Sanskritisation and Westernisation) bl
izdkj ds 'kks/k dk ,d mRÑ"V mnkgj.k gSA
2- O;kogkfjd 'kks/k (Applied Research): O;ogkfjd 'kks/k dk mís'; rkRdkfyd leL;kvksa dk fuokj.k djuk
gksrk gSA bl izdkj 'kks/k o losZ{k.k (Research and Survey) ds }kjk fdlh fcekjh o vkdfLed ?kVuk dks
le>uk gks rks ,slh ifjfLFkfr esa Hkh vuqla/kku dkQh lgk;d fl) gksrk gS ftlds }kjk ?kVukØe dk rkRdkfyd
lek/kku <wa<+us dh dksf'k'k dh tkrh gSA fiNys fnuksa ns'k ds dqN jkT;ksa esa Hkh lklZ ds ejht gksus dh laHkkouk
dks /;ku esa j[kdj dqN rkRdkfyd mik; fd, x,A mlh izdkj xans ikuh ls gksus okyh fcekjh dks nwj djus dk
mik; Hkh xehZ ds fnuksa esa fo'ks"kdj mu izkarksa esa 'kks/k dj fd;k tkrk gS tgk¡ lq[ks ls tku&eky dh {kfr vf/
kd gksus dh laHkkouk gksrh gSA bl izdkj ds 'kks/k dk mís'; O;ogkfjd gksrk gS vkSj rkRdkfyd leL;kvksa ds funku
esa bl izdkj ds 'kks/k dkQh ykHknk;d lkfcr gksrs gSaA
lkekftd vuqla/kku dk fo"k; {ks=k
(Scope of Social Research)
lkekftd vuql/a kku ds v/;;u {ks=k dh ckr dks ysdj lk/kkj.kr;k ;g loky mBk;k tkrk gS fd lkekftd vuql/a kkudÙkkZ
fdrus rF;ksa dh tkudkjh 'kks/k }kjk djrs gSa\ fdu vo/kkj.kkvksa vkSj vuqekuksa ij os vius 'kks/k dk vk/kkj cukrs gSa\ 'kksèk
dk iz;kstu D;k gksrk gS\ D;ksa 'kks/k fd;s tkrs gSa\ D;k 'kks/k ds fcuk rF;ksa dh tkudkjh laHko gS\ vxj bu lokyksa dks
/;ku esa j[kdj ppkZ dh tk;s rks laHkor% 'kks/k dk {ks=k bruk O;kid gks tk;s fd mldk o.kZu djuk FkksM+k dfBu izrhr
gksA blfy, 'kks/k ls lacaf/kr blds fo"k; {ks=k dk o.kZu dqN ekSfyd ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj gh fd;k tkuk T;knk mfpr
gksxkA
1- tSlk fd vkius v/;k; ds 'kq: esa i<+k gksxk dh 'kks/k dk mís'; u;s rF;ksa dh [kkst djuk gSA Ýkal ds egÙoiw.kZ
lekt'kkL=kh b0 nq£[ke us vkRegR;k dk v/;;u djrs gq, bls ,d euksoSKkfud rF; ekuus ls bUdkj fd;kA
mudk dguk Fkk fd vkRegR;k ,d lekt dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa ls tqMs+ gksus ds dkj.k ,d lkekftd fØ;k gS ftldk
v/;;u lkekftd lanHkZ dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k tkuk pkfg,A bl izdkj ds n‘f"Vdks.k dks viukdj vkRegR;k
djus okys yksxksa ds lekt ls muds lac/a k dks le>us esa dkQh enn feyhA mUgksu a s vius 'kks/k ds vk/kkj ij ik;k
fd tks O;fDr lekt ds ekunaMksa ds vuq:i vius vki dks ug fu:fir dj ikrk gS mlesa vyxkookn fd /kkj.kk
?kj dj tkrh gS vkSj ,sls O;fDr esa vkRegR;k djus ds y{k.k dkQh izcy gksrs gSaA blfy, vfookfgr O;fDr]
/keZ esa vkLFkk ug j[kus okys O;fDr esa vkRegR;k djus dh izo‘fÙk T;knk izcy gksrh gSA blh izdkj ds v/;;u
tktZ gcZV ehM] pkYZl dqys rFkk jkcVZ ds eVZu us Hkh fd;sA
2- ,d nwljk egÙoiw.kZ {ks=k ftlls lkekftd 'kks/k vuk;kl gh tqM+ tkrk gS og gS u;h [kkst ds }kjk u;s rjhdksa
ls 'kks/k djukA 'kks/k ds rjhdksa esa Hkh cnyko ykdj 'kks/k ds fy, u;h lkexzh bdëh dh tkrs gSaA bl izdkj ds
'kks/k esa b0 MCyw cxsZl us vius v/;;u ds nkSjku fookfgr ;qxy dSls lkekftd Lrj ij laca/k dks lQy :i
ls dk;e djrs gSaA fdu fookfgr ;qXkyksa dks dfBukbZ vkrh gS vkSj D;ksa blds ckjs esa mUgksaus igys ls gh iwokZuqeku
yxkus dh lQyrkiw.kZ ps"Vk dh FkhA
,d nwljs lkekftd 'kks/k ds v/;;u esa MCyw0 vkb0 Fkksel us O;fDrRo ds v/;;u ds nkSjku u;s rduhfd ds
bLrseky ds }kjk bldk v/;;u dSls fd;k tkrk gS] bl ij ppkZ dh FkhA blds lkFk gh mUgksaus ¶ykfj;k
ftufu;sdh ds lkFk ;wjksi vkSj vesfjdk ds ikSys.Moklh Ñ"kd ds mij 'kks/k fd;kA bl iqLrd esa igyh ckj
iqLrdkyh; 'kks/k vkSj vewrZ fl)kUr ds nk;js ls ckgj fudydj ,d lS)kfUrd <k¡ps dk iz;ksx djrs gq,
vkuqHkfod fo'o esa inkiZ.k fd;kA vkB o"kZ rd {ks=k dk;Z dk ifj.kke ;g gqvk fd ;g 'kks/k eq[;r% ikSys.Moklh
izokfl;ksa ds Åij lkekftd fo?kVu dk ,d u;k v/;;u ekuk x;kA i)fr foKku dh n‘f"V ls bl [kkst us
vkuqHkfod vuqla/kku dh ,d u;h fo|k dh vk/kkjf'kyk j[kh gSA igyh ckj bl izdkj ds 'kks/k&dk;Z esa O;fDrxr
nLrkostksa vkSj thou bfrgkl dk iz;ksx dj blds egÙo dks mtkxj fd;k x;kA
3- ,d rhljk 'kks/k dk v/;;u {ks=k og gksrk gS tgk¡ iwoZ fu/kkZfjr fl)kUr dk ijh{k.k ;k fQj mls pqukSrh nh tkrh
gSA vkSj bl izdkj ds v/;;u {ks=k dk egÙo bl ckr ls yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd bl izdkj ds 'kks/k ds }kjk
Hkh u;s rF;ksa dh igpku dh tkrh gS ftlds 'kks/k ds }kjk gh vo/kkj.kkvksa rFkk fl)kUrksa dks iq"V djus esa enn
feyrh gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, ekxZjsV ehM ds }kjk fd;s x;s v/;;u dk gokyk fn;k tk ldrk gSA ekxZjsV ehM
us Hkh LVSuyh gky ds fl)kUr ftlesa ;g dgk x;k Fkk fd fd'kksjkoLFkk ls xqtjus okys ;qok ds O;fDrRo fodkl
esa ^,d vk¡/kh vkSj ruko tSlk O;ogkj* LokHkkfod :i ls vko';d fLFkfr gS& vkSj bls muds tSodh; O;ogkj
ds egÙoiw.kZ y{k.k ds :i esa ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A ehM us leksvk fd'kksj yM+fd;ksa ds v/;;u esa ;g ik;k fd
;s vkfnoklh thou ds lnL;ksa esa ,d vfr lkekU; izfØ;k gS ftlesa muds O;fDrRo fodkl ds nkSjku ,slk dksbZ
Hkh vk¡/kh vkSj ruko dk {k.k ug vkrkA blfy, ehM us bls laLÑfr ls tqM+h izfØ;k crk;h vkSj vius 'kks/k ds
vk/kkj ij ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyk fd ;qokvksa o fd'kksajksa dks if'peh laLÑfr dh rjg ,d vyx lewg dk lnL;
ug ekuk tkrk gS cfYd mUgsa iwjs lekt dh izfØ;k ls tqM+k ekuk tkrk gS tgk¡ muds O;fDrRo dk fodkl
lkaLÑfrd ekU;rkvksa ds vuq:i gksrk gS vkSj laHkor% ;gh dkj.k gS fd fd'kksjkoLFkk ls xqtjrs gq, muds thou
esa dksbZ ruko dk {k.k ug vkrk gSA
ekxZjVs ehM ds bl v/;;u ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd 'kks/k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ v/;;u {ks=k iqjkus 'kks/k dh lR;rk
dh tk¡p djuk gSA bl izdkj fdlh LFkkfir o izekf.kd fl)kUr dks u;s 'kks/k ds vk/kkj ij xyr Hkh Bgjk;k
tk ldrk gSA iqjkus rF;ksa ds laca/k ds vk/kkj ij gekjs Kku vlR; ;k viw.kZ ;k fQj xyr gks ldrs gSa ftls
u;s rF;ksa ds jks'kuh esa lR; ;k iw.kZ ekuus dh laHkkouk 'kks/k ds vk/kkj ij gh laHko gks ikrh gSA
4- lkekftd 'kks/k ds v/;;u {ks=k dh fo'ks"krk bl ckr ij Hkh fuHkZj djrh gS fd mlds fdlh oSKkfud fl)kUr
dks /;ku esa j[kdj rF;ksa dk fo'ys"k.k fd;k tk ldsA dHkh&dHkh rF;ksa ds fo'ys"k.k ds fy, u;s v/;;u dh
Hkh t:jr iM+ ldrh gS vkSj 'kks/k ds v/;;u {ks=k esa bl izdkj ds v/;;u djus dh laHkkouk cu tkrh gS ftlds
QyLo:i u;s v/;;u fof/k dh Hkh [kkst gks tkrh gSA
lkFk gh lkekftd 'kks/k ds v/;;u {ks=k esa gh lkekftd leL;kvksa dh izÑfr ,oa dkj.kksa dh [kkst djuk Hkh 'kksèk
ds v/;;u {ks=k ds varxZr gh vkrk gSA lkekftd leL;k,¡ Hkh lkekftd thou dk ,d vfHkUu vax gSA dksbZ Hkh
lkekU; lekt lkekftd leL;kvksa ls ijs ug gSA vr% lkekftd thou rFkk vUr£ufgr izfØ;kvksa o fu;eksa
ds lEcU/k esa gekjk Kku rc rd iw.kZ ug gks ldrk] tc rd lkekftd leL;kvksa ds dk;Z&dkj.k lEcU/kksa dk
Hkh irk u yxk fy;k tk,A blfy, lkekftd 'kks/k lkekftd leL;kvksa dks Hkh vius v/;;u&{ks=k ds vUrxZr
lfEefyr djrk gSA ij bl lEcU/k esa ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k lkekftd leL;kvksa dks vius
vè;;u&{ks=k ds vUrxZr bl mís'; ls lfEefyr ug djrk gS fd muds mipkjksa ;k lq/kkj ds fy, og mik;ksa
dks lq>k,xk vFkok lkekftd leL;kvksa dks gy djus dh O;kogkfjd ;kstuk izLrqr djsxkA mldk y{; rks dsoy
lkekftd leL;kvksa ds dk;Z&dkj.k lEcU/kksa dks <w¡<+ fudkyuk vFkok mu leL;kvksa esa vUr£ufgr izfØ;kvksa]
ekuo&O;ogkjksa rFkk muds fu;e ds lEcU/k esa Kku izkIr djuk gSA ih0oh0 ;ax us fy[kk gS] Þlkekftd 'kks/k
O;kfèkdh; leL;kvksa (pathological problems) ls dsoy og rd lEc) gS tgk¡ rd os vk/kkjHkwr lkekftd
izfØ;kvksa] ekuo&O;ogkj rFkk O;fäRo ds fodkl vFkok fo?kVu ij izdk'k Mkyrs gSaAß
blds vfrfjDr fu;fU=kr voLFkkvksa ds vUrxZr lkekftd thou ;k ?kVukvksa ds lEcU/k esa O;ofLFkr v/;;u ds
fy, tks izk;ksxd izÑfr (experimental nature) ds vuqlU/kku fd, tkrs gSa os lkekftd 'kks/k ds foLr‘r {ks=k ds
uohure Hkkx ds vUrxZr vkrs gSaA vk/kqfud >qdko blh izdkj ds iz;ksxkRed izÑfr ds vuqlU/kkuksa dh vksj gSA
10 vuql/a kku fof/k
vkt ;g ekuk tkrk gS fd izkÑfrd o HkkSfrd foKkuksa dh Hkk¡fr lkekftd foKkuksa esa Hkh iz;ksxkRed vuqla/kku
lEHko gSA fo}kuksa us bl ckr dh vksj gekjk /;ku vkd£"kr fd;k gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k dk {ks=k iz;ksxkRed
vuqlaèkkuksa ls ijs ug gS] vfirq lekt o lkekftd thou ,oa ?kVukvksa ds lEcU/k esa ;FkkFkZ Kku izkIr djus ds
fy, bl izdkj ds vuqla/kkuksa dks Hkh blds {ks=k ds vUrxZr ykuk vko';d gSA
iz;ksxkRed vuql/a kku dh ijaijk Hkh bZ0 nf[kZe }kjk gh 'kq: dh x;h ftldk mRÑ"V mnkgj.k muds izfl) iqLrd
vkRegR;k (Suicide) esa feyrk gSA vkxs pydj vuZLV xzhuoqM us viuh iqLrd Experimental Sociology: A
Study in Method esa 1945 esa fd;kA vius iqLrd esa mUgksaus fu;af=kr fujh{k.k fof/k dks iz;ksxkRed fof/k ds ,d
mRÑ"V i)fr ds :i esa izLrqr fd;kA ,Q0,l0 psfiu us Hkh viuh iqLrd Experiemiental Designs in
Sociological Research esa iz;ksx dks ,d egRoiw.kZ 'kks/k esa v/;;u {ks=k esa foLrkj dk vk/kkj cuk;k gSA ekuoh;
laca/k esa vè;;u esa bl izdkj v/;;u dks iz;ksx ls tksM+us dk ;g ,d mÙke funZsf'kdk lkfcr gks ldrh gSA
lkekftd 'kks/k ds v/;;u {ks=k ds laca/k esa dbZ fof'k"V fo}kuksa us lekt'kkL=kh; eap ls vius fopkj O;Dr fd;s
gSaA mlh ds vuq:i Hkkjrh; lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us izfl) 'kks/k if=kdk Contribution to Indian Sociology esa Hkh
lekt'kkL=k ds v/;;u {ks=k rFkk blds agenda dk mYys[k Hkh fd;k gSA vesfjdu lekt'kkL=kh; leqnk; us
vesfjdu ^lks';ksykWthdy lkslkbVh* us lkekftd 'kks/k ds {ks=k ds vUrxZr fuEufyf[kr v/;;u&fo"k;ksa dks
lfEefyr djus dh is'kd'k dh gS%
(i) ekuo&izÑfr rFkk O;fDrRo dk v/;;uA
(ii) tulewg rFkk lkaLÑfrd lewg dk v/;;uA
(iii) ifjokj dh izÑfr] vUrfuZfgr fu;e] laxBu o fo?kVu dk v/;;uA
(iv) lkekftd laxBu rFkk laLFkkvksa dk v/;;uA
(v) tula[;k rFkk izknsf'kd lewgksa dk v/;u ftuds vUrxZr ,d {ks=k fo'ks"k esa fuokl djus okyh tula[;k
rFkk ml {ks=k esa fo|eku lkeqnkf;d ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk v/;;u lfEefyr gSA
(vi) xzkeh.k leqnk;ksa dk v/;;uA blds vUrxZr xzkeh.k tula[;k( xzkeh.k ifjfLFkfr] xzkeh.k O;fDrRo o
O;ogkj&izfrekuksa vkSj muesa vUrfuZfgr /kkjkvksa rFkk fu;eksa ,oa xzkeh.k laxBu vkSj laLFkkvksa dk v/;;u
lfEefyr gSA
(vii) lkewfgd O;ogkjksa dk v/;;u blds vUrxZr lekpkj&i=k] euksjatu] R;kSgkjksa dk ekuuk] izpkj] i{kikr]
tuer] pquko] ;q)] ØkfUr vkfn lkewfgd O;ogkjksa dk v/;;u vkrk gSA
(viii) lewgksa esa ik, tkus okys la?k"kZ rFkk O;oLFkku (accommodation) dk v/;;u gSA blds vUrxZr /keZ dk
lekt'kkL=k (Sociology of Religion), f'k{kk dk lekt'kkL=k (Educational Sociology)] U;k;ky; rFkk
vf/kfu;e] lkekftd ifjorZu rFkk lkekftd fodkl dk v/;;u vkrk gSA
(ix) lkekftd leL;kvks]a lkekftd O;kf/kdh (Social Pathology) rFkk lkekftd vuqdyw u (Adjustment) dk
v/;;uA blds vUrxZr fuEufyf[kr fo"k;ksa dk v/;;u vkrk gS&fu/kZurk rFkk ijk/khurk (dependency)]
vijk/k o cky&vijk/k] LokLF;] ekufld O;kf/k (Mental disease)] LokLF;&j{kk vkfnA
(x) fl)kUr rFkk i)fr;ksa esa uohu lkekftd fu;eksa dh [kkst] iqjkus fl)kUr rFkk fof/k;ksa dh iqu%ijh{kk]
lkekftd thou esa vUrfuZfgr lkekU; fu;e o izfØ;k,¡ rFkk uohu i)fr;ksa o izfof/k;kas (Techniques)
dh [kkst vkfn lfEefyr gSaA
bl izdkj ;g Li"V gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k dk {ks=k vR;f/kd O;kid gS vkSj ekuo&lekt o thou dk 'kk;n gh dksbZ
i{k ,slk gks tks fd blds {ks=k ds vUrxZr u vkrk gksA okLrfodrk rks ;g gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k ds {ks=k dh dksbZ lhek&js[kk
fuf'pr o vfUre :i esa [khapuk u rks lEHko gS vkSj u gh O;kogkfjdA
lkekftd vuqla/kku dk egÙo

(Importance of Social Research)
lkekftd 'kks/k ds egRo dks le>us ls igys ;g tku ysuk Hkh vko';d gS fd 'kks/k Hkh dbZ izdkj ds gksrs gSaA ;ksa rks igys
gh bl ckr dk ftØ fd;k tk pqdk gS fd ekSfyd 'kks/k rFkk O;kogkfjd izdkj ds 'kks/k dk lekftd vuqla/kku esa iz;ksx
gksrk gSA ijarq buds egÙo dks le>us ds fy, bu nks izdkj ds 'kks/k dk foLrkj ls o.kZu djuk vko';d gSA
1- ekSfyd 'kks/k (Fundamental Research)&bl izdkj ds lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkekftd thou o ?kVukvksa ds
lEcU/k esa ekSfyd fl)kUrksa o fu;eksa dk vuqlU/kku fd;k tkrk gS vkSj bl vuqlU/kku dk mís'; uhou Kku dh
izkfIr o o‘f) rFkk iqjkus Kku dh iqu%ijh{kk }kjk mldk 'kqf)dj.k gksrk gSA bl izdkj dh [kkst esa uohu rF;ksa
o ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS vkSj lkFk gh bl ckr dh Hkh tk¡p dh tkrh gS fd tks izpfyr iqjkus fl)kUr
o fu;e gSa os orZeku ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds lUnHkZ esa Bhd gSa ;k ughaA gks ldrk gS fd uohu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa Hkh iqjkus
fu;e o fl)kUr [kjs mrjsa] ij ;g Hkh gks ldrk gS fd uohu ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj muesa dqN vko';d lq/
kkj ;k gsjQsj djuk t:jh gks tk,A ;g Hkh gks ldrk gS fd uohu ifjfLFkfr;ksa dh ek¡x uohu fl)kUr o fu;e
gksaA ekSfyd 'kks/k ds vUrxZr u, fl)kUrksa o fu;eksa dh [kkst uohu ifjfLFkfr;ksa rFkk uohu leL;kvksa ds mRié
gksus ij dh tkrh gSA ,slk bl mís'; ls fd;k tkrk gS fd bu uhou fl)kUrksa dk orZeku ifjofrZr ifjfLFkfr;ksa
ds lkFk vf/kdkf/kd esy cSB tk, vkSj ge muds lEcU/k esa vius uhoure Kku ds lgkjs fo|eku ifjfLFkfr;ksa
dh pqukSrh dk lkeuk vf/kd lQyrkiwoZd dj ldsaA bl n‘f"Vdks.k ls ;g Li"V gS fd ekSfyd 'kks/k dh izÑfr
vk/kkjHkwr :i esa lS)kfUrd gS D;ksafd bldk ,dek=k mís'; Kku dh izkfIr] o‘f) rFkk 'kqf)dj.k gksrk gSA lR;
dh [kkst djuk bldk ize[q k y{; gS vkSj blhfy, leLr ?kVukvksa ds vuqlU/kku esa ;g dsoy blh y{; dh izkfIr
ds izfr ltx o iz;Ru'khy jgrk gSA tc ;g fdlh ?kVuk dk v/;;u djrk gS rks mlds lEcU/k esa mls Kku
dh izkfIr gksrh gS] tc og uohu ?kVukvksa ds lEcU/k esa vuqlU/kku djrk gS rks fo|eku Kku dh o‘f) gksrh gS
vkSj tc og ifjofrZr ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds lUnHkZ esa iqjkus fu;eksa rFkk fl)kUrksa dh fQj ls tk¡p djrk gS rks muds
lEcU/k esa mlds Kku esa vko';d lq/kkj ;k gsj&Qsj gks tkrk gSA bl izdkj fQj ge blh fu"d"kZ ij vkrs gSa
fd vius vuqla/kkuksa ds }kjk tks lkekftd 'kks/k dk Kku izkfIr] ifjektZu o ifjo)Zu dks viuk y{; ekurk gS
mls ekSfyd 'kks/k dgrs gSaA
2- O;kogkfjd 'kks/k (Applied Research)&ih- oh- ;ax us fy[kk gS fd ,d fuf'pr lEcU/k yksxksa dh izkFkfed
vko';drkvksa rFkk dY;k.k ls gksrk gSA oSKkfud dh ekU;rk ;g gS fd leLr Kku lkjHkwr :i ls mi;ksxh gks
bl vFkZ esa gS fd og ,d fl)kUr ds fuekZ.k esa ;k ,d dyk dks O;ogkj esa ykus esa lgk;d gksrk gSA fl)kUr
rFkk O;ogkj vkxs pydj cgq/kk ,d&nwljs esa fey tkrs gSaA blh ekU;rk ds vk/kkj ij lkekftd 'kks/k dk tks
nwljk izdkj izdV gksrk gS mls gh ge O;ogkfjd 'kks/k dgrs gSaA O;ogkfjd 'kks/k dk lEcU/k lkekftd thou
ds O;ogkfjd 'kks/k dgrs gSaA O;ogkfjd 'kks/k dk lEcU/k lkekftd thou ds O;ogkj i{k ls gksrk gS( vkSj og
lkekftd leL;kvksa ds lEcU/k esa gh ugha vfirq lkekftd fu;kstu] lkekftd vf/kfu;e] LokLF; j{kk lEcUèkh
fu;e] /keZ] f'k{kk] U;k;ky;] euksjatu vkfn fo"k;ksa ds lEcU/k esa Hkh vuqla/kku djrk gS vkSj buds lEcUèk esa
dkj.k&lfgr O;k[;k o rdZ;qDr Kku ls gedks le‘) djrk gSA ij bldk rkRi;Z ;g ugha gS fd O;kogkfjd
'kks/k dk dksbZ lEcU/k lekt&lq/kkj djrk gSA ij bldk rkRi;Z ;g ugha gS fd O;kogkfjd 'kks/k dk dksbZ lEcUèk
lekt&lq/kkj ls] lkekftd O;kf/k;ksa ds mipkj ls] lkekftd vf/kfu;eksa dks cukus ;k lkekftd fu;kstuksa dks
O;kogkfjd :i esa izLrqr djus ls gksrk gSA og Loa; ;g lc&dqN ugha djrk gS( ;g dke rks lekt&lq/kkjd]
jk"Vªh; usrk] iz'kkldksa rFkk vf/kdkfj;ksa dk gksrk gSA O;kogkfjd 'kks/k dk dke dsoy O;kogkfjd thou ls lEc)
fo"k;ksa rFkk leL;kvksa ds lEcU/k esa gesa ;FkkFkZ Kku nsuk gSA
lkekftd thou esa O;kogkfjd 'kks/k ds egRo dks n'kkZrs gq, Hkh LVkmQj us fy[kk gS fd ;fn lekt&foKku dks
viuk egRo c<+kuk gS rks mldks vius O;ogkfjd i{k ij cy nsuk gksxkA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn lekt&foKku Li"V
12 vuql/a kku fof/k
:i ls ;g n'kkZ lds fd ,d ijke'kZ nsus okyh O;oLFkk (Counselling sytem) lkoZtfud Ldwyksa esa fdl Hkk¡fr
lokZf/kd izHkkoiw.kZ gks ldrh gS rks ;g Li"V gh gS fd lekt foKku ds egRo dh LohÑfr c<+ tk;sxhA
lkekftd vuqla/kku esa vo/kkj.kk

(Concept in Social Research)
fdlh Hkh lkekftd vuqla/kku esa vo/kkj.kk dk viuk vyx egRo gksrk gSA 'kks/kdrkZ rF;ksa ds voyksdu rFkk ladyu dj
mu rF;ksa dks 'kCnksa ds }kjk vfHkO;Dr djuk pkgrk gSA rF;ksa dh oSKkfud vfHkO;fDr ds fy, vo/kkj.kkvksa dh enn yh
tkrh gSA ;s vo/kkj.kk,a ,d lkspus dh vewrZ izfØ;k gS ftlds }kjk ?kVukvksa o rF;ksa dk o.kZu gks ikrk gSA vo/kkj.kkvksa
dh enn ls fdlh ?kVuk] izfØ;k ;k rF; dk la{ksi esa o.kZu laHko gks ikrk gSA xqMs rFkk gkV us blfy, vo/kkj.kk dks ,d
rkfdZd ekuoh; lksp dh izfØ;k crk;k gS tks gekjs lkspus le>us dh uSlfxZd izfØ;k gSA ;g gekjs Kku o lksp dh ,d
ekufld rFkk vewrZ izfØ;k gS ftldk egRo fl)kUr ds lanHkZ esa dkWQh egRoiw.kZ gks tkrk gSA rF; dh rjg gh ;g ,d
vewrZ izfØ;k gSA
tc 'kks/kdrkZ rF;ksa eas vUr% lEcU/k dks ns[krk gS vFkok ,d fuf'pr ?kVuk ;k O;ogkj izfreku dks og i‘Fkd djus esa lQy
gksrk gS rks og ml lEiw.kZ fLFkfr dks vfr la{ksi esa ,d nks 'kCn dh lgk;rk ls vfHkO;Dr djus dk iz;kl djrk gSA rF;ksa
ds ,d oxZ dh bl laf{kIr vfHkO;fDr dks gh foKku esa vo/kkj.kk (Concept) dgk tkrk gSA ih0oh0 ;ax us fy[kk gS fd
rF;ksa (data) ds izR;sd u, oxZ dks] ftls fd vU; oxkZsa ls dqN fuf'pr foy{k.krkvksa ds vk/kkj ij vyx dj fy;k x;k
gks] ,d uke ;k ,d yscy ns fn;k tkrk gS tks fd vo/kkj.kk dgykrk gSA okLro esa ,d vo/kkj.kk rF;ksa ds ,d oxZ ;k
lewg dh ,d laf{kIr ifjHkk"kk gSAa ^d{kk iyk;u* (Truancy) ^laLÑfr*] ûsr‘Ro*] ^lekt* vkfn voèkkj.kkvksa ds gh mnkgj.k
gSaA vo/kkj.kkvksa ds dqN ifjHkk"kk dks }kjk le>uk vko';d gSA
lSjSx (Scharag) ds vuqlkj] ^vo/kkj.kk,¡ o 'kCn ;k ladsr gksrs gSa tks fl)kUr dh 'kCnkoyh iznku djrs gSa ,oa mldh
fo"k;oLrq dks crykrs gSa*A vFkkZr~ fl)kUr ds vfHkO;fDr dk ,d mÙke tfj;k gS vo/kkj.kkA
QspjpkbYM us Hkh blh ckr dks oSKkfud lanHkZ }kjk tksMd
+ j ns[kk gSA muds vuqlkj ^^vo/kkj.kk,¡ os fof'k"V ekSf[kd ladrs
gSa tks fd oSKkfud fujh{k.k o fpUru ds vk/kkj ij fudkys x, lkekU;hÑr (generalized) fopkjksa dks fn, tkrs gSaA**
bl çdkj vo/kkj.kk }kjk rF;ksa dh oSKkfud foospuk dh tkrh gSA bldh fo'ks"krk,¡ fuEu gS%
fo'ks"krk,¡
(i) vo/kkj.kk dh lcls egRowi.kZ fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd ;g yksxksa ds lka>s vuqHko ls tqMh+ gksrh gSA blhfy, voèkkj.kkvksa
ds vk/kkj ij tks ckrsa vfHkO;Dr dh tkrh gSa mls lkekU; :i ls lHkh le>rs gSaA vesjhdu lekt'kkfL=k;ksa }kjk
Hkh QfMZukM Vkfut }kjk iz;ksx esa yk;s x;s nks teZu Hkk"kk ds 'kCn Gesselshaft rFkk Gemeinshaft dk bLrseky
Community vkSj Society ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;s nksuksa ewyHkwr voèkkj.kk,a gSa tks lekt ds fofo/k Lo:i dks
n'kkZrs gSaA eSDl oscj ds }kjk iz;qDr ,d vkSj vo/kkj.kk Ideal Type dk iz;ksx dj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd
;s nksuksa vo/kkj.kk,a vkn'kZ çk#i (Ideal Type) gSaA budk iz;ksx teZuh ds xzkeh.k rFkk vkS|ksfxd lekt esa gq,
ifjorZu dks n'kkZrk gSA
(ii) ftu 'kCnkoyh o vo/kkj.kk dk iz;ksx ,d oSKkfud vo/kkj.kk ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gS mls nwljs lanHkZ esa Hkh
iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, laLÑfr (Culture) 'kCn dk iz;ksx lk/kkj.kr;k vPNs O;ogkj ls fd;k
tkrk gS tcfd bl 'kCn dk iz;ksx ekuo'kkL=k (Anthropology) esa lekftd /kjksgj (Social Heritage) ls Hkh
fd;k tkrk gSA
(iii) ,d 'kCn ds }kjk fofHké fLFkfr;ksa dk o.kZu fd;k tk ldrk gSA lekt'kkL=k esa jkcVZ ds eVZu us izdk;Z (function)
'kCn ds fofo/k lanHkZ esa iz;ksx fd;s tkus dk o.kZu fd;k gSA blds igys jsMfDyQ czkmu us Hkh viuh iqLrd
(Structure and Function in Pimitive Society) esa bl 'kCn ds fofHkUu lanHkks± esa bLrseky fd;s tkus dk foLrkj
ls o.kZu fd;k gSA bl vo/kkj.kk dks dbZ ckj vko';drk (Needs) ;k thou ds fLrRo dks cuk;s j[kus ds
vko';d 'krZ (Necessary Conditions of Existence) ;k nqf[kZe ds }kjk iz;qZDr fd;s x, blds laLFkkRed lanHkZ
ls tksM+dj bldk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA
(iv) ,d 'kCn o vo/kkj.kk ds }kjk fofHké ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds o.kZu ds lkFk gh dbZ ckj ml 'kCn ds gh fofo/k i;kZ;okph
'kCn (Synonyms) dk Hkh iz;ksx ,d gh lanHkZ esa fpf=kr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, Goode
& Hatt us pkj ,sls vo/kkj.kkvksa ls tqM+s fofHké 'kCnkoyh dk mYys[k fd;k gS ftUgsa lajpuk&izdk;Z] (Structure
Function) vkn'kZ&;FkkFkZ (Ideal-Real)] vkSipkfjd&vukSipkfjd (Formal-informal) rFkk izkFkfed&f}Ùkh;
(Primary-secondary) 'kCn lewg eq[; gS vkSj bu pkjksa 'kCn lewgksa ds vFkZ ,d nwljs ds iwjd ds :i esa iz;qDr
gksrs gSaA
(v) 'kCn o vo/kkj.kk,a ,sls Hkh gks ldrs gSa ftudk dksbZ rkRdkfyd vkuqHkfod (Immediate empirical) vFkZ ugha gksrk
gSA bl lanHkZ esa blds nks vFkZ gks ldrs gSaA dqN oSKkfud fl)kUr ,sls Hkh gksrs gSa ftudk lh/kk voyksdu ugha
fd;k x;k gks ijarq bl izdkj ds vo/kkj.kk dk ,d rkfdZd laca/k gks ldrk gS ftlds dkj.k vo/kkj.kkvksa ds
chp ds laca/k dks le>k tk ldrk gsA lekftd lajpuk (Social Structure) ,d ,slh gh vo/kkj.kk gS ftldk
mYys[k dbZ lanHkZ esa fd;k tkrk gSA ijUrq blds ckotwn Hkh ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd vo/kkj.kkvksa dk ,d
vkuqHkkfod iz;ksx (empirical reference) Hkh gksrk gS tks mlds vFkZ dks oSKkfud vk/kkj nsrk gSA
(vi) vo/kkj.kkvkas ds vFkZ Hkh cny ldrs gSAa lHkh oSKkfud vo/kkj.kkvksa ds vFkZ esa bl izdkj ds cnyko vk;s gSAa 'kq:
esa ml 'kCn dk iz;ksx fdlh [kkl rF; ds lanHkZ esa fd;k x;k vkSj ckn esa ml 'kCn dk vFkZ nwljs lanHkZ dks Hkh
n'kkZrk gSA ;k fQj 'kCn dk ml vo/kkj.kk esa ifjorZu ykdj mls vkSj Hkh O;kid fd;k x;k gSA mnkgj.k ds
fy, tkfr esa xfr'khyrk dks n'kkZus ds fy, Hkkjrh; lekt'kkL=kh ,e0,u0 Jhfuokl us (Brahmanisation) 'kCn
dk iz;ksx fd;k ftlds }kjk ;g crkus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k Fkk fd czká.k tkfr ds yksxksa ds ekudnaM dks fuEu
tkfr ds yksx viukus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA bl izdkj os vius fLFkfr dks Å¡pk mBkuk pkgrs gSaA ckn esa nwljs
lekt'kkL=kh us bl 'kCn dks ladh.kZ crk;k vkSj ;g lq>ko fn;k fd dqN ,sls Hkh xk¡o gS tgk¡ {k=kh; tkfr ds
yksxksa dk izHkqRo gS vkSj mu txgksa ij {kf=k; tkfr ds ekunaMksa dks vkn'kZ ekudj fuEu tkfr ds yksx mls viukus
dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA bl izdkj dh xfr'khyrk dks n'kkZus ds fy, ,e0,u0 Jhfuokl us izHkko'kkyh tkfr
(Dominant caste) 'kCn dk iz;ksx fd;k vkSj tkfr ls lacaf/kr bl izdkj dh xfr'khyrk dks n'kkZus ds fy,
laLÑfrdj.k (Sanskritisation) 'kCn dk iz;ksx fd;kA bl izdkj vo/kkj.kk dk vFkZ lnSo ,d tSlk ugha gksrk
gS mlesa Hkh ifjorZu vkrs gSa ftls vfHkO;Dr djus ds fy, vo/kkj.kkvksa esa cnyko ;k ifjorZu ykuk iM+rk gSA
la{ksi esa vo/kkj.kk dh fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k dj ldrs gSa
(i) vo/kkj.kk rF;ksa ds ,d oxZ ;k lewg dh ,d ,slh laf{kIr ifjHkk"kk gksrh gS ftls fd ,d&nks 'kCnkaas esa O;Dr fd;k
tkrk gSA
(ii) vo/kkj.kk fdlh ?kVuk ;k O;ogkj izfreku dh lEiw.kZ O;k[;k ugha vfirq mldk ,d ladsr ek=k gksrk gSA
(iii) vo/kkj.kk dk fuekZ.k oSKkfud fujh{k.k ;k fpUru ds vk/kkj ij gksrk gSA ;g dksbZ vVydiPpw ;k vuqeku&ek=k
ugha gksrkA
(iv) vo/kkj.kk dk] bl vFkZ es]a ,d rkfdZd vk/kkj gksrk gS vkSj mldk fuekZ.k izR;{k Kku] okLrfod fujh{k.k o ;FkkFkZ
vuqHko ds cy ij gksrk gSA
(v) vo/kkj.kk vius eas vFkZ;Dq r gksrk gS D;ksfa d ;g rF;ksa ds ,d fuf'pr lewg ;k oxZ esa ikbZ tkus okyh foy{k.krkvksa
dk |ksrd gksrk gSA
(vi) vo/kkj.kk Lo;a fl)kUr dk laf{kIr :i ugha gksrk vfirq rF;ksa ds ,d oxZ dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks la{ksi esa crkus okyk
gksrk gSA
14 vuql/a kku fof/k
(vii) vo/kkj.kk esa vko';drkuqlkj ifjorZu Hkh gksrk jgrk gSA u, Kku ds lap; gksus] oSKkfud fo'ks"k ds n‘f"Vdks.k
esa ifjorZu gksus vFkok rF;ksa ds ikjLifjd lEcU/kksa dk dksbZ u;k Lo:i izdV gksus ij vo/kkj.kkvksa esa ifjorZu
gks tkrk gSA
vo/kkj.kk dk egÙo
(Importance of Concept)
vo/kkj.kk dk egÙo blh ls Li"V gks tkrk gS fd ;g rF;ksa ds ,d oxZ ;k lewg dh ,d laf{kIr ifjHkk"kk gksrh gSA vFkkZr~
vo/kkj.kk ds ek/;e ls ,d ?kVuk ;k izfØ;k dks dsoy nks&,d 'kCnksa }kjk lQyrkiwoZd le>k;k tk ldrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds ,d oxZ esa d{kk ls Hkkx tkus dh izo‘fÙk lkekU; :i ls ikbZ tkrh gS rks bl lEiw.kZ fLFkfr
dks ^d{kk&iyk;u* (Truancy) dh vo/kkj.kk }kjk le>k;k tk ldrk gSA
vo/kkj.kkvksa ds egÙo dks le>krs gq, xwM vkSj gkWV us fy[kk gS fd vo/kkj.kk dks fodflr djus dh izfØ;k bfUnz;tfur
cks/k dks izkIr djus o mlls fu"d"kZ fudkyus esa lgk;d fl) gksrh gSA bl izdkj rF;ksa ds ,d oxZ ;k lewg ds xq.kksa dks
le>uk] mudk v/;;u djuk] mUgsa O;ofLFkr o i‘Fkd djuk lEHko gksrk gSA bl izdkj rF;ksa ds ,d lewg esa ik, tkus
okys xq.kksa dks ,d uke ns nsus ls fopkj vkxs c<+ ldrk gSA vr% fopkjksa dks viukus ds fy, vo/kkj.kkvksa dk fuekZ.k
vko';d gSA la{ksi esa] vo/kkj.kk ifjfLFkfr ;k ?kVuk fo'ks"k dk ,d laf{kIr ifjp; gksrh gS ftldk fd iz;ksx lqfoèkk ds
n‘f"Vdks.k ls rFkk ml ifjfLFkfr ;k ?kVuk fo'ks"k ds lEcU/k esa ,d lkekU; fopkj&J‘a[kyk ds fy, mi;ksxh fl) gksrk
gSA
lkekftd vuqla/kku esa midYiuk

(Hypothesis in Social Research)
fdlh Hkh 'kks/k o vuqla/kku dks ,d lgh funZs'k o vk/kkj iznku djus ds fy, ,d lS)kfUrd vk/kkj mldk izk:i gksuk
vko';d gSA midYiuk ,d ,slh gh fLFkfr gS tks 'kks/kdrkZ dks [kkst djus ls iwoZ dqN vuqeku ok dqN oSKkfud lksap
dks vk/kkj ekudj dke djus ds fy, izsfjr djrk gSA vxj ge fdlh O;fDr dks ns[krs gSa fd og tehu esa ,d lhfer
{ks=k dks [kksn jgk gS rks laHko gS og ;g ekudj py jgk gks fd dqN nwj rd [kqnkbZ djus ds i'pkr mls ikuh fey tk;sA
vFkkZr mís';fofgu dk;Z djuk oSKkfud fof/k dk dkj.k ugha gSA dqN dk;Z mís'; dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;s tkrs gSAa laHko
gS gekjk vuqeku lp gks ;k fQj og xyr Hkh gks ldrk gSA taxy esa /kqvk¡ mBrs ns[k ;k jks'kuh dks ns[kdj ;g vuqeku
yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd /kqvk¡ mBus okys txg ij ;k jkr esa tgk¡ jks'kuh gks jgh gS ogk¡ dqN yksx clrs gksaA ogk¡ ,d
dLck gksxk tgk¡ dqN yksxksa ls feyus dh laHkkouk curh gSA
bl oSKkfud i)fr dk lnqi;ksx rc rd ugha gks ldrk tc rd gesa vius v/;;u&fo"k; ds lEcU/k esa dqN&u&dqN
vkjfEHkd Kku ,oa lkekU; vuqHko u gksA bl vkjfEHkd Kku o vuqHko ds vk/kkj ij ge vius v/;;u&fo"k; ds fofHké
i{kksa ds lEcU/k esa ,d lkekU; vuqeku igys ls gh yxk ldrs gSAa ;g lkekU; vuqeku 'kks/kdrkZ ds fy, ,d ekxZ&funZ's kd
cu tkrk gS vkSj 'kks/kdrkZ dk /;ku dqN fuf'pr o vko';d rF;ksa ij gh dsfUnzr djds vuqlU/kku dh fn'kk dks fu/kkZfjr
djrk gS vkSj mls vfuf'prrk ds vU/kdkj esa HkVdus ls cpk nsrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn gekjk v/;;u&fo"k; ^cky&vijkèk*
gS rks ge vius vkjfEHkd Kku o lkekU; vuqHko ds vk/kkj ij ,d dkepykÅ vuqeku ;g dj ldrs gSa fd fu/kZurk o
VwVs ifjokj gh cky&vijk/k dks tUe nsus dk izHkko'kkyh dkjd gSaA ml voLFkk esa gekjk ;g vuqeku gekjs v/;;u&dk;Z
esa vR;Ur lgk;d fl) gksxk D;ksafd gesa ;g fuf'pr :i esa irk gksxk fd gesa vkfFkZd rFkk ikfjokfjd dkjdksa ij /;ku
dsfUnzr djuk gSA mUgha ls lEcfU/kr rF;ksa dks ,df=kr djuk gS vkSj fQj ns[kuk gS fd tks ^vuqeku* geus vkjEHk esa yxk;k
Fkk og lgh Fkk ;k xyrA blh vkjfEHkd lkekU; rFkk dkepykÅ vuqeku dks tks fd vkxs ds v/;;u&dk;Z dk vk/kkj
vkSj oSKkfud ds fy, ,d lgkjk cu tkrk gSA bls dkepykÅ izkd~dYiuk ;k midYiuk (working hypothesis) dgrs
gSaA ih0oh0 ;ax ds vuqlkj dkepykÅ izkd~dYiuk dk fuekZ.k oSKkfud i)fr dk izFke pj.k (first step)
gSA
vr% ge dg ldrs gSa fd ^^midYiuk dk fuekZ.k oSKkfud vuqlU/kku dk vfUre y{; ugha gSA** vFkkZr~ vius midYiuk
dks lp izekf.kr djus ds mís'; ls oSKkfud vuqlU/kku&dk;Z esa midYiuk dk fuekZ.k ugha fd;k tkrkA oSKkfud
vuqlUèkku dk vfUre y{; rks lp dks <¡w< fudkyuk gS vkSj lR; dh [kkst okLrfod rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij gh lEHko gS]
u fd midYiuk ds vk/kkj ijA midYiuk dk fuekZ.k rks dsoy blfy, djrs gSa fd v/;;u&dk;Z esa gesa fuf'pr :i
ls D;k djuk gS mlds lEcU/k esa gesa ,d vUnktk yx tk, vkSj ge ,d gh le; esa ,d gh fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr lHkh igyqvksa
ij vius /;ku dks fc[kjk nsus dh xyrh u djds vius vuqlU/kku&{ks=k dks lhfer djds vius midYiuk ;k izkd~dYiuk
ds vuqlkj v/;;u&fo"k; ds ,d fof'k"V igyw ij viuk /;ku dsfUnzr djsaA vkSj mlh ls lEcfU/kr rF;ksa dks ,df=kr
djsaA bl izdkj midYiuk gesa v/;;u&dk;Z ds nkSjku b/kj&m/kj HkVdus ls cpkrk gS vkSj ge ,d fuf'pr fn'kk esa lR;
dh [kkst esa vkxs c<+ ldrs gSaA okLrfod rF;ksa dks ,df=kr dj ysus ds i'pkr~ ge ;g ik,¡ fd vius v/;;u&fo"k; ds
lEcU/k esa ftl midYiuk dk fuekZ.k geus fd;k Fkk] og xyr gS vkSj okLrfod rF;ksa ds lUnHkZ esa mls cnyus dh
vko';drk gSA vr% izkd~dYiuk ¼midYiuk½ ds fuekZ.k ds ckn ge vius v/;;u&dk;Z ds nkSjku fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr dqN
okLrfod rF;ksa dks ,df=kr djrs gSa vkSj fQj mu rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij ml midYiuk dh ijh{kk djrs gSa fd og lgh
gS vFkok xyrA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] okLrfod rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij midYiuk dks lgh ;k xyr izekf.kr djuk oSKkfud
vuqlUèkku dk vfUre y{; gS] u fd dsoy midYiuk dk fuekZ.kA midYiuk dk fuekZ.k dqN oSKkfud mís';ksa dh iwfrZ
djus esa enn djrk gS vFkkZr~ vuqlU/kku&dk;Z esa lgk;d fl) gksrk gSA
izkd~dYiuk dh ifjHkk"kk
(Definition of Hypothesis)
yq.McxZ us fy[kk gS ^îzkd~dyiuk ,d lkef;d vFkok dkepykÅ lkekU;hdj.k ;k fu"d"kZ gS ftldh lR;rk dh ijh{kk
vHkh ckdh gSA fcYdqy vkjfEHkd Lrjksa ij izkd~dYiuk dksbZ Hkh vVdyiPpw] vuqeku] dYiukRed fopkj] lgtKku
(Intuition) ;k vkSj dqN gks ldrk gS tks fd fØ;k ;k vuqlU/kku dk vk/kkj cu tkrk gSA**
midYiuk dh O;k[;k djrs gq, ih- oh ;ax us fy[kk gS fd vius rF;ksa ds fo"k; esa lkekU; Kku ds vk/kkj ij ,d oSKkfud
iz;Ru o Hkwypwd dh vFkok ijh{k.k }kjk Hkwy&lq/kkj dh i)fr (trial and error method) ds }kjk mu fof'k"V dkjdksa dks
NkaV ysrk gS tks fd v/;;u fd, tkus okyh leL;kvksa ij jks'kuh Mky ldsaA
midYiuk ds lzksr
(Sources of Hypothesis)
midYiuk dk lzksr vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ dh viuh vUrn‘Zf"V] dksjh dYiuk] fopkj ;k vuqHko gks ldrk gSA bl n‘f"Vdks.k ls
midYiuk dk lzkrs vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ Lo;a gh gks ldrk gSA Lo;a vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ ds vfrfjDr bldk ckgjh lzkrs Hkh gks ldrk
gSA yq.McxZ (Lundberg) us fy[kk gS fd ,d Qyizn izkd~dYiuk dh [kkst eas ge dfork] lkfgR;] n'kZu] lekt'kkL=k
ds foLr‘r o.kZukRed lkfgR; (descriptive literature) ekuotkfr'kkL=k (ethonology) dykdkjksa ds dkYifud fl)kUrksa
;k mu xEHkhj fopkjdksa ds fl)kU*rksa dh lEiw.kZ nqfu;k esa fopj.k dj ldrs gSa ftUgksaus fd euq"; ds lkekftd lEcU/kksa
ds xgu v/;;u&dk;Z esa vius dks fu;ksftr fd;k gSA thou ds vuqHko Hkh izeq[k lzksr gks ldrs gSaA
xwM rFkk gkWV (Goode and Hatt) us midYiukvksa ds pkj lzksrksa dk mYys[k fd;k gS&
1- lkekU; laLÑfr (General Culture)&lkekU; laLÑfr] ftlesa fd ,d foKku iuirk gS] foKku dh vusd
izkd~&dYiukvksa dk ,d vk/kkj cu tkrh gSA nks foijhr mnkgj.kksa }kjk bl ckr dks ljyrk ls le>k tk ldrk
gSA vesfjdu laLÑfr esa O;fDrxr lq[k] xfr'khyrk (mobility) rFkk izfrLi/kkZ (competition) ij vR;f/kd cy
fn;k tkrk gS vkSj ;s lHkh vesfjdu lekt o mlds lkekftd lEcU/kksa ds vfHké vax o mYys[kuh; fo'ks"krk,¡
cu tkrh gSaA blds foijhr] Hkkjrh; laLÑfr esa lkekftd thou o lEcU/kksa ij xka/khoknh vkn'kZ] tkfr&izFkk]
la;qDr ifjokj vkfn dk xgjk izHkko ns[kus dks feyrk gSA
16 vuql/a kku fof/k
vr% Hkkjrh; laLÑfr esa iys fdlh Hkh lekt'kkL=kh ds fy, tkfr&izFkk ds fdlh Hkh igyw ds lEcU/k esa izkd~dYiuk
dk fuekZ.k djuk dfBu ugha gSA
2- oSKkfud fl)kar (Scientific theories)&xwM rFkk gkWV ds vuqlkj izkd~dYiukvksa dk tUe Lo;a foKku esa gksrk
gSA izR;sd foKku esa fofHké fo"k;ksa ls lEc) vusd fl)kUr gksrs gSAa bu fl)kUrksa ls ,d fo"k; ds fofHké igywvksa
ds lEcU/k eas geas tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA ;g tkudkjh gekjs orZeku 'kks/k&dk;Z dk vk/kkj cu ldrh gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ] tkfr&izFkk ds O;kolkf;d fl)kUr (Occupational theory) ls ;g izkd~dYiuk cukbZ tk ldh fd
îs'kk vkSj dsoy is'kk gh Hkkjrh; tkfr&izFkk dh mRifÙk dk dkj.k FkkA ijarq ;fn is'kksa dh Å¡pkbZ&uhpkbZ gh
tkfr&O;oLFkk esa ik, tkus okys Å¡p&uhp ds laLrj.k dk vk/kkj gksrh gks tkfr&izFkk mu lHkh lektksa esa ns[kus
dks feyrh] tgk¡ Hkh is'kksa ds vk/kkj ij lkekftd Lrjhdj.k (social stratification) ik;k tkrk gSA vr% mu
dYiukvksa ds fuekZ.k esa oSKkfud fl)kUrksa ds egRo dks vLohdkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA
3- lkn‘'; (Analogy)&lkn‘'; izk;% mi;ksxh izkd~dYiukvksa ds egÙoiw.kZ lzkrs cu ldrs gSAa mnkgj.kkFkZ] isM&+ ikSèkksa ij
,d ifjfLFkfr fo'ks"k dk xgjk izHkko iM+rk gS] ;g Kku ekuo ds lEcU/k esa Hkh bl izkd~dYiuk dks tUe ns ldrk
gS fd isM+&ikS/kksa dh Hkk¡fr ekuo&thou Hkh ifjfLFkfr fo'ks"k ;s izHkkfor gksrk gSA gcZVZ LisUlj (Herbet Spencer)
us mn~Hko ds fl)kUr esa euq"; vkSj lekt ds chp esa laca/k dks le>kus ds fy, lkfgR; dk iz;ksx fd;k gSA
4- O;fDrxr vuqHko (Personal experience)&vuqlU/kkudrkZ dk O;fDrxr vuqHko Hkh izkd~dYiukvksa dk ,d
egÙoiw.kZ lzksr gSA ykWEczkslks (Lombroso) dh ^tUetkr vijk/kh iz:i* (inborn cirminal type) dh izkd~dYiuk
lSfud f'kfoj ds ltZu ds :i eas ykWEczkslks ds vius vuqHkoksa dh gh mit Fkh mlh izdkj lu~ 1901 esa gksus okyh
tux.kuk ds v/kh{kd (Census Superintendent) ds :i esa lj gcZVZ fjt+ys (Sir Hirbert Risley) us ftl fo'ks"k
<ax ls Hkkjrh; turk dks ns[kk vkSj muds ckjs esa vuqHkoksa dks izkIr fd;k] og muds }kjk izLrqr iztkrh; fl)kUrksa
dh vk/kkjf'kyk cuhA
bl izdkj midYiuk ds dbZ lzksr gks ldrs gSa ftldk oSKkfud v/;;u fd;k tk ldrk gSA;g vko';d gks
tkrk gS fd Hkzked] vLi"V rFkk iwo/Z kkj.kkvkas ij vk/kkfjr okD;ksa dks Li"V] ;qDr rFkk mls oSKkfud cuk;k tk;sA
izdkj
lekt'kkL=k esa midYiuk ds dbZ izdkjksa dk o.kZu fd;k tkrk gSA xqM rFkk gkWV us muds vewrZ izÑfr dks /;ku esa j[kdj
dbZ izdkjksa dk o.kZu fd;k gSA vFkkZr~ muds vewrZ izÑfr dks /;ku essa j[kdj muds izdkjkssa dh ppkZ dh tk ldrh gSA xqM
rFkk gkV us blds rhu Lrj dh eq[; :i ls O;k[;k dh gS&
1- dqN midYiuk,a vkuqHkfod ,d:irk dks fpf=kr djrs gaSA ;g midYiuk,a vDlj lkekU; Kku ij vk/kkfjr
odrO; dks gh oSKkfud dlkSVh ij tk¡pus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA fdlh [kkl {ks=k dk loZs{k.k dj mlds {ks=k ds
leL;k ds ckjs esa tuekul dh lkekU; /kkj.kk dk ewY;kadu fd;k tk ldrk gSA bu leL;kvkas ds ewY;kadu esa
tks lkekU; Kku ij vk/kkfjr voyksdu fd;s x;s gSa mudk Hkh egÙo gks ldrk gSA bl izdkj ds dbZ vkuqHkfod
,d:irk (Empirical Uniformilies) lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u esa ik;s tkrs gSaA
2- dqN midYiuk,a ,slh gksrh gS ftldk mís'; fo'ys"k.kkRed dkjd rRoksa ds chp laca/k LFkkfir djuk gksrk gSA
vkn'kZ izk:i ds fuekZ.k esa bl izdkj dh midYiuk ds }kjk ,d [kkl izdkj ds laca/k dh igpku fujh{k.k ij
vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA tgk¡ vuqHkkfod ,d:irk esa voyksdu ds }kjk lkekU; varj dh igpku gksrh gS ogha
fo'ys"k.kkRed dkjd rRoksa esa lac/a k dks igpkuus dk ,d [kkl rjhdk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ vR;fèkd
tUe nj dk laca/k /ku] leqnk; ds vkdkj rFkk /keZ ls tksM+dj fd;k tk ldrk gSA bu rRoksa ds lkFk tUe nj
dk [kkl laca/k LFkkfir dj midYiuk dk ,d vkn'kZ izk:i rS;kj fd;k tkuk laHko gSA okLro esa bl izdkj
ds vkn'kZ izk:i rS;kj djus ds fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fd rhu dkjd rRoksa esa nks dks fu;af=kr dj mldk
lac/a k rhljs ds lkFk ns[kuk pkfg,A laHko gS rhljs dkjd rRoksa ds vfrfjDr dqN vkSj Hkh dkjd rRoksa ds fo'ys"k.k
dh vko';drk iM+sA
mi;qZDr foospu ds ckn rhu eq[; fopkj fcUnq gekjs lkeus ifjyf{kr gksrs gSaA
(i) ,d lQy 'kks/k ds fy, ,d midYiuk dk gksuk vko';d 'krZ gSA
(ii) midYiuk ds fuekZ.k dks fo'ks"k egRo fn;k tkuk pkfg, D;ksafd blh ds vk/kkj ij mlds fl)kUr ds lkFk lacaèk
dks LFkkfir fd;k tk ldrk gSA ijarq blds fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fd Hkzked] vLi"V rFkk iwoZ/kkj.kkvksa
ij vk/kkfjr okD;ksa dks Li"V] ;qDr rFkk mls oSKkfud cuk;k tk;sA
(iii) midYiuk dks fofHké izdkj ds vewrZ fopkjksa ls tksM+dj cuk;k tk ldrk gS ftlls dh dqN u, rF;ksa dk lap;
gks lds ;k fQj dqN u;h ckr vuqla/kku ds vk/kkj ij gks ldsA
çkd~dYiuk ds fuekZ.k dh izeq[k dfBukb;k¡
(Main difficulties in the formulation of Hypothesis)
izkd~dYiuk ;k midYiuk dk fuekZ.k dksbZ ljy dk;Z ugha gSA bl fn'kk esa vuqla/kkudrkZ dks dbZ dfBukbZ;ksa dk lkeuk
djuk iM+rk gS tks fuEu gS%
1- izFke dfBukbZ v/;;u&fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr gSA vk/kqfud lekt cgqr cM+k rFkk tfVy gksrk gS vkSj blhfy,
vkèkqfud lekt dh ?kVuk,¡ o leL;k,¡ Hkh cgqr my>h gqbZ vkSj cgqeq[kh gksrh gSaA muds lEcU/k esa igys ls gh
dqN vuqeku yxkuk dfBu gksrk gSA vr% cgqr gh lksp&le> ls dke ysus dh t:jr gksrh gSA
2- izkd~dYiuk ds fuekZ.k esa nwljh dfBukbZ lkekftd ?kVukvksa ds rsth ls ifjorZu gksus ds dkj.k mRié gksrh gSA
lkekftd ?kVuk,¡ vkt ds ;qx esa rsth ls cnyrh gSa vkSj vkt tks lp gS] dy og >wB gks ldrk gSA ,slh voLFkk
esa dqN Hkh vuqeku yxkuk ;fn vlEHko ugha] rks dfBu gSA
3- mu dYiuk dk fuekZ.k ,d lekt dh dqN lkekU; lkaLÑfrd fo'ks"krkvksa ds vk/kkj ij fd;k tkrk gSA ij vkt
fofHké laLÑfr;ksa esa vknku&iznku dh izfØ;k cgqr rsth ls py jgh gSA lk/kuksa esa méfr gksus ds QyLo:i fofHké
lekt ;k laLÑfr ,d&nwljs ds vf/kd fudV vkrs tk jgs gSa ftlls fd ,d lekt dh lkaLÑfrd fo'ks"krk,¡
Hkh fLFkj ugha gSaA vr% vfLFkj vk/kkjksa ij izkd~dYiuk dk fuekZ.k dfBu gks tkrk gSA
4- dHkh&dHkh izpfyr fl)kUrksa ds vk/kkj ij Hkh mu dYiuk dk fuekZ.k dj fy;k tkrk gSA ,slk djus esa dfBukbZ
;g gksrh gS fd og fl)kUr gekjs vius v/;;u&dk;Z ds fy, fdruk O;kogkfjd gS bldk vuqeku ge ugha yxk
ikrs gSa ftlls fd v/;;u&dk;Z dks gh R;kx nsuk gksrk gS mls cnyuk iM+rk gSA
5- ;fn vuqla/kkudÙkkZ Lo;a fdlh iwoZ&vkn'kZ] i{kikr ;k mfpr&vuqfpr dh Hkkouk ls izsfjr gS rks oSKkfud iz;ksx
ds ;ksX; midYiuk ¼izkd~dYiuk½ dk fuekZ.k dfBu gks tkrk gSA ;g dHkh vuqla/kkudky esa ck/kd gks ldrh gSA
6- ltkfrokn (Ethnocentrism) Hkh ,d vPNh midYiuk ds fuekZ.k esa ck/kd cu tkrk gSA nwljksa dh rqyuk esa vius
lekt vkSj lkekftd ?kVukvksa ds fy, izR;sd O;fDr ds fny esa ,d [kkl :>ku gksrk gSA mldh ;g nqcZyrk
mls okLrfodrk ls nwj gVk nsrh gS vkSj og vius lekt o laLÑfr dks gh lcls vPNk eku cSBrk gSA ,d vPNh
izkd~dYiuk dk fuekZ.k dfBu gks tkrk gSA mlh izdkj vuqlU/kkudrkZ dh dksbZ HkzkUr /kkj.kk] fdlh ?kVuk ds
lEcUèk esa mldk viuk O;fDrxr LokFkZ Hkh ,d vPNh midYiuk ds fuekZ.k esa dfBukbZ mRié dj ldrk gSA
7- cgq/kk ,d vkjfEHkd v/;;u ;k losZ{k.k djus ds ckn gh izkd~dYiuk dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk gS rkfd
vè;;u&fo"k; dh izÑfr ds lEcU/k esa dqN lkekU; Kku izkIr gks tk,A bl vk/kkj ij Hkh izkd~dYiuk ds fuekZ.k
esa izeq[k dfBukbZ ;g gksrh gS fd lwpuknkrk ;k vU; lzksrksa ls tYnh esa gesa ;FkkFkZ lwpuk ug fey ikrh gSA
ljdkjh o xSj&ljdkjh laLFkkvksa ls izkIr izkjfEHkd lwpuk,¡ Hkh fuHkZj;ksX; u gksaA ,slh gkyr esa oSKkfud iz;ksx
ds ;ksX; midYiuk dk fuekZ.k dfBu gks tkrk gSA xqMs ,oa gkV us Hkh midYiuk ds fuekZ.k esa Li"V lS)kfUrd
çk#i dk vHkko (Lack of theoretical framework) vuqla/kkudÙkkZ dh lhek,a (Limitation of Researcher) rFkk
v/;;u fof/k dk u gksuk (Limitation of Technique) dks crk;k gSA
18 vuql/a kku fof/k
vPNh midYiuk dh fo'ks"krk,¡

(Characteristics of Good Hypothesis)
midYiuk,¡ mi;ksxh gks]a blds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd muesa dqN mYys[kuh; xq.k ;k fo'ks"krk,¡ gksAa oSKkfud iz;ksx (use)
ds ;ksX; midYiukvksa dh dqN fo'ks"krk,¡ bl izdkj gSa&
a. Li"Vrk (Clarity): midYiukvksa dk vo/kkj.kkRed :i esa Li"V (conceptually clear) gksuk ijeko';d gSA
fdlh Hkh Lrj ij vLi"Vrk oSKkfud i)fr ds izfrdwy gSA Li"Vrk esa xwM rFkk gkWV (Goode and Hatt) ds vuqlkj
nks ckrsa lfEefyr gSa& ,d rks ;g fd izkd~dYiuk esa fufgr vo/kkj.kkvksa dks Li"V :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk,
rkfd fdlh Hkh izdkj dh vLi"Vrk vkxs pydj v/;;u&dk;Z esa ck/kk u dj lds] vkSj nwljh ;g fd ;s
ifjHkk"kk,¡ ,slh Li"V Hkk"kk esa fy[kh tk,¡ fd vU; yksx Hkh lkekU;r% mldk lgh vFkZ le> ldsaA
b. iz;ksxfl)rk (Empirical referents): bl fo'ks"krk dk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd ogh izkd~dYiuk oSKkfud vuqla/kku
esa iz;qä dh tk ldrh gSA bldk vFkZ ;g gS fd oSKkfud dks viuh izkd~dYiuk esa fdlh vkn'kZ dks izLrqr djus
dk iz;Ru ug djuk pkfg,A mldk lEcU/k ,sls fopkj ;k ,slh vo/kkj.kk ls gksuk pkfg, ftldh lR;rk dh
ijh{kk okLrfod iz;ksx vFkok okLrfod rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij dh tk ldsA
c. fof'k"Vrk (Specificity): izkd~dYiuk vxj vR;Ur lkekU; (general) gS rks mlls ;FkkFkZ fu"d"kZ rd igq¡puk
lEHko ug gksrk gSA fdlh fo"k; ds lHkh i{kksa dk oSKkfud v/;;u ge ,d gh le; ij ug dj ldrsA vr%
;FkkFkZ Kku dh izkfIr ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd izkd~dYiuk v/;;u&fo"k; ds fdlh fo'ks"k igyw ls lEc)
gksA vxj mlesa fof'k"Vrk dk xq.k ug gks rks mldh lR;rk dh tk¡p djuk Hkh dfBu gks tkrk gSA vDlj ,slk
gksrk gS fd midYiuk dks vf/kdkf/kd vkd"kZd o izHkko'kkyh cukus ds fy, mls ,sls fojkV o lkekU; rkSj ij
(in general terms) O;ä fd;k tkrk gS fd og Lo;a oSKkfud dh igq¡p ds ckgj gks tkrh gSA vr% izkd~dYiuk
esa fof'k"Vrk dk gksuk vko';d gS ftlls fd ,d lqfuf'pr oSKkfud lhek ds vUrxZr jgrs gq, lR; dh [kkst
lEHko gksA
d. miyC/k izfof/k;ksa ls lEc) (Related to available techniques): izkd~dYiuk dk fuekZ.k bl ckr dks /;ku
esa j[krs gq, djuk pkfg, fd mldh lR;rk dh tk¡p miyC/k izfof/k;ksa ds }kjk lEHko gksA xwM ,oa gkWV (Goode
and Hatt) dk er gS] fd fl)kUr vkSj i)fr ,d&nwljs ds fojks/kh ug gSaA tks fl)kUrdkj ;g ug tkurk gS
fd mldh midYiuk dh tk¡p ds fy, dkSu&dkSu lh izfof/k;k¡ miyC/k gS]a og mi;ksxh iz'uksa ds fuekZ.k esa vlQy
jgrk gSA vr% midYiuk,¡ ,slh gksuh pkfg,¡ tks fd izpfyr izfof/k;ksa dh igq¡p ds Hkhrj gksaA vk/kqfud le; esa
leL;k,¡ bruh tfVy gSa fd muls lEc) tfVy midYiukvksa dk fuekZ.k dsoy izfof/k;ksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj
cukuk lEHko ug A midYiuk bl izdkj dh gks fd og vuqla/kku dk ,d lkef;d vk/kkj Hkh cu ldrh gS ;k
ug ] bldh ijh{kk miyC/k izfof/k;ksa }kjk dh tk ldsA
e. fl)kUr lewg ls lEc) (Related to body of theory): xwM vkSj gkWV (Goode and Hatt) us fy[kk gS fd bl
fu;e dh vogsyuk vDlj lkekftd vuql/a kku es gks tkrh gSAa muds pquko esa bl ckr dh lEHkkouk vf/kd gksrh
gS fd os bl izdkj ds v/;;u&fo"k; (subject-matter) dks pqu ysa tks fd ^#fpdj* (interesting) gksA ,slk djrs
le; os bl ckr dk /;ku ug j[krs gSa fd mudk og 'kks/k&dk;Z okLro esa lkekftd laca/kksa ls lEcU/k fdUg
fo|eku fl)kUrksa dks xyr izekf.kr djus ;k mUgsa lgh izekf.kr djus esa lgk;d gksxk Hkh ;k ug A vr%
midYiuk ,slh gksuh pkfg, tks lEc) {ks=k esa fdlh iwoZLFkkfir fl)kUr ds Øe esa gks D;ksafd vlEc)
izkd~dYiukvksa dh ijh{kk foLr‘r fl)kUrksa ds lUnHkZ esa ug dh tk ldrhA
lkekftd 'kks/k esa rF; vkSj fl)kUr
(Fact & Theory in Social Research)
vFkZ] izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krk
krk,¡,¡
vo/kkj.kkvksa rFkk midYiuk ds egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk dks le> ysus ds i'pkr~ rF; ds egÙo dks le>uk Hkh vko';d gSA
rF;ksa ds O;ofLFkr laca/k ds vk/kkj dks fuf'pr dj gh fl)kUr izfrikfnr fd;s tkrs gSaA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk
gS fd oSKkfud fof/k dk iz;ksx dj rF;ksa dk ladyu djuk lkekftd 'kks/k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ dne gSA rF; ds izÑfr
,oa fo'ks"krkvksa ds mij fopkj ftl rjhds ls lk/kkj.k cksy&pky dh Hkk"kk esa gksrk gS] mlds vkèkkj ij ;g le> ysuk
fd lkekftd foKku esa Hkh rF;ksa dks mlh :i esa fy;k tkrk gS Hkzked gksxkA laHkor% blfy, Ýkal ds lekt'kkL=kh b-
nq£[ke us blds oSKkfud rÙoksa dk foLrkj ls o.kZu viuh iqLrd Rules of Sociological Method esa fd;k Fkk ftldh ppkZ
foLrkj ls vkxs dh tk,xhA tgk¡ fl)kUr dks ,d dYiuk eku fy;k tkrk gS og rF; dk Lo:i oSKkfud gksrk gS ftldk
Lo:i fuf'pr rFkk vFkZ Li"V gksrk gSA fl)kUr esa rF;ksa dk ladyu lekfgr gksrk gSA blfy, rF;ksa ds ckjs esa bl izdkj
ds fopkj Hkh O;Dr fd;s tkrs gSa fd rF; viuk ifjp; Lo;a ns nsrs gSaA oSKkfud n‘f"Vdks.k ls rF;ksa vkSj fl)kUr ds
laca/k dh ppkZ dh tk;s rks ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k esa fuEu ckrksa ij /;ku fn;k tkuk pkfg,&
1- fl)kUr vkSj rF; ,d nwljs ds ijLij fojks/kh ug gSa cfYd ;s nksuksa ,d nwljs ls tqM+s gSaA
2- fl)kUr dksbZ dksjh dYiuk ug gSA
3- ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ rF;ksa rFkk fl)kUrksa nksuksa ls tqM+k gSA
rF; dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, xwM ,oa gkV us fy[kk gS& rF; ,d vuqHkofl) lR;kiuh; voyksdu (empirically verifiable
observation) gSA vFkkZr~ rF;ksa dk ,d oSKkfud Lo:i gS ftls dHkh Hkh dksbZ 'kks/kdÙkkZ fujh{k.k o voyksdu dj mldh
igpku dj ldrk gSA tSls vxj ;g dgk tk;s fd xehZ ds ekSle esa fnYyh dk rkieku c<+dj 40° lsaVhxzsM gks tkrk
gSA ;g ,d rF; gS ftldk voyksdu ;k ijh{k.k dksbZ Hkh 'kks/kdÙkkZ xehZ ds fnuksa dk rkieku fjdkMZ dj vklkuh ls irk
yxk ldrk gSA rF;ksa dk o.kZu djrs gq, ih0 oh0 ;ax dk dguk Fkk fd rF; ewrZ phtksa rd gh lhfer ug gSA lkekftd
foKku ds {ks=k esa fopkj] vuqHko rFkk Hkkouk,a Hkh rF; gSaA blfy, mudk dguk Fkk] rF;ksa dks ,sls HkkSfrd] 'kkjhfjd]
ekufld ok m}sxkRed ?kVukvksa ds :i esa ns[kk tkuk pkfg, ftudh fu'p;iwoZd iqf"V dh tk ldrh gS ,oa ftUgsa ^lkè;
dh nqfu;k* (World of Discourse) esa lp dgdj Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA ih0 oh0 ;ax us Hkh rF;ksa ds oSKkfud Lo:i
dks mtkxj fd;k gSA
b0 nq£[ke us lkekftd rF; dk fo'ys"k.k foLrkj ls fd;k gS mudk dguk Fkk fd lkekftd rF; gh lekt'kkL=kh;
v/;;u dk çeq[k v/;;u {ks=k gSA os lkekftd rF; dks ,d ,slk rF; ekurs gS]a tks oLrqfu"B gksrk gS] vkSj bldk fujh{k.k
ge ,d oLrq ds :i esa dj ldrs gSaA blfy, os lkekftd rF; dks ,d oLrq] ,d pht] ,d HkkSfrd inkFkZ ds :i esa
ns[kk gSA ftl çdkj ,d HkkSfrd inkFkZ dk v/;;u HkkSfrdh foKku esa fd;k tkrk gS] mlh çdkj lekt'kkL=kh] lkekftd
rF; dk v/;;u djrs gSaA
nqf[kZe ds }kjk lkekftd rF;ksa dk tks fo'ys"k.k fd;k x;k gS] mlds vk/kkj ij lekftd rF; (Social Facts) dh fuEu
fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k fd;k tkrk gS%
1- ckg~;iu (Externality)
2- vkUrfjd (Internality or Constraint)
3- lkoZHkkSfed (Universality)
4- oLrqfu"B (Objective)
1- ckáiu% nqf[kZe us ^lks'ky QSDVl* lkekftd rF; dh fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k djrs gq, ;g crk;k dh lkekftd
rF; euq"; ds ckgj jgrk gS euq"; ds ckgj jgrs gq, Hkh ;g mlds fopkjksa dks çHkkfor djrk gSA pw¡fd lkekftd
rF; euq"; ds ckgj jgrk gS blfy, bls le>uk vklku gks tkrk gSA
2- vkUrfjd% ;|fi lkekftd rF; euq"; ds ckgj jgrk gS ijUrq ;g O;fDr dks çHkkfor djrk gSA blds çHkko
rFkk egRo dks lHkh vius vUnj eglwl dj ldrs gSaA mnkgj.kLo:i lekt ds tks vuqeksnu (Sanction) gSa]
mldk euq"; ds Åij mlds O;ogkj dks fu;af=kr djus esa ,d çdkj dk ncko gksrk gSA ftlds dkj.k O;fDr
vius O;ogkj dks fu;af=kr djrk gSA
20 vuql/a kku fof/k
3- lkoZHkkSfedrk% lkekftd rF;ksa dk Lo:i lkoZHkkSfed gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ ;g lHkh O;fDr;ksa dh psru voLFkk dks
leku :i ls çHkkfor djrk gSA bl :i esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lkekftd rF;] lekt ds lHkh O;fDr;ksa
dks çHkkfor djrs gS]a blfy, ;g euq"; ds lkewfgd thou esa leku :i ls viuk çHkko cukdj jgrk gSA mnkgj.k
ds fy, ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd tc ge /keZ dh ckr djrs gSa rc ;g Lohdkj djrs gSa fd /kkfeZd fo'okl rFkk
mlds vuq:i mikluk djuk lHkh O;fDr;ksa ds lkewfgd thou dk ,d vax gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ ;g dgk tk ldrk
gS fd rF;ksa ds nks Lo:i gksrs gSa & ,d Lo:i og gS tks O;fDr rd gh lhfer jgrk gS vkSj nwljk Lo:i mldk
lkekftd Lo:i gS tks mlds dk;Z djus dh i)fr] lkspus dh i)fr dks O;fDrxr :i ls Hkh çHkkfor djrk
gSA blds lkFk rF; dk ,d nwljk lkekftd Lo:i Hkh gksrk gS] ftlds dkj.k O;fDr ds ctk; iwjk lekt mlls
çHkkfor jgrk gSA
tgk¡ rd nqf[kZe }kjk fn, x, lkekftd rF; dh vo/kkj.kk dk ç'u gS] nqf[kZe us lkekftd rF; ds lkekftd
Lo:i dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gSA mUgksaus vkRegR;k ds foospu esa bl ckr dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gS fd
vkRegR;k ;|fi ,d O;fDr ds O;fDrxr lksp ls tqM+h gksrh gS] ijUrq tc ;g O;fDrxr lksp lkekftd lksp
dk :i ys ysrh gS] rc bldk ,d lkewfgd Lo:i Hkh gks tkrk gS ftlds dkj.k lekt Hkh çHkkfor gksrk gSA
blfy, mUgksaus vkRegR;k dks ,d lkekftd rF; ds :i esa lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u fd, tkus ij cy fn;kA
4- oLrqfu"B% tc lkekftd rF; dks oLrqfu"B dgk tkrk gS rks blls vfHkçk; ;g gksrk gS fd dSls bl rF; dk
v/;;u fcuk fdlh iwokZxzg ds fd;k tk ldsA vkRegR;k ds v/;;u esa mUgksaus ;g ik;k dh vkRegR;k ds ckjs
esa igys ls gh dqN euksoSKkfud fo'ys"k.k çLrqr fd, x, FksA mudh ;g ekU;rk Fkh fd vkRegR;k dk fo'ys"k.k
u rks tSfodh; vk/kkj ij fd;k tkuk pkfg, vkSj u gh euksoSKkfud vk/kkj ijA mUgksaus bu nksuksa fl)karksa dk
[kaMu djrs gq, ;g crk;k fd vkRegR;k dh okjnkrksa dk ,d lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u fd;k tkuk pkfg,] vkSj
blfy, mUgksaus iwoZfu/kkZfjr lksp dh vkykspuk djrs gq, vkRegR;k dks ,d ubZ lksp ds rgr lekt'kkL=kh;
fo'ys"k.k çLrqr fd;kA mUgksaus ik;k fd tc O;fDr lekt ds lkFk vius vkidks vyx eglwl djus yxrk gS
rc vkRegR;k djus dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA /keZ esa vkLFkk j[kus okys O;fDr esa vkRegR;k djus dh laHkkouk
vis{kkd‘r de gksrh gSA blh çdkj mudk ekuuk Fkk fd fookfgr O;fDr ds ctk;] vfookfgr O;fDr esa vkRegR;k
djus dh ço‘fr T;knk ikbZ tkrh gSA bl çdkj nqf[kZe us vkRegR;k dks ,d lkekftd rF; ekudj mlds
lkekftd lanHkZ esa fo'ys"k.k djus ij T;knk egRo fn;kA
blds vfrfjDr lkekftd rF; dh fo'ks"krk dks crkrs gq, mUgksaus lkekftd rF; dks ,d Lora=k bdkbZ ds :i
esa ns[kkA mUgksaus lkekftd rF; dks lqbZ tsfufjl (Sui Generis) dgk gSA lqbZ tsusfjl ls rkRi;Z] lkekftd rF;
dk ,d Lora=k :i ls viuk vfLrRo cukdj j[kuk gSA lkekftd rF; dks mUgksaus ,d oLrq ekuk gSA vFkkZr
lkekftd rF; mruk gh ewÙkZ gS ftruk ,d oLrq ;k pht gksrh gSA bUgsa fdlh vkSj rF; dh vko';drk ugha
gksrh blfy, ;g Lora=k gksrs gSaA
bl çdkj ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd nqf[kZe }kjk çfrikfnr lkekftd rF; dh vo/kkj.kk ,d oSKkfud vo/kkj.kk
gS ftlds }kjk mUgksaus lekt'kkL=k esa rF;ksa dk lkekftd fo'ys"k.k ds vk/kkj dks oSKkfud dlkSVh ij LFkkfir
djus dh dksf'k'k dh gSA
bl izdkj rF; dh fuEufyf[kr fo'ks"krkvksa dh ppkZ dh tk ldrh gSa&
1- rF; dk v/;;u ,d lkekftd ?kVuk ds :i esa fd;k tk ldrk gSA
2- rF;ksa dk Lo:i tSlk fd nq£[ke us crk;k gS] ewrZ gksrk gS vFkkZr~ bls ,d oLrq dh rjg gh tk¡pk vkSj ij[kk tk
ldrk gSA
3- rF;ksa ds vewrZ vfLrRo dks Hkh lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us Lohdkj fd;k gSA blds vuqlkj rF;ksa dks ge viuh vuqHkwfr
ds vk/kkj ij eglwl dj ldrs gSa vkSj bl izdkj ;g vko';d ug fd rF;ksa dk Lo:i izR;{k gksA ;g vizR;{k
:i ls gekjs vkRefu"B vuqHkwfr (subjective experience) dk Hkh ,d vfHkUu vax gksrk gSA
4- ftu yksxksa us rF;ksa ds ewrZ o okLrfod Lo:i dh ppkZ dh gS os ekurs gSa fd rF; dk v/;;u ,d okLrfod fLFkfr
ds :i esa fdlh Hkh nwljs O;fDr ds }kjk ijh{k.k dj fd;k tk ldrk gSA tSls fd vxj ge dgrs gSa fd ty
dk rkieku 100° lsaVhxzsM ls T;knk gks rks ok"ihdj.k dh fØ;k 'kq: gks tkrh gSA ;g ,d rF; gSA fdlh O;fDr
ds 'kjhj dk rkieku vxj 97° lsVa hxzM s gks rks mls ge lkekU; ekurs gSAa ;s lHkh ,d rF; ds :i esa gekjs lkeus
vkrs gSa ftldk ijh{k.k laHko gSA vr% ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd fdlh Hkh rF; dks oSKkfud n‘f"V ls rHkh rF;
ds :i esa Lohdkj fd;k tk ldrk gS tc mlds lR;kiu dh tk¡p laHko gksA
5- tc rF;ksa ds vewÙkZ Lo:i dh ckr dh tkrh gS rks gesa vuqHko dk lgkjk ysuk iM+rk gSA vuqHko ds vk/kkj ij
gh ge dg ldrs gSa fd lq;ksZn; ;k lq;kZLr dk le; gks x;k gksrk gSA lq;Z dks ,d fn'kk esa mfnr gksrs ns[k
fujarjrk ds vk/kkj ij ,d rk£dd :i ls vuqeku yxk;k tkrk gS ftlds }kjk ;g dgk tkrk gS fd vxys fnu
Hkh lq;Z ml fn'kk esa mfnr gksxkA
dkys ckny ns[kdj ge ;g vuqeku yxk cSBrsa gSa fd o"kkZ gksus okyh gSA vDlj dkys ckny dks o"kkZ gksus ds izFke
y{k.k ds :i esa Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA blfy, ge vuqeku yxkrs gSa fd ekulwu dk lgh le; ij vkuk fdlkuksa
ds fy, izlUurk dk dkj.k gksrk gSA
6- lkekftd rF; dks Hkh ,d dk;Z&dkj.k laca/k ds :i esa tksM+dj ns[kk tkrk gSA nw£[ke us ;g ik;k fd fookfgr
O;fDr esa vfookfgr O;fDr ds vis{kk vkRegR;k djus dh izo‘fÙk de ik;h tkrh gSA bl izdkj tks O;fDr lekt
ls ftruk vyx gksrk gS ;k ftruk ,dkdh thou O;rhr djrk gS mlds vkRegR;k djus dh izo‘fÙk mruh gh
c<+ tkrh gS vkSj blds foifjr tks O;fDr lekt ls ftruk tqMk+ gksrk gS mlesa vkRegR;k djus dh izo‘fÙk mruh
gh de gksrh gSA
rF;ksa dh Hkwfedk
mi;qZDr fo'ks"krkvksa ds vk/kkj ij ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd fl)kUrksa ds fuekZ.k esa rF;ksa dh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA foKku
lnSo rF;ksa ds lkFk ,d lkis{k lac/a k cuk;s j[kuk pkgrk gS rkfd fl)kUrksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k tk ldsA rF;ksa vkSj fl)kUrksa
ds chp ,d fujarj laca/k cuk gksrk gS ftlesa ;s nksuksa ,d&nwljs ls ijLij laca/k cukdj ,d&nwljs dks izHkkfor djrs gSaA
vxj fl)kUr] rF; ds fy, ,d izsj.kk lzksr gS rks rF; Hkh fl)kUr ds fy, izsj.kk lzksr gSA blfy, rF;ksa dh fuEu Hkwfedk
dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gS&
1- rF; fl)kUr fuekZ.k dk igyk dne gSA 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius 'kks/k ds nkSjku dqN ,sls rF;ksa dk ladyu dj ysrk gS
ftlls fl)kUr ds fuekZ.k esa dkQh enn feyrh gSA bu rF;ksa dh [kkst dks ,d u;s rF; ds :i esa Hkh ns[kk tk
ldrk gSA mnkgj.kLo:i fpfdRlk foKku esa vpkud gh ;g rF; izdV gqvk fd isaflfyu QaQqnh (Fungus) ds
}kjk thok.kq ds o‘f) ij vadq'k yxk;k tk ldrk gSA ,d isaMqye ls tqM+k ,d gh eki dk /kkxk vxj xfr'khy
gks rks mls blds vkxs&fiNs tkus dh nwjh vkSj le; Hkh ,d leku gksxhA lkekftdj.k ds izfØ;k esa tks O;ogkj
lh[ks tkrs gSa mldk ,d LFkk;h vlj euq"; ds O;fDrRo fodkl ij iM+rk gSA
2- rF;ksa ds }kjk fl)kUrksa dks vLohdkj fd;k tkrk gS vkSj fl)kUrksa ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p lEHko gks tkrh gSA rF;
laiw.kZ :i ls fdlh Hkh fl)kUr dks lR;kfir ug dj ldrs D;ksafd fl)kUrksa dks dqN fo'ks"k fufj{k.k ds }kjk
Hkh LFkkfir djus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gSA fl)kUrksa dks rF;ksa ds vuq:i gksuk vko';d gksrk gS vkSj vxj ,slk
ug gks lds vFkkZr~ vxj rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij izfrikfnr fl)kUr mlds vuq:i ug gks rks ,slh fLFkfr esa ml
fl)kUr dks vLohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj bl izdkj 'kks/k ,d fujarj izfØ;k gS ftlesa fl)kUrksa dks vLohdkj
djuk rFkk muds lR;kiu dh tk¡p gks tkus ds ckn mls LFkkfir djuk nksuksa laHkkouk,a gksrh gSaA dHkh&dHkh ,slk
Hkh gksrk gS fd u;s rF; ds vk/kkj ij iqjkus fl)kUrksa dks Lohdkj djuk eqf'dy gks tkrk gSA ,slh fLFkfr esa
fl)kUrksa esa ifjorZu fd;k tkrk gS ;k u;s rF;ksa dh jks'kuh esa fl)kUrksa dks NksM+uk iM+rk gSA dbZ oSKkfudksa us
rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij iqjkus fl)kUrksa dks xyr crk;k gSA fdlh fl)kUr dks xyr crkus dk rkRi;Z ;g ug gS fd
u;s fl)kUr dks mlh {k.k LFkkfir fd;k tkuk vko';d gksA u;s fl)kUrksa dks LFkkfir fd;s fcuk Hkh iqjkus
fl)kUrksa dks R;kxk tk ldrk gS] vxj os rF;ksa dh O;k[;k djus esa vleFkZ gksaA
22 vuql/a kku fof/k
bl lanHkZ esa nq£[ke }kjk vkRegR;k ij fd;s x;s 'kks/k dk viuk vyx egÙo gSA igyh ckj nq£[ke us vkRegR;k
ds v/;;u ds fy, tSfodh; rFkk euksoSKkfud dkj.kksa dks udkjrs gq, bl ckr ij cy fn;k fd vkRegR;k dk
dkj.k lkekftd ifjfLFkfr ls tqM+k gksrk gS vkSj blfy, mUgksaus vkRegR;k ds fofHkUu izdkjks dk o.kZu djrs gq,
crk;k fd bu lHkh dkj.kksa ds ihNs lkekftd dkjd rÙoksa dks rF; ds :i esa igpkuus dh vko';drk gSA
3- rF; fl)kUr dks Li"V djrs gSA rF;ksa ds }kjk fl)kUr ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p vklkuh ls dh tkrh gSA vxj ;g
dgk tkrk gS fd lS)kfUrd :i ls LoLFk jgus ds fy, 'kq) gok] ty vkSj lkQ okrkoj.k egÙoiw.kZ gSaA bl
lS)kfUrd fopkj dks iq"V djus ds fy, nks ,sls {ks=k fy, tk ldrs gSa tgk¡ bl ckr dk irk pyk;k tk ldrk
gS fd nks {ks=k tgk¡ ,d txg 'kq) gok] ty vkSj lkQ okrkoj.k gS ogk¡ fcekj ejus okyksa dh la[;k de gS
vis{kkÑr ml txg ds tgk¡ yksxksa dks 'kq) gok] nwf"kr ty vkSj xank okrkoj.k feyrk gSA
bl izdkj mi;qZä ckrksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd rF;ksa dk ,d ?kfu"B laca/k fl)kUr ls gS vkSj fl)kUr fuekZ.k ds
fy, rF;ksa ds Lo:i dk oSKkfud gksuk ,d vko';d 'krZ gSA
fl)kUr dk vFkZ] izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krk,a
(Meaning, Nature and Characteristics)
fdlh Hkh 'kks/k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ mís'; rF;ksa dh [kkst djuk gksrk gSA ijarq dksbZ Hkh fo"k; rF;ksa ds [kkst rd gh lhfer
ug jgrk cfYd [kkl izdkj ds rF;ksa dk irk yxkdj mlds fujarj LoHkko dk v/;;u dj ysus ds ckn og rF;ksa dks
O;ofLFkr dj mls le>us ds fy, ;k rks fdlh vo/kkj.kk dk lgkjk ysrk gS ;k fQj fdlh fl)kUr dks izfrikfnr djus
dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA blfy, fl)kUr dh ,d lhfer ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, xqM rFkk gkV us fy[kk gS fd fl)kUr rF;ksa ds
chp ds laca/k dks n'kkZrk gSA ijlh ,l0 dksgsu us viuh iqLrd Modern Social Theory esa fl)kUr dh O;k[;k foLrkj
ls izLrqr dh gSA mudk dguk Fkk fd tgk¡ ,d vksj rF; dsoy ,d ?kVuk ls lacaf/kr gksrs gSa og fl)kUr esa mu lHkh
?kVukvksa rFkk izfØ;kvksa dks le>us dh {kerk gksrh gSA vkus okyh ?kVukvksa dk vanktk Hkh fl)kUr ds vk/kkj ij gh yxk;k
tk ldrk gSA blfy, dksgsu dk er Fkk fd fl)kUr rF;ksa ls ijs gSA ,d iÙks dk tehu ij fxjuk ,d ?kVuk gS ijarq
i‘Foh ds xq:Rokd"kZ.k ds fl)kUr ds }kjk mldh O;k[;k ml izdkj dh xbZ vU; ?kVukvksa rFkk Hkfo"; esa ?kVus okyh
?kVukvksa dh Hkh O;k[;k dh tk ldrh gSA
ilhZ dksgsu us fl)kUr ds vFkZ dh O;k[;k djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd fl)kUr ,d [kqys pSd dh rjg gS ftldk bLrseky ml
pSd ds bLrseky djus okys ds mij fuHkZj djrk gSA vxj fdlh ,d dFku dks ,d fl)kUr ds :i esa iz;ksx fd;k tk;s
rks ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd ;g flQZ rF; dks gh O;Dr djrk gSA tc O;fDr ;g dgrk gS fd mlds ikl ,d nqdkunkj
ds O;ogkj dks le>us dk ,d fl)kUr gS rks bldk ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyk tkuk mfpr gksxk fd og ml nqdkunkj ds izR;sd
fØ;kdykiksa dks le>us dh {kerk j[krk gS vkSj og nqdkunkj mls Bx ug ldrkA
xqM ,oa gkV dk dguk Fkk fd lkekU;r% yksx ;g xyrh dj cSBrsa gSa fd os foKku dks flQZ rF;ksa ls tqM+k ekurs gSaA vkSj
fl)kUr dks n'kZu'kkL=k ls tksM+dj ns[krs gSaA bl Hkzked fopkj dk [kaMu djrs gq, xqM o gkV us ;g dgk gS fd ,d
'kksèkdÙkkZ vius oSKkfud 'kks/k esa fuEu ckrksa dk fo'ks"k /;ku j[krk gS&
1- og ;g ekurk gS fd fl)kUr vkSj rF; nksuksa ,d&nwljs ds ijLij fojks/kh ug gSa cfYd nksuksa ,d&nwljs ls tqM+s
gSaA
2- fl)kUr dksjh dYiuk ug gSA
3- oSKkfud fl)kUr vkSj rF; nksuksa ,d nwljs ls tqM+s gSaA
blds vfrfjä xqM o gkV dk ;g Hkh ekuuk gS fd foKku ds rF; fujh{k.k ls tqM+s gSa vkSj os vuk;kl gh ug izdV gksrs
cfYd mudk izdV gksuk vFkZiw.kZ gS vkSj blfy, os lS)kfUrd n‘f"Vdks.k ls izklafxd gSaA jkcVZ ds eVZu us fl)kUr dh
ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fy[kk gS fd tc vo/kkj.kk,a ,d ;kstuk ds :i esa var% lacaf/kr gks tkrs gSa rc fl)kUr 'kq: gksrk gSA
dqN lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us fl)kUr dks vo/kkj.kk ls tksM+dj ;g fopkj O;Dr fd;k gS fd vo/kkj.kkvksa dk tks Lo:i
ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gS mls iz;ksx o ijh{k.k ds ifj.kkeksa ds }kjk O;Dr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ¼VkydkV iklZUl½ dk dguk Fkk
fd fl)kUr ,d lkekUohdj.k gS tks Kkr o izdV rF;ksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ ljy 'kCnksa esa ;g dgk tk ldrk
gS fd fl)kUr dk fuekZ.k mu rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij fd;k tkrk gSa ftuds laca/k esa iw.kZ tkudkjh fey pqdh gksA bUg iz;ksx
fl) rF;ksa dks vk/kkj cukdj dqN lkekU; fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs gSa vkSj fl)kUr dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk bl iwjs izdj.k
esa Lohdkj dh tkrh gSA
mi;qZä ifjHkk"kk vkSj fl)kUr ds foospuksijkar fl)kUr dh dqN fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k djuk vko';d gS&
1- fl)kUr rk£dd :i esa var% lacaf/kr rdZokD;ksa dk ,d lewg gS ftlesa iz;ksx fl) fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs gSaA
2- lekt'kkL=kh; fl)kUr lkekftd ?kVuk ls tqM+k gksrk gSA bldk izfriknu okLrfod fujh{k.k&ijh{k.k&oxhZdj.k
ds vk/kkj ij gksrk gSA
3- lekt'kkL=kh; fl)kUr mu oSKkfud fl)kUrksa dh Js.kh esa vkrs gSa ftudk laca/k lkekftd ?kVuk ;k ?kVuk lewg
ls gksrk gSA
4- fl)kUr esa vkuqHkfod lkekUohdj.k (empirical uniformity) vFkkZr~ lR;kfir rF; dks izfrikfnr fd;k tkrk gSA
5- fl)kUrksa esa vo/kkj.kkvksa dk ,d lfEefyr Lo:i O;Dr gksrk gSA
6- rdZ:i ls Øec) vkSj var% lacaf/kr vo/kkj.kkvksa dks vk/kkj cukdj gh fl)kUr izfrikfnr fd;s tkrs gSaA
7- iz;ksx fl) rF;ksa ls dqN lkekU; fu"d"kZ dh iw.kZ tkudkjh fl)kUrksa esa feyrh gSA
8- fl)kUr esa rdZokD;ksa dks ;FkkFkZr% ifjHkkf"kr vo/kkj.kkvksa ds :i esa izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA
9- rdZokD;ksa dk laca/k ,d&nwljs ds lkFk ;qfDrlaxr gksrk gSA
10- fl)kUrksa esa lkekUohdj.k fuxefud&rkSj ij fudkys tkrs gSaA ijarq lekt'kkfL=k; fl)kUrksa esa lkekUohdj.k
fuxefud rkSj ij fudkyuk laHko ug gks ikrk ijarq lekt'kkfL=k; fl)kUrksa esa ;qfDrlaxr rFkk ijLij laxriw.kZ
lkekUohdj.k dh laHkkouk ls bUdkj ug fd;k tk ldrk gSA
mi;qDZ r fo'ks"krkvksa ds vk/kkj ij ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd ftl izdkj ds fl)kUr dks izfrikfnr djus dh laHkkouk foKku
esa gS ml izdkj ds fl)kUrksa dks izfrikfnr djuk lekt'kkL=k esa laHko ug D;ksfa d ekuoh; O;ogkj dh izÑfr ,slh gS ftlesa
ifjorZu dh laHkkouk lnSo cuh gksrh gS vkSj laHkor% blfy, fuf'pr :i ls dksbZ Hkh lkekUohdj.k tks rF;ksa ds vk/kkj
ij fd;s tk ldrs gSa os fuf'pr ug gksrsA ilhZ dksgsu dk er Fkk fd lkekftd fl)kUrksa esa foKku dh vkn'kZ 'krks± dks
izkIr djuk lnSo eqf'dy gksrk gSA fuEu dfBukb;ksa dh ppkZ mUgksaus dh gSa&
1- izdk;kZRed fl)kUr (Functional Theory) dh ppkZ djrs gq, mUgksaus crk;k fd bl izdkj ds fl)kUr esa rk£dd
okD;ksa ds lR;rk dh tk¡p laHko ug D;ksafd ;s okD; pfØ; rjhds ls izLrqr fd;s tkrs gSaA
2- lekt'kkL=kh; fl)kUrksa dh lR;rk dh tk¡p laHko ug D;ksfa d u rks ;gk¡ ;qfDrlaxr lekUohÑr okD;ksa dk iz;ksx
gksrk gSa vkSj u gh rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij okD; foU;kl gksrs gSaA
3- eq[; :i ls lekt'kkL=kh; fl)kUrksa esa okD; foU;kl pqLr ug gksrs blfy, os lnSo vLi"V jgrs gSAa mnkgj.kkFkZ
;g dguk fd lHkh iw¡thoknh lekt esa oxks± ds vk/kkj ij la?k"kZ fo|eku gksrs gSaA bu okD;ksa es lR;rk dh tk¡p
djuk eqf'dy gS D;ksafd bl izdkj ds okD; ls dksbZ budkj ug djrk ijarq buds fo'ks"k lanHkZ ds vk/kkj ij
bldh lR;rk dh tk¡p djuk Hkh laHko ug gSA
fl)kUr dh Hkwfedk
1- lcls izFke vkSj egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk dk mYys[k djrs gq, xqM ,oa gkV dk er gS fd fl)kUr dks ,d fLFkfr fuèkkZj.k
(Orientation) ds :i esa ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A fl)kUr dk egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z rF;ksa ds O;kidrk dks lqfuf'pr dj mls
lhfer djuk gSA fdlh Hkh rF; dks fofo/k rjhdksa ls ns[kk tk ldrk gS vkSj mu rjhdksa ls ns[kus ds i'pkr~ mldh
24 vuql/a kku fof/k
lhekvksa dks fu/kkZfjr dj dqN [kkl igyqvksa dk oSKkfud rjhds ls fufj{k.k&ijh{k.k rHkh laHko gS tc mlds nk;js
ladqfpr gksaA bl izdkj fl)kUr dk izeq[k mís'; ;g gks tkrk gS fd og rF;ksa dh izklafxdrk dks n'kkZrk gSA
lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us ftl izdkj ls fl)kUr fuekZ.k dh O;k[;k dh mu lHkh us bl ckr dk izR;{k o vizR;{k :i
ls mYys[k fd;kA b0 nq£[ke rFkk jkcVZ ds eVZu us fl)kUrksa dks izHkkoh cukus ds fy, rF;ksa dk oxhZdj.k rFkk
mlds nk;js dks lqfuf'pr djus dh 'krks± dk foLrkj ls mYys[k fd;k gSA
2- fl)kUr dks ,d vo/kkj.kk rFkk oxhZdj.k ds :i esa & vxj Kku dks laxfBr rjhds ls izLrqr djuk gS rks rF;ksa
dks fu/kkZfjr djus rFkk mlds fofo/k vk;keksa dks lhfer djus o ,d rk£dd] O;ofLFkr rjhdk viukuk vko';d
gSA bl izdkj ls rF;ksa dks O;ofLFkr djus esa fl)kUr vo/kkj.kkvksa rFkk oxhZdj.k ds }kjk ,d egÙoiw.kZ ekxZn'kZu
dk dke djrk gSA jkcVZ ds eVZu us Hkh lekt'kkL=k dh 'kCnkoyh dks pqLr vkSj mlds vLi"V vFkZ dks oSKkfud
vFkZ nsdj muesa ,d:irk ykus dk fopkj O;Dr fd;k gSA lekt'kkL=k esa Hkh ftu 'kCnkoyh dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk
gS mlesa ,d:irk ykus ds fy, vf/kdka'k lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us 'kCnksa dks ifjHkkf"kr dj mls ,d Li"V fuf'pr lanHkZ
esa iz;ksx fd;s tkus ij cy fn;k gSA izdk;Zoknh fl)kUr ds leFkZd jSMfDyQ czkmu us Hkh izdk;Z 'kCn dk foLrkj
ls o.kZu dj mlds ,d [kkl vFkZ dk o.kZu fd;k FkkA ftl fdlh fo"k; esa rduhfd 'kCnksa ds 'kCnkFkZ dks pqLr
j[kk x;k gS ogk¡ fl)kUr egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA
3- fl)kUrksa }kjk ?kVukvksa rFkk rF;ksa dk laf{kIr fooj.k laHko gks ikrk gSA fl)kUrksa dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk
?kVukvksa rFkk rF;ksa dk laf{kIr fooj.k izLrqr djuk Hkh gSA dHkh&dHkh fl)kUrksa }kjk igys ls gh Kkr rF;ksa dk
lkj Hkh fl)kUr }kjk fey ikrk gSA bu laf{kIr fooj.k dks nks lk/kkj.k Jsf.k;ksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gS&
(i) vkuqHkkfod lekUohdj.k (Empirical Generalisations)
(ii) izLrkoukvksa ds e/; ds laca/k (Systems of Relationships between Propositions)
lekt'kkL=k rFkk euksfoKku esa iz;ksx ij vk/kkfjr rF;ksa dk uhfj{k.k&ijh{k.k dj tks lekUohdj.k fd;s tkrs
gSa blls rF;ksa dk laf{kIr fooj.k dj fl)kUr izfriknu esa dkQh enn fey tkrh gSA U;qVu rFkk vkbaLVkbu ds
fo'ks"k fl)kUrksa esa bl izdkj ds iz;ksx ij vk/kkfjr izLrkouk dks laf{kIr dj mldk fooj.k nsus dk iz;kl fd;k
x;k gSA U;qVu us vius ¯izlfivk (Princpia) rFkk vkbaLVkbu us vius lkis{kokn (Relativity) ds fl)kUr esa bl
rF; dk mn?kkfVr fd;k gSA VkydkV iklZUl us viuh iqLrd Structure of Social Action esa egÙoiw.kZ
lekt'kkfL=k;ksa eq[;r% oscj] nq£[ke rFkk iSjsVks ds fopkjksa rFkk fl)kUrksa dk [kaMu djrs gq, ;g crk;k gS fd
dSls ;s lHkh iqjkus fl)kUrksa ls vyx gVdj ,d loZekU; fl)kUr ftls fØ;k dk ladYioknh fl)kUr
(Voluntaristic theory of Action) dgk tk ldrk gS ds :i esa o£.kr fd;k gSA
4- fl)kUr rF;ksa dh fLFkfr dk Hkfo"; Hkh c[kku djrs gSa & vxj fl)kUr esa ;g {kerk gS fd os rF;ksa dks muds
,d:irk ds vk/kkj ij rkRdkfyd fufj{k.k ds iwoZ gh mlds ckjs esa vuqeku yxk ldsa rks bldk ,d lh/kk lk
vFkZ ;g fudyrk gS fd rF;ksa ds ckjs esa iwokZuqeku yxkdj mldh Hkfo";ok.kh dh tk ldrh gSA bl Hkfo";ok.kh
ds Hkh fofo/k Lo:i gks ldrs gSaA lokZf/kd ekU; /kkj.kk og gS ftlesa Kkr rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij xqIr o vizdV
rF;ksa ds ckjs esa iwokZuqeku yxk;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kLo:i ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd tgk¡ csjkstxkjh T;knk gksxh
ogk¡ ;qokvksa esa vijkf/kd izo‘fÙk ;k fopyu dh fØ;k T;knk ns[kus dks feysxh] bl izdkj ds vuqeku o fu"d"kZ
fudkyus ds fuEu vk/kkj gks ldrs gSa&
(i) ge ;g ekudj pyrs gSa fd fdu dkjd rÙoksa ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,slh fLFkfr mRiUu gksrh gSA
(ii) ge ;g Hkh ekudj pyrs gSa fd dqN dkjd rÙo dqN [kkl ifjfLFkfr esa gh ifjHkkf"kr gksrs gSaA
bl izdkj fl)kUr ds }kjk ge dqN rF;ksa ds izdV gksus dk vuqeku fuf'pr rkSj ij yxk ldrs gSAa tSls xHkZorh
efgyk esa dqiks"k.k ds dkj.k cPpksa dh e‘R;qnj esa o‘f) ns[kh tk ldrh gSA
5- fl)kUr gekjs izkIr Kku ds v/kwjsiu dk Hkh ,glkl fnykrs gSa & fl)kUr rF;ksa esa ik;s tkus okys v/kwjsiu
dks Hkh n'kkZrs gSa vkSj mu VwVs dM+h dks tksM+dj rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij fl)kUr dks iq"V djus dk Hkh dk;Z djrs gSaA
vijk/k foKku ds {ks=k esa lqnjySMa us ftu rF;ksa dks latksdj vijk/kh izo‘fÙk o O;ogkj dk v/;;u dj ftu rF;ksa
dk irk yxk;k mlds vk/kkj ij ;g dgk tk jgk Fkk fd gR;k] ywV] vkxtuh] pksjh vkfn ds ihNs T;knkrj gkFk
fuEu oxZ ds yksxksa dk gksrk gSA bl rF; ds vk/kkj ij ;g fl)kUr izfrikfnr fd;k x;k fd vijk/k dks izkRs lkgu
fuEu oxZ ds yksxksa ds }kjk feyrk gSA lqnjySaM us viuh bl /kkj.kk dks iq"V djus ds fy, dqN vkSj xgjkbZ ls
tc bu rF;ksa ds mij fopkj fd;k rks mUgsa ,slk yxk fd mUgksaus vijk/k dh mu okjnkrksa dk /;kuiwoZd v/;;u
ug fd;k ftlesa mPp oxZ ds yksxksa dk gkFk gksrk gS vkSj tc mUgksaus bl vksj /;ku fn;k rks ik;k fd vijkèk
dh nqfu;k esa lQsniks'k (white collar crime) dk viuk vyx LFkku gS vkSj dbZ ek;us esa mPp oxZ ds }kjk fyIr
vijk/k dh okjnkrsa T;knk uqdlkunsg gksrk gSA bl izdkj bl {ks=k ds mij /;ku nsus ds ckn vusdksa 'kks/k lQsniks'k
vijk/k ds v/;;u esa yxkA
fl)kUr ds izdkj
(Types of Theory)
O;ofLFkr fl)kUr ftls ,d lkekU; fopkj ds :i esa fdlh mís'; dks /;ku esa j[kdj izfrikfnr fd;k tkrk gS] ds pkj
izeq[k izdkjksa dk o.kZu ilhZ ,l dksgsu us fd;k gS&
1- fo'ys"k.kkRed fl)kUr (Analytic Theories): bl izdkj ds fl)kUr vf/kdka'k :i ls ,sls fl)kUr gksrs gSa
ftldk okLrfod thou ls dqN [kkl laca/k ug gksrk gSA bl izdkj ds fl)kUrksa esa dqN Lo;afl) izLrkouk
(Axiomatic Proposition) tks lR; ij vk/kkfjr gksrs gSa vkSj ftUgsa vk/kkj cukdj dbZ vkSj dFkuksa dks fudkyk
tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds fl)kUr vf/kdrj rdZ'kkL=k (Logic) rFkk xf.kr (Mathematics) esa ik;s tkrs gSaA
2- vkn'kkZRed fl)kUr (Normative Theories): bl izdkj ds fl)kUr vkn'kZ voLFkkvksa ds ,d lewg dks n'kkZrs
gSaA ;gk¡ ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd dksgsu us bl izdkj ds fl)kUr dk o.kZu djrs gq, fdlh Hkh :i esa
eSDl oscj ds vkn'kZ izk:i (Ideal Type) dks /;ku esa ug j[kk FkkA blfy, eSDl oscj ds vkn'kZ izk:i ls i‘Fkd
dksgsu us mu fl)kUrksa dk mYys[k fd;k gS tks uhfr'kkL=k (Ethics) rFkk lkSan;Z cks/kh fl)kUr (Aesthetics) ls
tqMs+ gSa ftuesa dykRed fl)kUr rFkk oSpkfjd Lrj ij ik;s tkus okys fl)kUrksa dk lekos'k gksrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ
;g dguk fd bZekunkjh ,d vPNh uhfr gS ;k xk¡/kh ds }kjk fn;s x;s oDrO; îki ls ?k‘.kk djks] ikih ls ug *
bl izdkj ds oDrO; ;k dFku dqN vkn'kZey w d izo‘fÙk;ksa dks mHkkjrs gSa vkSj bu fl)kUrksa dk Lo:i vkn'kkZRed
gksrk gSA
3- oSKkfud fl)kUr (Scientific Theories): oSKkfud fl)kUr dh dqN vk/kkjHkwr fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k dj
ldrs gSa vkSj muesa igyk ;g gS fd oSKkfud fl)kUr lkoZHkkSe ;k loZO;kih (universal) gksrk gSA D;ksafd ;g
dqN ,slh voLFkkvksa (conditions) ds ckjs esa crykrk gS ftuds vUrxZr dqN ?kVuk ;k ?kVuk ds izdkj lnSo ?kfVr
gksrs gSaA nwljk] oSKkfud fl)kUr fu'p; gh vkuqHkfod (empirical) ;k iz;ksxfl) Hkh gksrk gSA bldk rkRi;Z ;g
ug gS fd os dsoy&ek=k vkuqHkfod fujh{k.k ds ifj.kke gSaA vkuqHkfod fujh{k.k fdlh fof'k"V ?kVukvksa dk gksrk
gS( ij pw¡fd fl)kUr loZO;kih gksrs gSa bl dkj.k os fdUg fof'k"V ?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa dFku ug gks ldrsA
oSKkfud fl)kUr bl vFkZ esa vkuqHkfod gksrs gSa fd muls ,sls dFkuksa dk fuxZeu fd;k tk ldrk gS tks fd fdUg
fof'k"V ?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa gSa] vkSj budh tk¡p&iM+rky fujh{k.k ds }kjk dh tk ldrh gSA rhljk] ,d oSKkfud
fl)kUr dks dkj.kkRed (causal) Hkh gksuk pkfg,A bldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd oSKkfud fl)kUr dks ;g crykuk
pkfg, fd ?kVuk ds dfri; izdkjksa ds ?kfVr gksus ds fy, dqN voLFkk,¡ i;kZIr (sufficient) gSa vFkok dqN
voLFkk,¡ vko';d (necessary) gSaA bl fo'ks"krk ds lEcU/k esa rhu er izpfyr gSa&
¼a½ dqN fo}kuksa dk dFku gS fd lHkh oSKkfud fl)kUrksa dk dkj.kkRed Lo:i ug gksrk gS(
¼b½ dqN fo}kuksa dk er gS fd fdlh Hkh oSKkfud fl)kUr dk dkj.kkRed Lo:i ug gksrk gS( vkSj
¼c½ dqN fo}kuksa dh ;g fuf'pr /kkj.kk gS fd lHkh oSKkfud fl)kUrksa dk dkj.kkRed Lo:i gksrk gS(
D;ksafd foKku dk vk/kkjHkwr dk;Z bl ckr dh O;k[;k djuk gS fd ?kVuk,¡ D;ksa ,oa dSls ?kfVr gqbZA Vhek'ksQ]
Vkmehu rFkk dkyZ ikij us bu fo'ks"krkvksa dh ppkZ foLrkj ls dh gSaA
26 vuql/a kku fof/k
4- rkfÙod fl)kUr (Metaphysical Theory): rkfÙod ,oa oSKkfud fl)kUrksa esa eq[; Hksn ;k vUrj ;g gS fd
rkfÙod fl)kUr oLrqr% ijh{k.k&;ksX; ug gksrs ;|fi mudk rk£dd ewY;kadu fd;k tk ldrk gSA dqN rkfÙod
fl)kUrksa dk foKku ds lkFk eryc gh ug gksrkA
vUr esa] cgqr ls lekt'kkL=kh; fl)kUrksa dk ijh{k.k blfy, Hkh dfBu gksrk gS D;ksafd os dqN ,sls vLi"V
fo/kku nsrs gSa ftudk fd n‘<+rkiwoZd ijh{k.k lEHko ug gksrkA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ^lHkh vkS|ksfxd lektksa esa oxZ&la?k"kZ
gksrk gS*A Li"V gS fd bl fl)kUr dks bruk lkekU; o vLi"V (general and vague) Lo:i iznku fd;k x;k
gS fd mldk oSKkfud vkèkkj Lor% gh u"V gks tkrk gSA ekdZ~l }kjk izfrikfnr fl)kUr dk ijh{k.k laHko ug
gSA
ijUrq bl lUnHkZ esa dksgsu (Cohen) us ;g Hkh dgk gS fd lHkh lekt'kkL=kh; fl)kUr bl izdkj ds ug gksrsA
dqN ifj'kq) ,oa ijh{k.k&;ksX; fl)kUr Hkh gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ ÞvkS|ksfxd lektksa esa lkekftd xfr'khyrk dh ek=kk
ml lekt esa gkfly fd, x, vkS|ksfxdj.k dh ek=kk ds vuqlkj izR;{kr% cnyrh jgrh gSAß ;g dFku lS)kfUrd
gS&vFkkZr~ ;g rF; ds ckjs esa ug dgrk] vfirq ,d vpy lEcU/k dks n'kkZrk gS&;g vkuqHkfod ;k iz;ksxfl)
gS ,oa ;g dkj.kkRed gSA ;g lp ug Hkh gks ldrk gS] ij og nwljk fo"k; gSA
fl)kUrksa ds fofHkUu izdkjksa dh ppkZ ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd tgk¡ rd lkekftd O;oLFkk dk iz'u gS mlds v/;;u
esa mijfyf[kr pkjksa fl)kUr lkekftd O;oLFkk dh mRifÙk ds ckjs esa izekf.kd :i ls dqN fl)kUr izfrikfnr dj ldrs
gSaA dksgsu us la?k"kZ fl)kUr (Coercion Theory), vf/kf"Br fl)kUr (Interest Theory), rFkk vofLFkrRo fl)kUr (Inertia
Theory) rhuksa dh ppkZ djrs gq, crk;k gS fd lkekftd O;oLFkk esa mRifÙk dks le>us esa rhuksa vleFkZ gSaA vf/kf"Br
fl)kUr dks os fQj Hkh egÙoiw.kZ ekurs gSa D;ksafd blds vk/kkj ij vO;oLFkk ls O;ofLFkr lekt ds izfrekuksa dks le>us
esa enn feyrh gSA
bdkbZ dk laf{kIr vk'k;
mi;qDZ r bdkbZ esa lkekftd vuql/a kku dh izÑfr dk o.kZu fd;k x;kA lkekftd vuql/a kku dh ifjHkk"kk] vFkZ] mís';] blds
fo"k; {ks=k rFkk blds egÙo dh tkudkjh ls Hkh voxr djk;k x;k gSA lkekftd vuql/a kku esa vo/kkj.kkvksa ds vFkZ] izÑfr
,oa egÙo dh Hkh ppkZ foLrkj ls dh x;h gSA fdlh Hkh lkekftd 'kks/k esa midYiuk dk dkQh egÙo gksrk gSA bl ikB
esa midYiuk ds vFkZ] L=kksr] blds egÙo] izdkj ,oa midYiuk ds fuekZ.k esa vkus&okys laHkkfor dfBukb;ksa dk Hkh foLrkj
ls o.kZu fd;k x;k gSA bl bdkbZ ds vafre [kaM esa rF; rFkk fl)kUrksa dh foLrkj ls ppkZ djrs gq, mlds vFkZ] Hkwfedk]
egÙo] fo'ks"krkvksa] laca/k rFkk fl)kUr ds izdkj dk o.kZu djrs gq, ;g crkus fd dksf'k'k dh x;h gS fd fdl izdkj
lkekftd 'kks/k esa v/;;u fof/k dk bLrseky lgh lanHkZ esa djus ls igys fof/k ds nk'kZfud rFkk lS)kfUrd ckrksa ds mij
Hkh /;ku nsuk vko';d gSA
Lor% ewY;kadu ds fy, iz'u
bl ikB dks vPNh rjg i<+us ds ckn ewY;kadu ds fy, dqN iz'uksa dk mÙkj nsuk laHko gks ldsxk tks fuEu gS&
1- vuqla/kku D;k gS\ lkekftd vuqla/kku dh fof/k dk o.kZu djsaA
2- lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ijaijk dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, bldh izÑfr ,oa v/;;u {ks=k dk o.kZu djsaA
3- lkekftd vuqla/kku esa vo/kkj.kkvksa ds vFkZ] izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krkvksa dk o.kZu djsA
4- midYiuk D;k gS\ vPNh midYiuk cukus dh 'krks± dk o.kZu djsaA
5- lkekftd 'kks/k esa rF;ksa ds egÙo vkSj Hkwfedk dk o.kZu djsaA
6- lkekftd 'kks/k esa fl)kUr dh D;k Hkwfedk gS\ bldh fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k djsaA
7- lkekftd 'kks/k esa fl)kUrksa ds egÙo dh ppkZ djrs gq, blds fofHkUu izdkjksa dk o.kZu djsaA
8- rF; vkSj fl)kUr ds chp ds laca/k dks Li"V djsaA
lkekftd ?kVukvksa dk oSKkfud v/;;u 27
v/;k;&2
lkekftd ?kVukvksa dk oSKkfud v/;;u
(Scientific Study of Social Phenomena)
oSKkfud fof/k vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk
(Scientific Method: Meaning and Definition)
foKku dk vk/kkj dqN ,slh ekU;rk,a gS ftls u fd LFkkfir fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj u gh blds okLrfod o izdV fLrRo
dks >qByk;k tk ldrk gSA ijarq oSKkfud vuqekuksa ds ckjs es ;g t:j dgk tk ldrk gS fd os lR; ij vk/kkfjr gS
vkSj blhfy, ;g LokHkkfod gS fd ge oSKkfud [kkst dks lR; ekudj mls Lohdkj djsaA ;gk¡ ij ;g Hkh /;ku j[kuk
gksxk fd foKku Kku ds okLrfod òksRk dh [kkst djrk gSA bl lanHkZ esa ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd oSKkfud i)fr
o fof/k Kku ds oSKkfud vk/kkj ls lacaf/kr gksrk gSaA blhfy, xqMs o gkV us foKku ds oSKkfud vk/kkj dk o.kZu fd;k
gSA blds dqN vk/kkjHkwr ekU;rk,a (Basic Assumptions) fuEu gSa%
aa. HkkSfrd thou dk fLrRo%& foKku bl vk/kkj ij fVdk gS fd HkkSfrd thou dk fLrRo gS vkSj ;g vkjafEHkd dFku
lR; gSA ftl nqfu;k esa ge jgrs gS mldk HkkSfrd Lo:i (Material form) gS ftls tk¡pk o ij[kk tk ldrk gSA
oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk ge bl nqfu;k ds HkkSfrd thou dks le> ldrs gSaAs
b- lalkj dh xfrfof/k;ksa dks le>k tk ldrk gS%& oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk foKku esa fo'o txr ds xfrfof/k;ksa rFkk
;gk¡ ?kVus okyh fØ;kvksa dh tkudkjh gks ldrh gSA
c- lalkj ds fu;eksa dks ge viuh KkusfUnz;ksa ds }kjk le> ldrs gS%& foKku fd ;g ekU;rk gS fd ge viuh KkusfUnz;ksa
ds }kjk fujh{k.k o ijh{k.k dj lalkj dh fofHkUu izfØ;kvksa dks le> ldrs gSaA
d- ?kVukvksa ds chp dk;Z&dkjd laca/k gksrk gS vFkkZr~ fdlh Hkh ?kVuk dks izHkkfor djus ds dqN dkjd rRo gksrs gSa
ftldh igpku foKku esa oSKkfud fof/k dks viukdj fd;k tk ldrk gSA
foKku ds dqN vk/kkjHkwr ekU;rkvksa dk o.kZu djus ds i'pkr~ oSKkfud fof/k ds vFkZ dks le>uk vklku gks tkrk gSA
lekt'kkL=k es oSKkfud fof/k ds leFkZu djus okys lekt'kkfL=k;ksa es vxLr dkEV dk uke fo'ks"k :i ls fy;k tkrk
gSA mUgksaus gh loZizFke vius iqLrd ikWftfVo fQykslQh (Postive philosophy) eas euq"; ds O;ogkj dk lekftd lanHkZ
dh i‘"BHkwfe esa oSKkftd rjhds ;k fof/k dk iz;ksx dj lekftd ?kVukvksa ds v/;;u fd;s tkus ij cy fn;k FkkA mudk
dguk Fkk fd ftl izdkj izkd‘frd ?kVukvksa dk fo'ys"k.k izd‘fr foKku ds fl)kUrksa ds }kjk oSKkfud :i ls fd;k tkrk
gS mlh izdkj lekftd fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u Hkh oSKkfud rjhds ls fd;k tkuk pkfg,A dkEV us mu oSKkfud rjhdksa dk
foLrkj ls mYys[k djrs gq, fuEu pkj fof/k dk eq[; :i ls o.kZu fd;k gS tks fuEu gS%&
aa - fujh{k.k (Observation)
b- iz;ksx (Experiment)
c. rqyukRed (Comparision)
d- ,sfrgkfld (Historical)
viuh egÙoiw.kZ iqLrd iksftfVo fQykslQh es mUgksaus ekuo Kku ds fuEu rhu Lrjksa dk o.kZu fd;k gSA
aa. /kkfeZd Lrj (Theological stage)
28 vuqla/kku fof/k
b. rkfRod Lrj (Metaphysical stage)

c. oSKkfud Lrj (Scientific stage)
dkEV ds vuqlkj oSKkfud i)fr es vk/;kfRed o /kkfeZd ;k rkfRod vk/kkjksa ds ctk; oSKkfud fof/k dk iz;ksx dj [kkst
chu dh tkrh gSA ;gk¡ u rks /keZ] u tknw Vksuk vkSj u gh va/kfo'okl o iajijkxr lksp dks vk/kkj cukdj vuqla/kku fd;k
tkrk gSA cfYd bu dYiukvksa rFkk v/kdpjh lksp a ds ctk; oSKkfud i)fr dk vk/kkj fujh{k.k] ijh{k.k] iz;ksx] rqyukRed
foospu ;k fQj ,sfrgkfld lksp gksrk gS blfy, bl fof/k esa fdlh izdkj dh iwokZxzg dk lekos'k ugha gksrk gSA
tktZ yqaMcxZ us viuh iqLrd lekftd vuqla/kku es oSKkfud fof/k dh O;k[;k djrs gq, dgk Fkk fd oSKkfud fof/k dk
bLrseky djus okys lekftd oSKkfud fof/kor~ fujh{k.k] ijh{k.k] oxhZdj.k rFkk ?kVukvksa ds fo'ys"k.k fd;s tkus dks
izkFkfedrk nsrs gSA bl izdkj oSKkfud i)fr esa ,d fo"k; ls lacfU/kr rF;ksa dks okLrfod fujh{k.k }kjk laxfBr fd;k
tkrk gS rRi'pkr~ lekurk ds vk/kkj ij ladsfdr rF;ksa dk oxhZdj.k vkSj bldk fo'ys"k.k dj fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs gSaA
Ýkal ds lekt'kkL=kh b0 nqf[kZe dk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd lekt'kkL=k eas ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u o fo'ys"k.k lekftd rF;
(Social Facts) ds :i es fd;k tkrk gSA lekftd rF; dk v/;;u o fo'ys"k.k oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gS
vkSj oSKkfud fof/k dks viukus ds fy, lekftd rF;ksa ds fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dks /;ku es aj[kuk vko';d gS%&
a. ckáiu (Externality)
b. vkarfjd (constraint)
c. lkoZHkkSfed (Universality)
d. oLrqfu"B (Objective)
nqf[kZe us Hkh oSKkfud fof/k d s}kjk lekftd rF;ksa ds fujh{k.k fd;s tkus dks egÙoiw.kZ ekuk gSA muds vuqlkj oSKkfud
fof/k ds iz;ksx ds }kjk fujh{k.k ds fuEu fu;eksa dk vuqlj.k djuk vko';d gS
a. lekftd rF; dks ,d oLrq ekuk tkuk pkfg,A
b. lekftd rF;ksa ds v/;;u es lHkh iwokZxzgksa dks gVk nsuk pkfg,A
c. lekftd rF;ksa dks oxhZdj.k muds lekU; rFkk vlekU; fo'ks"krkvksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
d. lekt'kkfL=k; v/;;u dh oSKkfud i)fr esa lkekftd rF;ksa dks çHkkfor djus ds fy, fdlh ?kVuk ds fy;s
ftEesnkj dkjd rRoksa dh igpku lgofrZrk :ikUrj.k fof/k (methods of concommitant variations) ds }kjk dh
tk ldrh gSA lekt'kkL=k esa çfrikfnr oSKkfud fof/k ds mi;qZDr foospu ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd rF;ksa dk
v/;;u oSKkfud <ax ls rHkh laHko gS tc oSKkfud i)fr ds rRoksa dks rFkk mudh fo'ks"krkvksa ds ckjs es ,d vke
lgerh gksA blh ckr dks /;ku esa j[kdj dkyZ fi;lZu us fuEu rRoksa dks oSKkfud fof/k ds fy, vko';d ekuk gS
1. rF;ksa dk lrZd o ;FkkFkZ oxhZdj.k rFkk muds chp ds laca/kksa ,oa vuqØeksa dk fujh{k.k
2. oSKkfud fu;eksa dh [kkst ds fy, l‘tukRed lksp
3. vkRe vkykspuk
4. leLr oSKkfudksa ds fy, leku :i ls izkFkfedrk dh vafre dlkSVhA
oSKkfud fof/k dh fo'ks"krk,
krk,a % oSKkfud i)fr dh fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k Åij fyf[kr ifjHkk"kkvksa rFkk muds rRoksa ds
foospu ls Hkh fey tkrk gS ijarq mu fo'ks"krkvksa dks vxj Øec) rjhds ls izLrqr fd;k tk;s rks fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dk
mYys[k vko';d izrhr gksrk gS%
aa. fujh{k.k % fujh{k.k dks lHkh lekt'kfL=k;ksa us oSKkfud fof/k dk vko';d rRo ekuk gSA fujh{k.k dk vFkZ vius vk¡[kksa
ls ns[kh phtksa ds vuq'kkflr voyksdu ls gSA ,d oSKkfud fujh{k.k essa os lHkh xq.k fo|eku gksrs gS ftlds dkj.k
,d lk/kkj.k O;fDr ds ns[kus dh fØ;k ls fHkUu gSA fujh{k.k }kjk rF;ksa dk Kku laf{kIr vkSj Øec) :i esa rHkh
laHko gS tc bldk izf'k{k.k fd;k x;k gksA
fujh{k.k ds }kjk gh oSKkfud i)fr esa oLrqfu"Brk dk lekos'k gks ikrk gSA oSKkfud i)fr es fujh{k.k ds }kjk
oLrqfu"Brk ls vfHkizk; gS vius v/;;u fo"k; dks tSlk og gS Bhd mlh :i es çLrqr djukA ,slk djrs gq,
'kks/kdÙkkZ vius leLr iw.kZ/kkj.kkvksa rFkk vuqekuksa dk R;kx dj fdlh Hkh [kkl fopkj/kkjk dk i{k/kj u gksdj vius
vki dks muls foeq[k j[kdj mudk v/;;u djrk gSA oSKkfud i)fr ds }kjk ftl fu"d"kZ ij ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ igqp ¡ rk
gS mls nwljs 'kks/kdÙkkZ Hkh fujh{k.k dj mlds lO;rk dh tk¡p dj ldrs gSA blhfy, fujh{k.k fof/k ds bLrseky
dks oSKkfud i)fr ds fy, egÙoiw.kZ fof/k le>k tkrk gSA
b. Li"Vrk (Clarity) % oSKkfud i)fr dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk gS Li"VrkA vFkkZr oSKkfud i)fr ds bLrseky ds
ckn fdlh Hkh ?kVuk o rF; ds ckjs es gesa Li"V tkudkjh feyrh gS tks ?kVuk ds okLrfod o fuf'pr :i ls mldh
tkudkjh izkIr djus es lgk;d gksrh gSA tgk¡ dgha Hkh fdlh ?kVuk ds o.kZu ;k v/;;u djus es FkksM+k Hkh ladksp
o lansg gks rks mlls ?kVuk dh tkudkjh vLi"V rFkk vfuf'pr gks ldrh gSA blhfy, ?kVukvksa o rF;ksa dh
tkudkjh es mldk fuf'pr Lo:i gh oSKkfud i)fr dh lQyrk dks n'kkZrk gSA bl :i esa ;g dguk gh dkQh
gksxk fd tgk¡ dgh vfuf'prrk dh fLFkfr gksxh og oSKkfud fl)kUr ds foijhr gksxh vkSj ,slh ifjfLFkfr es
oSKkfud lksap dks LFkkfir djus ds fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fd oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk ,d fuf'pr fu"d"kZ
ij igq¡pk tk;sA mnkgj.k ds fy, vxj ;g dgk tk;s fd ikuh xje gksus ij ok"i cu tkrk gSA ;g oDrO; vius
vki es lR; gksrs gq, Hkh fuf'pr o Li"V rkieku esa ikuh ds ok"i cu tkus dh fØ;k dk ges vkHkkl ugha nsrkA
ijarq vxj ogha nwljh vksj tc ge dgrsa gSa fd 100 fMxzh lsVa hxzV ij ikuh Hkki curk gS rks ;g gesa Li"V rFkk fuf'pr
rF; ds :i es fu"d"kZ ds rkSj ij gesa tkudkjh nsrk gSA oSKkfud i)fr esa bl izdkj ds fuf'pr fu"d"kZ dk gh
egÙo gSA blhfy, oSKkfud i)fr ds bLrseky ls u dsoy gesa Li"V o fuf'pr tkudkjh feyrh gS cfYd ;g fuf'pr
fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus dk ,d okafNr tfj;k Hkh cu tkrk gSA
c. lkekUohdj.k (Generalization) % oSKkfud i)fr dhs ,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk bles l a kekUohdj.k ds :i esa Hkh ns[kh
tk ldrh gSA dqN rF;ksa dh tkudkjh izkIr dj ysus ek=k ls gh oSKkfud i)fr dk dke lekIr ugha gks tkrk gSA
oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk ?kVukvksa ds Øec) v/;;u ds }kjk tks lkekUohdj.k fd;s tkrs gS mlds QyLo:i fl)kUr
ds fuekZ.k esa lgk;rk feyrh gSA oSKkfud fof/k ds iz;ksx }kjk rkfdZd :i ls nks izdkj ds lkekUohdj.k fd;s tkrs
gSa ftUgsa rkfdZd i)fr ds fuEu i)fr ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS%
1. fuxeu i)fr (Deductive Method)% fuxeu i)fr ds }kjk tks lkekUohdj.k gksrk gS mles rdZ dk Øe lkekU;
ls fof'k"V dh vksj gksrk gSA ;gk¡ lkekU; lR; ds vk/kkj ij fdlh Li"V fu"d"kZ ij ge igq¡prs gSaA vxj rkfdZd
:i ls ge ;g eku ysrs gS fd euq"; ej.k'khy (Mortal) gS tks fof'k"V fu"d"kZ Hkh fudkys tk ldrs gS os T;knk
fuf'pr o Li"V gksrs gSA ;gk¡ igys dFku ds lR;rk dh tk¡p djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh gS os Lo;afl) lR;
(Axiomatic truth) ds :i esa gekjs lkeus izdV gksrs gSAa okD;ksa ds fuEu mnkgj.k ds }kjk bl izdkj ds rkfdZd i)fr
dks Li"V fd;k tk ldrk gSA
euq"; ej.k'khy gSA
jke ,d euq"; gSA
blfy, jke ej.k'khy gSA
bl izdkj ls fu"d"kZ es lkekU; ls fof'k"V dh vksj ge c<+rs gSaA
2. vkxeu i)fr (Inductive Method) % oSKkfud i)fr dh gh ,d nwljh fof/k ds }kjk Hkh lkekUohdj.k fd;k
tkrk gSaA vl izdkj ds lekUohdj.k esa fo'ks"k tkudkjh o rF;ksa ds Kku izkIr djus ds ckn ml izdkj ds vkSj vU;
rF;ksa dh tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh gSA tc ml izdkj ds vU; rF; tks ,d [kkl fu"d"kZ dh vksj bZ'kkjk djrs gSa
tc ge bls lkekUohd‘r dj Lohdkj dj ysrs gSA bl izdkj rF;ksa ds Øe'k% v/;;u o voyksdu ds ckn fdlh
fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus dh izfØ;k es rdZ dk Øe fof'k"V ls lkekU; dh vksj gksrk gSA lekt'kkL=k es vf/kdka'k 'kks/k
30 vuqla/kku fof/k
dk vk/kkj vkxeu i)fr ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gS D;ksafd ;gk¡ dqN ?kVukvksa o rF;ksa dk v/;;u djus ds ckn gh
lkekUohdj.k laHko gks ikrk gSA
mi;qDZ r foospu ds ckn ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyk tk ldrk gS fd oSKkfud fof/k es lkekUohdj.k ds ifj.kkeLo:i rF;ksa
ds izd‘fr ds ckjs es tks Kku izkIr gksrs gS mlds vk/kkj ij ,d fuf'pr [kkst esa enn feyrh gSA
d. Hkfo";ok.kh (Predictability) % oSKkfud fof/k dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk ?kVukØe rF;ksa ds v/;;u ds mijkUr
Hkfo";ok.kh djus dh gSA Hkfo";ok.kh djus ds nks fuEu :i gks ldrs gS%
i. lkekU; Hkfo";ok.kh (General Prediction)
ii. oSKkfud Hkfo";ok.kh (Scientific Prediction)
tc ge lkekU; Hkfo";ok.kh dh ckr djrs gSa rks dbZ ckj fdlh /kkfeZd iq:"k ds dFku ds vk/kkj ij lekt ds ckjs es
dqN vuqeku yxkdj ckr dgh tkrh gSA vkfnoklh yksxksa dh ;g /kkj.kk fd ,d lqugjk fnu vk;sxk tc mudh dfBukb;k¡
Hkxoku ds }kjk nwj gks tk;saxh vkSj ml fnu dh izfr{kk es os /kkfeZd vuq"Bku dj ml fnu dk bartkj djrs gSA iiqvk
U;qfxuh ds mi}h; ij clus okys DokD;qVy (Kwatiutl) tutkfr ds yksxksa dh vkLFkk dks dkxksZ dyV (Cargo Cult) ds
:i esa tkuk tkrk gSaA bl mi)hi esa jgus okys tutkfr ,d tgkt dk bartkj djrs gS tks muds ;gk¡ vkdj mudh
t:jr ds lkeku mUgsa ns tk;sxkA bl izdkj fd ckrsa lksapuk ;k fdlh O;fDr dks bl izdkj dk fo'okl fnykuk oSKkfud
i)fr dk fgLlk dnkfi ugha gks ldrkA blhfy, dkyZ esugkbe (Karl mannheim) us viuh iqLrd Ideology and Utopia
esa nks izdkj ds Hkfo";ok.kh dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gSA tc ge dkYifud txr ds ckjs es lksaprs gq, ;g ekudj pyrs
gS fd jkejkT; dh LFkkiuk gksxh rks ;g ,d izdkj dh dksjh dYiuk (utopia) gS lekt'kkL=k es Hkh bl izdkj dh dksjh
dYiuk djus okys fopkjdks dh ckr dh x;h gSA vxLr dkEV dk Hkh ;g ekuuk Fkk fd Kku dh rhu voLFkk,a gSa vkSj
tks vafre voLFkk Kku dh gS og gS oSKkfud lksap ftls mUgksaus vius izR;{kokn ds fl)kUr ds lkFk tksM+ dj ns[kk gSaA
ijarq ;g dguk fd vkt Hkkjrh; lekt es oSKkfud lksap ij gh gekjh lkjh fØ;kdyki vk/kkfjr gSa fcYdqy gh xyr
gksxk D;ksafd bl vk/kqfud ;qx es yksx nSoh izdksi] tknw Vksuk ;k dqN va/kfo'oklksa ds dkj.k i<+s fy[ks yksx Hkh vaqxBh
/kkj.k dj xzgksa ds izdksi dks nwj j[kus dh ckr lkasaprs gSA ekDlZ (Marx) dh fopkj/kkjk esa Hkh bl izdkj ds Hkfo";ok.kh
dk vlj fn[krk gSA mUgksaus viuh iqLrd dE;qfu"V eSfuQsLVksa (Communist Manifesto) es fy[kk gS] ekuo lH;rk dk
bfrgkl oxZ la?k"kZ dk bfrgkl jgk gSA vrhr es laHko gS bl izdkj dh fLFkfr jgh gks ijarq mlds vk/kkj ij Hkfo";ok.kh
dj cSBuk fd vkxs vkus okys le; es Hkh oxZla?k"kZ ds bfrgkl dks nksgjk;k tk;sxk ;g ,d Hkfo";ok.kh gSA
ijarq tc oSKkfud fof/k ds vk/kkj ij Hkfo";ok.kh dh ckr dh tkrh gSa rks oSKkfud fu;eksa dks vk/kkj cukdj dk;Z&dkjd
laca/kksa ds vk/kkj ij Hkfo"; esa ?kVus okys ?kVukvksa ds ckjsa easa iwoZdFku fd;s tkrs gSA tSls de mez es 'kknh djus okys cPpksa
ds LokLF; vDlj Bhd ugha gksrsA de mez esa 'kknh djus okys ekrk&firk ds cPpksa esa e‘R;qnj gh la[;k vf/kd ik;h tkrh
gSA blh izdkj 'kjkc ihdj V ªd pykus okys Mªkboj ds nq?kZVuk dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA T;knk LihM ls xkM+h pykus
ij Hkh nq?kZVuk dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA mlh izdkj flxjsV ihsus okyksa es dSalj fd fcekjh gksus dh laHkkouk vf/kd ik;h
tkrh gS vis{kkd‘r mu yksxksa ds tks flxjsV ugha ihrsA ;s lHkh Hkfo";ok.kh ,slh Hkfo";ok.kh gS ftudk vk/kkj oSKkfud
fl)kUrksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA blhfy, ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd oSKkfud fof/k es oSKkfud Hkfo";ok.kh dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh
gS D;ksafd ;g dk;Z&dkj.k laca/kksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrh gSA
e . lR;kiu dh tk¡p (Verification of Truth) % oSKkfud fof/k dh ,d izeq[k fo'ks"krk gS miyC/k rF;ksa ds ijh{k.k
ds vk/kkj ij ml rF; ds lR;kiu dh tk¡pA rF;ksa ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p ds fy, inkFkZ foKku rFkk jlk;u foKku
sesa rks iz;ksx'kkyk,a gksrh gS tgk¡ ijh{k.k djuk vklku gksrk gSA fu;af=kr okrkoj.k esa iz;ksx'kkykvksa es tks ijh{k.k
fd;s tkrs gS mlls u dsoy rF;ksa ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p gks ikrh gS oju~ rF;ksa ds ckjs es ,d fuf'pr /kkj.kk Hkh cu
tkrh gSA izkd‘frd foKku dh Hkk¡fr bl izdkj ds ijh{k.k dk lR;kiu dh tk¡p ;|fi lekftd foKku esa laHko
ugha gS ijarq fQj Hkh ;gk¡ dk;Z&dkjd laca/k LFkkfir djus ds fy, ,d dkjd rRo dks fu;af=kr dj iz;ksx fd;s
tkrs gSaA bl izdkj ds iz;ksx dh laHkkouk lekftd foKku esa gksrh gSA lkekftd euksfoKku es fo'ks"kdj ekuoh;
O;ogkj ds v/;;u esa bl izdkj ds iz;ksx dh ijaijk dkQh iqjkuh gS rFkk dk;Z&dkjd laca/kksa dks LFkkfir djus
ds fy, rF;ksa dk izekf.kd :i ls fujh{k.k o ijh{k.k gks tkrk gSA
b0 nqf[kZe us ;g fl)kUr izfrikfnr fd;k Fkk fd vkRegR;k dk dkj.k fdlh O;fDr dk lekt ls vyx jguk gSA vxj
dksbZ O;fDr vfookfgr gks] /keZ esa mldh vkLFkk u gks] la;qDr ifjokj ds ctk;s ,dkdh ifjokj esa jgrk gks rks ,slh
lkekftd ifjfLFkfr easa vkRegR;k djus dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA bl fl)kUr ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p vkRegR;k ls
lacaf/kr vkadM+ksa dks ,df=kr dj vklkuh ls dh tk ldrh gSaA
lR;kiu dh tk¡p ds fy, fczfV'k nk'kZfud dkyZ ikWij (Karl Popper) dk er Fkk fd lR;kiu dh tk¡p dh ,d vkn'kZ
i)fr rF;ksa ls lacaf/kr tkudkjh dks udkjus (Falsify) dh gksrh gSA ftl rF; ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p djuh gks mlds
foifjr fdlh dFku dks >qBk lkfcr djuk Hkh lR;kiu dh tk¡p ds fy, vko';d 'krZ gks tkrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ tc ge
;g dgrs gS fd euq"; ej.k'khy gS bl dFku dh iqf"V bls rFkk blds lR;kiu dh tk¡p bl rF; dks >qByk dj Hkh dh
tk ldrh gSA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd lkekftd foKku esa tks n'kZu'kkL=k ls tqM+h dqN vo/kkj.kk,a ,slh
gS ftlds }kjk rF;ksa ds lR;kiu dh tk¡p iM+rky Hkh dh tkrh gSA
oSKkfud fof/k dh çÑfr ,oa egÙo (Nature and Importance of Scientific Method: oSKkfud fof/k dh izd‘fr ,oa
egÙo ds Åij fopkj blh v/;k; esa foLrkj ls oSKkfud i)fr ds fofHkUu pj.kksa dh foospuk djrs le; dh tk;sxhA
;gk¡ ;g crkuk vko';d gks tkrk gS fd oSKkfud fof/k ds izd‘fr dh ckr tc dh tkrh gS rks vDlj ge oSKkfud
fof/k dk ftl izdkj iz;ksx izkd‘frd foKku esa dh tkrh gS ml lanHkZ esa gh lkekftd foKku esa oSKkfud fof/k dk bLrseky
ns[kuk pkgrs gSA
lekt'kkL=k es Hkh dqN ,sls fopkjd Fks ftUgksaus bl ckr ij T;knk cy fn;k fd ftl izdkj izkÑfrd foKku esa oSKkfud
i)fr dk bLrseky dj ,d fuf'pr fu"d"kZ fudkyk tkrk gS mlh izdkj lekt'kkL=k esa Hkh rF;ksa dh tkudkjh fuf'pr
:i ls dh tk ldrh gSA bl izdkj ds fopkj dks izfrikfnr djus okyks es Ýkal ds izeq[k lekt'kkL=kh vxLr dkEV rFkk
nqf[kZe dk uke fos'ks"k :i ls fy;k tkrk gSA bu fo}kuksa dk ;g er Fkk fd oSKkfud fof/k dk bLrseky lekt'kkL=kh;
v/;;u esa laHko gSA blhfy, lekt'kkL=k esa rF;ksa dks [kkstus rFkk tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, oSKkfud fof/k gh loksÙZ ke
fof/k gS vkSj bldk fodYi dksbZ vkSj ugha gks ldrkA
bl /kkj.kk ds foifjr teZuh ds dqN fopkjdksa [kkldj fMYFks (Dilthey) ds fopkj fcYdqy gh fHkUu FksA fMYFks ds fopkjksa
ls izHkkfor gksdj gh eSdl oscj (Max Weber) us ;g ekuk fd oSKkfud fof/k dk bLrseky fo"k; oLrq dks ?;ku eas j[kdj
fd;k tkuk gh laHko gSA rF;ksa dh tkudkjh ds fy, oSKkfud fof/k mRd‘"V fof/k gks ldrk gS iajrq lekt foKku dks os
lkaLd‘frd foKku ds :i es ns[krs gSA mudk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd euq"; ds O;ogkj mldh laLÑfr vkSj lekftdj.k izHkkfor
gksrk gS blfy, euq"; ds O;ogkj dk v/;;u mlds lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k dks /;ku esa j[kdj gh djuk mfpr gksxkA blhfy,
eSdl oscj us viuh iqLrd izksVsLVsUV ,fFkd ,aM LihjhV vkWQ dSfiVfyTe (The protestant ethic & spirit of capitalism)
esa /keZ dk fo'ys"k.k djrs gq, dgk gS fd /keZ dk laca/k iwwathoknh O;oLFkk ls tqM+k gksrk gS vkSj /keZ Hkh iwathoknh n‘f"Vdks.k
dks izHkkfor dj ldrk gSA blfy, ekDlZ ds fopkjksa dk [kaMu djrs gq, eSDl oscj dk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd /kkfeZd fopkjksa
ds }kjk Hkh HkkSfrd phtksa ds izfr vkd"kZ.k c<+ ldrk gSA muds }kjk fd;s x;s v/;;u ds vk/kkj ij gh dbZ vkSj v/;;u
Hkkjrh; lanHkZ esa mu leqnk;ksa ij fd;s x;s ftues /kkfeZd :>ku vf/kd ik;k x;k ijarq lkFk gh oss lQy m|eh ds :i
esa Hkh tkus tkrs gSaA VhecxZ es ekjokM+h leqnk; ds vius v/;;u esa ;g ik;kA
vr% ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd oSKkfud i)fr ds }kjk ftl izdkj izkÑfrd foKku eas fuf'pr rjhds rFkk oLrqfu"B
v/;;u djus dh ijaijk rks ugha gS ijarq fQj Hkh ftl izdkj ds v/;;u lekt'kkL=k esa oSKkfud i)fr dks viukdj
fd;s tkrs gS mldk viuk ,d vyx egÙo gSA mlds egÙo dks lekt'kkL=k esa izR;{kokn ds i{k/kjksa us Hkh Lohdkj fd;k
gS vkSj laHkor% blhfy, eSDl oscj] dkyZ eugkbe (Karl mannheim) ds }kjk Kku ds lekt'kkL=k (Sociology of
Knowledge) dh fo'ks"k :i ls ppkZ jkcVZ ds eVZu (Robert K.Merton) us viuh iqLrd 'kks'y F;ksjh ,.M 'kks'y LVªDpj
32 vuqla/kku fof/k
(Social theory and social structure) eas dh gSA oSKkfud i)fr ds egÙo dh ppkZ djrs gq, jkcVZ ds eVZu us foKku ds
ewyHkwr fl)kUrksa ds oSKkfud vk/kkj nsus esa blds egÙo dks Lohdkj fd;k gSA muds vuqlkj oSKkfud i)fr dk egÙo
foKku ds fuEu rRoksa dks izpkj djus es dkQh egÙoiw.kZ gS
aa - oSKkfud i)fr ds }kjk mu fof/k;ksa dks izekf.kr (Certify) fd;k x;k gS ftlds }kjk rF;ksa dk ladyu fo'oluh;
rjhds ls laHko gks ikrk gSA
b. oSKkfud i)fr ds }kjk gh fo'oluh; :i ls lkekftd foKku ds {ks=k esa Hkh Kku dk HkaMkj bdêk fd;k tk ldk
gSA vxj bu oSKkfud fof/k;ksa ds bLrseky ds }kjk rF;ksa dks bdêk ugha fd;k tkrk rks lkekftd foKku ds lHkh
fu"d"kZ ij vkt iz'u fpUg yxk gksrkA
c- oSKkfud fof/k ds lkFk gh lkFk blds bLrseky ls ;g Hkh irk py ik;k fd dqN ,sls Hkh ekuoh; O;ogkj gS ftuds
v/;;u esa oSKkfud fof/k ftls vkn'kZ fof/k le>k tkrk gS 'kk;n os lgh tkudkjh fnykus es T;knk dkjxj u lkfcr
gksA blfy, lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k rFkk lkekftd ekU;rkvksa dks Hkh /;ku esa j[kdj v/;;u fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA
mi;qZDr xq.kksa dks lfEefyr dj ftl izdkj ls oSKkfud fof/k dk iz;ksx dj v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS og Hkh vius
vki esa dkQh egÙoiw.kZ gSA jkcVZ ds0 eVZu us Åijfyf[kr rhu 'krksZ ds vykok muds la;qDr :i ls iz;ksx dj
lkekftd O;ogkj ds v/;;u dks Hkh izkFkfedrk nh gSA
lkekftd vuqla/kku esa oLrqfu"B ,oa vkRefu"B n‘f"Vdks.k dk vFkZ

(Meaning of Objectivity and Subjectivity in Social Research)
lkekftd vuqla/kku es rF;ksa ds ladyu dks oSKkfud rjhds ls [kkst dj LFkkifr fd;k tkrk gSA tc ge lR; dh [kkst
ds fy, oSKkfud i)fr dk bLrseky djrs gSa rks mlds ihNs ;g ea'kk gksrh gS fd dSls gekjs Kku izkfIr ds lzksr o
fof/k dks oLrqfu"B rjhds ls izLrqr fd;k tk ldsA Kku ds oLrqfu"B gksus ls rkRi;Z ml rF; ds fdlh iwokZxzg ;k /kkfeZd
ekU;rkvksa ls izHkkfor ugha gksuk gSA bl izdkj Kku dh fLFkfr Hkh nks izdkj dh gks ldrh gSA dkyZ ikij (Karl Popper)
dk Hkh er Fkk fd Kku ds nks lzksr gS%
1- vkRefu"B Kku (Subjective Knowledge)
2- oLrqfu"B Kku (Objective Knowledge)
1- vkRefu"B Kku (Subjective Knowledge): ikij dk ;g er Fkk fd ijaijkxr Kku dk vk/kkj vkRefu"B rjhdksa
ij vk/kkfjr Fkk ftlesa Kku dk vk/kkj euq"; dk foosd ug cfYd mldh vuqHkwfr ij vk/kkfjr Fkk ftlds mij
dksbZ Hkh vkykspukRed :[k viukdj mldk [kaMu ok ijh{k.k djus dh ps"Vk ug dh x;hA blesa O;fDr fo'ks"k
dh viuh vuqHkwfr dks izkFkfedrk nh x;hA tSlk fdlh O;fDr us lkspk mlus rF; ds ckjs esa oSlh gh /kkj.kk cuk
yhA dgus dk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd vuqHkwfr ij vk/kkfjr rF; dbZ Js.kh ds gksrs gSaA vkjafHkd voLFkk esa tks le> gksrh
gS og gekjs iwokZxzg rFkk lkaLÑfrd /kkj.kkvksa ls izHkkfor gksrh gSA blfy, ijaijkxr lksp] fd nSoh izdksi ds dkj.k
gh euq"; fcekj iM+rk gS ;k izkÑfrd vkink dk f'kdkj gksdj viuk thou x¡ok cSBrk gSA bl izdkj ds Kku o
rF; vkRefu"B Kku ds L=kksr gksrs gSa ftuesa foosd dh Hkwfedk de] iwokZxgz ksa dks mlh :i esa jgus fn;k tkrk gS blfy,
vkRefu"B lksap esa ijh{k.k ds }kjk rF;ksa dh [kkstchu ug dh tkrh gSA
2- oLrqfu"B Kku (Objective Knowledge): tgk¡ Kku ds vkRefu"B Lo:i dk LoHkko O;fDr ds eu% fLFkfr rFkk
psruk o mlds lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k ls tqMk+ gksrk gS] og Kku dk oLrqfu"B lzkr s leL;k] fl)kUr rFkk foosdiw.kZ rkSj
rjhds ftuesa rk£dd lksp dh iz/kkurk gksrh gS ml ij fVdk gksrk gSA ;gk¡ Kku dk ,d Lora=k Lo:i gksrk gS
vkSj Kku ds bl Lora=k Lo:i dks Lohdkj dj gh rF;ksa dk [kkst fd;k tkrk gSA Kku fdlh Lora=k :i ls
lksp] dqBa k o euksn'kk dk nkl o xqyke ug gksrkA lksp a dh bl izo‘fÙk esa Kku dk okLrfod Lo:i mHkj dj vkrk
gSA
bl izdkj oLrqfu"B Kku esa fdlh ,d O;fDr dk ,dkf/kdkj ug gksrkA og Kku dh Lora=k /kjksgj gksrh gS ftl ij O;fDr
fo'ks"k dk ug vfirq lHkh dk vf/kdkj gksrk gSA bl izdkj ls izkIr Kku dk Lo:i Hkh lkoZHkkSfed (Universal) gksrk gSA
;g fdlh O;fDr ;k fopkj/kkjk dk i{k/kj ug gksrk gS blfy, ;g fdlh O;fDr ds lksp ds v/khu ug gksrk gSA bl izdkj
oLrqfu"B rjhds ls izkIr Kku dk vk/kkj oSKkfud gksrk gS ftldk fujh{k.k o ijh{k.k laHko gSA
dkyZ ikij dk dguk Fkk fd oLrqfu"B Kku dh fuEu fo'ks"krk,a gksrh gS&
1- oLrqfu"B Kku esa leL;k dk Li"V Lo:i] rF;ksa ds mij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA tgk¡ leL;k dk p;u Hkh mlds oSKkfud
'krks± ij fd;k tkrk gSA fdlh nqHkkZouk ;k iwokZxzg ds vk/kkj ij leL;kvksa dk v/;;u ug fd;k tkrkA blfy,
foKku dh 'krks± ds vk/kkj ij leL;k dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA
2- oLrqfu"B Kku ds }kjk fl)kUr izfrikfnr fd;k tkuk laHko gks ikrk gSA ;gk¡ Kku dk Lo:i fujh{k.k ij vk/kkfjr
gksrk gS ftlds fu"d"kZ dks lkekUohÑr dj fl)kUr cuk;s tkrs gSaA bl izdkj ds fl)kUr ds }kjk gh oSKkfud rF;
dks LFkkfir dj fl)kUr dk :i fn;k tkrk gSA fl)kUr cu tkus ls Hkfo"; esa ?kVus okyh ?kVukvksa ds y{k.k ds
vk/kkj ij vuqeku yxk;s tk ldrs gSa tks oSKkfud rF;ksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrs gSaA
3- oLrqfu"B rjhds ls izkIr tkudkjh esa fdlh 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks mlds Lo:i dks crkus dh t:jr ug gksrhA og ,d izdkj
ls Lo;afl) rF; (Axiomatic fact) ds :i esa gekjs lkeus vkrk gSA
jkcVZ ds eVZu dk Hkh er Fkk fd oLrqfu"B rjhds ls izkIr Kku esa fuEu oSKkfud ekU;rk,a lekfgr gksrh gSa&
1- lkoZHkkSfedrk (Universalism): tgk¡ rd lkoZHkkSfedrk dk iz'u gS ;g ekudj pyk tkrk gS fd foKku jk"Vªh;
rFkk iztkfr; o fdlh /kk£ed fo'oklksa ds nk;js esa ugh vkrhA bldk Lo:i Lora=k gksrk gS vkSj ;g oSKkfud rF;
ds :i esa loZekU; gksrk gSA bldk vkSipkfjd Lo:i gksrk gS tks vifjorZu'khy] fLFkj o LFkk;h gksrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ
i‘Foh dk lw;Z ds pkjksa rjQ ifjØek yxkuk ,d rF; gS tks gekjs lksp o iwoZ/kkj.kkvksa ls ifjpkfyr ug gksrkA
bl izdkj foKku dk tks vkSipkfjd Lo:i gS og oLrqfu"B lksp dks vkSj Hkh iq"V djrk gSA
,d le; Fkk tc ;g ekU;rk Fkh fd xksjs yksxksa ds vis{kkÑr dkys yksxksa dh ckSf)d {kerk de gksrh gSA bl izdkj
ds lksp esa ,d [kkl izdkj dh vfrjaftr lksp dk opZLo ns[kus dks feyrk gS ftls vkxs pydj oSKkfudksa us vius
'kks/k }kjk >qBk lkfcr fd;kA vFkkZr~ fdlh Hkh O;fDr esa bl izdkj ds uSl£xd xq.k ftlds vk/kkj ij muds ckSf)d
Lrj dks m¡pk ekuk tk;s vkSj nwljksa dks fuEu Lrj dk ekudj mudk frjLdkj djuk oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk izekf.kr
ug fd;k x;k gSA jaxHksn rFkk iztkfrokn dh lksp ds i{k/kj dks oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk oLrqfu"B rjhds ls fudkys
x;s fu"d"kZ dks lgh ekuuk iM+k gSA
lHkh jk"Vª ds oSKkfud varjkZ"Vªh; Lrj ij lkoZHkkSfed le; dks Lohdkj djrs gSa vkSj laHkor% blh vk/kkj ij foKku
ds oLrqfu"B ¯pru dks ,d Bksl vk/kkj feyk gSA ;|fi blds foifjr foKku ds lkoZHkkSfed y{k.k dks js[kkafdr djrs
gq, dbZ jk"Vª ds oSKkfudksa us foKku ds jk"Vªoknh Lo:i dks izkFkfedrk nsdj mlds jk"Vªoknh Lo:i dks gh loksZijh
crkus dk Hkze iSnk fd;k gSA foKku dk viuk Lo:i lkoZHkkSe gksrk gS og jk"Vªoknh lksp ds v/khu ug gksrk tcfd
jk"Vªoknh lksp dk viuk ,d [kkl LFkku ,d [kkl lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k esa gks ldrk gSA bl izdkj ls jk"Vªoknh lksp
o fopkj/kkjk dks ekudj jaxHksn dh uhfr viukus okys oSKkfudksa dks oSKkfud leqnk; dk lkeuk djuk iM+k gS rks
mu yksxksa us Hkh oSKkfud Hkkouk ds oLrqfu"B y{k.k dks gh lkoZHkkSe crkdj jk"Vªoknh lksp ls rVLFk jgus dh is'kd'k
dh gSA
lkoZHkkSfedrk dk ,d vkSj rdktk gksrk gS izfrHkk dks izJ; nsukA foosd }kjk ;g izekf.kr fd;k tk pqdk gS fd
foKku dk Hkh ,d laLFkkRed y{; o mís'; gksrk gSA bl vk/kkj ij izR;sd O;fDr dks fu"i{k :i ls Lora=k jgdj
iz;ksx djus rFkk oSKkfud rF;ksa dks [kkstdj fl)kUr o fu"d"kZ fudkyus dk vf/kdkj izkIr gSA ;|fi oSKkfud Hkh
ladh.kZ n‘f"Vdks.k viukdj ,d [kkl izdkj ls 'kks/k djus dks izJ; nsrs gSa ijarq bl izdkj ds ladh.kZ lksap ds
vk/kkj ij izfrHkkoku [kkst dks T;knk fnuksa rd nCkk;k ugha tk ldrk gSA ;g dgk Hkh tkrk gS fd inkFkZ foKku
34 vuqla/kku fof/k
es [kkst djus okys oSKkfudksa esa eSdfs u;ksa rFkk U;wVu ;s lHkh vk;Z o.kZ ds FksA ijarq bu lHkh oSKkfudksa us Hkh oSKkfud
fof/k ds oLrqfu"B y{k.k dks Lohdkj djrs gq, foKku ds lkoZHkkSfed fo'ks"krk dks oSKkfud n‘f"Vdks.k dk Bksl
vk/kkj ekuk gSA
b. lkeqnkf;drk (communism)% foKku ds oLrqfu"B dkj.kksa esa leqnkf;drk dks Hkh ,d egRoiw.kZ y{.k ds :i es
Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA oSKkfud [kkst dk ykHk iwjs leqnk; dks feYkrk gSA foKku dk oLrqfu"B n‘f"Vdks.k iwjs leqnk;
ds fy, ykHkdkjh gksrk gSA blfy, oSKkfud [kkst ds }kjk iwjs leqnk; ds fgrksa dk [;ky Hkh j[kk tkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd vkt lklZ tSls vuks[kh fueksfu;k dh fcekjh dks ysdj u dsoy fofHkUu ns'kksa
ds oSKkfud [kkstdj bl fcekjh ds dkjxj mipkj ds rjhds tkuus ds fy, iz;Ru'khy gSa cfYd blds fy, fo'o
LokLFk laxBu (World Health Organisation) us Hkh egÙoiw.kZ tkudkkjh }kjk oSKkfud [kkst dk ykHk iwjs leqnk;
dks feys blds fy, iz;Ru'khy gSA bl izdkj oSKkfud [kkst iwjs lekt ds lkaLÑfrd fojklr ds :i esa ns[kk tk
ldrk gSA ;g fdlh ,d ns'k o oSKkfud ds [kkst rd gh lhfer ugha jgrkA blfy, lklZ ds lanHkZ esa tSls gh ;g
irk pyk fd phu ds ,d xk¡o esa lklZ tSlk okbjl (Virus) fdlh tkuoj ds laidZ esa vkus ls ekuo leqnk; esa
QSyk gSa blls cpus ds rjhds o jksdFkke ds rjhdksa ds ckjs esa nwljs ns'k ds oSKkfud Hkh fpafrr gks x;sA [kkst ds
mijkUr ekpZ 2003 esa QSyh bl fcekjh ds ckjs es oSKkfudksa us ;g irk yxk fy;k fd djksuk okbjl ds dkj.k lklZ
dh fcekjh ejhtksa es ik;h tkrh gSA mEehn gS tYn gh iwjs oSKkfud leqnk; ds lkewfgd iz;k; ls bl fcekjh ds
dkjxj mipkj dk mik; fey ldsxkA
;g Li"V gS fd foKku dk tks laLFkkRed Lo:i gS mlesa oSKkfud [kkst iwjs leqnk; ds fy, gksrk gSA ;gk¡ oSKkfud
[kkst dks xksiuh; j[kuk foKku ds vius mís'; o ekunaMksa ds foifjr gSA oSKkfud [kkst dk ;g rdkt+k gksrk gS
fd ml [kkst ds vk/kkj ij ,d oSKkfud nwljs oSKkfud ls var% laca/k dj iwjs leqnk; dks bl oSKkfud [kkst dk
ykHk iwjs lekt rd igqapk;sA fdlh Hkh :i esa oSKkfud [kkst dks lhfer j[kuk rFkk mls txtkfgj ugha gksus nsuk
foKku ds Hkkouk ds f[kykQ gS blfy, bl izdkj ds oSKkfud [kkst dks xksiuh; j[kus okys oSKkfudksa dh HkRlZuk
dh tkrh gSA
foKku ds leqnkf;d y{.k dks izfrf"Br oSKkfudksa us Hkh Lohdkj fd;k gSA okLro es izfrf"Br oSKkfud bl ckr dks
Lohdkj djrs gSa fd oSKkfud [kkst tks muds iwoZ ds oSKkfudksa us fd;k mldk lh/kk ykHk mUgsa feyk gSA vFkkZr~ ,d
oSKkfud Kku ds /kjksgj dk ykHk mBkdj gh vius fl)kUr dks vkSj Hkh iq"V dj ikrk gSA U;wVu dk dguk Fkk fd
vxj os vkt nwjn‘f"V j[k ik;sa gSa rks bldk Js; mUgas tkrk gS ftuds da/kksa ij [kM+s gksdj ,slk djus es og l{ke
gks lds gSaA tkfgj gS ,slh ifjfLFkfr esa ,d oSKkfud vius dks iwoZ oSKkfudksa ds [kkst o vftZr Kku dk ykHk izkIRk
djus dh otg ls mu oSKkfudksa dk _.kh gks tkrk gSA
c. fu"i{krk (Disinterestedness)% oLrqfu"B n‘f"Vdks.k j[krs gq, oSKkfud fof/k dks viukusokyk oSKkfud foKku
ds ,d vkSj laLFkkRed y{; dh izkfIr ds fy, mlds ,d egÙoiw.kZ rRo fu"i{krk dks Hkh Lohdkj dj ysrk gSA tgk¡
rd laHko gks oLrqfu"B n‘f"Vdks.k j[kus okys oSKkfud vius 'kks/k ds fo"k; ds ckjs es rVLFk n‘f"Vdks.k j[kdj mlds
fu"d"kZ dks izHkkfor ugha djrs gSaA
tgk¡ rd foKku es fu"i{krk dk iz'u gS oSKkfudksa dks fu"i{k jgus dh izsj.kk foKku ds tui{kh; vk/kkkj ls tqM+h
gSA bl izdkj foKku dk tui{kh; vk/kkj foKku ds fu"i{k izÑfr dh ,d laLFkkRed vk/kkj Hkh iznku djrk gSA
fu"i{k izÑfr dh ,d laLFkkRed vk/kkj Hkh iznku djrk gSA fu"i{k jgdj ,d oSKkfud vius vkidks oLrqfu"B jgus
dk izek.k Hkh nsrk gS tks oSKkfud o 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds 'kks/k dk vkSj Hkh fo'oluh; cukrk gSA ,d oSKkfud vius
vuqla/kku dks fu"i{k ?kksf"kr dj vius ikjn'khZ Lo:i dk Hkh ifjp; nsrk gSA bl laca/k es ;g /;ku j[kuk Hkh
vko';d gS fd foKku dk {ks=k nwljs O;olk; ls vyx Hkh gksrk gSA ,d oSKkfud yksxksa ds lkFk mlh izdkj dk
lac/a k LFkkfir ugha djuk pkgrk gS ftl izdkj ,d fpfdRld vius ejht rFkk ,d odhy vius eksofDdy ds lkFk
dj ysrk gSA bl izdkj vfo'okl] /kks[kk o Ny nsus dh ckr ,d oSKkfud dHkh Hkh ughsa lksaprkA tks Hkh ;s rduhd
,d oSKkfud }kjk viuk;h tkrh gSa mlds vk/kkj ij oSKkfud vius O;olkf;d n‘f"Vdks.k dks vkSj Hkh n‘<+ djrk gSA
d. laxfBr la'k;okn (Organised Scepticism): laxfBr la'k;okn Hkh oSKkfud rRo ds oLrqfu"B nwf"Vdks.k ls tqM+k
gksrk gSA bl fo'ks"krk ds dkj.k ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ lnSo vius fparu o fu.kZ; dks la'k; ds nk;js esa j[krk gS tc rd
og rF;ksa dks izkIr dj iw.kZr% vk'oLr ughsa gks tkrk gS rc rd lHkh rF;ksa dks bDëk dj mldk fujh{k.k o ijh{k.k
dj ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ vk'oLr ugha gks tkrk og vius fu.kZ; dks LFkkfxr j[krk gSA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd oLrqfu"B n‘f"Vdks.k ds 'kks/kdÙkkZ 'kks/k ds nkSjku ftu 'krksZ dks /;ku esa j[kdj
'kks/k djrk gS og vius vki esa oSKkfud [kkst ds fy, vko';d gSA ijarq blds foijhr vkRefu"B lksp dk Hkh viuk
egÙo gS ftlds rgr ,d oSKkfud pkgdj Hkh vius iwokZxzgksa dks vius vki ls nwj j[kus es lQy ugha gks ikrk gSA
vkRefu"B n‘f"Bdks.k ds dkj.k ;g ekudj pyk tkrk gS fd vxj oSKkfud O;fDr ds O;ogkj dk v/;;u djuk
pkgrk gS rks og Hkh vius vki esa ml fo"k; ls tqMk+ gS ftldk og v/;;u dj jgk gSA lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k esa fHkUurk
ik;h tk ldrh gS ijarq ;g eku ysuk fd ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius vkidks fcYdqy gh fu"i{k j[kdj 'kks/k djrk gS ml
ij dbZ vkjksi yxk;s tk ldrs gSa D;ksafd og Hkh mlh ekuo leqnk; dk lnL; gksrk gSA
vkRefu"B mikxe
(Subjective Approach)
lkekftd vuqla/kku es vkRefu"B mikxe ds egÙo dks eSDl oscj us viuh iqLrd n esFksMksyksth vkQ n lkW'ky lkbalst
esa foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gSA mudk lekt'kkL=kh; mikxe lh/ks rkSj ij lkekftd foKkuksa esa teZuh ds fopkjksa ls
laca/k j[krk gSA dkEV rFkk fMYFks tSls nk'kZfud fopkjksa dk izHkko eSDl oscj ds fopkjksa ij iM+kA bu fopkjksa ds i{k esa
,d rjQ rks oks yksx Fks tks ;g eglwl djrs Fks fd lkekftd foKku esa ekuo O;ogkj dks fu;af=kr djus okys lkekU;
fu;eksa dh [kkstdj mls izkÑfrd foKku ds vuq:i gh v/;;u ds fy, iz;ksx es yk;k tk ldrk gSA nwljh rjQ ,sls
Hkh yksx Fks ftudk ;g rdZ Fkk fd lkekftd fØ;k dks ,d fof'k"V ,sfrgkfld rFkk lkaLÑfrd lanHkZ ds vuqlkj ns[kuk
vko';d gS D;ksafd euq"; ds O;ogkj dks le>uk gks rks mlds O;ogkj ls tqM+s mlds mís';] lkekftd lanHkZ ds ifjizs{k;
esa gh le>uk csgrj gksxkA blhfy, eSDl oscj us lekt'kkL=k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ;g dgk Fkk fd lekt'kkL=k ,d foKku
gS ftldk iz;kl gksrk gS lkekftd fØ;kvksa dh O;[;kRed le> iSnk dj dk;Z&dkjd ds LFkkfir
lac/a k dk v/;;u djukA lkekftd fØ;k ds vFkZ dks le>us ds fy, eSDl oscj us fuEu nks var% lacfa /kr fof/k;ksa dk mYys[k
fd;k gS%
(i) olZrsgu (Verstehen)
(ii) vkn'kZ izk:i cukuk (Formation of Ideal Type)
eSDl oscj dk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd fØ;k dks le>us dk rjhdk vkRefu"B fof/k ds }kjk gh laHko gS tks gekjh
vuqHkwfr ls tqM+k gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, ,d xqyke ns'k es jgus okys O;fDr dh xqykeh rFkk nklrk ls Hkjh ftUnxh dks lgh
rjg ls le>us ds fy, ml xqyke O;fDsr ds ekufldrk dk lkadsfrd ,glkl vkRefo'ys"k.k (Introspection) ds }kjk gh
laHko gSA blds fy, xqyke O;fDr ds lkFk rnuqHkwfr (empathy) ds }kjk gh ;g laHko gSA rnuqHkwfr dk ljy 'kCnksa es vFkZ
gksrk gS nwljs O;fDr ds vuqHko dks viuk cukdj le>uk] tSls ,d etnwj o Jfed ds Je dh dher dks etnwj ds utjksa
ls ns[kdj gh le>k tk ldrk gSA vFkkZr~ bl izdkj dk vuqHko rHkh gks ldrk gS tc ge et+nwj ds txg ij j[kdj
mldh fLFkfr dks le>us dh dksf'k'k djsaA
vkRefu"B mikxe] lkekftd fØ;kvksa dh O;k[;kRed le> dk ,d rjhdk gSA ijarq bl izdkj ls le> ds }kjk O;ogkj
;k lkekftd fØ;kvksa dks le>us ds fy, rnuqHkwfr (empathy) ds lkFk&lkFk izdV o xqIr bjknksa (Professed or
Ascribed Intention) dks le>uk Hkh vko';d gSA blds fy, eSDl oscj us lkekftd fØ;k ds fiNs xqIr bjknksa dks le>us
ds fy, vkn'kZ izk:i (Ideal type) dk fuekZ.k vko';d ekukA ;g vkRefu"B fof/k dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ fof/k gS ftlds }kjk
mUgksaus ;g crk;k fd ftl fdlh O;ogkj ;k fØ;k dk v/;;u djuk gks mldk oxhZdj.k dj mlds izdkjksa dks le>k
tkrk gSA lkekftd fØ;k dks vkn'kZ izk:i (Ideal type) ds :i esa fpfUrr djrs gq, eSDl oscj us fuEu pkj izdkj ds
lkekftd fØ;kvksa dk mYys[k fd;k gS%
36 vuqla/kku fof/k
1. y{; ;qfDrewyd fØ;k (Goal Oriented Action)

2. ewY; ;qfDrewyd fØ;k (Value Oriented Action)
3. HkkokRed fØ;k (Affectiue Action)
4. ikjaifjd fØ;k (Traditional Action)
mi;qDZ r lkekftd fØ;kvksa es O;fDr fo'ks"k ds O;ogkj dks mlds y{;] ewY;] vkosx rFkk ijaijk dks vk/kkj ekudj le>k
tk ldrk gSAS mnkgj.kkFkZ ,d fo|kFkhZ dk vPNs vad ls ikl djuk mlds esgur vkSj eu yxkdj i<+us ls tqMk+ gS tcfd
,d fu;fer Hkkstu djus okys dk Hkw[ks jgus ds okctwn Hkh ek¡lkgkjh vkgkj ugha xzg.k djuk ;k lxs HkkbZ&cgu ds chp
oSokfgd laca/k LFkkfir djus ds mij fu"ks/krk (Taboo) Øe'k% y{; rFkk ewY; ls tqM+s fØ;kvksa ds mRÑ"V mnkgj.k gSaA
mlh izdkj fØdsV Vhe ds dIrku dk fot;h gksus ij deht gok es ygjkdj [kq'kh dk bt+gkj djuk rFkk u;s Hkou ds
mn~?kkVu ij ukfj;y QksM+uk HkkokRed rFkk ikjaifjd fØ;k ds mRÑ"V mnkgj.k gSaA
bl izdkj eSDl oscj ,d ,sls lekt'kkL=kh gSa ftUgksaus ekuoh; O;ogkj o lkekftd fØ;kvksa ds v/;;u es vkn'kZ çk:i
cukus ij tksj fn;k gSA mUgksaus izÑfrd foKku rFkk lkekftd foKku ds fof/k dk iz;ksx dj oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk
lkekftd fofo/krk dks le>us dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ fof/k lq>k;k gSA
oLrqfu"B rFkk vkRefu"B fof/k esa varj %
oLrqfu"B vkRefu"B fof/k
1. ckáiu (Externality): oLrqfu"B fof/k ds i{k/kj 1. vkarfjd (Internal): vkRefu"B fof/k ds i{k/kj
;g ekudj pyrs gSa fd lkekftd rF;ksa dks ,d ;g ekudj pyrs gSa fd euq"; ds O;ogkj dk
cká Lo:i gksrk gS ftldk fujh{k.k laHko gSaA vkarfjd Lo:i gksrk gS tks bldh lksp] Hkkoukvksa
2. voyksdu (Observation): oLrqfu"B fof/k ds rFkk bPNkvksa }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA
leFkZd ;g ekurs gS fd lkekftd rF; dk 2. le> (understanding): vkRefu"B fof/k ds
Lo:i ckáiiu gS ftls ns[kk tk ldrk gSA leFkZd ;g ekurs gS fd lkekftd rF; pq¡fd
bldk ewÙkZ Lo:i gSA euq"; ds vkarfjd lksp ij fuHkZj djrk gS blfy,
bldk voyksdu u dj mls le>k tk ldrk gSA
3. iz;ksxkRed fof/k (Experiment): oLrqfu"B fof/k 3. rnuqHkwfr (Empathy): vkRefu"B fof/k ds }kjk
es iz;ksxkRed fof/k ds }kjk fu"d"kZ rd igq¡pk tkrk iz;ksx dh laHkkouk ugha gksrh gS ijarq fQj Hkh
gSA vxj fu"d"kZ esa varj ik;k tkrk gS rks mldh rnuqHkwfr ds }kjk ge ;g tku ldrs gS fd fdlh
iquLohÑfr dj rF;ksa ds ckjsas es ,d jk; dk;e ,d lkekftd fØ;k rFkk ?kVuk ds ckjs es nwljs
dh tk ldrh gSA O;fDr dh D;k jk; o fopkj gSaA
4. rqykukRed fof/k (Comparative method): 4. ,sfrgkfld fof/k (Historical method):
rqyukRed rqyukRed fof/k ds bLrseky ds }kjk fof/k dk iz;ksx vkRefu"B mikxe es mlh :i esa
oLrqfu"B fof/k esa iz;ksx fd;s x;s oSKkfud i)fr ugha gksrk ftl :i esa bldk iz;ksx oLrqfu"B
dh fo'oluh;rk ij dksbZ lansg ;k iz'u ugha mikxe esa gksrk gS ijarq fQj Hkh vkRefu"B fof/k ds
fd;k tk ldrk gSA }kjk ,sfrgkfld lanHkZ dks /;ku es j[kdj
lkekftd ?kVuk dk v/;;u djuk bl fof/k fd
,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk gSA
vuqHkkfodrk ds vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

(Meaning and Definition of Empiricism)
vuqHkkfodrk dk lk/kkj.k vFkZ gS vuqHkotfur Kku ij vk/kkfjr fl)kUrksa ds izekf.kdrk dks foKku dh fof/k }kjk tk¡pukA
lekt'kkL=k esa vuqHko ij vk/kkfjr Kku dh i‘f"V ds fy, lkaf[;d fof/k dk iz;ksx vko';d ekuk gSA lekt'kkL=k ds
tud vxLr dkEV ds çR;{kokn ds fl)kUr dks Hkh vuqHkkfodrk ds egÙoiw.kZ izfriknd ds :i esa ns[kk tkrk gSA vDlj
;g dgk tkrk gS fd rF;ksa dks fujh{k.k dj ysus ls muij fo'okl vius vki gks tkrk gSA ftu fØ;kvksa] ?kVukvksa ok
rF; dks ge viuh vk¡[kksa ls ugha ns[k ldrs gS ml ij fo'okl djuk eqf'dy gksrk gSA mnkgj.k Lo:i ;g dgk tk
ldrk gS fd rF;ksa] fØ;kvksa o ?kVukvksa dk ,d ewÙkZ Lo:i gksrk gS ftls ns[kk] tk¡pk o ij[kk tk ldrk gS ijarq tc
ge dgrsa gSa fd Hkxoku ugha gksrk D;ksafd mlds Lo:i dks us rks ns[k ldrs gSa vkSj u gh mldh tk¡p o ijh{k.k fdlh
:i esa gks ldrh gSA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd vuqHkkfod Kku esa cká txr ds fLrRo dks le>dj mldk v/;;u laHko gSA
lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u esa Ýkal ds fopkjd vxLr dkEV us bls izpfyr fof/k ds :i esa bLrseky djus ij cy fn;kA mudk
lcls egÙoiw.kZ ;ksxnku Fkk fd os lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u es oSKkfud fof/k dk bLrseky dj lekt'kkL=k es ?kVus okys
LFkk;h (state) rFkk izxfr'khy (Dynamic) fØ;kdykiksa dk v/;;u dj ldsaA blds fy, mUgksaus vius vuqHkkfod mikxe
es fuEu pkj rjhdksa dk fo'ys"k.k fd;k gS %
1. fujh{k.k (Observation)
2. iz;ksx (Experiment)
3. rqyukRed fof/k (Comparison)
4. ,sfrgkfld fof/k (Historical Method)
bl izdkj ds v/;;u fof/k dks Ýkal ds gh lekt'kkL=kh b0 nqf[kZe us vius izdk;Zoknh fl)kUr ds izfriknu es foLrkj
ls viuh iqLrd :Yl vkQ lksf'k;ksyksftdy esFkM (1895) esa o.kZu fd;k gSA mudk dguk Fkk fd lekt'kkL=k es
lkekftd rF;ksa dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA lkekftd rF; dk ,d fof'k"V egÙo gS ftlds oSKkfud y{.kksa dh ppkZ
djrs gq, mudk ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd rF; dks nks rjhds ls tkuk tk ldrk gS (a) mudk nokc ge eglwl djrs gSA
ftls vDlj lekt es ik;s tkus okys ekunaMksa ds }kjk ge vius O;ogkj dks fu;af=kr djrs gSa (b) mudk lkekU; QSyko
(General diffusion) tks iwjs lewg dks izHkkfor djrk gSA blhfy, mudk ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd rF; dks ,d oLrq o
pht (Material or things) ds :i es ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A oLrq mu lHkh Kku ds y{; ds rjg gekjs ekufld fØ;k es gh
ugha vfirq ,d rF; ds :i esa izdV gksrh gS tks gekjs efLr"d ls ckgj gksrk gSA bl izdkj ds oLrq dks fujh{k.k rFkk
iz;ksx ds }kjk [kkstk tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj ,d lekt'kkL=kh Hkh lkekftd rF;ksa dk v/;;u ,d izÑfrd foKku ds
'kks/kdÙkkZ dh rjg gh djrk gS ftldk mís'; vKkr phtksa dh [kkst djuk gksrk gSA
vuqHkkfodrk dh fo'ks"krk,a ,oa egÙo (Characteristics and Importance of Experimental Research) ftu
lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us vuqHkkfod vuqla/kku dh uhao j[kh fu%lansg muesa Ýk¡l ds lekt'kkfL=k;ksa] fo'ks"kdj vxLr dkEV rFkk
bekbZHk nqf[kZe dk uke fo'ks"k :i ls fy;k tkrk gSA ijarq ftl izdkj ds vuqla/kku dks vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dh vkjafEHkd
v/;;uksa ls tksM+dj ns[kk tkrk gS mlesa baxySM ds 'kks/kdÙkkZ pkYlZ cwFk dk uke fo'ks"k :i ls fy;k tkrk gS A pkYlZ cwFk
us yanu ds fofHkUu leqnk;ksa esa QSyh xjhch ds v/;;u (1892-1902) dks lekt ds vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ
v/;;u ekuk gSA pkYlZ cwFk rFkk jkmuVªh (1902) us vius xjhch ds v/;;u es ;g ekuk fd tc lkekftd lq/kkj dh ppkZ
gksrh gS rc lekt'kkfL=k;ksa }kjk oLrqfu"B rjhdsa ls rF;ksa rFkk vkadM+ksa dks bdVB~k djus dks izkFkfedrk nh tkrh gSA vkSj
bl lanHkZ es cwFk rFkk jkmuVªh us dbZ feF;ks dk inkZQk'k fd;k tks xjhch ls tqM+s FksA muds v/;;u ds fu"d"kZ ls ;g
irk pyk fd dqN ekuo lewg ,sls gSa ftuds fofÙk; lalk/ku brus de gksrsa gSa fd mudk 'kkjhfjd :i ls thfor jg ikuk
eqf'dy gks tkrk gSA ijarq bl izdkj ds v/;;u dh detksjh ;g Fkh fd bu v/;;uksa ls ekuo lewg ds tSfodh {kerk
dk rks irk pyrk gS ijarq lkekftd laca/kksa dh dksbZ tkudkjh ugha feyrhA ve‘R; lsu us Hkh caxky ds 1943 ds lq[kk dk
v/;;u fd;k Fkk vkSj vius v/;;u ds vk/kkj ij mUgksaus ik;k fd Hkkjro"kZ esa d‘"kd etnwjksa dk ,d ,slk Hkh oxZ gSa tks
cgqr gh eqf'dy ls dqiks"k.k vkSj Hkw[kejh dk lkeuk dj ikrs gSa D;ksfa d budh vk; muds jkstxkj ds volj ls tqMh+ gksrh
gS tks cktkj dh dherksa es mrkj&p<+ko ds dkj.k çHkkfor gksrs gSaA ;s xjhc [ksrhgj etnwj ifjokj vf/kdka'k le; Hkw[ks
jgdj gh xqtkjrs gSa vkSj tc 1943 esa caxky esa lw[kk iM+k rks ve‘R; lsu us ik;k fd vf/kdka'k yksxksa dh e‘R;q esa [ksrhgj
38 vuqla/kku fof/k
etnwjksa dh la[;k gh lcls T;knk FkhA ve‘R; lsu dk ;g ekuuk gS fd vktknh ds ckn ;|fi bl izdkj ds [ksrhgj etnwj
dh xjhch loZfofnr gS ijarq ftl rjg lw[kk ds dkj.k mudh la[;k ¼ekSr ds dkj.k½ de gks tkrh Fkh oSlh fLFkfr vkt
ugha gSA ijarq vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dk lgkjk ysdj vkt Hkh ge nwjn'kZu ij tc xjhch ls ejus okyksa dh okjnkrksa dk lekpkj
ns[krs gSa tks ;g irk pyrk gS fd mM+h;k rFkk e/; izns'k ds dqN fiNM+s xk¡oksa es clus okys [ksrhgj etnwj gh xjhch ds
dkj.k Hkw[kejh ls tku x¡ok cSBrs gSa ;k vius vki dks thfor j[kus ds fd, i'kq leku thou O;rhr djus ij etcwj gSaA
bl izdkj ds vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dh fo'ks"krkvksa ,oa muds egÙo dk o.kZu djrs gq, tku jsDl us viuh iqLrd Key Problems
of Sociological Theory es fuEu rhu fo'ks"krkvksa dk eq[; :i ls o.kZu fd;k gS %
aa. vkenuh dk vleku forj.k] vleku thou 'kSyh o i)fr dks izkRs lkfgr djrk gS vkSj bl izdkj ds vleku thou
'kSyh O;rhr djus okys ,d [kkl izdkj ds oxZ &lewg dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA
b. mi;qZDr 'kks/k ls ,d vkSj rRo tks gekjs lkeus izR;{k :i ls izdV gksrk gS og gS ifjokj ;k leqnk; rFkk vkfFkZd
O;oLFkk ds chp laca/kA
c. 'kks/k ds }kjk tks rF; gekjs lkeus vkrs gSa os lkekU; :i ls LohÑr feF;k/kkj.kkvksa ls fcYdqy gh vyx gSaA
vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dh fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k djrs gq, tku jsDl us lkekftd xfr'khyrk ls tqMh+ leL;kvksa dk o.kZu djrs
gq, ;qjksi rFkk vesjhdk es ,sls v/;;u dk gokyk fn;k gS ftlesa ;g tkuus dh dksf'k'k dh x;h gS fd D;k fdlh [kkl
is'ks ls tqM+s yksxksa dks gh vf/kd ru[;kg dk volkj fn;k tkuk pkfg, ;k lHkh dks ,sls volj fey ldrs gSaA bl izdkj
ds 'kks/k esa izk;% nks izdkj ds ekinaM gksus pkfg,A 'kks/k ds }kjk fofHkUu is'kksa dk ,d iSekuk cukuk pkfg, ftles yksxksa
ds vke lgerh ds vk/kkj ij mu O;olk;ksa dh fLFkfr dks Js.khc) fd;k tk ldsA nwljs izdkj ds v/;;u esa 'kks/k ds
}kjk ;g irk yxkuk pkfg, fd fdl ns'ks ds yksxksa esa xfr'khyrk vf/kd gSA
bl izdkj vuqHkkfod vuql/a kku }kjk tks v/;;u fd;s tkrs gSa mles nks dkjd rRoksa ds chp fdl izdkj dk lac/a k gS mldh
[kkst dh tkrh gSA bl izdkj ds v/;;u ds }kjk gh ;g tkudkjh izkIr dh tk ldrh gS fd dkSu ls rRo fdl nwljs
rRo ls tqM+s gSa vkSj bu nks dkjd rRoksa dks dkSu lk rhljk rRo izHkkfor dj jgk gS vkSj fdl ek=kk esa rFkk fdu
ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ;g izHkkfor djrk gSA vxj ge mnkgj.k ds fy, ;g dgrs gSa fd x O;olk; x vuqikr esa izfr"Bk nsrk
gS&bldk vFkZ ;g gqvk fd bl izdkj ds dFku ds }kjk ;g dgk tk jgk gS fd x O;oLkk; dks izHkkfor djus okys ckgjh
rRo xy gks ldrs gSa ftldh tk¡p iM+rky dj fl)kUr LFkkfir fd;k tk ldrk gSA nqf[kZe us viuh iqLrd lqlkbZM esa
vkRegR;k djus okys yksxksa ds O;ogkj dk vuqHkkfod i)fr ls v/;;u dj ;g irk yxkus dh dksf'k'k fd fdu yksxksa
esa vkRegR;k djus dh izo‘fr T;knk gksrh gS vkSj ;s izo‘fr;k¡ fdu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa vkSj Hkh c<+ tkrh gSaA
lkekftd fopyu ds v/;;u esa Hkh vuqHkkfod fof/k }kjk fd;s x;s v/;;u dk egRo Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gSA ;gk¡ rd
fd vijk/k dh okjnkrksa dk v/;;u dj vijk/kh ekufldrk j[kus okyksa ds lkekftd ifjfLFkfr dk v/;;u dj ;g irk
yxkus dh dksf'k'k Hkh dh x;h gS fd fdu ifjfLFkfr;ksa es vijk/k dh ekufldrk T;knk rhoz gksrh gSA tks yksx ml ifjokj
es jgrs gSa ftls [kafMr ifjokj (broken homes) dgk tkrk gS rks ;g ik;k x;k fd bl izdkj ds ifjokj es jgus okys
lnL;ksa eas vijk/k o fopyu fd fØ;k T;knk lfØ; FkhA mlh izdkj nqf[kZe us Hkh vius vkRegR;k ds v/;;u essa ik;k
fd ifjokj es vyx&vyx jgus okys lnL; tks 'kknh ds ckn vyx gksdj jgrsa gS mues vkRegR;k dh izo‘fr T;knk iz[kj
gksrh gS ctk; mu yksxksa ds tks ifjokj es vius iRuh rFkk cPpksa ds lkFk oSokfgd thou O;rhr djrs gSaA mlh izdkj
/keZ esa vkLFkk j[kus okyksa esas vkRegR;k dh izo‘fr vis{kkÑr de gksrh gS mu yksxksa dh rqyuk es ftudk fo'okl /keZ esa ughs
gksrkA vFkkZr ukfLrd yksxksa es vkRegR;k djus dh izo‘fr T;knk ik;h tkrh gSa vis{kkÑr mu yksxksa ds tks vkLFkkcku
gksrs gSaA
vuqHkkfod 'kks/k ds egÙo dh ppkZ djrs gq, jkcVZ ds eVZu us viuh iqLrd Social Theory and Social Structure eas
lkekftd fl)kUr ds izfriknu esa blds egÙo dks Lohdkj fd;k gSA jkcVZ es ekVZu dk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd
fl)kUr rFkk vuqHkkfod 'kks/k nksuksa es lglaca/k gS vxj lkekftd fl)kUr] vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dks izHkkfor djrk gS rks ogha
nwljh vksj vuqHkkfod 'kks/k Hkh lkekftd fl)kUr ds fuekZ.k esa lgk;d gksrk gSAa jkcVZ ds eVZu us vuqHkkfod 'kks/k ds egRo
dh O;k[;k djrs gq, blds fuEu çdk;ks± dh foLrkj ls ppkZ dh gS%
aa. ;g fl)kUr ds fuekZ.k eas lgk;d gksrk gSA tks dkepykÅ midYiuk fl)kUrksa ds ijh{k.k ds fy, cuk;s tkrs gSA
mldh tk¡p iM+rky esa vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gksrh gSA
b. fl)kUrksa ds iqu%fuekZ.k (Reformulation of theory) es Hkh vuqHkkfod 'kks/k es egÙo dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA fdlh
Hkh fl)kUr dk fuekZ.k LFkk;h :i ls ugha fd;k tkrk gS mles fujarj cnyko vkrs gSaA u;s rF; mu fl)kUrksa dks
izHkkfor djrs gSaA blfy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fd vuqHkkfod 'kks/k ds }kjk fl)kUrksa ds Åij fQj ls fopkj
fd;k tk lds ijarq ml vk/kkj dks rS;kj djus esa vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dh ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gksrh gSA
c vuqHkkfod 'kks/k ds }kjk dbZ ckj fl)kUrksa ds lekU; fu;eksa dks Hkh izfrikfnr fd;k tkrk gSA ,d Bksl fl)kUr
dks rS;kj djus ds fy, rF;ksa rFkk vkadM+ksa dh t:jr gksrh gS ftlds ladyu esa vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ
Hkwfedk gksrh gSA
d. vuqHkkfod 'kks/k ds }kjk vo/kkj.kkvksa dks vkSj Hkh fuf'pr vk/kkj (Clarification of concepts) feyrk gSA bl izdkj
;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd fl)kUr fuekZ.k es vo/kkj.kkvksa dks Li"V djuk vuqHkkfod 'kks/k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ y{;
gksrk gSA
lkekftd losZ{k.k % vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

(Social Survey: Meaning and Definition)
lkekftd losZ{k.k ;|fi lkekftd vuqla/kku dk gh ,d fof'k"V Lo:i gS tgk¡ fdlh fo'ks"k leL;k] ifjfLFkfr ;k
okrkoj.k dks /;ku esa j[kdj bl izdkj ds 'kks/k fd;s tkrs gSaA o"kZ 2001&2002 esa iatkc ds fdlkuksa esa c<+rh vkRegR;k
ds losZ{k.k ds fy, iatkc ljdkj ds fØ;k dykiksa dk foLrkj ls eqY;kadu djus ds fy, ,d losZ{k.k ds }kjk ;g ik;k
x;k fd lax:j ftys ds 17 xk¡oksa esa o"kZ 2002 ds vkajfHkd rhu eghuksa esa gh 27 fdlkuksa us tks ljdkj ds dtZ ds cks>
ls ijs'kku Fks mUgksaus vkRegR;k fd;kA bl o"kZ Hkh ekpZ 2003 ds ckn lklZ (fueksfu;k) Hkh tkuysok fcekjh dk losZ{k.k
dj fo'o LokLFk laxBu ds mu ns'kksa dk uke lwfpr fd;k tgk¡ bl fcekjh dk izdksi T;knk gSA
lkekftd losZ{k.k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ,0,Q0 osYl us fy[kk gS fd ;g rF; [kkstus gsrq v/;;u gS ftlesa Jfed oxZ
ds xjhch rFkk leqnk;ksa ds leL;k vkSj izÑfr dk eq[; :i ls o.kZu gksrk gSA ekstj rFkk dkYVu us viuh iqLrd Survey
Methods in Social Investigation esa fy[kk gS fd csYl }kjk losZ{k.k dh nh x;h ifjHkk"kk dkQh ladh.kZ gS D;ksafd mUgksaus
viuh iqLrd es mu lHkh los{Z k.ksa dk o.kZu fd;k gS tks cktkj rFkk yksxksa ds fopkjksa dks tkuus ds fy, fd;s tkrs gS ftues
lekt'kkL=kh; 'kks/k dk o.kZu gksrk gSA ekstj rFkk dkYVu dk er gS fd lkekftd losZ{k.k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs le; losZ{k.k
ds foLr‘r {ks=k dks /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gS D;ksafd losZ{k.k fof/k dk bLrseky fofHkUu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gksrk gSaAmnkgj.k
ds fy, mUgksaus fuEu {ks=kksa es blds bLrseky fd;s tkus dk mYys[k fd;k gS%
a. xjhch dh losZ{k.k esA
b. xSyi ikyl }kjk yksxksa ds er dks tkuus ds fy,A
c. 'kgjh fodkl ;kstuk esa Hkh losZ{k.k dk lgkjk fd;k tkrk gSA
d. ctkj es vuqla/kku ds }kjk ctkj ds mrkj&p<+ko dk vankt Hkh losZ{k.k ds }kjk laHko gks ikrk gSA
e. blds vfrfjDr losZ{k.k ds fy, dbZ laLFkk,a Hkh fofo/k lg;ksx nsdj ;g dke djokuk pkgrs gSsa ftles oSKkfud
rFkk 'kks/k ls tqM+s vuqla/kku dsanzksa ds vYkkok ljdkj Hkh losZ{k.k djokdj tkudkjh izkIr djrs gSaA
,d losZ{k.k nwljs losZ{k.k dh rqyuk esa vyx gks ldrh gSA mís';ksa ds vk/kkj ij losZ{k.k ,d nwljs ls fHkUu gks ldrs gSsA
fo"k; oLrq] {ks=k rFkk tkudkjh ds lzksrksa dks vk/kkj cukdj ,d losZ{k.k dks nwljs losZ{k.k ds vyx cukdj ns[kk tkrk gSA
ijarq ftrus Hkh losZ{k.k fd;s tkrs gSa mu lcdk ,d mís'; lkekU; rkSj ij [kkstdj u;h tkudkjh izkIr djuk gksrk gSA
blfy, losZ{k.k dh mi;ksfxrk ij dksbZ loky ughs mBk;k tk ldrk gSA
40 vuqla/kku fof/k
losZ{k.k dk vk;kstu] izdkj ,oa egÙo

(Planning, Type & Importance of Social Survey)
losZ{k.k dk vk;kstu fuEu ckrksa ij fuHkZj djrk gS%
a. mís'; o lalk/ku (Objectres and Resources)% fdlh Hkh lkekftd losZ{k.k dk vk;kstu bl ckr ij fuHkZj
djrk gS fd ml losZ{k.k dk mís'; D;k gS\ blds mís'; ij fopkj djus ls rkRi;Z losZ{k.k djus ds fy, lkekU;
mís'; ls ugha gS cfYd fuf'pr vkSj Li"V eqíksa dh igpku t:jh gksrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ dksbZ O;fDr ;k laxBu ;g
dgrk gS fd os o‘) yksxksa ds jgu&lgu dk losZ{k.k dj jgs gSa ;k djuk pkgrs gSa rks ;g mís'; dkQh lkekU; o
lk/kkj.k gS&blds izeq[k Toyar eqíksa dks mís'; ds :i esa LFkkfir djuk vko';d gS rHkh og losZ{k.k mi;ksxh fl)
gks ldrk gSA vxj ;g dgk tk;s fd losZ{k.k o‘)kvksa dks isa'ku nsdj mudh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj ykus dh gS rks ;g ,d
Li"V losZ{k.k dk fo"k; ;k eqík gks ldrk gSA vkSj bl eqís ds vuq:i Hkh losZ{k.k esa fdruk le;] [kpZ vkSj fdrus
yksxksa dh vko';drk iM+sxh mlds ckjs esa Hkh fopkj fd;k tk ldrk gS ijarq vxj bl rjg dh ckr ds Åij fopkj
ugha fd;k tkrk gS rks los{Z k.k ds fy, mís'; dk lalk/ku ds ckjs esa dqN Hkh fu.kZ; ysuk vlaHko gks tkrk gSA blfy,
losZ{k.k ds vk;kstu es losZ{k.k ds mís'; dh igpku ,oa mlds vuq:i lalk/ku dk irk gksuk vko';d gks tkrk gSA
b. losZ{k.k {ks=k dk foLrkj (Coverage) % losZ{k.k {ks=k ds vk;ksx ls tqM+s blds foLrkj dk Hkh irk gksuk vko';d
gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ losZ{k.k gsrq ftu yksxksa dks v/;;u esa 'kfey fd;k tkrk gS mlds ckjs esa fuEu ckrksa dk irk gksuk
vko';d gSA
(i) HkkSxksfyd {ks=k ftles os yksx jgrs gSa
(ii) mudh tulkaf[;dh; fu'ks"rk (Demographic Characteristic)
(iii) vU; lhek,a (Boundaries)
mi;qZDr ckrksa dh tkudkjh ds i'pkr gh ;g r; fd;k tk ldrk gS fd fdl çdkj dk fun'kZu (Sample) mi;ksxh
gks ldrk gS vkSj mldk vkdkj fdruk gksuk pkfg,A v/;;u dk {ks=k xk¡o gks ;k [kaM gks ;k ftyk gksA D;k bl
txg dk fun'kZu ysuk laHko Hkh gS ;k ugha blds ckjs esa Hkh rHkh tkudkjh çkIr dh tk ldrh gS vxj losZ{k.k ds
foLrkj dh iwoZ tkudkjh gksA
c. rF;ksa dk ladyu (Collection of Data) % vkadM+ksa ds ladyu ds fy, fo"k; oLrq dh tkudkjh rFkk losZ{k.k dk
ekinaM Hkh vko';d gSA vxj ;g vkadM+s gh bDVBs djus gks fd LukrdksÙkj Nk=kksa dks ftUgksus 75 izfr'kr ls
vf/kd vad izkIr fd;s gSa mUgsa Nk=ko‘fÙk nh tkuh gS rks ,sls los{Z k.k ds fy, Hkh vkadM+kas dks ,d [kkl rjhds ls ,df=kr
fd; tkus ds fy, [kkl izdkj dh losZ{k.k dh t:jr iMs+xhA ijarq ogha blds foijhr gesa ;g irk djuk gks fd
,d [kkl dkyksuh es jgus okys yksx fdl cSazM dk ouLirh ?kh iz;ksx djrs gSa rks ,slh ifjfLFkfr esa izR;sd ?kj tkdj
losZ{k.k (House to House Survey) djuk gksxkA bl izdkj fdl izdkj ds vkadM+s bdês djus gSa bl ckr ij Hkh
;g fuHkZj djrk gS fd losZ{k.k dk vk;kstu dSls fd;k tkuk gSA
d. iz'ukoyh (Questionnaire) % losZ{k.k ds vk;kstu esa iz'ukoyh fdl izdkj ls cuk;k tkuk gS bldk Hkh viuk
,d vyx egÙo gSA ftl {ks=k eas yksx jg jgsa gS ogk¡ dk losZ+{k.k djuk gS rks ;g irk gksuk vko';d gks tkrk gS
fd ogk¡ jgus okys yksxksa dk f'k{kk LRkj dSlk gS vkSj dkSu lh Hkk"kk os csgrj le>rsa gSaA mlh ds vuq:i iz'ukoyh
rS;kj fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA ;gk¡ ;g Hkh r; djuk vko';d gks tkrk gS fd vuqlfw p (Schedule) cukdj los{Z k.k
dk dk;Z djuk mfpr gksxk ;k muls iz'ukoyh Hkjokuk mfpr gksxkA
e . iwoZ losZ{k.k (pilot survey) % losZ{k.k vk;kstu esa tks lcls cM+h pqukSrh ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS
og gksrk gS loZ{k.k fo"k; ds ckjs es iwoZ tkudkjh izkIr djukA fdlh Hkh losZ{k.k dk lQyrk iwoZd vk;kstu rc
rc laHko ugha tc rc v/;;u fd;s tkus okys fo"k; ds ckjsa esa iwjh tkudkjh ugha gkfly dj yh tkrh gSA iwoZ
losZ{k.k ds ckn gh ;g r; fd;k tk ldrk gS fd losZ{k.k esa fdruk le;] [kpZ vkSj ekuo lalk/ku dk iz;ksx fd;k
tkuk mfpr gksxkA los{Z k.k ds fy, tks iz'ukoyh rS;kj fd;s x;s gSa oks fdl gn rd izklafxd vkSj rF;ksa dh tkudkjh
nsus esa l{ke gSaA blds fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fd NksVs lewg es rS;kj fd;s x;s iz'ukoyh dh izklafxdrk dh
tk¡p iM+rky igys ls gh dj yh tk;sA laHkor% blhfy, iwoZ fuf'pr rFkk iwoZ losZ{k.k dks ,d [kkl izdkj dh
yksdfiz;rk feyh gS vkSj losZ{k.k ds iwoZ v/;;u djus dh ijaijk ls 'kks/kdÙkkZ esa ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dk O;olkf;d
n‘f"Vdks.k Hkh fodflr gqvk gSA bl izdkj ds iwoZ los{Z k.k ds fuEu Qk;nksa dk mYys[k ekstj rFkk dkYVu us Hkh fd;k
gSA muds vuqlkj iwoZ losZ{k.k eap ij vfHku; djus ls igys dk iwokZH;kl gS ftlds dkj.k 'kks/k losZ{k.k dks fuEu
funsZ'k izkIr gksrs gS%
(i) fun'kZu dk vkdj fuf'pr gksrk gs ftldh otg ls rF;ksa dh iwjh tkudkjh feyrh gS tks los{Z k.k ds fy, dkQh
mi;ksxh fl) gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ losZ{k.k fu;kstu dk dke vklku gks tkrk gS vkSj losZ{k.k ds nks"k;qDr gksus dh
laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA
(ii) losZ{k.k ls iwoZ v/;;u dk lcls cM+k ykHk ;g gksrk gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks bl ckr dk vkHkkl gks tkrk gS fd
fdrus mÙkjnkrk mlds iz'uksa dk lgh tokc nsaxs vkSj fdruh fo'oluh;rk 'kks/k dh gksxhA bl tkudkjh ds
vk/kkj ij vkadM+s bdês djus ds fy, fdl vU; fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkuk T;knk ykHkdkjh gksxkA
(iii) iwoZ v/;;u ls v/;;u fof/k ds fo'oluh;rk ds lkFk&lkFk ;g Hkh irk py tkrk gS fd fdl oSdfYid fofè
ds }kjk rF;ksa dh iwjh tkudkjh izkIr dj losZ{k.k dks T;knk lkFkZd cuk;k tk ldrk gSA fujh{k.k iz'ukoyh
;k lk{kkRdkj fof/k esa ls fdldk bLrseky csgrj fu"d"kZ ns ldrk gSA
(iv) iz'ukoyh ds lkFkZdrk dk Hkh irk iwoZ v/;;u ls gh py ikrk gSA ;gk¡ ;g dguk mfpr gksxk fd losZ{k.k
ls iwoZ v/;;u ds }kjk gh vuko';d iz'uksa dks gVkdj lkFkZd iz'uksa dks 'kkfey djus ls 'kks/k dks ,d lgh
fn'kk fey tkrh gSA
vxj fdlh iz'u ds mÙkj esa ugha tkurs (don't know) mÙkj dk T;knk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gks rks blls ;g
vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd mls iz'u ds mÙkj nsus es mÙkjnkrk us ,d iyk;uoknh :[k vf[r;kj dj
ml iz'u dk tokc nsus ls cpuk pkgk gSA blhfy, bl izdkj esa mÙkj dh vf/kdka'k ek=kk vxj iwoZ v/;;u
ds nkSjku fn[krh gS rks bldk lh/kk vFkZ ;g fudkyk tkuk pkfg, fd bl izdkj ds iz'uksa dks los{Z k.k ds nkSjku
ugha gVk;k x;k rks os gekjs v/;;u dks izHkkfor dj ldrs gSaA
(v) iwoZ v/;;u dk lcls cM+k ykHk ;g gksrk gS fd ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks losZ{k.k vk;kstu ds nkSjku ;g irk py
tkrk gS fd losZ{k.k ds fy, mls fdruh jk'kh [kpZ djuh gksxh rFkk mls fdruk le; vkSj ekuo lalk/ku dh
vko';drk gksxhA
bl izdkj mi;ZqDr foospu ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd losZ{k.k fu;kstu es iwoZ v/;;u dk egÙo bruk T;knk gS fd vc
dksbZ Hkh 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius 'kks/k dks djus ds iwoZ bldk lgkjk ysrk gS ftlls mls u flQZ losZ{k.k fu;kstu es enn feyrh
gS vfirq mls vius midYiukvksa rFkk 'kks/k iz'u dks pqLr dj mls vkSj Li"V o fuf'pr djus es [kkl enn feyrh gSA
iwoZ v/;;u dk vkdkj vkSj {ks=k fdruk O;kid gksxk ;g bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS fd ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds ikl le;]
ekuo lalk/ku rFkk fo"k; oLrq dk {ks=k vkSj 'kks/k iz'u fdl izdkj ds gSaA ijarq ;gk¡ ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd ,d
'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, iwoZ v/;;u mlds fy, los{Z k.k ls iwoZ dh vafre lqj{kk gS ftlds }kjk og vius 'kks/k dks vkSj Hkh fuf'pr
rFkk mls vkSj Hkh fo'oluh; cuk ldrk gSA
losZ{k.k ds izdkj
(Types of survey)
losZ{k.k ds izdkj mlds mís'; ls tqM+s gksrs gS vkSj laHkor~ blhfy, losZ{k.k ds izdkj dks ysdj ftl lS)kfUrd i{k dks
/;ku es j[kdj mlds izdkjksa dh ppkZ dh tkrh gS mlesa losZ{k.k ds fuEu nks izdkjksa dh ppkZ fo'ks"k :i ls dh tk ldrh
gS%
a. fooj.kkRed
ooj.kkRed losZ{k.k (Descriptive survey) % bl izdkj ds losZ{k.k dk mís'; fdlh Hkh lkekftd rF; ds ckjs
es tkudkjh nsuk gksrk gSA mnkgj.k Lo:i tc ,ysDl badysl (Alex Inkeles) us viuh iqLrd What is sociologys
esa ;g iz'u mBk;k fd fdlh Hkh oSKkfud tkudkjh ds fy, What iz'u dk mÙkj nsuk 'kksèk dk izFke pj.k gksrk
42 vuqla/kku fof/k
gS rks bl odrO; ls mudh ea'kk bl ckr dh rjQ gekjk /;ku vkÑ"V djuk Fkk fd ftl ?kVuk o fØ;k dk
v/;;u fd;k tkuk gS mlds Lo:i ds ckjs es tkudkjh izkIr dj mldk o.kZu izLrqr djuk 'kksèkdÙkkZ dk igyk
y{; gksrk gSA
laHkor% blhfy, pkZYl cwFk us 1886&1902 ds nkSjku tc xjhch dk] v/;;u fd;k rks blds ihNs mudk izkFkfed
mís'; Fkk fd yanu es dke djus okys Jfed dh dke djus dh fLFkfr dSlh gS\ vFkkZr mudk jgu&lgu dSlk gS\
fdl izdkj ds vkjke ds lk/ku muds ikl gS\ bl izdkj mudk lh/kk mís'; Jfed oxZ dh xjhch ds ckjs es
atkudkjh izkIr djuk vkSj bl tkudkjh dks O;ofLFkr rjhds ls yksxksa ds lkeus izLrqr djuk FkkA vius v/;;u
ds vk/kkj ij pkZYl cwFk us xjhcksa dks nks Js.kh esa ck¡Vk] ,d Js.kh og Fkh ftles xjhc yksx vkrs gSa tks xjhch dh
U;wure lhek js[kk ds Åij gS vkSj nwljk oxZ xjhcksa dk og gS tks vrhfu/kZu gS tks xjhch dh U;wure lhek js[kk
ls uhps jgrsa gS vkSj ftudh vko';drk dHkh Hkh lekIr ugha gksrh gSA
b. O;k[;kRed losZ{k.k (Explantory Survey) % losZ{k.k dk ,d vkSj mís'; gksrk gS rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij ?kVukvksa
dh O;k[;k izLrqr djukA vFkkZr~ ;gk¡ ?kVuk dk fooj.k izLrqr djus dh ctk; mldh O;k[;k izLrqr djuk gkrsk
gSA tc ?kVukvksa o fdlh lkekftd fØ;k dh O;k[;k izLrqr dh tkrh gS rks blds vfrfjDr mís'; fuEu gks ldrs
gS %
(i) ,frgkfld losZ{k.k (Historical Survey)% ,sfrgkfld losZ{k.k dk mís'; Hkh O;k[;kRed gks ldrk gS ftles
fcrh gqbZ ?kVuk dk O;k[;k dj dqN ,sls rF; dh [kkst djuk gksrk gS ftls fdlh dkj.ko'k [kkstk ugha tk
ldkA pkZYl cwFk rFkk jkmuVh }kjk fd, x;s los{Z k.k dks bl Js.kh es Mkyk tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj ds los{Z k.k
dks vk/kkj cukdj lekt'kkL=k esa Hkh dbZ ,sls losZ{k.k ds fy, ,d vyx ls lekt'kkL=k dh 'kk[kk ftls
,sfrgkfld lekt'kkL=k (Historical sociology) ds :i es izfl)h feyh gS mldk viuk vyx egÙo gSA
izk;% lekt'kkfL=k;ksa es lkekftd vkanksyuksa ds v/;;u es bl izdkj ds losZ{k.k dk bLrseky fd;k gSA
(ii) ewY;kadukRed losZ{k.k (Evaluative Survey)% losZ{k.k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ mís'; ewY;kadu djuk Hkh gksrk
gSA eaMy vk;ksx dk xBu blh mís'; ls fd;k x;k Fkk fd fiNM+h tkfr dks ftUgsa vkj{k.k dk ykHk fn;k tkuk
gS mudk lgh irk yxk;k tkuk vko';d gS rkfd mu yksxksa dks ftUgsa vj{k.k dh t:jr ugha gS mudh igpku
dh tk lds vkSj tks fiNM+s oxZ dh Js.kh esa ugha vkrs ijarq vkfFkZd :i ls fiNMs+iu ds rRo ns[ks tk ldrs
gSa mudh igpku djuk ml losZ{k.k dk ,d eq[; mís'; FkkA blh vk/kkj ij gfj;k.kk us Hkh xqjuke flag
dehVh dk xBu dj vU; fiNM+s oxZ dh Js.kh es tkfr;ksa dks j[kus ds fy, ,d losZ{k.k djok;kA
(iii) funkukRed losZ{k.k (Diagnostic Survey)% tc fdlh leL;k ds funku gsrq fdlh losZ{k.k dk lgkjk fy;k
tkrk gS oks mls funkukRed losZ{k.k dgk tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds losZ{k.k dk mís'; rkRdkfyd gksrk gSA dbZ
ckj tks funkukRed losZ{k.k dk vk/kkj ljdkjh uhfr;ksa ls izsfjr gksrk gS ftldk [kaMu nwljs lkekukUrj
losZ{k.k ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA gky gh esa 24 vizSy dks 2003 dks vf[ky Hkkjrh; iztkrkaf=kd efgyk lehfr
(All India Democratic Women's Association (AIDWA) us ljdkj }kjk fd;s x;s losZ{k.k ds vk/kkj
ij fcyks ikoVhZ ykbu (BPL) rFkk ,co ikoVhZ yscy (APL) dkMZ ds xyr vkdyu dk mtkxj djrs gq,
crk;k fd ftrus Hkh fo/kok,a] ,cy O;Ld efgyk] viax iq:"k o L=kh rFkk 60 o"kZ ls Åij dks os yksxksa dks
pkgs oks ch0ih0 ,d dkMZ /kkjd nks ;k u nks mUgsa fj;k;rh nj ij vukt eqg;;k djok;k tkuk pkfg, rkfd
oks yksx Hkw[kejh ds f'kdkj u gks tk;saA ,Mok (AIDWA) ds lg lpho fczank djr dk dguk Fkk fd muds
los{Z k.ks ds nkSjku mUgsa ;g irk pyk fd mÙkj izn's k esa ,d Hkwfeghu fo/kok efgyk dks blfy, ,0ih0,y0(APL)
dkMZ fn;k x;k D;ksafd mlds ikl pkj NksVs csVs Fks vkSj ;g ekudj dh yM+ds cks> ugha gksrs] yM+fd;k¡
cks> gksrh gS blfy, bls ch0ih0,y0 (BPL) dkMZ ugha fn;k x;kA vFkkZr losZ{k.kdÙkkZ dh ;g /kkj.kk Fkh
fd yM+ds cM+s gksdj ifjokj ds fy, laifÙk gks tkrs gS tcfd yM+fd;k¡ cM+h gksus ij ifjokj ij cks> gksrh
gSaA
(iv) Hkfo"; funsZ'kd losZ{k.k (Prediction Survey) % dqN losZ{k.k Hkfo"; funsZ'kd losZ{k.k lkfcr gksrsa gSA vdlj
bl izdkj ds losZ{k.k ds }kjk dqN rF;ksa dks vk/kkj cukdj Hkfo";ok.kh dh tkrh gSA ijarq bl izdkj ds
Hkfo";ok.kh losZ{k.k dk Hkh vk/kkj iw.kZr% oSKkfud gh gksrk gSA Hkkjrh; feVjksyksftdy foHkkx us ekulwu dh
Hkfo";ok.kh dqN o"kksZ esa dh gS vkSj o"kZ 2003 ds fy, bl foHkkx dh Hkfo";ok.kh gS fd ,d ckj ekulwu lkekU;
jgsxkA muds vkadM+kas ds vk/kkj ij o"kZ 1988 ls 2002 rd ds Hkfo";ok.kh dk fuEu rkfydk ls irk py tkrk
gS fd os dgk¡ rd lgh gksrs gSa%
o"kZ o"kkZ dk vkSlru izfr'kr
Hkfo";ok.kh okLrfod vkadM+s
1988 113 118
1989 102 106
1990 101 106
1991 94 91
1992 92 93
1993 103 100
1994 92 110
1995 97 100
1996 96 103
1997 92 102
1998 99 105
1999 108 96
2000 99 92
2001 98 92
2002 101 81
lzksr% ÝaVykbu] ebZ 23] 2003 % 100

losZ{k.k ds fofHkUu izdkjksa ds o.kZu ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd losZ{k.k] mís'; ds vuqlkj dbZ izdkj ds gksrs gSa ijarq
vk/kqfud ;qx esa los{Z k.k dk egÙo dkQh c<+ x;k gSA dbZ ljdkjh rFkk xSj ljdkjh laLFkk,a los{Z k.k ds }kjk vius ;kstukvksa
dks turk rd izHkkoh :i ls igq¡pkus dk lzksr Hkh ekursa gSa blhfy, losZ{k.k ds dbZ vU; izdkjksa dk Hkh mYys[k vko';d
gSaA tks fuEu gSa%
1. ljdkjh losZ{k.k (Government Survey): tula[;k laca/kh vkadM+ksa dks bdVBk djus ds fy, Hkkjr es tux.kuk
dh ijaijk 1872 ls 'kq: dh x;h vkSj mlds ckn izR;sd 10 o"kZ ds ckn Øe'k% 1881 ds fof/kor bls pyk;k x;kA
fu%lansg tux.kuk ds Lo:i es rduhfd ds fodkl ds dkj.k vc tks ifjorZu vk;s gSa og pkSadk nsus okyh gSA bl
'krkCnh dh igyh tux.kuk 2001 Qjojh esa 'kq: gqbZ vkSj ekpZ ds var rd mles izkFkfed vkadMs+ ljdkj }kjk ?kksf"kr
dj fn;s x;sA
ljdkjh losZ{k.k esa tux.kuk }kjk tks vkadM+s fn;s tkrsa gSa mldks vk/kkj cukdj ljdkj dbZ ;kstukvksa dks ykxw
djrh gSA jkT; vius Lrj ij Hkh bu vkadM+ksa dks vk/kkj cukdj dqN vkSj izdkj ds losZ{k.k Hkh djokrs gSaA bl
izdkj ds fu;fer losZ{k.k ls ljdkj vius iapo"khZ; ;kstukvksa dks T;knk izHkkoh cukus esa lQy gks ik;h gSA
2- ekds±V losZ{k.k (Market Survey): cktkj esa oLrqvksa ds Ø;&foØ; ds mrjko&p<+ko dks fLFkj j[kus ds mís';
ls dbZ laxBu ekds±V losZ{k.k dk lgkjk ysdj viuh daiuh }kjk mRikfnr phtksa dks cktkj esa ykdj mls izpkfjr
djus dk dke djrs gSaA
44 vuqla/kku fof/k
3- tuer losZ{k.k (Public Opinion Survey): tuer losZ{k.k dk izpyu Hkh vktdy pquko ds nkSjku dkQh c<+
x;k gSA bu tuer losZ{k.k dks djokus okys fofHkUu nwjn'kZu ds pSuy us fof/kor fun'kZu losZ{k.k ds }kjk dbZ ckj
pquko ds QSlys dk vuqeku yxkrs gSaA pquko dh ?kks"k.kk ds ckn rFkk ukekadu Hkjs tkus dh lhek ds lekIr gksus ds
ckn rFkk pquko izpkj ds lekIr gksus ds ckn vkSj ;gk¡ rd dh pquko lekIr gksus ds i'pkr~ vkSj fxurh ds igysA
bl izdkj ds tuer losZ{k.k ds }kjk jktuhfrd ny dh fLFkfr dk vankt igys ls gh py tkrk gSA bu tuer
losZ{k.kksa dh fo'oluh;rk fun'kZu rFkk losZ{k.k vk;kstu ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
4- Jksrk losZ{k.k (Audience Survey): tc ;kaf=kdh lapkj ds lk/kuksa dk izpkj o izlkj iwjh rjg ug gqvk Fkk rc
izfrf"Br daiuh vius Jksrkvksa ds ilan dk vuqeku yxkus ds fy, fu;fer :i ls los{Z k.k dk lgkjk ysrs FksA fons'kh
daifu;ksa esa fczfV'k czksMdkfLVax dkjiksjs'ku dk bl izdkj dk losZ{k.k djuk loZfofnr gSA Hkkjr esa Hkh egkuxjksa esa
,Q ,e pSuy dks iqu% yksdfiz; cukus ds fy, 2003 ds e/; ls bldk izlkj.k vkjaHk fd;k x;k gS tks ;qokvksa ds
ilan dks /;ku esa j[kdj ftl izdkj ls izksxzke izLrqr djrs gSa os vkt Hkh ;qokvksa esa dkQh yksdfiz; gSa ijarq bl
izdkj ds izlkj.k dqN [kkl esVªksa 'kgjksa rd gh lhfer gSaA
mi;qZDr losZ{k.k ds izdkjksa ds v/;;u ds ckn ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd 'kks/k esa losZ{k.k dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA dbZ
ckj ;g iz'u mBk;s tkrs gSa fd los{Z k.k] lkekftd vuql/a kku ls fdl izdkj fHkUu gSAa la{ksi esa ;gk¡ ;g tku ysuk vko';d
gS fd losZ{k.k dk mís'; lnSo rkRdkfyd gksrk gS ftlds dkj.k losZ{k.k dk ,d [kkl mís'; gksrk gS ftldh iw£r gks tkus
ds i'pkr~ losZ{k.k dh fØ;k lekIr gks tkrh gSA ijarq blds foifjr lkekftd 'kks/k esa vuqla/kku o [kkst dk flyflyk
vuojr pyrk jgrk gS ftlds dkj.k lkekftd 'kks/k ds fu"d"kZ lS)kfUrd mikxe dh ryk'k esa ,d egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh
gekjs lkeus j[krs gSa tcfd blds foifjr lkekftd losZ{k.k dk dqN fu/kkZfjr mís'; gksrk gSA lkekftd 'kks/k esa Hkh
fuèkkZfjr mís'; gksrk gS ijarq blds mís'; vf/kdka'k :i esa 'kS{kf.kd gksrs gSa ftlds dkj.k lkekftd 'kks/k dk dk;Z ,d
tfVy dk;Z gS tcfd lkekftd losZ{k.k dk mís'; lhfer gksrk gSA
lkekftd 'kks/k ds fofHkUu pj.k

(Steps of Social Research)
tSlk fd igys [kaM esa crk;k tk pqdk gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k o vuqla/kku ,d rk£dd rFkk ?kVukvksa dk Øec) v/;;u
gS ftlds }kjk uohu rF;ksa dh [kkst dh tkrh gS] iqjkus rF;ksa dh tk¡p&iM+rky dh tkrh gS ;k fQj euq"; ds chp ds
var% laca/k ,oa fu;eksa dk fo'ys"k.k dj dk;Z&dkj.k laca/k LFkkfir djus dh dksf'k'k dh tkrh gSA lkekftd 'kks/k ds bu
mís';ksa dks vxj /;ku esa j[kk tk;s rks blds fofHkUu pj.kksa dh O;k[;k Hkh vko';d gSA dksbZ Hkh lkekftd 'kks/k ftlesa
?kVukvksa o rF;ksa dk Øec) v/;;u djus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gS mlds fy, fuEu ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d
gS a &
1- loZizFke 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks bl ckr dk /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd ftl fo"k; dk p;u v/;;u ds fy, fd;k tk
jgk gS og v/;;u ds ;ksX; Hkh gS ;k ug A vFkkZr~ leL;k dks v/;;u ;ksX; ekuk tk ldrk gS ;k ug (Formulation
of Problem)A dksbZ Hkh leL;k lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u ds ;ksX; gksxh ,slk dguk xyr gSA blfy, leL;k ds
vè;;u esa ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd leL;k ls lacfa /kr tkudkjh dSls yh tk ldrh gSA mlds fofHkUu igyqvksa
dks dSls la{ksi esa ,d 'kks/k ;ksX; dFku ds :i esa fpf=kr dj mlds fofHkUu igyqvksa dk oSKkfud [kkst fd;k tk
ldrk gS ;k ug A
fdlh ,sls fo"k; dks vxj ys fy;k tk;s tks vius vki esa vLi"V rFkk vewÙkZ gS rks mlds v/;;u esa fuf'pr :i
ls ijs'kkuh vk;sxhA vxj dksbZ dgs fd ^Hkxoku gS ;k ug *] ;g fo"k; gS v/;;u dk rks bl fo"k; ds v/;;u esa
tkfgj gS ijs'kkuh vk;sxhA fdlh oSKkfud fof/k }kjk bl vewÙkZ fo"k; dk v/;;u djuk laHko ug gSA blfy, b0
nq£[ke dk er Fkk fd lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;u ds fy, leL;k dks ,d lkekftd rF; ds :i esa gksuk ,d vko';d
'krZ gSA mldk lkekftd rF; ds :i esa gksus ls rkRi;Z ;g Fkk fd blds Lo:i esa mldk ckg~;iu] mldk lekt
ds yksxksa ij nokc Mkyuk] iwjs lekt ds lnL;ksa dks izHkkfor djuk vkSj oLrq ds :i esa mlds vfLrRo dk gksuk
vko';d gS rHkh mls lekt'kkL=k esa v/;;u ds ;ksX; le>k tk ldrk gSA blfy, b0 nq£[ke us viuh iqLrd :Yl
vkWQ lksf'k;ksyksftdy esFkM esa bldk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k Fkk vkSj mu fu;eksa dks vk/kkj cukdj mUgksu a s fMfotu
vkWQ yscj] lqlkbZM dk foLrkj ls v/;;u fd;kA
fo"k; dk pquko ,d egÙoiw.kZ pj.k gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh 'kks/k esa vxj fo"k; dk pquko laf{kIr rjhds ls dj fy;k
tk;s rks dksbZ ijs'kkuh ug vkrh gSA blds fy, fuEu 'krks± dk gksuk Hkh vko';d gS&
(i) 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh fnypLih ml fo"k; esa gks(
(ii) ml leL;k ij 'kks/k dk;Z ds fy, lkexzh miyC/k gks(
(iii) ml v/;;u ls tqM+s lS)kfUrd i{k o ekU;rkvksa dh tfVyrk(
(iv) ml leL;k ls lacaf/kr iwoZ v/;;u fd, tk pqds gksaA
bl izdkj 'kks/k dk;Z esa vxj mi;qZä ckrksa dk lekos'k gks rks leL;k dh igpku vklku gks tkrh gS vkSj 'kks/k dk;Z
dks djus esa Hkh vklkuh gksrh gSA
2- 'kks/k dk;Z ds fy, midYiuk dk fuekZ.k (Construction of Hypothesis): 'kks/k dk;Z ds fy, midYiuk dk
fuekZ.k ,d egÙoiw.kZ pj.k gSA midYiuk ,d 'kks/k ds fy, rS;kj fd;k x;k oSKkfud dFku gS ftls vk/kkj cukdj
'kks/k fd;k tkrk gSA nq£[ke us Hkh vkRegR;k rFkk fMfotu vkWQ yscj ds v/;;u ds nkSjku dqN midYiuk cukdj
[kkl rjg dk v/;;u fd;k FkkA vkRegR;k ds fy, mudk ekuuk Fkk fd O;fDr dk ,dkadh thou blds fy, T;knk
ftEesokj gSA tks O;fDr vfookfgr jgrk gS ;k ifjokj ds lkFk ug jgrk mlesa vkRegR;k djus dh laHkkouk T;knk
gksrh gSA mUgksaus ;g Hkh ik;k fd dSFkksfyd /keZ ds leFkZdksa ds vis{kk izksVslVsaV /keZ ds ekuus okyksa esa vkRegR;k dh
okjnkrsa T;knk ns[kus dks feyrh gSA mlh izdkj mudk ekuuk Fkk fd tgk¡ tula[;k dk ?kuRo T;knk gksxk ogk¡
fMfotu vkWQ yscj T;knk gksrh gSA tgk¡ tula[;k dk ?kuRo de gksxk ogk¡ fMfotu vkWQ yscj Hkh de gksxhA
eSDl oscj us Hkh viuh iqLrd izksVslVsaV ,fFkd ,aM LihfjV vkWQ dSfiVfyTe esa ;g ik;k fd dSFkksfyd ds ctk;
izksVslVsaV /keZ ds ekuus okyksa esa iSls ds izfr :>ku T;knk FkkA bl izdkj ls midYiuk cukdj v/;;u djus ls
'kks/kdÙkkZ ds 'kks/k esa fuf'prrk rFkk Li"Vhdj.k dk lekos'k c<+rk gS vkSj 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks [kkl rF;ksa ds lkFk
dk;Z&dkj.k laca/k LFkkfir dj fdlh fl)kUr ds iq"Vh rFkk mls udkjuk vklku gks tkrk gSA ,d midYiuk dgk¡
rd mi;ksxh fl) gksxh ;g fuEu ckrksa ij fuHkZj djrk gS&
(i) iSuk fujh{k.k(
(ii) vuq'kkflr dYiuk rFkk jpukRed lksp(
(iii) dqN izfrikfnr fl)kUrA
,d dke pykÅ midYiuk ds vHkko esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius 'kks/k dks y{; rd igqp ¡ kus esa vlQy jgrk gS] le; T;knk
yxrk gS] fuf'pr fu"d"kZ ij igq¡puk Hkh eqf'dy gks tkrk gSA midYiuk dk gksuk ,d ckr gS vkSj lgh midYiuk
dk gksuk vyx blfy, lgh midYiuk dk gksuk 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk dke vklku dj nsrk gSA mldh oSKkfud fof/k dks
lgh fn'kk izkIr gksrh gS vkSj 'kks/k dk;Z dk iz;kstu vklku gks tkrk gSA
3- 'kks/k dk;Z ds fy, fujh{k.k rFkk 'kks/k rduhfd ds }kjk [kkst djuk & 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, fujh{k.k rFkk 'kks/k
rduhfd dk [kkst (observation and exploration of Scientific Technique) dk viuk vyx egÙo gSA 'kks/k ds fy,
midYiuk ds fuekZ.k ds ckn rF;ksa dk fujh{k.k dSls fd;k tkuk gS rFkk fdl izdkj dh oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk vkadM+s
bdV~Bs fd;s tkus gSa bldh mi;ksfxrk dks lHkh Lohdkj djrs gSaA fdl oSKkfud rduhfd o fof/k ds }kjk T;knk
fo'oluh; vkadM+s bdV~Bs gks ldrs gSa ;g ml fof/k ds lgh p;u ls gh laHko gSA 'kks/k esa iz'ukoyh rFkk lk{kkRdkj
fof/k dk vDlj bLrseky fd;k tkrk gS ijarq iz'ukoyh fof/k ug dkjxj gks ikrh gS tgk¡ mÙkjnkrk f'kf{kr gSa rFkk
bl izdkj dh fof/k ds egÙo dks le>dj iz'ukoyh Hkjus esa fnypLih j[krs gSaA lk{kkRdkj fof/k dks Hkh ,d mÙke
fof/k ekuk tkrk gS D;ksafd bl fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/kdÙkkZ mÙkjnkrk dh fof'k"V fLFkfr dks le>dj mlds ckjs esa
46 vuqla/kku fof/k
tkudkjh izkIr dj ldrk gS tks fd iz'ukoyh esa laHko ug gSA iz'ukoyh ds iz'u fuf'pr rFkk vifjorZu'khy gksrs
gSa tcfd lk{kkRdkj fof/k esa T;knk yphykiu gksrk gSA
lkekftd ekuo'kkfL=k;ksa us lgHkkxh fujh{k.k (Participant Observation) fof/k dk bLrseky dj tutkrh; lekt
ds ckjs esa tkudkjh bdV~Bk dhA osfj;j ,yfou ds ckjs esa ;g izfl) gS fd og yxHkx ,d n'kd rd mu tutkrh
yksxksa ds lkFk jgs ftuds mij mUgsa dke djuk FkkA eSfyuks"kLdh rFkk jSMfDyQ czkmu tSls lkekftd ekuo'kkfL=k;ksa
us {ks=k fof/k dk iz;ksx dj tks vkadM+sa bdV~Bs fd;s og vius vki esa dkQh egÙo j[krs gSaA gk¡ ! bruk t:j gS fd
lgHkkxh fujh{k.k }kjk ,df=kr vkadM+ksa dks lkaf[;dh :i nsdj mls izLrqr djuk rFkk bls vk/kkj cukdj fu"d"kZ
fudkyuk 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh dq'kyrk o {kerk ds mij fuHkZj djrk gSA
4- vkadM+ksa ds ladyu esa ,d:irk (Uniform Collection of Data): vkadM+ksa ds ladyu esa ,d:irk j[kuk
vko';d gS ojuk ,df=kr vkadM+ksa ls dksbZ Hkh fuf'pr fu"d"kZ fudky ikuk eqf'dy gSA blfy, fdlh Hkh ?kVuk
dk fujh{k.k dj mlls lacfa /kr vkadM+kas dks ,d rk£dd Øe esa j[kuk vko';d gSA rk£dd Øe esa vkadM+kas dks j[kus
ds nks fofèk dk vDlj lkekftd foKku esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bu nks fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/k dk;Z djus dh ijaijk
;ksa rks iqjkuh gS ijarq fuxeu fof/k (Deductive method) dk iz;ksx vf/kdka'kr% izkÑfrd foKku esa gksrk gS tcfd
vkxeu fofèk (Inductive method) dk iz;ksx lkekftd foKku esa fd;k tkrk gSA tgk¡ fuxeu fof/k esa tfVy
O;ogkjksa ds fujh{k.k ds vk/kkj ij vkadM+s ,df=kr fd;s tkrs gSa og nwljh vksj vkxeu fof/k esa vkadM+ksa dks Øec)
rjhds ls la;ksftr dj tfVy O;ogkjksa ds Øe'k% fujh{k.k ds mijkar fu"d"kZ fudkyus dh dksf'k'k dh tkrh gSA
fuxeu fof/k esa lkekU; ls dqN [kkl fopkjksa ls lacaf/kr fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs gSa tcfd vkxeu fof/k esa [kkl fopkjksa
ds Øe'k% fujh{k.k ds mijkUr gh fdlh [kkl fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pk tkrk gSA
5- ,df=kr vkadM+ksa dk oxhZdj.k (Classification of gathered Data): vkadM+ksa ds ,d=k dj ysus ek=k ls gh 'kksèk
dk dk;Z iwjk ug gks tkrk gSA mu vkadM+kas dks ,d rk£dd n‘f"Vdks.k viukdj tc rd mUgsa rF;ksa ds lkFk tksMd + j
oxhZÑr u fd;k tk;s mu vkadM+ksa dk dksbZ egÙo ug gksrk gSA blfy, ih0oh0 ;ax dk ekuuk Fkk fd rF; rHkh
rdZlx a r gksrs gSa tc mUgsa fdlh nwljs rF; ds lkFk tksMd
+ j mu rF;ksa ds izÑfr ds ckjs esa dqN vuqeku yxkdj dgk
tk ldsA blds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd rF;ksa dks ,df=kr dj mls ,d Øec) rjhds ls rF;ksa ds y{k.k ds vkèkkj
ij oxhZÑr fd;k tk;sA vkadM+ksa ds oxhZdj.k ds }kjk gh ;g laHko gks ldrk gSA blfy, vkadM+ksa dks oxhZÑr dj
mls ,d rdZlaxr rjhds ls fdlh lS)kfUrd mikxe ds izfriknu ;k ,frgkfld izo‘fÙk ds ckjs esa tkudkjh nsdj
'kks/k dks ,d u;h fn'kk ns ldrk gSA blh ckr dks /;ku esa j[kdj Hkkjr dh tux.kuk 2001, lhjht&7] gfj;k.kk
ls fuEufyf[kr vkadM+s izLrqr fd;s tk jgs gSa ftu vkadM+ksa ds lgh O;k[;ku ls 'kks/k dks ,d u;h fn'kk fey ldrh
gSA
lk{kjrk nj rFkk L=kh@iq:"k vuqikr 1951-2001
lk{kjrk nj L=kh&iq0 vuqikr

o"kZ ;ksx iq0 L=kh
1951 – – – 871
1961 – – – 868
1971 25.71 38.9 10.32 867
1981 37.13 51.86 20.04 870
1991 55.85 69.1 40.47 865
2001 68.85 79.25 56.31 861
lzksr% Hkkjr dh tux.kuk 2001] lhjht&7] gfj;k.kk

mi;qZä vkadM+ksa ds vk/kkj ij tgk¡ ;g dguk vklku gS fd 1971 ls 2001 rd efgykvksa dh f'k{kknj esa ik¡p xq.kk o‘f)
gqbZ gS tcfd iq:"kksa ds f'k{kknj esa ;g vuqikr yxHkx 1971 ls 2001 ds chp nqxuk gqvk gSA ijarq bUg vkadM+ksa ds vkèkkj
ij ;g Hkh dgk tk ldrk gS fd iq:"k ds vis{kk efgykvksa esa f'k{kk nj dk Lrj 1971&2001 ds chp vHkh Hkh ;g varj
20 izfr'kr ls mij dk gh gSA L=kh&iq:"k vuqikr esa Hkh 1951&2001 ds vkadM+s blh rF; dks n'kkZrs gSa fd efgykvksa dh
la[;k iq:"kksa ds vis{kk vkSj Hkh de gksrh tk jgh gSA efgykvksa dh fLFkfr ds vkdyu ds fy, bl izdkj ds vkadM+ksa dks
bdV~Bk dj mls vxj ,d lS)kfUrd mikxe o ;kstuk ds rgr oxhZÑr ug fd;k tk;s rks mu vkadM+kas dk dksbZ vkSfpR;
ug jg tkrk gSA vkadM+ksa dks ,df=kr dj mls oxhZÑr djus esa fuEu ckrksa dk /;ku j[kuk vko';d gSa&
1- vkadM+ksa esa visf{kr lekurk rFkk vlekurk(
2- vkadM+ksa ds oxhZdj.k esa lacaf/kr rF;ksa dk iqu£ujh{k.k rFkk rF;ksa ds chp vkRefuHkZjrkA
3- ?kVukvksa ds Øe ds chp iqujko‘fÙkA
ikfyu oh ;ax dk ;g ekuuk gS fd oxhZdj.k ds fy, lq>k, x;s mi;qä Z fgnk;rksa ds ckotwn Hkh dqN vkadM+s ,sls cp tkrs
gSa ftudk lgh bLrseky oxhZdj.k ds ckn Hkh ug gks ikrk & ,sls vkadM+ksa dks vxj NksM+ fn;k tk, rks ,d egÙoiw.kZ
tkudkjh ds u"V gksus dh laHkkouk gS] blfy, ,sls vkadM+ksa dks latksdj j[k ysuk pkfg, rkfd Hkfo"; esa fdlh ;kstuk
ds rgr mu vkadM+ksa dks Hkh oxhZÑr dj muls dqN fu"d"kZ fudkyk tk ldsA
lkekUohdj.k
(Generalisation)
'kks/kdÙkkZ fdlh Hkh i‘Fkd ?kVuk dks T;knk egÙo ug nsrkA blfy, ?kVukvksa rFkk rF;ksa ds Øfed :i dks rdZ;qä rjhds
ls tksM+dj mlls ,d vo/kkj.kk dk fuekZ.k djuk Hkh mldk izeq[k mís'; gksrk gSA bl mís'; ds vk/kkj ij u dsoy
voèkkj.kk dk fuekZ.k gksrk gS cfYd vo/kkj.kkvksa ds vk/kkj ij ,d lkekUohÑr /kkj.kk Hkh rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij cu ikrh
gSA blfy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh ges'kk ;g dksf'k'k jgrh gS fd rF;ksa dks ladfyr dj mls ,d rk£dd i)fr dks viukdj
voèkkj.kkvksa dk fuekZ.k djsaA ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd rF;ksa ds fujh{k.k ds ckn vxj mls fdlh ,d fopkj ;k mlls
tqM+s fdlh vkSj rF; ls tksM+dj ug ns[kk tk;s rks ml rF; ds vk/kkj ij dqN fu"d"kZ fudky ikuk eqf'dy gksrk gSA
ijarq tSls gh rF;ksa dks vkSj mlls tqM+s vU; rF;ksa ds lkFk laxfBr dj fdlh fopkj ds lkFk tksM+dj foosdiw.kZ vkèkkj
ij fopkjksa dks laxfBr fd;k tkrk gS rks fl)kUr ;k lkekUohdj.k dh fn'kk esa og igyk dne lkfcr gksxkA fl)kUrksa
ds izfriknu ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd rF;ksa dks laxfBr dj mls ml tSls vkSj Hkh rF;ksa ds lkFk feykdj dqN voèkkj.kk
ds rgr rk£dd :i ls lqfu;ksftr fd;k tk,A bl izdkj dh vo/kkj.kkvksa ds laxfBr Lo:i rFkk muls tqM+s laca/kksa dks
le>us ds fy, fl)kUr cuk;s tkrs gSa ftlds vk/kkj ij lkekUohdj.k fd;k tkrk gSA ikfyu oh0 ;ax us vkj oh0 czsFkoV
ds dFku dks m)‘r dj bl rF; dk mtkxj fd;k gSA vxj ,d O;fDr fujk'k gS vkSj fujk'k gksdj vius vkos'k ;k vkØks'k
dks O;Dr ug dj ikrk gS rks bldh ;g fujk'kk ;k vkØks'k fdlh vkSj txg ifjyf{kr gksrh gSA bl n‘"Vkar ls ;g izekf.kr
fd;k tk ldrk gS fd D;ksa vf/kdrj Nk=k vius fujk'kk ds dkj.k lkjk nks"k viuh vlQyrk ds fy, f'k{kdksa ij e<+
nsrs gSaA ,d dkedkth efgykvksa dks Hkh bldk [kkfe;ktk Hkqxruk iM+rk gS tc dkedkt dk cks> muds ?kj esa ruko dh
fLFkfr iSnk djrk gSA ijh{kk esa vlQy jgus okys Nk=k vDlj fujk'k gksdj vkRegR;k djus dh eukso‘fÙk cuk ysrs gSaA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd 'kks/k ds dbZ egÙoiw.kZ pj.k gSa ftu lHkh ij 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks le;] mís'; rFkk 'kksèk
ds egÙo dks /;ku esa j[kdj fu.kZ; ysuk iM+rk gSA ,d vPNk 'kks/kdÙkkZ og gksrk gS tks 'kks/k o vuqla/kku ds igys gh mu
eqn~nksa ij fopkj dj 'kks/k dh rS;kjh djrk gSA
'kks/k izjpuk dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

(Meaning and Definition of Research Design)
'kks/k izjpuk dk izFke y{; 'kks/k dks fu;ksftr djuk gksrk gS rkfd rk£dd fu"d"kZ fudkys tk ldsaA 'kks/k izjpuk ds }kjk
gh lkekftd vuql/a kku dks ,d fn'kk rFkk y{; rd igqp ¡ kuk laHko gks ikrk gSA blfy, lkekftd vuql/a kku esa 'kks/k izjpuk
48 vuqla/kku fof/k
ds egÙo dks lHkh Lohdkjrs gSaA ikfyu dS0 ;ax us 'kks/k izjpuk dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, dgk gS fd Þ;g ,d rk£dd rFkk
fof/kor ;kstuk dk ,d izk:i gS ftlds }kjk 'kks/k dk;Z dks fn'kk funsZ'k feyrk gSAß izjpuk lkekU; oSKkfud izk:i dk
,d igyw gS ftlds }kjk vuqla/kku ds fofo/k rjhdksa dks iq"V fd;k tkrk gSA izk:i rS;kj djus ls igys le;] lalk/ku]
miyC/k vkadM+kas rFkk miyC/k jkf'k rFkk ml laLFkk o laxBu ds ckjs esa fopkj djuk vko';d gS ftlds }kjk vkadM+s bdV~Bs
fd;s tkus gSaA blfy, b0 ,0 lqd~eSu (Suchman) dk dguk gS fd îzk:i ds fy, dksbZ ,d lgh rjhdk ug gksrk gS*
mudk dFku gS fd 'kks/k&izjpuk dksbZ fof'k"V ;kstuk ug gksrh ftls Lohdkj djuk vfuok;Z gks] D;ksafd ,d 'kks/k izjpuk
esa dbZ fn'kk funsZ'k gksrs gSa vkSj vko';d ;g gS fd muesa ls fdlh ,d dks lgh ekudj lgh fn'kk esa 'kks/k dks lapkfyr
fd;k tk;sA nwljs 'kCnksa es ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd v/;;u ds fy, izjpuk dk Lo:i vDlj iz;ksxkRed gksrk gSA tc
dHkh v/;;u dh 'kq:vkr gksrh gS dbZ u;s igyq mHkjdj vkrs gSaA bu u;h ifjfLFkfr;ksa ls vkadM+ksa dks rF;ksa ds lkFk
tksM+dj u;h fLFkfr;ksa ds vuq:i vxj 'kks/k izjpuk ds }kjk mls la'kksf/kr dj ug laxfBr fd;k x;k rks 'kks/k dh
mi;ksfxrk o lkFkZdrk gh lekIr gks tk;sxhA
'kks/k izjpuk ds mi;qZDr o.kZu ls ;g Li"V gS fd 'kks/k izjpuk dh mi;ksfxrk o lkFkZdrk dbZ ckrksa ij fuHkZj djrh gSaA
lSeq,y LVkmQj (Samuel Stauffer) us viuh 'kks/k i)fr esa fuEu ckrksa ij /;ku nsus dh fgnk;r nh ftuesa ls dqN
egÙoiw.kZ fgnk;rsa tks 'kks/k izjpuk ds iz;ksx ds le; vko';d lkfcr gks ldrh gS mudk mYys[k ;gk¡ fd;k tk jgk gS&
1- leL;k dk 'kh?kz v/;;u(
2- leL;k ls tqM+s yksxksa ls O;fDrxr laca/k LFkkfir djuk(
3- leL;k ls tqM+s igyqvksa ij /;ku j[kus ds fy, fujh{k.k] tk¡p iM+rky rFkk izkFkfed losZ{k.k(
4- vukSipkfjd lk{kkRdkj ds }kjk yksxksa ls tkudkjh izkIr djuk(
5- izkFkfed lykg rFkk lacaf/kr yksxksa ls okrkZyki(
6- iz'ukoyh rFkk vuqlwfp dk fuekZ.k mudk ijh{k.k(
7- vLi"V] vfu;fer rF;ksa dk cfg"dkj(
8- {ks=kh; lk{kkRdkj ds fy, rS;kjh djuk(
9- ladfyr vkadM+ksa dk fo'ys"k.k(
10- fjiksVZ rS;kj djukA
bl izdkj lkekftd vuqla/kku esa dbZ ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj 'kks/k izjpuk dks Bksl vk/kkj fn;k tkrk gSA
'kks/k izjpuk ds izdkj
(Types of Research Design)
'kks/k izjpuk ds mís'; dks /;ku esa j[kdj fofHkUu fo}kuksa us blds izdkjksa dk o.kZu izLrqr fd;k gSA dfy±tj us 'kks/k izjpuk
ds izdkjksa dk o.kZu djrs gq, iz;ksxkRed 'kks/k&izjpuk (Experiment Research Design) dks dkQh egÙoiw.kZ ekuk gSA xqMs
rFkk gkV us Hkh 'kks/k izjpuk ds izdkjksa esa iz;ksxkRed 'kks/k izjpuk ds egÙo ds le>dj flQZ ml 'kks/k izjpuk dk o.kZu
gh viuh iqLrd esa fd;k gS ijarq 'kks/k izjpuk ds leqfpr izdkjksa dh tkudkjh ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd blds fuEu
pkj izdkj rFkk muds mi izdkjksa dk o.kZu fd;k tk;s%
1- o.kZukRed 'kks/k izjpuk (Descriptive Research Design): rF;ksa dks vk/kkj cukdj ml leL;k ls lacaf/kr
tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, ftu 'kks/k izjpuk dk o.kZu izLrqr fd;k tkrk gS mls o.kZukRed 'kks/k izjpuk dgrs
gSaA fo"k;] ?kVuk o leL;k ls lacaf/kr tkudkjh dk fooj.k foLrkjiwoZd izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA lekt'kkL=kh;
vè;;u esa fdlh Hkh ?kVuk o leL;k dk fooj.k izLrqr djuk oSKkfud v/;;u o 'kks/k dk igyk pj.k gksrk gSA
blds fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fd ml leL;k ls lacaf/kr lkjh tkudkjh izkIr dh tk lds rkfd 'kks/k ls
lacafèkr dksbZ igyw okLrfod 'kks/k ds le; esa vNwrh u jg tk;sA mnkgj.k ds fy, ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd tc
ljdkj us eaMy deh'ku dks vU; detksj oxks± ds ckjs esa tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, xfBr fd;k rks blds ihNs
eU'kk ;g Fkh fd detksj oxZ pkgs oks lkekftd] vk£Fkd o vU; dkj.kksa ls gksa mldh igpku dh tk;s vkSj ml
igpku ds i'pkr~ gh vkj{k.k iznku djus gsrq dksbZ fu.kkZ;d QSlyk fy;k tk ldsA vr% detksj oxZ ls tqMh+ tkfr;ksa
ds lkFk gh lkFk vU; tkfr;ksa ds ckjs esa okLrfod rF;ksa dks fdlh oSKkfud fof/k ds }kjk vkadM+s ,df=kr djus dk
iz;kl fd;k x;kA bl izdkj ls ftl 'kks/k izjpuk dk izkFkfed mís'; o.kZukRed fo'ys"k.k dj dqN [kkl fu"d"kZ
ij igq¡puk gksrk gS mls o.kZukRed 'kks/k&izjpuk dgk tkrk gSa
o.kZukRed 'kks/k izjpuk ds lQy gksus ds fy, mu lHkh ckrksa ij /;ku nsuk vko';d gS ftldk o.kZu 'kks/k i)fr
ds fofHkUu pj.kksa ds fooj.k ds nkSjku fy[kk tk pqdk gSA
2- vUos"k.kkRed 'kks/k izjpuk (Exploratory Research Design): vUos"k.kkRed 'kks/k izjpuk ds ihNs loZizFke
mís'; u;s rF;ksa dh [kkst djuk gksrk gSA vr% tc fdlh leL;k ;k ?kVuk esa fNis dkj.kksa dh [kkst dh ckr dh
tkrh gS rks mlls tqMs+ izk:i dks vUos"k.kkRed 'kks/k izjpuk dh laKk nh tkrh gSA tSls ;qokvksa esa u'kk[kksjh ds dkj.kksa
dk irk yxkuk gks fd D;ksa muesa u'kk[kksjh rFkk eknd O;olu ds izfr :>ku c<+k gS rks 'kks/k izjpuk dh :i js[kk
dks bl izdkj rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS fd bl leL;k ls tqM+s midYiuk ds fuekZ.k ls ftl u;s rF; dh [kkst ge
djuk pkgrs gSa mlesa lQy gks ldsaA vxj eknd O;olu ds f'kdkj ;qokvksa dk gh v/;;u djuk gks rks ;g irk
djuk vko';d gksxk fd fdl lkekftd i‘"BHkwfe ls vkusokys yksxksa esa bl izdkj dk O;olu T;knk ik;k tkrk
gS\ D;k os lHkh gksLVy esa jgrs gSa\ muds vius lhfu;j Nk=kksa ds lkFk laca/k dSls gSa\ vkSj ,sls O;olu ds f'kdkj
;qokvksa dh egRodka{kkvksa dks fdlh dkj.ko'k Bsl igq¡ph gS ftlds dkj.k fujk'k gksdj mUgksaus u'kk[kksjh dk lgkjk
fy;k tks vc muds fy, muds xys dk Qank lkfcr gks jgh gSA
;qokvksa esa bl fopyu (Deviance) dh fØ;k dk v/;;u dj ;qok O;ogkj dk v/;;u fd;k tkuk dkQh izklafxd
Hkh gSA vkt ge vklke] iatkc] tEeq o dk'ehj rFkk mÙkj iwohZ {ks=k ds dqN jkT;ksa rFkk dsaæ 'kkflr izns'kksa dh ckr
djsa rks ogk¡ Hkh vkradoknh leL;k ;|fi cká enn ls pyk;h tk jgh gS ijarq bu bykdksa ds ;qok oxZ dks vkd£"kr
djus esa ;qokvksa dh viuh fLFkfr Hkh blds fy, vuqdwy okrkoj.k rS;kj dj nsrh gS ftlds dkj.k ;qokvksa ds ikl
vkradoknh xqVksa esa 'kkfey gksdj viuh grk'kk dks nwj djus dk ,dek=k lgkjk cp tkrk gSA bl izdkj dh Toyar
leL;k dks [kkst dj ;qokvksa esa O;kIr vlarks"k vkSj mlds QyLo:i buds O;ogkj esa vkusokys fopyu dk
vUos"k.kkRed 'kksèk izjpuk ds }kjk ;qokvksa esa vk;s fopyu ds dkj.kksa dk irk yxk;k tk ldrk gSA vUos"k.kkRed
'kks/k izjpuk dh :i js[kk rS;kj djrs le; vU; lacaf/kr ckrksa dk Hkh irk py ldrk gS ftlds mij gekjk vHkh
rd /;ku ug vkÑ"V gks ik;k gSA
tgk¡ rd vkradoknh xqVksa esa ;qokvksa dks fu;qä djus dh 'kSyh ij fopkj fd;k tk;s rks laHkor% mu ;qokvksa dh etcwjh
dk Qk;nk mBkdj gh vkradoknh lewg bUgsa t?kU; vijk/k djus ds fy, izsfjr djrs gSa ijarq ml t?kU; vijkèk
dks /keZ] fopkj/kkjk] jk"Vªoknh lksp ;k fQj ladh.kZ lkaiznkf;d o tkfr; lksp ds lkFk tksM+dj mu fØ;kvksa dks
rdZlxa r rFkk bl izdkj dh fØ;kvksa esa ejus okys ;qokvksa dks 'kghn] tsgknh vkfn fo'ks"k.kksa dh laKk nsdj mu ;qokvksa
dks Hkzfer djrs gSaA ,sls rF;ksa dk irk pykus esa vUos"k.kkRed 'kks/k izjpuk ds }kjk fd;k x;k 'kks/k&dk;Z fu'p;
gh u;h ckrksa dh [kkst djus esa dkQh lgk;d lkfcr gksrk gSA
3- funkukRed 'kks/k izjpuk (Diagnostic Research Design): ftl izdkj ,d MkDVj fdlh fcekjh ds dkj.k dk
irk yxkdj mlds mipkj ds ckjs esa lksprk gS mlh izdkj ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh Hkh ;g ftEesokjh cu tkrh gS fd og
leL;k dk v/;;u dj ml leL;k ds funku o ewfDr dSls ik;h tk lds bldk Hkh mik; crk;sA vFkkZr~ ;g dgk
tk ldrk gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ ftl lekt dk lnL; gksrk gS ml lekt ds izfr mldh dqN uSfrd ftEesokjh Hkh gksrh
gS ftldk fuokZg djuk mldk ns'k ds ukxfjd gksus ds dkj.k dÙkZO; Hkh cu tkrk gSA bl Hkwfedk dk fuokZg djus
ds fy, mls ck/; ug fd;k tk ldrk ijarq lh0 MCyw0 feYl (C.W. Mills) us viuh iqLrd lksf'k;ksyksftd
beSftus'ku (Sociological Imagination) esa lkekftd oSKkfudksa ds fy, bl izdkj dh izfrc)rk dks js[kkafdr djrs
50 vuqla/kku fof/k
gq, bl ckr ij cy fn;k gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius 'kksèk dk;Z ds }kjk csgrj lekt ds fuekZ.k esa jpukRed Hkwfedk
vnk dj ldrk gSA
bl izdkj ,d funkukRed 'kks/k izjpuk esa ewyHkwr mís'; u dsoy fo'kq) Kku dh izkfIr rd gh lhfer gksrk gS cfYd
mldk mís'; leL;k ls tqM+s dkj.kksa dk irk yxkuk gksrk gS rkfd ml leL;k ls tqM+s fofHkUu igyqvksa ij fopkj
dj mlls tqM+s lek/kku <qa<s tk ldsaA la{ksi esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS tc fdlh [kkl lkekftd leL;k ds funku
ds fy, 'kks/k dk;Z fd;s tkrs gSa rks mlls tqM+s 'kks/k dh :ijs[kk esa funkukRed 'kks/k izjpuk dk [kkdk [k pk tkrk
gSA
fiNys i‘"B ij ftl mnkgj.k dk o.kZu fd;k x;k gS ftlesa ;qok vlarks"k ds dkj.kksa dk irk yxkdj ;qokvksa dks
dSls fopfyr gksus ls cpk;k tk ldrk gS blds ckjs esa foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k tk pqdk gSA ml mnkgj.k ds }kjk
gh ;g fl) gks tkrk gS fd ,d 'kks/k dÙkkZ vius 'kks/k ds ek/;e ls bl izdkj ds funkukRed 'kks/k izjpuk dk uke
ij viuk egÙoiw.kZ ;ksxnku ns ldrk gSA
4- iz;ksxkRed 'kks/k izjpuk (Experimental Research Design): iz;ksxkRed 'kks/k izjpuk dk lekt'kkL=k esa ,d
[kkl egÙo gS vkSj bl 'kks/k izjpuk ds egÙo dks bl ckr ls gh tkuk tk ldrk gS fd bl 'kks/k izjpuk ds }kjk
rk£dd :i ls izek.k tku LVqvkVZ fey }kjk fn;k x;k gSA ts0 ,l0 fey us iz;ksxkRed fof/k dks fodflr fd;k
Fkk vkSj ml vk/kkj ij gh vkxs pydj mlesa vkSj Hkh dbZ u;h ckrsa tksM+dj mls vkSj Hkh rduhfd Lrj ij iq"V
fd;k x;kA muds fo'ys"k.k esa nks fof/k dk fo'ks"k :i ls o.kZu fd;k x;k gS tks fuEu gSa&
(i) lgefr fof/k (Method of Agreement): tc fdlh ,d leL;k o fØ;k dk dsoy ,d gh fu"d"kZ ds }kjk
fLFkfr dks Li"V djrs gksa rks dk;Z&dkj.k laca/k LFkkfir djuk vklku gks tkrk gSA ljy vFkZ esa ;g dgk tk
ldrk gS fd tc ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ c fLFkfr dks ges'kk ik;sa tc z dk voyksdu djsa rks ;g dgk tk ldrk gS
fd c vkSj z esa dk;Z&dkj.k laca/k ik;k tkkr gSA fuEu fp=k ds }kjk bls vPNh rjg le>us ds fy, xqMs o
gkV ds }kjk fn;s x;s mnkgj.k dk lgkjk fy;k tk ldrk gSA ¼ns[ksa fp=k&1½
fp=k&1

A B

C Z

X fLFkfr esa dk ifj.kke

C

Y fLFkfr esa D E dk ifj.kke Z

Z
∴ C dk ifj.kke gS
fp=k&1 ls Li"V gS fd X fLFkfr esa tc ABC ds gksus ij ifj.kke ds :i esa Z fu"d"kZ fn[krk gSA vkSj Y fLFkfr esa Hkh
CDE ds gksus ij Hkh ifj.kke ds :i esa Z fu"d"kZ fn[krk gSA vFkkZr~ X rFkk Y fLFkfr esa C ,d lkekU; ckr gS ftlds
dkj.k Z ifj.kke ds :i esa fn[krk gSA bl izdkj nksuksa ifjfLFkfr esa C vkSj Z ds chp ,d lgerh gS ftlds dkj.k ;g
dgk tk ldrk gS fd C vkSj Z ds chp lh/kk laca/k gSA
(ii) vlgefr fof/k (Method of Difference): rk£dd :i ls izek.k vlgefr fof/k ds }kjk Hkh n'kkZ;k tk
ldrk gSA tc nks fLFkfr ,slh gks tc ,d esa rks Z ifj.kke ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr gks ijarq nwljs esa Z ifj.kke
ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr u gks rks bls udkjkRed lcwr o izek.k ekuk tk ldrk gSA bl fLFkfr dks Hkh fp=k&2
ds }kjk vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk gSA
fp=k&2
X fLFkfr esa
A B C dk ifj.kke Z
Y fLFkfr esa
Non
C D E dk ifj.kke
Z
∴ C dk ifj.kke gS Z
fp=k&2 ls Li"V gS fd X fLFkfr esa tc ABC gks rc ifj.kke ds :i esa Z ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gS vkSj Y fLFkfr esa tc AB
vkSj C ug gks rks ifj.kke ds :i esa Z ug fn[krk gS rks bl mnkgj.k ls ;g fl) gks tkrk gS fd C dk laca/k Z ls
gS vFkkZr~ tc C ifjHkkf"kr ug gksrk gS rks Z Hkh n‘f"Vxkspj ug gksrk gSA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd dkjd rÙoksa dks fu;af=kr dj fofHkUu izdkj ds iz;ksxkRed fu"d"kZ fudkys tk ldrs
gSa vkSj buds vk/kkj ij fuEu rhu izdkj ds 'kks/k izjpuk dh ppkZ vke rkSj ij dh tkrh gS&
1- i'pkr~ iz;ksx o ijh{k.k (After-only Experiment): i'pkr~ ijh{k.k o iz;ksx 'kks/k izjpuk esa nks dkjd rÙoksa
dks pqu fy;k tkrk gS vkSj buesa ls ,d dks fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gS vkSj iz;ksxkRed lewg ;k dkjd rÙo esa iz;ksx
dj mlesa gq, ifjorZu dk vkdyu dj ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd izFke dkjd rÙo (X) dh rqyuk esa iz;ksxkRed dkjd
rÙo (Y) ds O;ogkj esa fdl izdkj ds ifjorZu fn[krs gSaA nks fookfgr efgykvksa dk lewg X vkSj Y eku fy;k
tk; vkSj X dks fu;af=kr j[kk tk; ijarq Y esa iz;ksx ds fy, mls ifjokj fu;kstu ds ykHk ls voxr djok;k tk;s
& LykbM~l rFkk fQYe ds }kjkA dqN o"kZ ckn tc nksuksa lewg dh rqyuk dh tk;s rks laHkor% ;g uksfVl fd;k tk
lds fd iz;ksxkRed lewg esa ifjokj fu;kstu ds izfr LoLFk n‘f"Vdks.k gS tcfd fu;af=kr lewg esa ,slk dksbZ Hkh
ifjorZu ug vk;k gSA blfy, bl 'kks/k izjpuk dks i'pkr~ ijh{k.k dh laKk nh xbZ gSA
2- iwoZ&i'pkr~ iz;ksx o ijh{k.k (Before-After Experiment): bl izdkj ds iz;ksxkRed 'kks/k izjpuk esa ,d gh rjg
ds dkjd rÙoksa vFkkZr~ v/;;u lewg dk p;u dj fy;k tkrk gS vkSj bu nks v/;;u lewgksa dh rqyuk ,d voLFkk
ds igys vkSj ckn esa fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd ifjokj fu;kstu dk v/;;u fookg ds
iwoZ vkSj fQj fookg ds i'pkr~ fd;k tk;s rks rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k ls ;g irk pyk;k tk ldrk gS fd ifjokj
fu;kstu dk T;knk ykHk fookg ds i'pkr~ gh v/;;u lewg dks fey ldrk gSA fookg ls igys ifjokj fu;kstu
ij fn[kk;s x;s LykbM~l rFkk fQYe ls Qk;nk ugha gksrk gSA
3- dk;kZUrj&rF; iz;ksx o ijh{k.k (Ex-post-facto-experiment): bl izdkj ds 'kks/k izjpuk ds ckjs esa igys lkspk
ug tkrk gSA ;g ifjfLFkfr ds vuq:i gh iz;ksx dh fLFkfr mRiUu gksus ij vDlj blds ckjs esa fu.kZ; fd;k tkrk
gSA vFkkZr~ 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh vkdfLed ;kstuk (contingent plan) dk fgLlk gksrk gS vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds vuq:i bl
izdkj ds dk;kZUrj&rF; iz;ksx dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ijarq ,slh fLFkfr mRiUu gksus ij Hkh bls iz;ksx dh os lkjh
fgnk;rsa viukuh iM+rh gS ftlds i'pkr~ iz;ksx rFkk iwoZ i'pkr~ iz;ksx ds nkSjku viuk;k tkrk gS rkfd 'kks/kdÙkkZ
viuh 'kks/k dks lQyrkiwoZd djus esa lQy gks ldsaA
52 vuqla/kku fof/k
mi;qZä foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd laLFkkfir iz;ksxkRed izjpuk (classical experimental design) esa nks
iz;ksxkRed lewg dks fu;af=kr rFkk iz;ksx ds fy, pqudj fofHkUu fLFkfr;ksa esa iz;ksxkRed izsjd rÙoksa ds }kjk 'kks/k fd;s
tkrs gSaA bl izdkj ds 'kks/k izjpuk dk izpyu Ñf"k {ks=k esa Hkh Ñf"k ls tqM+s mUur cht dh [kkst esa dkQh lQyrk iwoZd
fd;k x;k gSA ;gk¡ ij ;g tku ysuk Hkh i;kZIr gksxk fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, iz;ksxkRed izjpuk ds lkFk&lkFk vkSj vU;
izjpukvksa dh Hkwfedk dk Hkh iz;ksx dkQh ykHknk;d lkfcr gksrk gSA
lkjka'k
bl bdkbZ esa oSKkfud fof/k ds vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk dks le>kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA oSKkfud fof/k ds izÑfr ,oa mlds
egÙo dks le>kus ds fy, bl ikB esa iz;kl ;g fd;k x;k gS fd f'k{kk£Fk;ksa dks tgk¡ rd laHko gks lds lekt'kkfL=k;ksa
ds laLFkkfir v/;;uksa dh Hkh tkudkjh nh tk;sA mu lekt'kkfL=k;ksa dh Ñfr;ksa dk v/;;u lekt'kkL=k dh ekSfyd
voèkkj.kkvksa ds v/;;u ds nkSjku Hkh vki yksxksa us fd;k gksxkA mUg vo/kkj.kkvksa dks vk/kkj cukdj lkekftd vuqlèa kku
ls tqMs+ oLrqfu"B rFkk vkRefu"B mikxe dh Hkh ppkZ foLrkj ls dh x;h gS rkfd f'k{kkFkhZ vklkuh ls mu vo/kkj.kkvksa rFkk
mikxeksa dks Lej.k dj ldsAa vxj vkxs mu iqLrdksa dks vk/kkj cukdj lekt'kkL=kh; v/;;uksa dks mnkgj.k ds fy, izLrqr
Hkh fd;k tk ldsA vuqHkkfod 'kks/k ds foLrkj ls o.kZu ds nkSjku Hkh dqN izpfyr lekt'kkfL=k;ksa ds fopkjksa rFkk
voèkkj.kkvksa dks vk/kkj cukdj mls le>kus dh dksf'k'k dh x;h gS vkSj lkekftd losZ{k.k ds mij foLrkj ls ppkZ djrs
gq, blls lacaf/kr dqN ,sls mnkgj.kksa ds }kjk ppkZ dh xbZ gS tks gekjs nSfud thou ds vfHkUu vax cu pqds gSaA bu
rkRdkfyd mnkgj.kksa dh enn ls vo/kkj.kkvksa dks le>uk vklku gks tkrk gSA fo|k£Fk;ksa dks bl ikB esa lkekftd 'kksèk
ds fofHkUu pj.kksa dk dSls iz;ksx fd;k tk;s] bldk Hkh o.kZu lekt'kkfL=k; v/;;u ds lanHkZ esa gh djus dk iz;kl fd;k
x;k gS 'kks/k izjpuk dk o.kZu Hkh bl ikB ds vkjaHk esa izLrqr fd;s x;s eq[; vk/kkjHkwr rÙoksa dks vk/kkj cukdj fd;k x;k
gSA blfy, bl ikB dks tgk¡ rd laHko gks lds fo|k£Fk;ksa ds fy, xzkg~; cukdj izLrqr djus dh dksf'k'k dh x;h gS
vkSj ,slk djrs oDr ;g /;ku j[kk x;k gS fd bl ikB dh xq.koÙkk cuh jgsA
eqY;kadu gsrq iz'u
eqY;kadu gsrq ftu iz'uksa dk mYys[k ;gk¡ fd;k tk jgk gS] mls mnkgj.kLo:i gh /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gS tks fuEu
gS a &
1- oSKkfud fof/k D;k gS\ oSKkfud fof/k dh izÑfr ij ,d fuca/k fy[ksaA
2- oSKkfud fof/k dh fo'ks"krkvksa ij izdk'k Mkyrs gq, blds egÙo dk o.kZu djsaA
3- lkekftd vuqla/kku esa oLrqfu"B mikxe dh fo'ks"krkvksa ,oa egÙo dk foLrkj ls o.kZu djsaA
4- oLrqfu"B rFkk vkRefu"B mikxe ds chp ds vUrj dks Li"V djsaA
5- vuqHkkfod vuqla/kku dk lekt'kkL=k esa D;k egÙo gS\ lekt'kkL=k esa fl)kUr izfriknu esa ;g dgk¡ rd l{ke gS\
6- fdu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa lkekftd losZ{k.k dk iz;ksx T;knk ykHknk;d lkfcr gks ldrk gS\
7- lkekftd vuqla/kku ds fofHkUu lksikuksa dk 'kks/k esa D;k egÙo gSa\
8- 'kks/k izjpuk ds fofHkUu izdkjksa dk o.kZu djsaA
9- fuEu ij uksV fy[ksa&
(i) oLrqfu"B mikxe (Objectivist Approach)
(ii) vkRefu"B mikxe (Subjectivist Approach)
(iii) losZ{k.k vk;kstu (Survey Planning)
(iv) iwoZ losZ{k.k (Pilot Survey)
(v) iz;ksxkRed 'kks/k izjpuk (Experimental Research Design)
'kks/k fof/k rFkk vkadM+s ,df=kr djus dh rduhdh 53
v/;k;&3
'kks/k fof/k rFkk vkadM+s ,df=kr djus dh rduhdh
(Methods of Research and Techniques of Data
Collection)
ifjek.kkRed fof/k dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk
(Meaning and Definition of Quantitative Method)
tsoksul~ rFkk ukxsy (Jevons & Nagel) us viuh iqLrd ^n ¯izfLiYl vkQ lkabl ± (The Principles of Science)* esa Lohdkj
fd;k gS fd rk£dd lksp ds nks v/;;u {ks=k gSa& ge ;k rks ifjek.kkRed fof/k dk lgkjk ysdj ?kVukvksa dk o.kZu djrs
gSa ;k fQj xq.kkRed fofèk dk lgkjk ysdj ?kVukvksa dh O;k[;k djrs gSaA tgk¡ ifjek.kkRed fof/k dks foLr‘r vFkZ ds }kjk
mlds fo'ks"k rÙo dh tkudkjh feyrh gS] og bldh vksj xq.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk ?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa tks tkudkjh feyrh
gS] mlds egÙo dks Hkh udkjk ug tk ldrk gSA gk¡! 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius 'kks/k ds nkSjku ;g t:j eglwl djrs gSa fd izR;sd
?kVuk Øe dks ftls ge eglwl djrs gSa mls vxj xq.kkRed :i ls gh ns[kk tk;s rks mlds fof'k"V rÙo dh igpku fuf'pr
:i ls ug gks ldrh vkSj gekjh tkudkjh vLi"V jg tkrh gSA blfy, ?kVukvksa ds xq.kkRed Øe dks ifjek.kkRed
vfHkO;fDr iznku dj mls Li"V lkaf[;dh bdkbZ ds :i esa izLrqr djuk gh ifjek.kkRed fof/k dk izFke mís'; gksrk gSA
vDlj ge xehZ ds fnuksa esa ;g dgrs gSa fd Hkh"k.k xehZ iM+ jgh gS ijarq vxj ge dgs fd vkt rkieku c<+dj 48°c gksus
dh laHkkouk gS rc tks gesa tkudkjh feyrh gS og pkSadk nsus okyh gksrh gSA bl izdkj ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd xq.kkRed
rF; dks ifjek.kkRed vFkkZr~ vkadM+ksa dh rjg fu/kkZfjr dj Hkh izLrqr fd;k tk ldrk gSA xqMs rFkk gkV dk dguk gS
fd fuèkkZfjr jkf'k vFkkZr~ quantification ds }kjk fuf'prrk rFkk fo'oluh;rk c<+ tkrh gSA fdlh Hkh xq.kkRed rF;
(qualitative fact) dks tc lkaf[;dh :i fn;k tkrk gS rks mlls flQZ fu"d"kZ ;g fudkyk tkuk pkfg, fd ?kVuk ;k
rF;ksa dks laf{kIr vkSj oSKkfud rjhds ls izLrqr djus dk iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gSA xq.kkRed rF;ksa esa Hkh ekinaM fd;k tk
ldrk gS ijarq ;gk¡ ekinaM mruk laf{kIr rFkk lkaf[;dh :i ls fuf'pr ug gksrk ftruk fd ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk
laHko gks ikrk gSA
xqMs rFkk gkV dk ekuuk Fkk fd xf.kr rFkk lkaf[;dh ds iz;ksx ls ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyuk Hkzked gksxk fd rF;ksa dh O;k[;k
flQZ lkaf[;dh fof/k;ksa ds iz;ksx ls lgh ekinaM rFkk lcwr blds }kjk fey tkrs gSa] lgh ug gksxkA mudh ;g
ekU;rk Fkh fd fdlh Hkh 'kks/k rduhfd esa oSKkfud ifj.kke izkIr djus ds fy, fuEu ckrksa dh vksj /;ku nsuk vko';d
gS a &
1- fujh{k.k fdruk lgh gS\
2- D;k nwljs oSKkfud ml fujh{k.k dh iqujko‘fÙk dj ldrs gSa\
3- D;k vkadM+s fu"d"kZ ds vuq:i gSa\ & 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks lko/kku djus ds ygts esa xqMs rFkk gkV dk dguk Fkk fd vxj
fujh{k.k lgh ug gS rks dkepykÅ fujh{k.k ds vk/kkj ij rF;ksa dks lkaf[;dh vkadM+ksa dk vlyh tkek iguk
nsus ek=k ls 'kks/k dk dke lQy ug gks tkrk gSA ifjek.kkRed (quantitative method) fof/k dks lkaf[;dh
vkadM+ksa o bdkbZ ds :i esa rcnhy dj nsus ek=k ls gh 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk dke iwjk ug gks tkrk gSA blfy, dgk
tk ldrk gS fd ;|fi ifjek.kkRed fof/k esa xq.kkRed rF;ksa (quantitative facts) dks lkaf[;dh rF;ksa (Statistical
54 vuqla/kku fof/k
facts) ds :i esa ifjo£rr dj ?kVukvksa o leL;kvksa dk fo'ys"k.k fd;k tkrk gSA ijarq ;g dguk ftruk vklku
yxrk gS djuk mruk gh eqf'dy gksrk gSA mi;qäZ lhekvksa ds ckotwn Hkh ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds mi;qDZ r O;k[;ku
dks blds fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa ,oa egÙo dk mYys[k vko';d izrhr gksrk gSA
(i) xq.kkRed rF;ksa ds Øe dks ifjek.kkRed rF;ksa ds Øe esa ifjofrZr djuk (Conversion of Qualitative
Series of Data into Qualitative Series of Data)
(ii) vf/kdkf/kd lqLi"Vrk (Greater Precision)
(iii) lqLi"V ekiu (Precise Measurement)
(iv) oSKkfud vo/kkj.kkvksa dk iz;ksx (Use of Scientific Concepts having one Definition) ftls rduhfd
nw‘f"V ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;k gksA
(v) fo'oluh;rk (Reliability)
(vi) iz;ksxkRed vk/kkj ij rF;ksa dk ifj{k.k (Verification of Facts Based on Experiments)
(vii) fo'oluh; Hkfo";ok.kh (Reliable Forecast)
1. ifjek.kkRed fof/k dh izeq[k fo'ks"krk gksrh gS xq.kkRed rF;ksa ds Lo:i dks cnydj mls ,d fuf'pr lkaf[;dh
igpku nsukA bl izdkj dk izko/kku fdlh Hkh ifj.kkRed v/;;u dh ,d fuf'pr y{; rd igq¡pkus esa lQy
gksrk gSA tks midYiuk rS;kj gksrs gS mlls rF;ksa dks bdVBk dj ,d Øe esa Hkxkus esa lgqfy;r gksrh gS
ftlds vk/kkj ij fu"d"kZ Hkh rF;ksa ds vuq:i gksrs gSaA bu rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij lkfj.kh] pkVZ ;k vU; xzkfQd
:i ls izLrqr dj ml ?kVuk rFkk leL;k esa fofHkUu vk;keksa dks izHkkoh rjhds ls izLrqr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
2. vkf/kdkf/kd lqLi"Vrk% 'kks/k esa 'kks/k fo"k; ls tqM+s midYiukvksa dk laf{kr gksuk] mls ,d lakf[;dh fpUg nsdj
mlds fo'ys"k.k djus esa rF;ksa dks ,d nwljs ls tksM+dj mldk fo'ys"k.k djus esa dkQh lgk;rk feyrh gSaA
ifjek.kkRed fof/k esa tgk¡ rd laHko gks ikrk gS 'kks/k lac/a kh iz'uksa dks laf{kIr j[kdj mls lqLi"V djus dk iz;kl
fd;k tkrk gSA
3. lqLi"V ekiu% ifjek.kkRed fof/k ,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk leL;k ls lacaf/kr rF;ksa ds ekiu dh gksrh gSaA
lekt'kkL=k esa euq"; ds O;ogkj ls tqMh+ fØ;kvksa dks ml O;fDr ls :>ku ds vuq:i ekius dk Hkh izko/kku gksrk
gSA dbZ Ldsy (ekiØe) Hkh rS;kj fd;s x;s gSa ftlds }kjk O;fDr dk fdlh pht] oLrq] LFkku] ?kVuk] fopkj ds
izfr :>ku tkuus esa enn feyrh gSA fydVZ rFkk FkLVZu }kjk cuk;s x;s Ldsy dh enn ls O;fDr ds bu :>kuksa
dk vankt yxk;k tk ldrk gSA lekt'kkL=k esa dqN Sociometric Ldsy Hkh rS;kj fd;s x;s gSa ftlds }kjk pquko
ds v/;;u esa ;g irk yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd yksdfiz; usrk dkSu gS\
4. oSKkfud vo/kkj.kkvksa dk iz;ksx djus ds ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk leL;k o ?kVuk dk eqY;kadu djuk vklku
gks tkrk gSA fdlh izsjd rRo dk izHkko tkuus ds fy, bl izdkj ds vo/kkj.kkvksa dk l‘tu djuk Hkh vklku
gks tkrk gSA oSKkfud vo/kkj.kkvksa dk ijh{k.k dj mls Bksl lS)kfUrd vk/kkj Hkh fn;k tk ldrk gSA oSKkfud
voèkkj.kkvksa ds ijh{k.k ds ckn vxj ;g irk py tkrk gS fd mldk dksbZ izHkko ughsa jg x;k gS rks cnyrs
ifjfLFkfr ds vuqlkj laHko gS mu oSKkfud vo/kkj.kkvksa dks ;k tks iw.kZr;k NksM+k tk ldrk gS ;k fQj mlesa
la'kks/ku ykus dh t:jr gks ldrh gSA
5. fo'oluh;rk% ifjek.kkRed fof/k dk fo'ks"krk bl fof/k ds }kjk fudkys x;s fu"d"kZ dh fo'oluh;rk gSaA ;gk¡
tks fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs gSa oks vkadMksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrsa gS ftu vkadMksa dk fujh{k.k o ijh{k.k nwljs 'kks/kdÙkkZ
}kjk vklkuh ls fd;k tk ldrk gSA lekt'kkL=k esa fu"d"kZ fudkyus dh ftl rkfdZd fØ;k dk bLrseky fd;k
tkrk gS mlesa fuxeu fof/k rFkk vkxeu fof/k nksuksa dk iz;ksx leku :i ls ugha gksrk gSA fuxeu fof/k dk
T;knkrj izek.k izkÑfrd foKku esa fd;k tkrk gSa tgk¡ ,d izfrikfnr fl)kUr dh iqf"V ds fy, rF;ksa dh tk¡p
iM+rky dh tkrh gSA pqf¡ d vf/kdka'k leL;kvksa ds o.kZu esa izkÑfrd foKku fuxeu rdZ dk iz;ksx djrs gSa blfy,
bldh fo'oluh;rk dkQh c<+ tkrh gSA laHkor% blhfy, lkekftd oSKkfud Hkh vius 'kks/k dh fo'oluh;rk
dks c<+kus ds fy, xq.kkRed rF;ksa dks ifjek.kkRed rjhdksa ds }kjk mls lkaf[;dh :i nsdj vius 'kks/k v/;;u
dks T;knk fo'oluh; cukus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA
6. ifjek.kkRed fof/k dk vk/kkj rF;ksa ds iz;ksxkRed ijh{k.k ij fuHkZj gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ iz;ksx ds vk/kkj ij ckj&ckj
fdlh Hkh rF; dk ijh{k.k dj mldh lR;rk fd iqf"V dh tk ldrh gSA ftl izdkj ls iz;ksx fujarj djus ds
volj izkÑfrd foKku esa miyC/k gksrs gSa mlh izdkj ,slh laHkkouk lkekftd foKku esa fd;s x;s leL;kvksa ds
v/;;u esa FkksM+k tfVy gksrk gSsA
7. ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk tks v/;;u fd;s tkrs gSa mldh fo'oluh;rk pq¡fd vf/kd gksrh gS blfy, fdlh Hkh
Hkfo";ok.kh dks vk/kkj cukdj lkekUohdj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA pquko ds le; çR;kf'k;ksa ds thrus ds izfr'kr
ds ckjs esa Hkh Hkfo";ok.kh blh vk/kkj ij fn;s tkrs gSAa ;gk¡ rd fd lkekU; pquko esa fa dl ikVhzZ dks cgqer feysxk
;k fQj vxj cgqer feyrk gS rks ml cgqer dk izfr'kr fdruk gksxk bu lHkh ckrksa dh tkudkjh ifjek.kkRed
fof/k ds lgh iz;ksx ls ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ yxk ldrk gSA
mi;qDZ r foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd 'kks/k djrs le; gesa ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd ;g 'kks/k ifjek.kkRed
fof/k ds }kjk lQyrkiwoZd fd;k tk ldrk gS ;k fQj xq.kkRed fof/k }kjkA ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds vFkZ ,oa fo'ks"krkvksa
rFkk egRo dks le> ysus ds ckn vc ;gk¡ ij xq.kkRed fof/k dh ppkZ djsaxsaA
xq.kkRed fof/k dk vFkZ ,oa fo'ks"krk,a

(Qualitative Method: Meaning & Characteristics)
oSKkfud fof/k dk bLrseky dsoy fuftZo inkFkksZ rd gh lhfer ugha gksrk gS vkSj ;gh dkj.k gS fd oSKkfud fof/k dk
iz;ksx djus okys izkÑfrd oSKkfudksa us ;g eglwl fd;k fd HkkSfrd inkFkksZ ds v/;;u ds lkFk&lkFk ekuoh; rFkk
lkekftd ?kVukvksa] fLFkfr;ksa] rF;ksa dk v/;;u Hkh ge lHkh ds fy, dkQh egÙo j[krk gSA ;gk¡ Hkh foKku dh i)fr
ds }kjk ge vius rkfdZd lksp dh fØ;k ls ftu phtksa dks ge tkursa gSa mls le>rs gw, tks ?kVuk,a gekjs fy, vfufHkK
gSa mls tkuus dh dksf'k'k dj ldrs gSaA Ýkalhl csdu us blhfy, fo'kq) :i ls vuqHkkfod (empirical method) fof/k ds
ctk; vuqHkwfr ds vk/kkj ij midYiuk rS;kj djus dh is'kd'k dh FkhA mudk er Fkk fd laHkkoukvksa rFkk dq'ky ckSf)d
lksp ds vk/kkj ij Hkh vkxeu fof/k ds )kjk ?kVukvksa o leL;k ds ckjs ,sfrgkfld thouh ;k thouh ds }kjk Hkh tkudkjh
izkIr dh tk ldrh gSA bl izdkj ds v/;;u dks izkIr djus ds fy, ftu vkadM+kas dh t:jr iM+rh gS os vkadM+as lkaf[;dh
:i esa ekStwn ugha gksrs ijarq fQj Hkh muds }kjk ?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa dkQh tkudkjh fey tkrh gSA dksgsu rFkk ukxsy dk
Hkh ekuuk gS fd fdlh Hkh oSKkfud dFku dks nks izdkj ls oxhZÑr fd;k tk ldrk gS&muds xq.kkRed igyw ds vk/kkj
ij vkSj muds ifjek.kkRed igyw ds vk/kkj ijA xq.kkRed rFkk ifjek.kkRed igyw ds vk/kkj ij fdlh dFku dks fuEu
pkj fuf'pr :iksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gS mnkgj.kkFkZ ;g dguk fd
midYiuk dFku dk oxhZdj.k lakf[;dh igpku
lHkh lk¡i tgjhys gksrs gSa& lkoZHkkSfed lkis{k dFku A
dksbZ Hkh jktusrk ns'knzksgh ugha gksrk gS lkoSHkkSfed udkjkRed dFku E
dqN f'k{kd dksey&ân;h gksrs gSa fof'k"V lkis{k dFku I
dqN vui<+ eq[kZ ugha gksrs gSa fof'k"V fudkjkRed dFku O
xq.kkRed fof/k dk 'kks/k esa ,d [kkl egÙo gSA bl fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/k dh iajijk fo'ks"kdj lkekftd foKku esa dkQh
iqjkuh gSA bl fof/k ds }kjk Hkh lkekftd oSKkfudksa us rF;ksa dh [kkst fudkyus rFkk leL;kvksa o ?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa
tkudkjh izkIr djus dk nkok fd;k gSA dqN yksx xq.kkRed fof/k dh rqyuk izkÑfrd foKku esa fd;s tkus okys izR;{kokn
ds fl)kUr ls tksM+dj djrs gSa vkSj izR;{kokn dh rqyuk esa xq.kkRed fof/k }kjk ,df=kr tkudkjh dks T;knk oSKkfud
ugha ekuk tkrk gSA bl izdkj dqN 'kks/kdÙkkZ xq.kkRed fof/k }kjk ,df=kr tkudkjh dh fo'oluh;rk dh rqyuk
ifjek.kkRed fof/k ftlesa oSKkfud izR;{kokn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS mlls dj ns[kdj bu nksuksa fof/k ds ijLij xq.koÙkk
56 vuqla/kku fof/k
dk vkdyu djrsa gSa tks vius vki esa Hkzked lkfcr gks ldrh gSA pqafd ifjek.kkRed ;k lakf[;dh; fof/k (Quantiative
method) esa izR;{kokn dks vk/kkj cukdj 'kks/k dh tkrh gSA blhfy, ftl fdlh Hkh lekftd xkfrfof/k dk v/;;u fd;k
tkrk gS mldh eki dh tk lds vkSj blds fy, lkaf[;dh; rFkk xf.kr ds rduhfd dk bLrseky dj leL;k o ?kVuk
dh O;k[;k izLrqr dh tkrh gSA la{ksi esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd xq.kkRed fof/k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk mís'; Kku izkIr djus
ds fy, euq"; ds O;ogkj ls tqM+s mu ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u djuk gksrk gS ftls lkaf[;dh Lrj ij mldk eki ugha fd;k
tk ldrk gS ijarq mlds xq.kkRed igyq dk ekufld Lrj ij fo'ys"k.k djus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gSA xq.kkRed
fof/k ds vFkZ ,oa izÑfr dks le> ysus ds ckn bldh fo'ks"krkvksa ds ckjs esa tkudkjh izkIr djuk vko';d gSA bl
fof/k ds fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k djuk vko';d gS%
1. xq.kkRed fof/k esa rF;ksa ds Lo:i dks lkaf[;dh bdkbZ ds :i esa ifjofrZr dj mldk fo'ys"k.k ,sfPNd gksrk
gSA ;gk¡ 'kks/kdÙkkZ dsk vxj t:jr eglwl gks rc og xq.kkRed rF;ksa dks ,d lakf[;dh rF; cukdj mls
fo'ys"k.k ds fy, iz;ksx esa yk ldrs gSaA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd tgk¡ ,d vksj xq.kkRed rF;ksa dks
fo'ysf"kr dj mlls dqN fu"d"kZ fudkyus esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh fnypLih ughs gksrh gS ogha nwljh vksj tks 'kks/kdÙkkZ
xq.kkRed rF;ksa ds egÙo dks le>rs gSa os vius lw{e ekufld rFkk iSuh lksp ds vk/kkj ij mu xq.kkRed rF;
dks gh vius fo'ys"k.k dk vk/kkj cukrs gSaA
2. xq.kkRed fof/k esa ekuoh; O;ogkj ds fo'ys"k.k ds fy, vkRefu"B rF;ksa dks dk;Z dkjd laca/k ds fy, Hkh iz;ksx
eas yk;k tkrk gSA teZuh ds izfl) lekt'kkL=kh eSDl oscj us ;g eglwl fd;k fd ,d lekt'kkL=kh pkgdj
Hkh vius vki dks ftl fo"k; ij og dke djuk pkgrk gS mlls vyx j[kus esa vDlj vleFkZ ikrk gSA ,slk
blfy, Hkh gksrk gS fd euq"; ds izR;{k O;ogkj lnSo mlds okLrfod eu%fLFkfr vFkkZr~ blds bfPNr
euksoSKkfud n'kk dks ugha n'kkZrsA blfy, oscj dh ;g ekU;rk Fkh fd xq.kkRed fof/k ds bLrseky djus okys
'kks/kdÙkkZ izR;{k O;ogkj rFkk euksoSKkfud :>ku (Motives) dks lgh ifjizs{; esa le>uk vko';d gSA oscj
us ;g crk;k fd ekuoh; O;ogkj ds fuEu rhu y{k.k ifjyf{kr gksrs gS%
(i) bfPNr fØ;k (Intentional act)
(ii) vFkZiw.kZ fØ;k (Meaningful act)
(iii) izfrdkRed fØ;k (Symbolic act)
3. teZuh ds nk'kZfudksa dk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd vFkZ vkSj fopkjksa esa xfr'khyrk ykus ds fy, fØ;kvksa ds vkRefu"B
Lo:i dks le>uk vko';d gSA vkRefu"B Lo:i dks le>us dk vFkZ ;g fudkyk tkrk gS fd fØ;kvksa o
?kVukvksa dk v/;;u ckgj ls fujh{k.k }kjk ns[kdj irk pyk ysuk gh vius vki esa i;kZIr ugha gS cfYd vkarfjd
izfØ;k dks le>us ds ckn gh O;ogkj dk lgh v/;;u fd;k tk ldrk gSA euq"; D;k lksprk gS og mlds
O;ogkj ds fujh{k.k ek=k ls gh le>k ugha tk ldrk cfYd blds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd vkarfjd fØ;kvksa
dks le>us ds fy, ,d [kkl le> fodflr gksA xq.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk ekufld fØ;kvksa dks lekt'kkL=k esa
?kVuk&fØ;k foKku ds }kjk le>us dh dksf'k'k dh x;h gSA
4. Kku dk ,d {ks=k bfrgkl rFkk laLÑfr ls Hkh tqM+k gSA ekuo fØ;kvksa dk mÙkjksÙkj fodkl bfrgkl ds xHkZ esa
lekfgr gS vkSj vxj ekuoh; laLÑfr vkSj mlds fodkl ds Øe dk v/;;u djuk gks rc laLÑfr ds lkFk&lkFk
bfrgkl ds xHkZ esa fNis Kku ds HkaMkj dks le>us ds fy, ,sls lzkr
s ksa dk lgkjk ysuk iM+rk gSA ftl ij vfo'okl
djus ls egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh ugha izkIr dh tk ldrh gS teZuh ds izfl) uo&vknZ'koknh fl)kUr ds eq[; leFkZd
fMYFks tks bfrgklokn dk leFkZu djrs gq, xq.kkRed fof/k dks Kku izkIr djus dh mÙke fof/k ekurs gSa dk ekuuk
Fkk fd lHkh lkekftd o lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkk ds dqN vius vk/kkjHkwr fu;e gksrsa gS ftUgsa le>dj ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ
?kVuk rFkk leL;k ds ckjs eas i;kZIr tkudkjh izkIr dj ldrk gSA
5. lekt'kkL=k dk Kku mikxe dk iz;ksx (Use of Sociology of Knowledge Approach)% xq.kkRed fof/k dks vk/
kkj cukdj lekt'kkL=k esa lekt'kkL=k Kku mikxe dk iz;ksx dbZ lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us fd;k gSA dkyZ eSugkbe
esa fopkjksa ds fo'ys"k.k esa bldk iz;ksx fd;k gSA mUgksaus fopkjksa ds [kkl vo/kkj.kk dks leLr ;k O;kid vFkZ
esa fopkjksa dh vo/kkj.kk ls vyx dj fo'ys"k.k djus dh lykg nh gSA vkykspukRed fo'ys"k.k djrs gq, mUgksaus
crk;k fd lekt'kkL=k ds dqN fo}kuksa us blds lkekU; ;k O;kid vFkZ rFkk fopkj ds lhfer vFkZ dks ,d esa
gh tksM+dj ns[kus dh dksf'k'k dh gSA bl izdkj ls fopkjksa dk v/;;u djus esa dkyZ eSugkbzZe dk ;g lkspuk
Fkk fd fopkjksa ds v/;;u eas fopkjksa las tqM+s izpkjkRed rRo dk Hkh cfg"dkj djuk vko';d gSA
6. xq.kkRed fof/k ds leFkZd xSj&izR;{koknh fopkj (anti-positivistic) j[krs gS% xq.kkRed fof/k ds leFkZd izR;{koknh
fopkj ds dV~Vj leFkZd ugha gksrs gSaA bl izdkj ls xq.kkRed fof/k ds leFkZd ;g ekudj pyrs gSa fd dksbZ Hkh
?kVuk vius LOkkHkkfod :i ls ?kfVr gksrh gSA blfy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, ;g tkudkjh izkIr dj ysuk fd fdlh
fØ;k ds ihNs D;k otg gS mldk fdu 'kkfDr;ksa ls laca/k gS vFkkZr~ dkjd rRoksa dh igpku dj ysus ek=k ls gh
?kVuk ds ckjs esa tkudkjh izkIr dh tk ldrh gSA bl izdkj ds lkspus dh ijaijk ;ksa rks xSj izR;{koknh fopkj
ls tqM+h gS tgk¡ O;k[;kRed le> (Interpretative understanding) dks vk/kkj cukdj tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh
gSA bl izdkj dh lekt'kkL=kh; ijaijk dk vk/kkj j[kusokys lekt'kkfL=k;ksa esa dbZ lekt'kkfL=k;ksa ds uke fy,
tkrs gSa ?kVuk&fØ;k foKku mikxe (Phenomenological approach) ds leFkZd (Alfred Shutz)] ctZj rFkk
ydeSu ds lkFk&lkFk eSDl oscj dk uke Hkh bl izdkj ds lekt'kkL=kh; ijaijk ls tqM+k gSA eSDl oscj us bl
vius lekt'kkL=kh; n‘f"Vdks.k dk ,d izeq[k vax cuk;k gSA
7. xq.kkRed fof/k ds leFkZd okLrfodrk ds cgqvk;keh i{k dh ppkZ fo'ks"k :i ls djrs gSA bl fof/k ds leFkZdksa
dk ;g ekuuk gS fd okLrfodrk dsoy ,d gh n‘f"Vdks.k vFkkZr~ izR;{koknh n‘f"Vdks.k ls gh fo'oluh; rjhds
ls ugha le>k tkrk gSA bls le>us ds fy, fdlh ?kVuk rFkk leL;k ds ckjsa esa ;g Lohdkj dj ysuk fd mldk
dsoy cká Lo:i gh gksrk gS ftls fujh{k.k] ekik rFkk le>k tk ldrk gSaA eSDl oscj dk er Fkk fd lekftd
okLrfodrk ds Lo:i vfu;fer rFkk vlhfer gS tcfd gekjs fujh{k.k ds }kjk lkekftd okLrfodrk dk ijh{k.k
djuk lhfer gS vkSj blfy, lhfer n‘f"Vdks.k ls fdlh lhfer izfØ;k dk v/;;u dHkh Hkh lexz dh iwjh
tkudkjh ugha ns ldrk gSA lexz dh iwjh tkudkjh ds fy, gesa ekufld lksp dh ml izfØ;k dk lgkjk ysuk
iM+ ldrk gS ftlesa ge lkekftd okLrfodrk ds vewÙkZ Lo:i dks Lohdkj dj mls le>us dh dksf'k'k djrs
gSA
8. xq.kkRed 'kks/k esa Hkh dk;Z&dkjd laca/k LFkkfir dj ?kVukvksa dk fo'Yks"k.k fd;k tkrk gSA xq.kkRed i)fr ds
leFkZd ;g Lohdkj djrs gSa fd dk;Z&dkjd laca/k LFkkfir djus ds fy, izR;{kokn n‘f"Vdks.k ds rjg ;gk¡ Hkh
?kVukvksa o lekftd fØ;kvksa ds chp dk;Z&dkjd laca/k LFkkfir djus dh dksf'k'k dh tkrh gSA lekftd
fØ;kvksa dks iw.kZ rjhds ls dk;Z&dkjd laca/k LFkkfir dj izR;{koknh mikxe ds tfj, Hkh iw.kZ tkudkjh ugha izkIr
dh tk ldrh gSA iw.kZ tkudkjh dk og va'kek=k gh gksrk gSA uolajpukoknh rFkk uovfroknh lksp ds leFkZd
Hkh ;g ekurs gS fd izR;{koknh lkekftd nqfu;k dh tkudkjh j[kusokys ,dykSrs leFkZd ugha gS cfYd izR;{koknh
n‘f"Vdks.k vU; n‘f"Vdks.kksa dh rjg gh tkudkjh izkIr djus dk ,d rjhdk gS vkSj bls fdlh Hkh :i esa ,d
vf/kÑr rjhds ds :i esa Lohdkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA
9. orZeku le; eas xq.kkRed fof/k esa Hkh ifjek.kkRed igyq dks viuk;k tk jgk gSA vktdy rks daEi;qVj ;qDR
tkudkjh ds dkj.k dqN fyf[kr nLrkostksa dk fo'ys"k.k Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA dqN ,sfrgkfld rF;ksa dks Hkh blh
vk/kkj ij le>us fd dksf'k'k dh tkrh gSA bl izdkj xq.kkRed fof/k esa Hkh foLr‘r tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy,
;k fQj buds lzksrksa dks vkSj Hkh fo'oluh; cukus ds fy, ifjek.kkRed rjhdksa dk bLrseky dj xq.kkRed
fof/k dks iq"V fd;k tkrk gSA
mi;qZDr foospu ds vk/kkj ij ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd xq.kkRed fof/k dk lkekftd 'kks/k eas viuk ,d vyx egÙo gSA
'kks/k esa vDlj ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds opZLo dks vk/kkj cuk;k tkrk gS ijarq ,sfrgkfld nLrkostksa] ikSjkf.kd xkFkkvksa]
/keZxzaFkksa rFkk O;fDrxr i=k vkSj Mk;jh vkfn dks Hkh vk/kkj cukdj egÙoiw.kZ 'kks/k djds lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us egÙoiw.kZ
58 vuqla/kku fof/k
tkudkjh nh gSA ,e0,u0 Jhfuokl dh cgqpfpZr iqLrd fjesaEcjM foyst ds lkjs egÙoiw.kZ nLrkost gksVy esa vkx yx
tkus ds dkj.k u"V gks x;s Fks mlds ckotwn Hkh ,e ,u Jhfuokl ds dqN ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds vfrvk/kqfud rjhdksa ds
}kjk mu nLrkostksa eas fy[ks x;s lkexzh dks i<+okus dk bartke fd;k vkSj blesa mUgsa vkaf'kd lQyrk Hkh feyhA bl izdkj
os bl fof/k ds lkFk&lkFk viuh ckSf)d {kerk dYiuk'khy lksp ds dkj.k nwljs fd;s x;s tkudkjh dks ,d iqLrd ds
:i esa fy[k dj ,d felky dk;e fd;kA
rqyukRed fof/k dk vFkZ] izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krk,a

(Comparative Method: Meaning, Nature and Characteristics)
lekt'kkL=k ds izeq[k fpardks esa vxLr dkEV dk uke fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[k fd;k tkrk gS ftUgksaus v/;;u fof/k dks
oSKkfud vk/kkj iznku djus ds fuEu rjhdksa dk o.kZu fd;k gS%
1. fujh{k.k (Observation)
2. iz;ksx (Experimentation)
3. rqyukRed (Comparison)
4. ,sfrgkfld (Historical)
vxLr dkEV dk ekuuk Fkk fd egÙoiw.kZ rqyuk ekuoh; lekt rFkk vekuoh; lekt ds chp rFkk nks ;k nks ls vf/kd
lkekaukrj lkekftd lewgksa ds chp ;k fQj ,d gh lekt ds fofHkUu oxksZ ds chp rqyukRed foospu ds }kjk izLrqr fd;k
tk ldrk gSA
baXyS.M ds ,d izeq[k lekt'kkL=kh gcZV Lisalj (Herbert Spencer) dk Hkh ;g ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd 'kks/k dh ,d
egÙoiw.kZ v/;;ufofèk ds :i esa rqyukRed fof/k dks ns[kk tk ldrk gSA 'kks/kdÙkkZ bl fof/k dk iz;ksx dj loZiFz ke lekt
dh rqyuk djrs gS vkSj fQj O;fDrxr eqnnksa dks vk/kkj cukdj fodkl ds Øe esa mlds egÙo dh ppkZ djrs gSaA Lisalj
us lekt ds fodkl esa fuEu izdkj ds lekt dh ppkZ dh%
1. ljy lekt (Single Society)
2. tfVy lekt (compound Society)
3. f)rh; Js.kh ds tfVy lekt (Double Compound Society)
4. r‘rh; Js.kh ds tfVy lekt (Triple Compound Society)
Herbert Spencer us viuh iqLrd The Principle of Sociology esa ;q)çh; lekt (Military Society) rFkk vkS|ksfxd lekt
(Industrial Society) dk rqyukRed o.kZu çLrqr fd;k gS ¼ns[ksa rkfydk&I)
rkfydk&I% ;q)fç; lekt & vkS|ksfxd lekt

;q)fç; lekt vkS|ksfxd lekt
laj{k.k ds fy, lkewfgd dk;Z O;fDrxr lsok vkSj 'kkafrfç; dk;Z LoSfPNd lg;ksx
vfuok;Z lg;ksx jkT; ds vis{kk O;fDr dks ç/kkurk
O;fDr ds vis{kk jkT; dh ç/kkurk lkoZtfud laxBu dks ç/kkurk O;fDrxr laxBu dks ç/kkurk jkT; dh fodsfUnzr lajpuk
jkT; dh dsfUnzr lajpuk Lrjhdj.k dBksj] LFkk;h vkfFkZd Lrjhdj.k yphyk] vLFkk;h vkfFkZd vkRefuHkZjrk vktknh]
Lokoyacu jk"Vªçse] lkgl] vkKkdkjh] vuq'kklu O;fDrxr :>ku mnkjoknh n‘f"Vdks.k
Ýkal ds izeq[k lekt'kkL=kh bekby nqf[kZe dks Hkh rqyukRed fof/k dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ leFkZd ds :i esa ns[kk tkrk gSA
mudk ekuuk Fkk fd fo'oluh; lkekftd 'kks/k esa alekt ds Lo:i rFkk lajpuk dks /;ku esa j[kdj (Social Evolution)
,d lekt dk nwljs lekt ls rqyuk fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA mudk ;g fopkj Fkk fd lkekftd mnHko o fodkl ds
Øe esa ,d gh le; dky esa fofHkUu lekt ds chp ds varj dks le>us ds fy, rqyuk fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA ml lekt
ds /kkfeZd fo'okl] lkekftd ,drk dks vk/kkj cukdj mUgksua s Hkh viuh egÙoiw.kZ iqLrd fMfotu vkQ yscj bu lkslkbVh
esa lko;oh ,drk ij vk/kkfjr lekt rFkk ;kaf=kdh ,drk ij vk/kkfjr lekt ds fofHkUu Lo:iksa dk v/;;u fd;k FkkA
nqf[kZe us rqyukRed fof/k dks viukdj lekt ds fofHkUu izdkjksa dk o.kZu fd;k gSA tSfodh; xq.kksa ds vk/kkj ij lekt
ds fofHkUu y{k.kksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj bldh rqyuk dh tkrh gS vkSj blds fofHkUu izdkjksa dk o.kZu Hkh fd;k x;k gSaA
teZuh ds izfl) lekt'kkL=kh eSDl oscj us fo'o ds fofHkUu /keksZ dk v/;;u rqyukRed fof/k ds }kjk fd;kA mUgksu
a s vius
izfl) iqLrd n izksVsalVsaV ,fFkd ,aM LihjhV vkQ dSfiVfyTe esa rqyukRed fof/k dk bLrseky dj ;g ik;k fd izksVsLVsaV
/keZ ds yksxksa us vkfFkZd {ks=k esa T;knk lQyrk izkIr dh gSA
,e0,u0 Jhfuokl us rqyukRed fof/k dk o.kZu djrs gq, ;g crk;k fd lkekftd ekuo'kkL=k esa tsEl ÝStj ds }kjk
fyf[kr x;s ^xksYMsu ckm* ,d mRd‘"V mnkgj.k gSa tks bl ckr dks n'kkZrk gS fd bl fof/k dk ekuo'kkL=k esa fa druk egÙo
gSA mudk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd ekuo'kkL=kh bl fof/k dk iz;ksx vDlj nks edln ls djrsa gSa tks fuEu gS%
1. igyk rks ;s fd os tkfrfoKku (ethnology) dk laca/k lkekftd ekuo'kkL=k (Social Authropology) ls djdj
ns[kuk pkgrs gSA
2. ekuo bfrgkl dk iqufuZek.k ds fy, rqyukRed fof/k dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
bl izdkj ,e0,u0 Jhfuokl us dgk gS fd bl fof/k dk mís'; lekt'kkL=k rFkk lkekftd ekuo'kkL=k esa fHkUu gSAa bldk
eq[; mís'; ekuo lekt esa çkIr fofo/krk dks n'kkZuk gS rkfd mlds vk/kkj ij ekuoh; lkekftd rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij
fd, x, v/;;u ls fl)kUr izfrikfnr fd;k tk ldsA ,e0,u0 Jhfuokl dk ;g Hkh ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd
ekuo'kkfL=k;ksa rqyukRed fof/k dk iz;ksx vf/kdka'kr% djrs Fks ftUgsa vkeZpspj fpard ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA vkt ls
yxHkx 100 o"kZ iw.kZ dSfa ct esa tsEl Ýstj ,sls gh vkeZp;s j (Armchair) fpard ds :i esa tkus tkrs Fks tcfd blds foijhr
gSMu us xgu v/;;u ds fy, {ksf=k; v/;;u dk lgkjk fy;kA Jhfuokl dk ekuuk Fkk fd rqyukRed fof/k ds iz;ksx ds
fcuk ekuo'kkL=k ,d bfrgkl ;k u‘foKku cu dj jg tk;sxkA rqyukRed fof/k ds iz;ksx ls gh ekuo'kkfL=k;ksa us fofHkUu
vkfnoklh lekt esa ik;s tkus okys ekr‘iz/kku lekt rFkk fir‘ iz/kku lekt ds fofo/k Lo:iksa dk o.kZu fd;k gSA fdl
izdkj vkLVsªfy;k ds dqN vkfnetkfr;ksa esa VksaVe ik;s tkrs gS ftls ml tutkfr dk >aMk ekuk tkrk gSA bu çrhdkRed
lkekftd izrhdksa ds ek/;e ls ,d lekt ds fofo/k lkekftd Lo:i dh rqyuk nwljs lekt ls dh tkrh gSaA
bl izdkj rqyukRed fof/k ds fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dks mYys[k fd;k tk ldrk gS%
1. lekt ds lHkh lkekftd lajpukvksa rFkk mlds fofo/k iz.kkfy;ksa dh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gS tks ,d nwljs ls
dqN ekus eas leku gS rks dqN ekus esa vleku gSA bl izdkj ds leku vkSj vleku lkekftd lajpukRed igyqvksa
dh igpku rqyukRed fof/k lkekftd thou ds v/;;u ls vklkuh ls dh tk ldrh gSA dbZ lekt'kkfL=k;ksa
ftuesa dkEV] ekdZl] oscj] gcZV Lisalj ds uke ,sls lekt'kkfL=k;ksa esa fo'ks"k :i ls fy, tkrs gSaA
2. rqyukRed fof/k esa laLFkkid rFkk o‘gr lkekftd izfØ;k dk o.kZu fd;k tkrk gSA blhfy, eSDl oscj us fofHkUu
lekt ds fofHkUu /kkfeZd fo'oklksa ds izpfyr lkekftd rFkk ize[q k fo'ks"krkvksa dk rqyUkkRed v/;;u dj /kkfeZd
vuq"Bku ds egÙo dk fo'ys"k.k fd;k FkkA nqf[kZe us Hkh vkLVªsfy;k tutkfr ds /kkfeZd mís';ksa dk v/;;u dj
;g crkus dh ps"Vk dh Fkh dSls /kkfeZd fo'okl ds }kjk lkekftd ,drk dk;e gksrh gSA
3. rqyukRed fof/k ds iz;ksx ls ;g Hkh irk pyrk gS fd lekt esa ftu egÙoiw.kZ rRoksa dh rqyuk dh tk jgh gS
og egÙoiw.kZ lkekftd bdkbZ gS D;k\ D;k os laLFkk,a gSa] iw.kZ lekt gS] /keZ gS ;k lewg gSaA fdlh ,d bdkbZ
dks ysdj Hkh fofHkUu lekt ds Lo:i dk v/;;u fd;k tk ldrk gSaA tSlk fd oscj us fofHkUu ns'kksa dk
rqyUkkRed v/;;u mu ns'kksa ds /keZ dks vk/kkj cukdj fd;k FkkA
4. pqf¡ d bl fof/k }kjk nksuksa leku vkSj vleku izo‘fr;ksa dks mtkxj fd;k tk ldrk gS blfy, dqN lekt'kkfL=k;ksa
us lekurk ;k lkSgknZiw.kZ laca/k ;k lg;ksx dks gh vk/kkj cukdj lekt dh O;k[;k dh gSA lekt'kkfL=k;ksa esa
dqN ,sls lekt'kkL=kh gSa tks izdk;Zoknh fl)kUr dh O;k[;k djrsa gSa vkSj mudk er gS fd lekt esa lg;ksx ik;k
60 vuqla/kku fof/k
tkrk gSA nqf[kZe] jSMfDyQ czkÅu rFkk eSfyuksoLdh dqN ,sls lekt'kkL=kh gSaA ftUgksaus lekt esa lg;ksx vkSj
,d:irk dk gh fo'ys"k.k fd;k gSA
5. dqN ,sls Hkh lekt'kkL=kh gSa ftUgksaus lg;ksx ds ctk; rqyukRed fof/k dk bLrseky dj la/k"kZ dks gh fo'ys"k.k
dk vk/kkj ekuk gSA la/k"kZ fl)kUr ds leFkZdksa esa dkyZekDZl dk uke fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gS ftUgksua s mRiknu
ds lk/ku ls tqM+s fofHkUu la?k"kZ lewg dks lekt dh ,d voLFkk dks nwljs voLFkk ls rqyuk dj bldk foospu
izLrqr fd;k gSA
6. tgk¡ ,sfrgkfld fof/k ds }kjk geas fdlh [kkl midYiuk rd igqp ¡ us esa enn feyrh gS ogha nwljh vksj rqyukRed
fof/k ds }kjk gesa lkekU; midYiuk ds fuekZ.k esa enn feyrh gSA rqyukRed fof/k ds }kjk fo'oluh; midYiuk
dk fuekZ.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA
bl izdkj mi;qZDr foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd rqyukRed fof/k dk iz;ksx lekt'kkL=k rFkk lkekftd
ekuo'kkL=k esa fdlh Hkh lkekftd O;oLFkk ds afofo/k Lo:iksa rFkk ml lkekftd O;oLFkk ds lkekftd rRoksa ds fofHkUu
vk;keksa ds fof'k"V xq.kksa ds o.kZu ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
fun'kZu dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

(Meaning and Definition of Sample)
tgk¡ rd fun'kZu dk vFkZ gS lkekftd 'kks/k dh izfØ;k esa bldk iz;ksx orZeku le; esa dkQh izpfyr gks x;k gSA fun'kZu
dk 'kkfCnd vFkZ gS NksVh bdkbZ dk lexz dks izfrfu/kRo nsukA ftl izdkj cktkj esa dqN pqus gq, oLrq dks ns[kdj gh iwjs
ds ckjs esa vuqeku yxk;k tkrk gS mlh izdkj bl i)fr dk dqN fo'ks"k fgnk;rksa ds lkFk fof/kor iz;ksx 'kks/k ds fy,
fd;k tkrk gSA lkekU; rkSj ij ,d O;fDr Hkh viuh jkstejkZ dh ftUnxh esa fun'kZu dk iz;ksx djrk gSA vukteaMh esa
vukt ds <sj ls dqN vukt ds nkuksa dks gkFk esa ysdj mldk fujh{k.k ijh{k.k dj og iwjs <sj ds ckjs esa vuqeku yxkrk
gS fd mldh xq.kork D;k gksxhA pquko ds fnuksa esa pqukoh urhts vkus ls igys gh dqN ernkrkvksa ls ckrdj ge ;g vuqeku
yxkus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSa fd ernku dk QSlyk fdl ikVhZ o O;fDr ds i{k esa gksxkA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk
gS fd vk;s fnu vke&thou esa ge vizR;{k :i ls gh lgh fun'kZu dk iz;ksx djrs gS vFkkZr fun'kZu dh izfØ;k ,d ,slh
izfØ;k gS ftldk iz;ksx cM+s&NksVs lHkh ,d leku vius thou esa djrs gSaA
tux.kuk fof/k (Census Method): fun'kZu ds vykok ,d nwljh i)fr dks Hkh 'kks/kdÙkkZ bLrseky esa ykrs gSa ftls
tux.kuk fof/k (Census Method) dgk tkrk gSA tux.kuk fof/k dk iz;ksx tc vuqla/kkudÙkkZ djrk gS rks og lexz dks
/;ku esa j[kdj iwjs lexz ls laidZ LFkkfir dj tkudkjh izkIr djus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA bl izdkj dh fof/k pqf¡ d T;knk
le; vkSj T;knk Ykkxr [kkstrh gS blfy, bldk iz;ksx 'kks/kdÙkkZ Hkh dqN ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gh v/;;u ds fy, bLrseky
esa ykrs gSaA tux.kuk fof/k dh dqN lhek,a gSa ftlds dkj.k blds cnys fun'kZu fof/k dk bLrseky 'kks/k ds fy, fd;k
tkrk gS a;s lhek,a fuEu gS%
1. fo'kky {ks=k% tc 'kks/k dk {ks=k O;kid gks rks 'kks/k {ks=k ds izR;sd bdkbZ ls laidZ lk/kdj tkudkjh izkIr djuk
laHko ugha gksrk gS vkSj ,slh ifjfLFkfr esa fun'kZu dk lgkjk ysdj gh 'kks/k dk;Z laiUu fd;k tk ldrk gSA
2. [kphZyh fof/k% 'kks/k dk;Z tux.kuk fof/k }kjk djuk vklku ugha gSaA blds fy, vikj /ku dh vko';drk gksrh
gS vkSj laHkor% blfy, tux.kuk fof/k ds }kjk izR;sd n'kd ij vkadMs+a bdVBs dj ysus ds ckn Hkh ljdkj vU;
vkadM+ksa dks bdVBk djus ds fy, 5 izfr'kr vkcknh ds vk/kkj ij dqN fun'kZu fof/k }kjk vU; vkadMs+ bdVBs
djokrh gSA blls ;g vankt yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd tux.kuk fof/k dk iz;ksx dj vkadMs bdVBk djuk fdruk
eqf'dy dke gksrk gSA
3. vf/kd le;% bl fof/k esa vf/kd le; Hkh yxrk gSA nks dkj.kksa ls le; vf/kd yxrk gSa loZizFke 'kks/k {ks=k ds
lHkh bdkbZ ls laidZ djuk Hkh vius vki esa eqf'dy dke gS blfy, bl fØ;k esa gh le; vf/kd yx tkrk gSA
vkSj nwljk tc lkjs vkadM+s bdVBs gks tk;sa rks mu vkadM+ksa dks ,df=kr dj mlls fu"d"kZ fudkyuk mudk
oxhZdj.k djuk vkSj fQj ;qfDrlaxr fu"d"kZ fudkyus esa Hkh vf/kd le; yx tkrk gSA blhfy, le; dh cpr
djus gsrq fun'kZu fof/k dk lgkjk fy;k tkrk gSA
4. vuqla/kku dh izÑfr ,oa mís';% vktdy vuqla/kku dh izÑfr Hkh ,slh gks x;h gS fd 'kks/k ds fy, o‘gr Lrj
dk vuqla/kku vke izpyu dk fgLlk ugha cu ik;k gSA o‘gr Lrj ds vuqla/kku ds fy, ljdkjh [kpsZ ls gh bl
izdkj ds vuqla/kku fd;s tkrs gSA ftl izdkj ds vuqla/kku NksVs Lrj ij fd;s tkrs gS mlds mís'; lhfer gksrsa
gS ftlds fy, fun'kZu fof/k dk bLrseky dj vkadM+s ,df=kr dj fu"d"kZ fudky fn, tkrs gSa tks dkQh mi;ksxh
lkfcr gksrs gSa blfy, orZeku le; esa vuqla/kku dh izÑfr ,oa mís'; dks /;ku esa j[kk tk;s rks fun'kZu fof/k
}kjk ,df=kr fd;s x, vkadM+ksa dks T;knk iz;ksx esa yk;k tk ldrk gSA
fun'kZu fof/k dh ifjHkk"kk
tSlk fd Åij fy[kk tk tqdk gS fun'kZu lexz ls ,d NksVs lewg dks pwuus dh ,d izfØ;k gSA blhfy, ,d laf{kIr ifjHkk"kk
nsrs gq, xqMs rFkk gkV dk dguk gS fd fun'kZu foLr‘r lewg dk ,d y/kwrj izfrfuf/k gSA ih0ch0 ;ax dk ekuuk Fkk fd
vf/kdka'k lkaf[;dh v/;;u fun'kZu ij vk/kkfjr gksrs gaS ftlesa izklafxd vkadM+kas dk lai.w kZ fooj.k gksrk gSA blfy, mUgksua s
;g Lohdkj fd;k fd ",d lkaf[;dh; fun'kZu ml laiw.kZ lewg vFkok ;ksx dk ,d y/kqfp=k gS ftlesa ls fd fun'kZu
fd;k x;k gS" cksxkMZl dk dguk Fkk "fun'kZu ,d iw.kZfu/kkZfjr ;kstuk ds vuqlkj bdkb;ksa ds ,d lewg esa ls ,d fuf'pr
izfr'kr dk pquko gSA" bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd laiw.kZ tula[;k ls ,d NksVs fgLls dks mlds izfrfuf/k y{k.k
ds vk/kkj ij pquus dh izfØ;k gSA blhfy, ih0oh0 ;ax us ml lexz o lai.w kZ dks fuEu rduhfd 'kCn ls lacfa /kr fd;k gSA
1. tula[;k (Population)
2. czgekaM (Universe)
3. iwfrZ (Supply)
tula[;k ls rkRi;Z ;gk¡ vkcknh ls ugha yxkuk pkfg,A ;gk¡ ij tula[;k dk czãkaM ;k iwfrZ ls rkRi;Z gS ml lekt
esa jgus okys ,d [kkl 'kgj o xk¡o esa jgus okys yksx tks xq.kksa rFkk O;ogkj esa iwjs lekt dk izfrfuf/kRo djrsa gS vkSj
mu lHkh ds ,d tSls xq.k gksrsa gS tks lHkh lnL;ksa esa ik;s tkrsa gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, tc ;g dgk tkrk gS fd ekStwnk
fo/kku lHkk pquko esa ,d fdlh [kkl ernku {ks=k dk v/;;u djuk gS rks ml {ks=k esa ik;s tkusokys lHkh ernkrkvksa dks
gh tula[;k ;k czãkM dgk tk ldrk gS ftlesa ls ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ mís'; ;k 'kks/k ds y{; dks /;ku esa j[kdj dqN ernkrk
dk p;u fun'kZu i)fr dks vk/kkj cukdj djrk gSA
fun'kZu fof/k ds izdkj
(Types of Sampling)
fun'kZu fof/k us fofHkUu izdkjksa esa ls dqN izdkjksa dh ppkZ djrs le; ;g /;ku j[kk x;k gS fd T;knk izpfyr izdkjksa
dk gh ;gk¡ o.kZu fd;k tk;s rkfd foLrkj ls mu izdkjksa ij ppkZ gksus ij fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks fun'kZu fof/k dh mi;ksfxrk dk
Hkh irk py ldsA fun'kZu fof/k ds izpfyr izdkj fuEu gS%
1. nSo fun'kZu (Random Sampling)
2. Lrfjr fun'kZu (Stratified Sampling)
3. mís';iw.kZ fun'kZu (Purposive Sampling)
4. vH;a'k fun'kZu (Quota Sampling)
5. cgqLrjh; fun'kZu (Multi-stage Sampling)
6. {ks=kh; fun'kZu (Area sampling)
7. Lo;a p;fur fun'kzu (Self-selected Sampling)
62 vuqla/kku fof/k
1. nSo fun'kZu (Random Sampling)% lkaf[;dh fun'kZu esa vDlj nSo fun'kZu dh ppkZ dh tkrh gS ijUrq nSo
'kCn dk vFkZ cM+k gh Hkzked gS ftldh rjQ b'kkjk djrs gq, ih0oh0 ;ax us Hkh psrkouh nh gS fd nSo 'kCn ls
vfHkçk; vfu;fer] vfu;ksftr] ykijokgh vFkkZr~ vViVs <ax ls lexz esa ls dqN dk p;u djuk ugha gksrk gSA
fun'kZu esa vkus ds fy, izR;sd bdkbZ dks LorU=krk iznku dj nh tkrh gSA bl fof/k esa vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ dk >qdko
fdlh bdkbZ fo'ks"k fd pquko dh rjQ ugha gksrk] oju~ pquko dh lEiw.kZ izfØ;k nSo ,oa la;ksx ij NksM+ nh tkrh
gSa blhfy, gh bls nSo fun'kZu dgrs gSaA nSo fun'kZu dks fofHkUu fo}kuksa us bl izdkj ifjHkkf"kr fd;k gS%
ikVsZu ds vuqlkj] "nSo fun'kZu fof/k dk mi;ksx ml le; ekuk tkrk gS tc pquko dh fof/k ,slh gks fd lexz
dh izR;sd bdkbZ rFkk rF; ds pqus tkus dk leku volj gksA"
xqMs ,oa gkV ds vuqlkj] "nSo fun'kZu esa lexz dh bdkb;ksa dks bl izdkj Øec) fd;k tkrk gS fd p;u izfØ;k
ml lexz dh izR;sd bdkbZ dks pquko dh leku lEHkkouk iznku djrh gSA"
mi;qDZ r ifjHkk"kkvksa ls Li"V gS fd nSo fun'kZu vlko/kkuhiw.kZ] vO;ofLFkr rFkk ykijokghiw.kZ ,oa vkdfLed ugha
gksrkA
vko';d n'kk,¡
(Essential Conditions)
nSo fun'kZu dk mi;ksx djrs le; fuEukafdr ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gS%
1. lexz dh bdkb;ka Li"V gksuh pkfg, ,oa mudh lwph rS;kj dh tkuh pkfg,A
2. bdkb;ksa dk vkdkj yxHkx leku gks]
3. izR;sd bdkbZ ,d&nwljs ls LorU=k gks]
4. fun'kZu p;u dh fof/k LorU=k gksuh pkfg,
5. v/;;udrkZ dh izR;sd bdkbZ rd igqap lqyHk gksuh pkfg,
6. pquh gqbZ bdkbZ dks u rks NksM+k tkuk pkfg, vkSj u gh mldk izfrLFkku djuk pkfg,A
nSo fun'kZu pquus dh izfof/k;ka
(Techniques of Selecting Random Sample)
nSo fun'kZu fof/k ds vuqlkj fun'kZu fudkyus dh vusd izfof/k;ka gSa] muesa ls dqN vf/kd izpfyr fof/k;ka gSa&ykWVjh fofèk
dkMZ fof/k] fxzM fof/k] fu;fer rFkk vfu;fer vadu fof/k] vkfnA
1. ykWVjh fof/k (Lottery Method)% bl fof/k esa lexz dh lHkh bdkb;ksa ds uke vFkok uEcj dkxt ds NksVs&NksVs
VqdM+ksa ij fy[kdj mUgsa eksM+ fy;k tkrk gSA bu lHkh dkxt dh fpVksa dks fdlh crZu] ckWDl ;k >ksys esa Mky
dj vPNh rjg ls fgyk fn;k tkrk gS rkfd os Hkyh&Hkkafr fey tk;saA blds ckn fu"i{k O;fDr }kjk vFkok Lo;a
vk¡[ksa cUn djds mrus gh dkMZ ;k fpV fudky fy, tkrs gSa ftruh bdkb;ka fun'kZu esa lfEefyr djuh gSaA bl
izdkj tks bgkb;ka nSo;ksx ls pquko esa vk tkrh gSa] mudk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSaA jkT; ljdkj }kjk ykWVjh eas
iqjLdkj fudkyus ds fy, ;gh fof/k dke esa yh tkrh gSA
2. dkMZ ;k fVfdV iz.kkyh (Card or Ticket Method)% dkMZ iz.kkyh ykWVjh fof/k dk gh ifjofrZr :i gSA blesa
lexz dh lHkh bdkb;ksa ds uke] uEcj vFkok dksbZ izrhd ,d gh jax] vkdkj vkSj eksVkbZ ds dkMksZ vFkok fVdVksa
ij vafdr dj fn;k tkrk gSA bu dkMksZ dks ,d Mªe esa Mkydj [kwc fgyk;k tkrk gS vkSj ,d dkMZ fudky fy;k
tkrk gSA blds ckn fQj Mªe dks fgyk;k tkrk gS vkSj nwljk dkMZ fudkyk tkrk gSA ml izdkj og fØ;k mruh
gh ckj dh tkrh gS ftrus dkMZ gesa fudkyus gSaA bl fof/k ls tks dkMZ fudkys tkrs gSa] muls lEcfU/kr bdkb;kas
dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA ykWVjh fof/k ,oa dkMZ iz.kkyh esa ewy vUrj ;g gS fd ykWVjh esa vka[ksa cUn djds] fpVsa
fudkyh tkrh gSa tcfd bl fof/k esa vka[ksa [kqyh j[kdj dkMZ fudkys tkrs gSaA bl fof/k dk mi;ksx] djrs le;
;g lko/kkuh j[kuh pkfg, fd lHkh dkMksZ dk vkdkj] jax&:i vkSj eksVkbZ ,d tSlh gks vU;Fkk muds p;u esa
i{kikr vk ldrk gSA
3. fVisV fof/k (Tippet method)% izks0 fVisV us pkj vadksa okyh 10]400] la[;kvksa dh ,d lwph cukbZ vkSj bu
la[;kvksa dks fcuk fdlh Øe ds dbZ i‘"Bksa ij fy[k fn;kA buesa ls dqN la[;k,¡ bl izdkj gSa%
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911 3170 5624
4167 9524 1545 1396 7203 5356 1300 2693
2370 7483 3408 2762 3563 1089 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8126 4433 8776
2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446
fVisV la[;kvksa ls fun'kZu pquus dk rjhdk bl izdkj gS & vxj gesa 500 Nk=kksa esa ls 30 Nk=kksa dk ,d fun'kZu
fudkyuk gS rks igys ge lHkh 500 Nk=kksa ds uke dks Øeokj fy[k ysaxs fQj fVisV la[;k dh iqLrd dk dksbZ
,d i‘"B [kksydj mlesa ls izFke 30 la[;kvksa dks uksV dj lexz esa ls mUgha la[;kvksa dks v/;;u ds fy, pqu
ysxa As ;fn lexz dh dqy bdkb;ksa dh la[;k de gS rFkk izFke rhl la[;kvksa esa dqN la[;k,¡ vf/kdre Øe la[;k
ls vf/kd gS rks mUgsa NksM+ fn;k tk;sxk vkSj muds LFkku ij muds vkxs okyh la[;k,a ys yh tk,axhA fVisV dh
la[;k,a vf/kd oSKkfud ekuh tkrh gSa vkSj mudk mi;ksx Hkh cgqr gksrk gSA ;g fof/k vf/kd 'kq) gSA
4. fxzM iz.kkyh (Grid system)% bl fof/k dk mi;ksx HkkSxksfyd {ks=k ds pquko ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn fdlh
uxj] izns'k ;k {ks=k esa ls dqN bdkb;ksa dk p;u djuk gks rks igys ml {ks=k dk uD'kk rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA bl
uD'ks ij fxzM IysV dks j[kk tkrk gSA ;g fxzM IysV lsY;qyk;M vFkok fdlh ikjn'kZd inkFkZ ls cuh gksrh gSa
bl IysV esa oxkZdkj [kkus cus jgrs gSa ftu ij uEcj fy[ks gksrs gSaA ;g igys ls gh r; dj fy;k tkrk gS fd
fun'kZu esa fdruh bdkb;ksa dk p;u djrk gS mruh gh oxksZ dks igys ls dkV fy;k tkrk gSA fxzM dks ekufp=k
ij j[kdj ftrus dVs gq, Hkkxksa ij ekufp=k dk {ks=k vkrk gS mu ij fu'kku yxk fn;k tkrk gS vkSj mUgsa gh
fun'kZu dk {ks=k ekudj v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA
5. fu;fer vadu iz.kkyh (Regular Marking Method)% bl fof/k esa igys lexz dh lHkh bdkb;ksa dks fdlh
fo'ks"k <ax] dky vFkok LFkku] vkfn ds vuqlkj O;ofLFkr dj fy;k tkrk gSA blds ckn ;g fu'p; dj fy;k
tkrk gS fd lexz esa ls gesa fdruh bdkb;ksa dk p;u fun'kZu gsrq djuk gSA lkFk gh ,d bdkbZ ls nwljh bdkbZ
ds chp dh la[;kRed nwjh dks Hkh r; dj fy;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] ;fn gesa lkS] fo|kfFkS;ksa esa ls nl
fo|kfFkZ;ksa dk p;u djuk gS rks igyk] nlaok] chloka] rhloka vkSj blh Øe esa nl fo|kfFkZ;ksa dk p;u fd;k
tk;sxkA
blh izdkj ls dky] LFkku ,oa ifjfLFkfr ds vuqlkj Hkh lexz dh bdkb;ksa dks O;ofLFkr djds muesa ls fun'kZu
dk pquko dj fy;k tkrk gSA bl iz.kkyh esa i{kikr dh dksbZ lEHkkouk ugha jgrhA
6. vfu;fer vadu iz.kkyh (Irregular Marking Method)% bl fof/k ls fun'kZu dk pquko djus ds fy, igys
lexz dh leLr bdkb;ksa dh lwph cuk yh tkrh gS rFkk izFke vkSj vfUre vad dks NksM-dj 'ks"k bdkb;ksa dh
lwph esa ls fu/kkZfjr ek=kk esa vfu;fer <ax ls bdkb;ksa ij fu'kku yxk fn;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] lkS Nk=kksa
esa ls nl Nk=kksa dk fun'kZu ysus ds fy, igys ge bu lHkh ds ukeksa dh ,d lwph rS;kj djsaxsA rRi'pkr ,d
ls nl] nl ls chl] chl ls rhl vkSj blh izdkj ls vU; oxksZ esa Hkh izR;sd oxZ esa ls fdlh Hkh ,d bdkbZ ij
lgh dk fu'kku yxk nsx a s vkSj bl izdkj dqy nl bdkb;ksa dk p;u dj fy;k tk;sxkA bl fof/k esa i{kikr vkus
dh lEHkkouk jgrh gSA
nSo fun'kZu iz.kkyh ds xq.k
(Merits of Random Sampling)
nSo fun'kZu iz.kkyh ds izeq[k xq.k ;k ykHk fuEukafdr gSa%
1. bl fof/k eas izR;sd bdkbZ ds pqus tkus ds leku volj gksrs gSa] vr% ;g fof/k izfrfuf/kRoiw.kZ gS rFkk blesa lexz
dh vf/kdkf/kd fo'ks"krk,a fo|eku gksrh gSA
64 vuqla/kku fof/k
2. ;g fof/k ,d oSKkfud fof/k gS tSlk fd ,dkWQ dk dguk Fkk] "nSo fun'kZu ,d izdkj ls leLr oSKkfud fun'kZu
dk vk/kkj gSA"
3. ;g fun'kZu dh lcls ljy fof/k gS] blesa tfVy vFkok xw<+ fl)kUrksa dk ikyu ugha djuk iM+rk gSA
4. bl fof/k esa fu"i{krk dk xq.k ekStwn gS vkSj fun'kZu ds pquko esa fdlh dks Hkh izkFkfedrk ugha nh tkrh gSA vr%
blesa i{kikr vkus dh lEHkkouk ugha jgrh gSaA
5. bl fof/k esa lexz] /ku vkSj Je dh Hkh i;kZIr cpr gksrh gS] vr% ;g fof/k ferO;f;rkiw.kZ gSA
6. bl fof/k esa bdkb;ksa ds p;u esa ;fn fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ =kqfV ;k v'kq)rk jg xbZ gks rks mldk irk yxkuk
ljy gSA
nSo fun'kZu iz.kkyh ds nks"k (lhek,¡)
(Demerits or Limitations of Random Sampling)
nSo fun'kZu iz.kkyh ds fuEukafdar nks"k gSa%
1. bl fof/k esa lexz dh lwph gksuk vko';d gS] fdUrq dbZ ckj ;g lwph miyC/k ugha gks ikrh rc bl fof/k }kjk
fun'kZu xzg.k djuk lEHko ugha gksrk gSA
2. ;fn lexz cgqr NksVk gks vFkok dqN bdkb;ka bruh egÙoiw.kZ gksa fd mudk fun'kZu esa lekos'k vfuok;Z gks rks
,slh fLFkfr esa nSo fun'kZu mi;qDr ugha gksrkA
3. tc lexz esa cgqr vf/kd fofo/krk,a gksa vkSj ltkrh;rk dk vHkko gks rc Hkh ;g fof/k mi;qDr ugha gksrhA
4. tc lexz dk foLrkj cgqr vf/kd gks vkSj bdkb;ka nwj&nwj rd QSyh gksa rc Hkh muls lEidZ djuk dfBu gksrk
gSA
5. nSo fun'kZu esa fodYi dh lEHkkouk ugha gksrh] fodYi ds fy, bdkb;ksa esa ifjorZu djuk gksrk gSA ,slh fLFkfr
esa nSo fun'kZu voSKkfud vkSj i{kikriw.kZ gks tkrk gSA
bu dfe;ksa vFkok nks"kksa ds ckotwn Hkh nSo fun'kZu iz.kkyh ds dqN xq.k gSa ftuds dkj.k bl fof/k dk cgqr vf/kd mi;ksx
gksrk gSaA
mís';iw.kZ ;k lfopkj fun'kZu fof/k
(Purposive Sampling Method)
tc vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ fdlh fof'k"V mís'; ls lexz eas ls v/;;u gsrq dqN bdkb;ksa dk pquko djrk gS rks mls mís';iw.kZ
vFkoj lfopkj fun'kZu dgrs gSaA bl izdkj ds pquko easa pquus okys dh bPNk] mldk fu.kZ; rFkk mís'; gh iz/kku gksrk
gSAbl fof/k dk eq[; vk/kkj ;g gS fd vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ igys ls gh lexz dh bdkb;ksa ds ckjs esa ifjfpr gksrk gSA ,YMksQ
tSUlu ds vuqlkj ßlfopkj fun'kZu ls rkRi;Z bdkb;ksa ds lewg dks bl izdkj pquus ls gS fd pqus gq, oxZ feydj tgk¡
rd gks lds] ogh vkSlr vFkok vuqikr iznku djs tks lexz esa gSaAß
bl izdkj mís';iw.kZ fun'kZu ds ihNs ;g vk/kkjHkwr ekU;rk gksrh gS fd mfpr fu.kZ; rFkk mi;qDr dq'kyrk ds lkFk O;fDr
fun'kZu esa lfEefyr djus gsrq mu ekeyksa dks pqu ldrk gS rFkk bl izdkj ,sls fun'kZuksa dk fodkl dj ldrk gS tks
mldh vko';drkvksa ds vuqlkj lUrks"ktud gSAa bl rjg lfopkj vFkok mís';iw.kZ fun'kZu esa vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ vius mns';
dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, mUghas bdkb;ksa dk p;u djrk gS tks +{ks=k dk lokZf/kd izfrfuf/kRo djrh gksaA
lfopkj fun'kZu ds y{k.k
(Characteristics of Purposive Sampling)
1. blesa vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ lexz dh izÑfr] xq.kksa rFkk bdkb;ksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa ls iwoZ ifjfpr gksrk gS] vr% og ;g
tkurk gS fd fdu bdkb;ksa dks pquuk v/;;u dh n‘f"V ls ykHkizn gksxkA
2. lfopkj fun'kZu esa fun'kZuksa dk pquko bl rjg ls fd;k tkrk gS fd os v/;;u ds mís';ksa dh iwfrZ djsaA
3. bl izdkj ds fun'kZu eas pwafd vuqlU/kkudÙkkZ viuh bPNkuqlkj fun'kZuksa dk pquko djrk gS] vr% i{kikr dh
lEHkkouk Hkh vf/kd jgrh gSA
lfopkj fun'kZu ds xq.k
(Merits of Purposive Sampling)
1. ;g v/;;u i)fr de [kphZyh gSa D;kasfd blesa fun'kZu dk vkdkj cgqr NksVk gksrk gSA
2. bl fof/k esa fun'kZu dk vkdkj cgqr NksVk] fdUrq vis{kkÑr vf/kd izfrfuf/kRoiw.kZ gksrk gSA
3. ;g fof/k ,sls vuqlU/kkuksa esa fo'ks"k:i ls mi;ksxh gksrh gS ftuesa lexz dh dqN bdkb;ksa dk pquk tkuk fo'ks"k:i
ls mi;ksxh gksrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] ;fn ge Hkkjr esa yksgk vkSj bLikr m|ksx dk losZ{k.k djuk pkgrs gSa rks
gesa VkVk ykSg vkSj bLikr dEiuh dk vo'; v/;;u djuk gksxkA ;fn blds LFkku ij ge nSo fun'kZu fof/k
viukrs rks VkVk dEiuh dk pquko gks Hkh ldrk gS vkSj ugha HkhA
4. ;fg fof/k iwoZxkeh v/;;uksa esa fo'ks"k ykHknk;d gSA
lfopkj fun'kZu dh lhek,a
lfopkj fun'kZu ds tgka dbZ xq.k gSa] ogha ;g nks"kksa ls Hkh eqDr ugha gSA ikVsZu dk er gS fd leLr la[;k'kkfL=k;ksa dks
lfopkj fun'kZu ds i{k esa ,d 'kCn Hkh ugha dguk gSA" LusMsdksj us bl iz.kkyh ds fuEukafdr nks"kksa dk mYys[k fd;k gS%
1. bl fof/k esa v/;;udÙkkZ dks lexz dk igys ls Kku gksuk pkfg, tks lnSo lEHko ugha gksrkA
2. blesa bdkb;ksa ds pquko esa i{kikr vkus dh iwjh&iwjh lEHkkouk cuh jgrh gS] vr% ifj.kke voSKkfud vkSj v'kq)
gks tkrs gSaA
3. fun'kZu dh v'kq)rk dk irk yxkus dh tks ekU;rk,a izpfyr gSa] muesa ls ,d Hkh bl fof/k esa ugha ik;h tkrhA
4. bl iz.kkyh }kjk fu"d"kksZ esa ifj'kq)rk dh ek=kk cgqr de gksrh gSA
5. blesa bdkb;ksa ds pquko esa U;k;iw.kZ fu.kZ; dh vis{kk O;fDrxr lq>ko dk vf/kd egÙo gksrk gSA
6. blds vk/kkj ij lEiw.kZ lexz dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks ugha le>k tk ldrkA
Lrfjr ;k oxhZÑr fun'kZu

(Stratified Sampling)
bl fof/k dk iz;ksx nSo fun'kZu vkSj lfopkj fun'kZu nksuksa ds ykHkksa dks ,d lkFk izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA blesa
lexz dks fopkjiwoZd dbZ ltkrh; oxksZ esa foHkkftr dj fn;k tkrk gS vkSj mlds ckn izR;sd oxZ esa ls fuf'pr la[;k
esa nSo fun'kZu fof/k ls bdkb;ksa dk pquko fd;k tkrk gSA
bl fof/k dk iz;ksx mlh le; fd;k tkrk gS tc lexz dh lHkh bdkb;ka ltkrh; u gksaA ftu bdkb;ksa ls leku y{k.k
gksa] mUgsa ,d oxZ ds vUrxZr j[k fy;k tkrk gSA rRi'pkr~ izR;sd oxZ esa ls fuf'pr ek=kk esa fun'kZu pqu fy;k tkrk gSa
Lrfjr fun'kZu fof/k dk iz;ksx djrs le; gesa fuEukafdr lko/kkfu;ka cjruh gksrh gSA
1. lexz dh lHkh fo'ks"krkvksa dks Kkr djds mls muds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu Lrjksa esa oxhZÑr dj fy;k tk;sA
2. izR;sd Lrj dk vkdkj bruk cM+k vo'; gks ftlesa ls fun'kZu gsrq bdkb;ksa dk p;u fd;k tk lds
3. fofHkUu Lrjksa (oxks)Z esa iw.kZ:is.k ltkrh;rk gks vFkkZr~ izR;sd oxZ esa vkus okyh bdkb;ksa esa ,d:irk gks rFkk ,d
oxZ lexz ds ,d gh xq.k dk izfrfuf/kRo djsA
4. fofHkUu Lrjksa ;k oxksZ esa bdkb;ksa dk pquko mlh vuqikr esa fd;k tk;s ftl vuqikr esa mudh la[;k lexz esa
gSaA
66 vuqla/kku fof/k
5. oxZ Li"V rFkk lqfuf'pr gksus pkfg, rkfd izR;sd bdkbZ fdlh u fdlh oxZ esa vk tk;s vkSj dksbZ Hkh bdkbZ ,d
ls vf/kd oxksZ esa u vk,A
6. oxksZ dk fuekZ.k v/;;u fo"k; dh izÑfr ds vuq:i gksA
Lrfjr fun'kZu ds izdkj
(Types of Stratified Sampling)
Lrfjr fun'kZu ds izeq[k rhu izdkj gSa%
1. vkuqikfrd Lrfjr fun'kZu (Proportionate Stratified Sampling)% bl fof/k ds vuqlkj izR;sd oxZ esa ls
fun'kZu gsrq mruh gh bdkb;ksa dk p;u fd;k tkrk gS ftl vuqikr esa oxZ dh dqy bdkb;ka lexz esa gSaA
2. vlekuqikfrd Lrfjr fun'kZu (Disproportionate Stratified Sampling)% bl fof/k esa izR;sd oxZ esa ls
leku la[;k esa bdkb;ka pquh tkrh gSA bl ckr dk /;ku ugha j[kk tkrk gS fd mudk lexz esa D;k vuqikr gSA
3. Hkkj;qDr Lrfjr fun'kZu (Stratified Weighted Sampling): bl fof/k esa mi;qZDr nksuksa fof/k;ksa dk feJ.k
ik;k tkrk gSA bl fof/k esa igys izR;sd oxZ esa ls leku la[;kvksa dk pquko fd;k tkrk gS] mlds ckn vf/kd
la[;k okys oxks± dh bdkb;ksa dks vf/kd Hkkj iznku djds mudk izHkko c<+k fn;k tkrk gSA ;g Hkkj mlh vuqikr
easa iznku fd;k tkrk gS] ftl vuqikr esa oxZ dh bdkb;ka lexz esa gksrh gSaA
Lrfjr fun'kZu ds xq.k
(Merits of Stratified Sampling)
Lrfjr fun'kZu fof/k ds fuEukafdr xq.k gSa%
1. bl fof/k ds }kjk fun'kZu fudkyus okys dks fun'kZu ds pquko esa vf/kd fu;U=k.k izkIr gks tkrk gSA blesa lexz
ds izR;sd oxZ dh bdkb;ksa dks fun'kZu esa LFkku izkIr gks tkrk gS vkSj fdlh oxZ ds NwVus dh lEHkkouk ugha jgrhA
nSo fun'kZu esa ;|fi izR;sd bdkbZ ds pqus tkus dh lEHkkouk jgrh gS] fdUrq fQj Hkh dbZ ckj egÙoiw.kZ oxZ NwV
Hkh tkrs gSa] tcfd Lrfjr fun'kZu esa ,slk ugha gksrk gSA
2. ;fn oxhZdj.k mfpr izdkj ls fd;k x;k gS rks FkksM+h bdkb;ksa ls gh izfrfuf/k bdkb;ksa dk pquko gks ldrk gS]
tcfd nSo fun'kZu esa izfrfuf/kRork ds afy, bdkb;ksa dk i;kZIr ek=kk esa pquk tkuk vko';d gSA
3. bl fof/k esa bdkb;ksa dk izfrLFkkiu cgqr dh ljy gSA ;fn izkjfEHkd fun'kZu esa pquh gqbZ fdlh bdkbZ ls lEidZ
LFkkfir ugha fd;k tk ldrk gks rks mlds LFkku ij mlh oxZ esa ls nwljh bdkbZ pqu yh tkrh gSA bl ifjorZu
ls fun'kZu ds izfrfuf/kRoiw.kZ gksus ;k u gksus ij dksbZ vlj ugha iM+rkA
4. oxhZdj.k }kjk fun'kZu dk pquko bl izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gS fd fun'kZu dh vf/kdka'k bdkb;ka HkkSxksfyd
n‘f"V ls dsafUnzr gksaA ,sls v/;;u easa /ku o le; dh cpr gks ldrh gSA nSo fun'kZu esa bdkb;ka fc[kjh gksus ds
dkj.k bdkb;ksa ds pquko esa bl izdkj dk fu;U=k.k ugha jgrkA
Lrfjr fun'kZu dh lhek,a
(Limitations of Stratified Sampling)
bl fof/k dh lhek,a fuEukafdr gSa%
1- ;fn oxks± dk fuekZ.k mfpr izdkj ls ug fd;k x;k gS rks fun'kZu ds pquus esa i{kikr vkus dh lEHkkouk jgrh
gSA ,slk Hkh gks ldrk gS fd dqN oxks± esa ls vf/kd bdkb;ksa dk pquko dj fy;k tk; vkSj dqN esa ls de dkA
,slh fLFkfr esa fun'kZu izfrfuf/kRoiw.kZ ug jg ikrk gSA
2- izfrfuf/kRoiw.kZ gksus ds fy, fun'kZu dk lkuqikfrd gksuk vko';d gS] fdUrq fHké&fHké oxks± ds vkdkj esa ;fn cgqr
vf/kd fHkérk gS rks muesa lekuqikr dk xq.k ykuk dfBu gksrk gSA lkFk gh pquko djus okys O;fä dh O;fäxr
#fp dk Hkh fun'kZu ds pquko ij izHkko iM+rk gSA
3- ;fn oxks± ls bdkb;ksa dk pquko vlekuqikfrd vk/kkj ij fd;k x;k gS rks ckn esa Hkkj dk iz;ksx djuk iM+rk
gSA Hkkj iznku djrs le; O;fä dk i{kikr Hkh vk ldrk gS rFkk vuqfpr Hkkj iznku djus ij bdkb;ka
izfrfufèkRoiw.kZ ug jg tkrh gSaA
4- Lrfjr fun'kZu esa ,d xq.k j[kus okyh bdkb;ksa dk ,d oxZ cuk;k tkrk gS] fdUrq fdlh bdkbZ esa ,dkf/kd xq.k
gksus ij dfBukbZ vkrh gS fd mls fdl oxZ esa j[kk tk;A
vU; izdkj ds fun'kZu
(Other Types of Sampling)
mi;qZä rhu izeq[k izdkj ds fun'kZuksa ds vfrfjä dqN vU; izdkj bl izdkj gSa%
fu£n"Vka'k vFkok vH;a'k fun'kZu
(Quota Sampling)
;g oxhZ; fun'kZu dk gh ,d :i gSA blesa loZizFke lexz dks dbZ oxks± esa foHkkftr fd;k tkrk gSA fQj izR;sd oxZ esa
ls pquh tkus okyh bdkb;ksa dh la[;k r; dj yh tkrh gSA bl fuf'pr la[;k dks gh fu£n"Vka'k (quota) dgrs gSaA blds
ckn vuqla/kkudÙkkZ izR;sd oxZ esa ls fu/kkZfjr ek=kk esa viuh bPNkuqlkj bdkb;ksa dk pquko dj ysrk gSA tgksnk rFkk dqd
ds vuqlkj] Þfu£n"Vka'k fun'kZu dk izkFkfed y{; ,sls fun'kZu dk p;u djuk gS tks ,sls lexz dk y?kq :i gS ftldk
lkekU;hdj.k fd;k tkuk gS] vr% bls lexz dk izfrfuf/kRo djus okyk dgk x;k gSAß bl fof/k ls v/;;u djus ds fy,
igys lHkh Nk=kksa dks dyk] foKku vkSj okf.kT; ladk;ksa esa foHkkftr dj fn;k tkrk gS] mlds ckn izR;sd ladk; esa ls
50&50 Nk=kksa dk p;u v/;;udÙkkZ viuh bPNkuqlkj dj ysrk gSA pwafd bl fof/k esa v/;;udÙkkZ dks bdkb;ksa ds pquko
dh LorU=krk gksrh gS] vr% pquko ds le; i{kikr dh lEHkkouk jgrh gSA
cgqLrjh; fun'kZu
(Multi-Stage Sampling)
bl fof/k dk iz;ksx cgqr cM+s {ks=k ls fun'kZu fudkyus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA pwafd bl fof/k esa fun'kZu dk pquko dbZ
Lrjksa ls xqtjus ds ckn fd;k tkrk gS] blfy, bls cgqLrjh; fun'kZu dgk tkrk gSA bl fof/k ls ;fn ge fdlh cM+s uxj
dk v/;;u djuk pkgrs gSa rks mlds fy, gesa fuEukafdr Lrjksa ls xqtjuk gksxk%
1- lEiw.kZ uxj dks dbZ {ks=kksa ;k okMks± esa ckaVk tk;sxkA ;s {ks=k {ks=kQy dh n‘f"V ls ,oa fuokfl;ksa dh n‘f"V ls leku
gksus pkfg,A
2- izR;sd {ks=k esa ls dqN x‘g&lewgksa dk pquko nSo fun'kZu ds vk/kkj ij fd;k tk;A
3- izR;sd x‘g&lewg esa ls dqN ifjokjksa dk pquko nSo fun'kZu ds vk/kkj ij fd;k tk;A
4- izR;sd ifjokj esa ls ,d O;fä dks v/;;u ds fy, pquk tk;A
bl izdkj bl fof/k esa vfUre pquko dbZ pj.kksa esa tkdj gksrk gSA bl fof/k esa Lrfjr fun'kZu fof/k ,oa nSo fun'kZu fofèk
nksuksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn lko/kkuhiwoZd bldk iz;ksx fd;k tk, rks blesa nksuksa ds ykHk izkIr gks ldrs gSa rFkk
de ls de bdkb;ksa ls gh vf/kdkf/kd izfrfuf/kRo izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
lqfo/kktud fun'kZu
(Convenience Sampling)
bl fof/k esa fun'kZu dk pquko v/;;udÙkkZ dh lqfo/kkuqlkj fd;k tkrk gSA vuqla/kkudÙkkZ fun'kZu dk pquko djus ls
iwoZ] le;] /ku] Je] bdkb;ksa ls lEidZ djus dh lqfo/kk] lzksr lwph dh miyC/krk] vkfn ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[krk gSA
bls vfu;fer] vkdfLed] voljoknh rFkk ykijokghiw.kZ fun'kZu Hkh dgrs gSaA bl fof/k ds voSKkfud ,oa i{kikriw.kZ
gksrs gq, Hkh dbZ ckj v/;;u gsrq blh dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl fof/k dk mi;ksx rc fd;k tkrk gS tc&
68 vuqla/kku fof/k
1- lexz iw.kZr;k Li"V u gks(

2- tc fun'kZu dh bdkb;ka Li"V u gks( rFkk
3- tc lzkr
s lwph vizkI; gksA ;g fof/k ljy] ferO;;h] xgu v/;;u ,oa ;FkkFkZ fun'kZu dh lEHkkouk ds xq.k j[krh
gSA
Lo;a p;fur ¼fuokZfpr½ fun'kZu
(Self-Selected Sampling)
dbZ ckj fun'kZu dk pquko ug fd;k tkrk] oju~ lEcfU/kr O;fä Lo;a gh fun'kZu esa lfEefyr gksus dk izLrko djrk gSA
blfy, gh bls Lo;a p;fur fun'kZu dgrs gSAa dbZ ckj lekpkj&i=kksa esa iz'ukoyh izdkf'kr djok nh tkrh gS ftls bPNqd
O;fä Hkjdj lEcfU/kr laLFkk ;k O;fä dks Hkst nsrs gSaA
{ks=kh; fun'kZu
(Area Sampling)
bl fof/k esa lexz dks igys NksVs&NksVs {ks=kksa esa foHkkftr djrs gSa] rRi'pkr~ lEiw.kZ {ks=k dk gh v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA
pwafd blesa bdkb;ksa ds ,d lewg dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS] blfy, bls laHkkx fun'kZu (Cluster Sampling) Hkh dgrs
gSaA {ks=kh; fun'kZu dk mi;ksx Ñf"k {ks=kksa ds v/;;u ds fy, fo'ks"k :i ls fd;k tkrk gSA vijk/kh {ks=k ,oa tula[;k
v/;;uksa ds fy, Hkh bl fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
fun'kZu fof/k ds fofHkUu izdkjksa ds mYys[k ls ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyuk dh lHkh izdkj izpfyr gSa] ,slk ekuuk loZFkk xyr
gksxkA gk¡! bruk /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ le; rFkk mís'; ds vk/kkj ij fun'kZu fof/k dks viukdj mldk
iz;ksx djrk gSA fun'kZu iz.kkyh dk eq[; :i ls iz;ksx vktdy tuer dh tkudkjh rFkk cktkj esa u;s mRiknu ds ckjs
esa tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
vPNs fun'kZu dh fo'ks"krk,a
(Quality of a good sampling)
vPNs fun'kZu dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks le>us ls igys ;g tku ysuk vko';d gS fd vPNs fun'kZu ds ekxZ esa D;k dfBukb;k¡
vkrh gSaA lkaf[;dh n‘f"Vdks.k ls vPNs fun'kZu ds ekxZ esa nks egÙoiw.kZ dfBukb;k¡ vkrh gSa%
1- okLrfod :i ls fun'kZu dk p;u & okLrfod :i ls fun'kZu dk p;u fd;k tk ldrk gS ;k ug A ;g vius
vki esa ,d pqukSrh gksrh gS] vPNs fun'kZu ds pquko esa ftldk lkaf[;dh n‘f"Vdks.k ls dkQh egÙo gksrk gSA ;gk¡
ij vPNs fun'kZu pqus tkus ls eryc mlds lexz ds izfrfuf/kRo ls gSA pquk x;k fun'kZu lexz dk lPps :i esa
izfrfuf/kRo djrk gS ;k ug A
2- funjkZu dh fo'oluh;rk% bldh pqukSrh ml fun'kZu dh fo'oluh;rk ls tqMh+ gSA vFkkZr~ ftl fun'kZu dk pquko
fd;k x;k gS mlesa fo'oluh;rk dh eki dh tk ldrh gS ;k ug A bUg ckrksa ls lacaf/kr gksrh gS fun'kZu dh
dfBukb;k¡A
blfy, xqMs rFkk gkV vkSj ih0 oh0 ;ax us vPNs fun'kZu dh fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dk fo'ks"k:i ls mYys[k fd;k gS&
1- vPNs fun'kZu dh izeq[k fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd mldk lexz dk ifrfuf/k gksuk pkfg,A ih0 oh0 ;ax us vPNs fun'kZu
ds fy, bls ,d vko';d 'krZ ekuk gSA izfrfuf/kRo ls rkRi;Z fuEu nks ckrksa ls tqM+h gS&
l ,d:irk (Uniformity): bl 'krZ ds vuqlkj v/;;u fo"k; ds fy, pqus x, fun'kZu esa ,d:irk gS ;k ug ]
;g ,d vko';d vk/kkj cu tkrh gS vFkkZr~ fun'kZu esa pquh xbZ bdkbZ;ksa esa ,d:irk gksuk vko';d gSA
l pquko dh iz.kkyh (Method of Selection): pquko dh iz.kkyh ds }kjk Hkh fun'kZu ds izfrfuf/kRo fd;s
tkus dh ckr dk vkdyu fd;k tkrk gSA vxj pquko dh iz.kkyh mi;qDr gks rks ;g eku fy;k tkrk gS
fd fun'kZu dk lgh izfrfuf/kRo gqvk gSA
2- i;kZIr vkdkj (Adequate Sample Size): ,d vPNs fun'kZu ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd fun'kZu dk vkdkj
i;kZIr gksA vDlj ;g yksxksa fd /kkj.kk cu xbZ gS fd fun'kZu dk vkdkj ftruk cM+k gksxk mldk izfrfuf/kRo
mruk gh vf/kd gksxkA ijarq ;g /kkj.kk lgh ug gSA vxj lgh iz.kkyh }kjk fun'kZu dh ek=kk i;kZIr u gks rks
mls vPNk fun'kZu ug dg ldrsA
3- i{kikr jfgr fun'kZu (Biased free Sample): ,d i{kikr jfgr fun'kZu ds fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS
fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius iqokZxzgksa ds vk/kkj ij fun'kZu dk p;u u djs] vFkkZr~ fun'kZu ds pquko esa O;fDrxr :>ku
rFkk feF;k /kkj.kkvksa dks tgk¡ rd laHko gks lds mls vius fun'kZu ds pquko esa u vkus nsA i{kikr jfgr uhfr
rduhfd ds pquko esa Hkh viuk;k tkuk pkfg,A vDlj ;g ik;k x;k gS fd tc dHkh 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius ilan ds
vuqlkj rduhfd rFkk fun'kZu dk pquko djrs gSa rc lkaf[;dh n‘f"Vdks.k ls mlesa dqN deh jg tkrh gSA blfy,
;g vko';d gS fd vPNs fun'kZu ds fy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ i{kikr jfgr n‘f"Vdks.k viukdj fun'kZu dk pquko djsA
4- fo'oluh; fun'kZu (Reliable Sample): ,d vPNs fun'kZu ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd pquk x;k fun'kZu
fo'oluh; gksA fun'kZu dh fo'oluh;rk u dsoy fun'kZu ds vkdkj] iz.kkyh rFkk i{kikr jfgr n‘f"Vdks.k }kjk
laHko gS cfYd blds fy, ;g Hkh vko';d gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks 'kks/k ds mís';ksa dh lgh le> gksA vxj 'kks/kdÙkkZ
dks 'kks/k ds mís';ksa ds ckjs esa lgh tkudkjh ug gks rks ,slh fLFkfr esa vPNs fun'kZu dk p;u laHko ug A
5- lkekU; Kku (General Knowledge): ;gk¡ lkekU; Kku ls vfHkizk; 'kks/kdÙkkZ }kjk pqus x, fun'kZu ds izfr
lgh rk£dd n‘f"Vdks.k ls gSA blds lkFk gh 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks dqN O;ogkfjd Kku Hkh j[kuk vko';d gSA blds
vHkko esa ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ vPNs fun'kZu dk pquko ug dj ikrkA O;ogkfjd Kku ds vk/kkj ij gh mi;qDr fun'kZu
dk pquko laHko gSA
mi;qZDr ckrksa ls fu"d"kZ ;g fudyrk gS fd vPNs fun'kZu ds pquko ds fy, mldk lexz dk izfrfuf/kRo djuk rFkk
fo'oluh; gksuk ,d egÙoiw.kZ y{k.k gSa vkSj bl izdkj ls vPNs fun'kZu dk pquko lkaf[;dh n‘f"Vdks.k ls fun'kZu ij vk/
kkfjr v/;;u lkaf[;dh fo'ks"krkvksa ds fy, Hkh dkQh egÙoiw.kZ gSA
vkadM+s ladyu dh rduhdh

(Techniques of Data Collection)
bl [kaM ds vkjaHk esa gh geus nks egÙoiw.kZ 'kks/k fof/k ds }kjk vkadM+s ,df=kr fd;s tkus dk mYys[k fd;k gSA vkadM+s bdV~Bs
djus ds nks fuEu 'kks/k&fof/k dk o.kZu vDlj fd;k tkrk gS%
1- ifjek.kkRed fof/k (Quantitative Method)
2- xq.kkRed fof/k (Qualitative Method)
bu nksuksa fof/k;ksa dk bLrseky vkadM+ksa ds ladyu esa izeq[k LFkku j[krk gSA ;gk¡ ij ge lcls igys ifjek.kkRed fofèk
}kjk vkadM+ksa ds ladyu ds fofHkUu izfØ;kvksa dk o.kZu djsaxsA bl fof/k ds }kjk fuEu rhu izfØ;kvksa dk o.kZu fd;k x;k
gSa] tks vkadM+ksa ds ladyu esa dkQh egÙoiw.kZ ekus tkrs gSa%
iz'ukoyh% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a ,oa çdkj

(Questionnaire: Meaning, Characteristics & Types)
iz'ukoyh fof/k lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ fof/k gS ftldk iz;ksx izkFkfed rF;ksa ds ladyu gsrq fd;k tkrk
gSA tc lwpuknkrk f'kf{kr gks vkSj v/;;u {ks=k foLr‘r gks rks bl fof/k dk iz;ksx T;knk mi;ksxh lkfcr gksrk gSA iz'ukoyh
dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fofHkUu fo}kuksa us viuh jk; izdV dh gSA ih0 oh0 ;ax dk dguk gS fd Þiz'ukoyh dk izk:i rS;kj
dj rF;ksa dk ladyu ,d o‘gr] fofo/k rFkk QSys gq, yksxksa ds lewg ls fd;k tkrk gSAß muds vuqlkj f'kf{kr yksxksa ds
fy, tks ,d gh {ks=k esa ug jgrs gksa vkSj mudk fuokl LFky dkQh QSyk gks muesa iz'ukoyh fof/k ds }kjk vkadM+ksa dk
ladyu dkQh lgt gks tkrk gSA
70 vuqla/kku fof/k
xqMs rFkk gkV dk dguk gS fd Þiz'ukoyh 'kCn dk vFkZ ,d midj.k ls tqM+k gS ftlds }kjk iz'uksa ds mÙkj izkIr fd;s
tkrs gSa ftls mÙkjnkrk Lo;a Hkjrk gSAß vFkkZr~ ljy 'kCnksa esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd iz'ukoyh iz'uksa dh ,d lwph gS
ftls mÙkjnkrk Lo;a Hkjdj ;k rks Mkd ls mls iz'u Hkstus okys ds ikl izsf"kr djrk gS ;k fQj iz'u Hkstus okyk Lo;a
gh muls iz'ukoyh Hkjs tkus ds ckn bdV~Bk dj ysrs gSaA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd iz'ukoyh fdlh Hkh fo"k;
ij iwNs tkus okys iz'uksa dh ,d lwph gS ftls Mkd }kjk mÙkjnkrkvksa ds ikl Hkstk tkrk gS ftls os Hkjdj 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks
ykSVk nsrs gSaA
iz'ukoyh dh fo'ks"krk,a
(Characteristics of Questionnaire)
iz'ukoyh dh fuEu fo'ks"krk,a gSa%
1- v/;;u fd;s tkus okys fo"k; ij iz'uksa dh ,d lwph gSA
2- Mkd }kjk bls izsf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gS ;k fQj LFkkuh; Lrj ij Hkh bls forfjr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
3- bls mÙkjnkrk Lo;a gh Hkjrk gSA
4- mÙkjnkrk dk f'kf{kr gksuk vko';d gS D;ksafd mls iz'ukoyh dks i<+dj Lo;a Hkjuk gksrk gSA
5- izkFkfed lwpuk ladyu djus dh ;g ,d vizR;{k fof/k gS ftlesa 'kks/kdÙkkZ iz'ukoyh Hkjrs le; mlds ikl ug
gksrk gSA
6- iz'ukoyh dk iz;ksx foLr‘r {ks=k esa gksrk gSA
bl izdkj mi;qäZ fo'ks"krkvksa ds vk/kkj ij iz'ukoyh ds fuEu mís'; dks /;ku esa j[kdj blds egÙo dks le>k tk ldrk
gSA
1- foLr‘r] fo'kky] fofo/k fc[kjs gq, yksxksa ls lwpuk izkIr djukA
2- izekf.kd rFkk fo'oluh; tkudkjh izkIr djukA
3- lwpukvksa dks O;ofLFkr rjhds ls ladfyr djukA
4- fo"k; ls lacaf/kr v/;;u djukA
5- vuko';d tkudkjh dks NksM+ukA
6- de ykxr ij gh lwpuk izkIr djukA
7- lkaf[;dh n‘f"Vdks.k ls vkadM+ksa dks ladfyr djukA
8- ,d lkFk gh lwpukvksa dk 'kh?kz ladyuA
9- fofHkUu fo"k;ksa ij fofHkUu {ks=kksa ls Hkh lwpuk izkIr djuk laHko gks tkrk gSA
iz'ukoyh ds izdkj
(Types of Questionnaire)
mís';ksa ds vk/kkj ij iz'ukoyh ds fofHkUu izdkj dk o.kZu fd;k tkrk gSA
1- Mkd }kjk Hksth x;h iz'ukoyh (Mailed Questionnaire): tc 'kks/kdÙkkZ ,d gh LFkku ij 'kks/k djrs gq,
fofHkUu txgksa ls tkudkjh izkIr djuk pkgrk gS] rc ,slh fLFkfr esa og iz'ukoyh cukdj Mkd }kjk iz'ukoyh
dks mu txgksa ij Hkst nsrk gS vkSj dqN fnuksa ds ckn gh mls iz'ukoyh okil fey tkrh gSA bl iz'ukoyh esa
lQyrk dh ckr djrs gq, xqMs ,oa gkV dk ekuuk Fkk fd fdl gn rd Mkd }kjk Hksth x;h iz'ukoyh izklafxd
rFkk vFkZiw.kZ gS] bldk vankt bl ckr ls gh yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd iz'u fdl izdkj ds iwNs x;s gSa vkSj fdl
izdkj ds mÙkjnkrkvksa ls iz'u iwNs x;s gSaA fuEu ckrksa ds mij bl ckr dh lQyrk fuHkZj djrh gSa%
(i) fdl izdkj dh tkudkjh izkIr djuk gSA

(ii) fdl izdkj ds yksxksa ls tkudkjh izkIr djuk gSA
(iii) mÙkjnkrkvksa rd igq¡puk fdl gn rd laHko gSA
(iv) midYiuk fdruh Li"V vkSj oSKkfud :i ls pqLr gSA
(v) dbZ ckj tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, ge iz'ukoyh fof/k dk iz;ksx dj cSBrsa gSa ijarq mÙkjnkrkvksa ls lgh
tkudkjh ug fey ikrhA mu fo"k;ksa ij tkudkjh nsus esa yksx drjkrs gSa] ladksp djrs gSa rFkk mUgsa lnSo
;g Mj yxk gksrk gS fd ml tkudkjh dk nq:i;ksx dj muds f[kykQ dksbZ dkjokgh u dh tk;sA
mnkgj.kkFkZ dksbZ O;fDr Hkz"Vkpkj dk v/;;u bl fof/k ls djuk pkgs rks fu'p; gh tks tkudkjh mls izkIr
gksxh mlds fo'oluh;rk ij lnSo ,d lokfy;k fu'kku yxk gksxkA
(vi) fdl izdkj ds yksxksa ls tkudkjh bdV~Bk djuk gS] iz'ukoyh dh lQyrk ml ckr ij Hkh fuHkZj djrh
gSA Mkd }kjk Hksts x;h iz'ukoyh dks f'kf{kr O;fDr ds ikl ug Hkstk x;k gS rks Mkd ls ml iz'ukoyh
dks okil izkIr djuk ges'kk eqf'dy gksrk gSA
(vii) fdl izdkj ds lwpuknkrk ls loky iwNdj tkudkjh yh tkuh gS ;g Hkh iz'ukoyh dh lQyrk ds fy,
vko';d gks tkrk gSA lHkh lwpuknkrk leku :i ls iz'ukoyh dks Hkjdj izsf"kr djus esa fnypLih ug
fn[kkrs gSAa vf/kdka'k yksx :fp ds vuqlkj iz'ukoyh dks Hkjdj Hkstrs gSAa dqN yksx ftUgsa iz'ukoyh :phdj
ug yxrh gS tkfgj gS mls Hkjdj iz'ukoyh Hkstus esa dksbZ Hkh fnypLih ug fn[kyk;sx a As ,sls esa ;g tkuuk
vko';d gks tkrk gS fd iz'ukoyh fdls Hksth tk jgh gS rkfd mlh ds vuqlkj iz'ukoyh dks T;knk ek=kk
esa T;knk yksxksa dks Hkstk tk;s vkSj ckj&ckj i=k }kjk lwpuknkrk ls iz'ukoyh dks Hkjdj Hkstus dk vuqjksèk
fd;k tk ldsA
(viii) midYiuk ds mij Hkh iz'ukoyh dh lQyrk fuHkZj djrh gSA blfy, midYiuk ftruh fuf'pr rFkk Li"V
gksxk lwpuknkrk dks iz'ukoyh mruh gh Li"V yxsxh vkSj mÙkjnkrk 'kh?kzrk ls iz'ukoyh Hkst ldsxkA
2- lajfpr iz'ukoyh (Structured Questionnaire): dqN iz'ukoyh ,slh gksrh gSa ftlesa lajfpr ç'ukoyh gksrh
gS ftlesa Hkk"kk] 'kCn] okD; foU;kl vkfn igys ls gh r; dj fy, tkrs gSa vkSj mlh ds vk/kkj ij iz'u iwNs tkrs
gSaA iz'uksa dh la[;k vkSj muds iwNs tkus dk Øe Hkh iwoZfu/kkZfjr gksrk gS ftlls iz'ukoyh Li"V gksrh gS vkSj iz'u
Hkh fuf'pr gksrs gSaA bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh ls fdlh lkekftd leL;k] tudY;k.k dh ;kstuk ;k ljdkj dh
py jgh ;kstukvksa dh eqY;kadu gsrq igpku gks tkrh gSA dbZ ckj yksxksa dh lkekftd fLFkfr rFkk muds
jgu&lgu dk irk yxkus ds fy, Hkh bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh dk iz;ksx gksrk gSA
3- vlajfpr iz'ukoyh (Unstructured Questionnaire): vlajfpr iz'ukoyh esa iz'u iwoZfu/kkZfjr rjhds ls rS;kj
ug fd;s tkrs gSa cfYd blesa dkQh yphykiu gksrk gS vkSj 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks mu izlaxksa dk mYys[k ek=k djuk gksrk
gS ftlij os mÙkjnkrk ls mÙkj pkgrs gSaA bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh esa euksoSKkfud fo'ys"k.k ds }kjk iz'uksa dh
izÑfr dks crkdj mlls mBus okys vU; iz'uksa dks 'kks/kdÙkkZ le>dj mls :aikrfjr dj iqu% iz'uksa dks iwNus dh
ckr jgrh gSA vr% bl izdkj ds iz'ukoyh esa yphykiu gksrk gS ftlds dkj.k mÙkjnkrk [kqydj vius vki dks
vfHkO;Dr dj ldrk gSA
4- [kqyh iz'ukoyh (Open Questionnaire): bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh esa mÙkjnkrk dks iz'uksa ds mÙkj nsrs le;
[kqyh NwV nh tkrh gS fd og ml leL;k ;k ?kVuk ds ckjs esa [kqydj viuh jk; izdV dj ldsA ;gk¡ ij
mÙkjnkrk dks iw.kZ LorU=krk gksrh gSA vius fopkjksa dks vfHkO;Dr djus dkA ;gk¡ lqpuknkrk ds mÙkj dks lhfer
;k fuèkkZfjr mÙkjksa esa cka/kk ug tkrk gS cfYd dkQh yphykiu :[k viuk;k tkrk gSA tc dHkh ekuoh; LoHkko]
Hkkoukvksa rFkk lq>koksa dks ysdj iz'u iwNs tkrs gSa ml le; bl izdkj ls iz'u dks iwNdj mÙkjnkrk ls T;knk
tkudkjh yh tk ldrh gSA fooj.kkRed rFkk xq.kkRed fdLe ds vkadM+ksa o tkudkjh izkIr djus esa bl izdkj
ls iz'ukoyh dh mi;ksfxrk dkQh gksrh gSA ,slh iz'ukoyh esa iz'u iwNus ds LFkku ij gh i;kZIr ek=kk esa txg
72 vuqla/kku fof/k
NksM+ fn;k tkrk gS tgk¡ lwpuknkrk vius fopkjksa dks Lora=k :i ls O;Dr dj ldsA mnkgj.kLo:i fuEu iz'uksa
ds }kjk bldk vankt yxk;k tk ldrk gS%
1- Hkkjr esa xjhch ds dkj.k D;k gS\
2- lekt esa ngst izFkk dks dSls lekIr fd;k tk ldrk gS\
3- Nk=kksa esa vuq'kklughurk ds D;k dkj.k gSa\
4- jk"Vª fuekZ.k esa jk"Vª usrkvksa dh D;k Hkwfedk gksuh pkfg,\
5- can iz'ukoyh (Closed Questionaire): ;g [kqyh iz'ukoyh ds foifjr gS ftlesa mÙkjnkrk ds mÙkj dks lhfer
dj fn;k tkrk gSA vFkkZr~ iz'u bl izdkj iwNs tkrs gSa fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ }kjk lq>k;s x;s fodYiksa esa ls gh mÙkj p;u
djus gksrs gSaA vf/kdka'k iz'uksa ds mÙkj dks dqN fodYi ds mij gh mÙkjnkrk dks √ ¼lgh dk fu'kku½ yxkdj
vius mÙkj nsus gksrs gSa vkSj laHkor% blfy, og Lora=k :i ls mÙkj nsus ds fy, ck/; ug fd;k tkrkA mls mÙkjksa
dks fn;s x;s fodYi esa gh fu'kku yxkdj viuh jk; izdV djuh gksrh gSA mÙkjksa ds fodYi dks 'kks/kdÙkkZ gh
iwoZfu/kkZfjr iz'ukoyh esa Mky nsrk gSA bl izdkj ds iz'uksa ds mÙkj gk¡ rFkk ug esa fn;s tkrs gSaA fuEu iz'uksa ls
;g vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd fdl izdkj ds iz'u bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh esa ik;s tkrs gSa%
D;k vki fookfgr gSa\ gk¡@ug
D;k vki NksVs ifjokj ds i{k esa gSa\ gk¡@ug
ifjokj fu;kstu dk;ZØe dks vkidh jk; esa D;ksa lQyrk ug fey ik jgh gS\
(i) vf'k{kk
(ii) ;g ftEesaokjh efgykvksa ds mij NksM+ nh x;h gSA
(iii) ijaijkxr lksp
(iv) iq:"k iz/kku lekt esa iq:"k cPpksa dk gksuk vfuok;Z ekuk tkrk gSA
6- fp=ke; iz'ukoyh (Pictorial Questionnaire): ,slk ekudj pyk tkrk gS fd iz'ukoyh dsoy f'kf{kr yksxksa
ds fy, gh mÙke fof/k gks ldrh gS tcfd fp=ke; iz'ukoyh ls ;g /kkj.kk >qBh lkfcr gks tkrh gS D;ksafd tc
gesa mu yksxksa ls iz'ukoyh Hkjokuh gks tks T;knk f'kf{kr ug gksa rks mUgsa fp=kksa dks fn[kkdj iz'u ds izfr vkd£"kr
fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj fp=kksa ij gh fu'kku yxkdj viuh jk; izdV dj ldrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ pquko ds le;
dqN ikVhZ ds pquko fpUg dks gh iz'ukoyh esa 'kkfey dj mÙkjnkrk ds vkd"kZ.k dks cuk;s j[kk tk ldrk gSA
ikVhZ ds fofHkUu pquko fpUgksa dks gh pqudj lwpuknkrk viuh :>ku o lksp izdV djrk gSA ,slh iz'ukoyh dks
efgykvksa] cPpksa }kjk T;knk mi;ksxh ekuk x;k gSA
7- rF; laca/kh iz'ukoyh (Factual Questionnaire): lkekftd rF;ksa ls lacaf/kr tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy,
bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA tc ge fdlh lewg ;k O;fDr ds vk;] /keZ] tkfr] f'k{kk] fookg]
O;olk; vkfn ls lacaf/kr tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, iz'ukoyh rS;kj djrs gSa rks bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh dks
rF; laca/kh iz'ukoyh dgk tkrk gSA bl izdkj dh iz'ukoyh dk eq[; mís'; rF;ksa ls lacaf/kr tkudkjh izkIr
djuk gksrk gSA
8- er o eukso‘fÙk lac/a kh (Questionnaire of Opinion & Attitude): tc dHkh iz'ukoyh dk iz;ksx O;fDr ds
:>ku ;k fdlh jktuhfrd ny ds izfr mldk er tkuus ds fy, iz'ukoyh dks rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS rks mls er
,oa eukso‘fÙk laca/kh iz'ukoyh dgrs gSaA
mi;qZä izdkjksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd iz'ukoyh mís';ksa ds vk/kkj ij fofo/k izdkj ds gks ldrs gSaA ijarq egÙoiw.kZ
ckr ;g gS fd iz'ukoyh 'kks/k ds fy, ,d vko';d rjhdk gS ftldh lQyrk ds fy, fuEu ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk vR;ar
gh vko';d gS%
1- rqyukRed n‘f"V ls iz'uksa dh la[;k dk lhfer gksukA

2- lajfpr iz'uksa ds lekos'k ls iz'uksa dh fo'oluh;rk c<+rh gSA
3- can iz'ukoyh ls Hkh vkadM+ksa dk fo'ys"k.k vklku gks tkrk gSA
4- iz'uksa dk ljy] fuf'pr rFkk xzkg~; gksuk vko';d gS rkfd mÙkjnkrk mu iz'uksa dk lgh&lgh mÙkj ns ldsA
5- iz'u vLi"V rFkk fooj.kkRed u gkasA
6- iz'u ifjek.kkRed u gksaA
7- iz'u ,d&nwljs ls tqM+s gksaA
8- iz'u bl izdkj ds gksa fd muls tks tkudkjh izkIr djuh gS og vklkuh ls fey ldsA
9- iz'uksa dh Hkk"kk ljy ,oa okD; foU;kl T;knk cksf>y u gksaA
10- iz'uksa dks vxj lkj.kh }kjk vkxs izLrqr djuk gks rks mlds izk:i dks mlds vuq:i gh rS;kj dj iwNk tkuk
pkfg,A
11- iz'uksa ds chp ,d rk£dd laca/k gksa rkfd mlh ds vuq:i lwpuknkrk dks mÙkj izkIr gks ldsA
vuqlwph% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a ,oa çdkj

(Schedule: Meaning, Characteristics & Types)
ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk vkadM+s bdV~Bs djus dh ,d vkSj mÙke fof/k gS vuqlwphA lkaf[;dh fof/k ds }kjk lkekftd
'kks/kdÙkkZ vuqlp
w h ds enn ls dqN Bksl tkudkjh izkIr djus esa lQy gksrs gSAa iz'ukoyh dh rjg gh vuqlp
w h dks Hkh o‘gr]
fofo/k rFkk foLr‘r lewg ls tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, mÙke fof/k le>k tkrk gSA vuqlwph dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ih0
oh0 ;ax dk dguk Fkk fd ;g Hkh iz'uksa dh ,d lwph gSa ftls lkekftd vuqla/kkudÙkkZ lk/kkj.kr;k Lo;a Hkjrk gS ftlds
}kjk iz'uksa ds mÙkj dh O;k[;k dh tkrh gSA osClVj 'kCndks"k esa Hkh vuqlwph dks ,d vkSipkfjd lwph ds :i esa o£.kr
fd;k gS ftlds }kjk vkSipkfjd Lrj ij tkudkjh izkIr dj ifjek.kkRed fdLe ds vkadM+s ,df=kr fd;s tkrs gSaA
xqMs rFkk gkV us vuqlwph dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fy[kk gS] vuqlwph mu iz'uksa ds lewg ds uke ls tqM+k gS ftls 'kks/kdÙkkZ
,d&nwljs ds vkeus&lkeus gksdj iwNrk vkSj Lo;a Hkjrk gSA mi;qZDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd vuqlwph
v/;;u fo"k; ls lacfa /kr iz'uksa dh ,d O;ofLFkr ,oa oxhZÑr lwph gS ftls 'kks/kdÙkkZ mÙkjnkrk ds ikl tkdj muls iwNrk
gS rFkk iz'uksa dh lwph dks Hkh Lo;a vius gkFkksa ls fy[kdj Hkjrk gSaA
vuqlwph dh fo'ks"krk,a
(Characteristics of Schedule)
vuqlwph dh fuEu fo'ks"krk,a gSa%
1- vuqlwph esa v/;;u leL;k ls lacaf/kr iz'uksa dh Øec) lwph gksrh gSA
2- bls ,d QkeZ ds :i esa Hkh Niok;k tkrk gSA
3- v/;;udÙkkZ Lo;a ml QkeZ dks O;fDrxr :i ls lwpuknkrk ds ikl ys tkrk gS vkSj mlls lk{kkRdkj dj iz'uksa
dks iwNrk gSA
4- iz'uksa dh ml lwph dks 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a Hkjrk gSA
5- vuqlwph esa fujh{k.k] lk{kkRdkj ,oa iz'ukoyh fof/k rhuksa dk lefUor :i ,d lkFk gh ns[kk tk ldrk gSA
6- vuqlwph dk iz;ksx f'kf{kr rFkk vf'kf{kr nksuksa gh izdkj ds mÙkjnkrkvksa ds fy, leku :i ls mi;ksxh gksrk gSA
7- vuqlwph dks 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a Hkjrk gS blfy, mÙkjnkrkvksa ds mÙkj dks fo'oluh; ekuk tk ldrk gSA
74 vuqla/kku fof/k
8- blds }kjk ladfyr tkudkjh T;knk fo'oluh; gksrh gS D;ksafd 'kks/kdÙkkZ iz'uksa dks iwNdj Lo;a Hkjrk gSA
9- xq.kkRed rF;ksa dks lkaf[;dh :i nsus esa vklkuh gksrh gS
10- 'kks/kdÙkkZ vLi"V iz'uksa dks Li"V dj fdlh Hkh vLi"V ,oa lansg dk lek/kku <wa<us dh {kerk j[krk gSA
vuqlwph ds izdkj
(Types of Schedule)
ih0 oh0 ;ax us vuqlwph dks ,d izdkj dh fjikW¯Vx dk rjhdk crk;k gS ftlds fuEu Lo:i gSa%
1- voyksdu lwph (Observation Schedule): bl izdkj dh vuqlwph esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ voyksdu dk lgkjk ysdj
?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa tks 'kd dk;e djrk gS mls Lo;a gh fy[k ysrk gSA ?kVukvksa ds fujh{k.k ls gh egÙoiw.kZ
tkudkjh izkIr dj og mls vius v/;;u ds ;ksX; tgk¡ mfpr le>rk gS ml tkudkjh dk bLrseky djrk gSA
bl izdkj ls izkIr tkudkjh fujh{k.k ij vk/kkfjr gksrh gS blfy, vuqlp w h esa tks tkudkjh 'kks/kdÙkkZ }kjk fy[kh
tkrh gS mldh fo'oluh;rk lnSo cuh gksrh gSA voyksdu djus dk izko/kku 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks gksrk gS blfy,
'kksèkdÙkkZ ds 'kks/k dk ekxZn'kZu Hkh gks tkrk gSA ;gk¡ fujh{k.k ds }kjk tkudkjh izkIr djus dk izko/kku gksrk gS
blfy, ,d ls vf/kd fujh{kd dh enn ls lgh tkudkjh izkIr dh tkus dh laHkkouk Hkh cuh jgrh gSA bldh
fo'ks"krkvksa dk o.kZu djrs gq, ih0 oh0 ;ax us MksjksFkh Fkkel rFkk 'kkesaZV cqg~yj }kjk fuEu y{k.kksa dks m}fjr
fd;k gSa%
1- ;g 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks fo'ks"k :i ls Lej.k fnykrk gS vFkkZr~ Memory Tickler dk dke djrk gSA
2- ;gk¡ oLrqfu"B rjhds ls O;kid :i ls ladfyr vkadM+ksa dks ,df=kr djus dk izko/kku gksrk gSA
3- ;g ,d izekf.kd rjhdk gS ftlds }kjk tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA
4- ;g v/;;u ds {ks=k dks lhfer djrk gSA
2- izys[k vuqlwph (Document Schedule): ih0 oh0 ;ax us izys[k vuqlwph dk egÙo crkrs gq, fy[kk gS fd bl
vuqlwph dk iz;ksx O;fDrxr thou bfrgklksa rFkk vU; lacaf/kr lkexzh dks izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
bl izdkj dh vuqlp w h;ksa dk mi;ksx fyf[kr izy[s kksa tSls vkRedFkk] Mk;jh] ljdkjh rFkk xSj ljdkjh nLrkostksa
vkfn ds iz'uksa dk mÙkj izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj izys[k vuqlwph ds }kjk tks tkudkjh izkIr
dh tkrh gS mldk lzksr vkRedFkk] Mk;jh] n¶rjh fjdkMZ] vkfn gksrs gSa ftuls egÙoiw.kZ lwpuk,a izkIr dh tkrh
gSA
3- laLFkk losZ{k.k vuqlwph (Institution Survey Schedule): tc fdlh laLFkk ds le{k fo|eku leL;kvksa dk
fujh{k.k dj tkudkjh izkIr djuh gksrh gS rks ,sls vuqlwph dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl vuqlwph ds }kjk ml
laLFkk ds ckjs esa o mldh fØ;k&dykiksa ls lacaf/kr tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, bldk iz;ksx mÙke ekuk tkrk
gSA tux.kuk ds fy, Hkh bl izdkj ds vuqlwph dk iz;ksx tux.kuk vf/kdkfj;ksa }kjk blds fo"k; ls lacaf/kr
vkadM+ksa ds fy, Hkh bldk bLrseky fd;k tkrk gSA dbZ ckj fuokZpu vf/kdkjh Hkh ernku ls igys bl izdkj
ds vkadM+sa bdV~Bs djus ds fy, vuqlwph rS;kj djokdj tkudkjh ,df=kr djrs gSaA
4- ewY;kadu vuqlwph (Rating Schedule): bl izdkj dh vuqlwph dk iz;ksx fdlh fo"k; ds ckjs esa yksxksa dk
:>ku] jk;] fo'okl rFkk ilan tkuus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA lekftd leL;kvksa ,oa ?kVukvksa ds eqY;kadu ds
fy, Hkh bl izdkj dh vuqlwph dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds vuqlwph ls i{k&foi{k ds ckjs esa tkudkjh
feyrh gSA
5- lk{kkRdkj vuqlwph (Interview Schedule): tc izR;{k lk{kkRdkj ds }kjk vuqlwph dk iz;ksx dj egÙoiw.kZ
tkudkjh fdlh fo"k;] leL;k o ?kVuk ds ckjs esa bdV~Bk fd;k tkrk gS rks bls lk{kkRdkj vuqlwph dgrs gSaA
bl izdkj ds vuqlwph ds }kjk izkIr tkudkjh dks lkf[;dh rjhds ls izLrqr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj blds
fy, bl vuqlwph ds fo'oluh;rk dks lHkh Lohdkj djrs gSaA
;gk¡ ij ;g ckr Lej.k j[kuk vko';d gS fd ftl izdkj dh lko/kkuh iz'ukoyh ds fuekZ.k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks j[kuh iM+rh
gS mlls dg T;knk lrdZÙkk dh t:jr ;gka iM+rh gS D;ksafd ;gk¡ 'kks/kdÙkkZ ,d lkFk gh rhu v/;;u fof/k dk bLrseky
djrk gSA bl fof/k ds lkFk gh mls fujh{k.k] lk{kkRdkj rFkk iz'uksa dks iwNdj mÙkjnkrkvksa ls feys mÙkj dks fy[kuk Hkh
iM+rk gS vkSj laHkor% blfy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks fo'ks"k lko/kkuh cjruh iM+rh gSA
lk{kkRdkj% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a ,oa çdkj

(Interview: Meaning, Characteristics & Types)
lkekftd 'kks/k esa lk{kkRdkj }kjk egÙoiw.kZ vkadM+sa bdV~Bs fd, tkrs gSaA lk{kkRdkj dk vFkZ] vke cksy&pky dh Hkk"kk
esa ,d O;fDr dk nwljs O;fDr ls feydj ckr djus ls gSA lekt'kkL=kh; n‘f"Vdks.k ls lk{kkRdkj dk ,d fo'ks"k vFkZ fy;k
tkrk gSA ;g ,d ,slh izfØ;k gS] ftldk iz;ksx dj 'kks/kdÙkkZ ,d [kkl mís'; ls okÙkkZyki ds }kjk egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh
izkIr djrk gSA bl fof/k dks ,d yphyh fof/k dgk x;k gS] ftlesa 'kks/kdÙkkZ v/;;u fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr iz'uksa dks Øec)
dj fof/kor tkudkjh izkIr djrk gSA ifjfLFkfr ds vuqlkj og iz'uksa dks cnydj mÙkjnkrk ls tSlh tkudkjh mls pkfg,]
og tkudkjh izkIr dj ysrk gSA blfy, ih0 oh0 ;ax us bls ifjHkkf"kr djrs gq, dgk gS fd lk{kkRdkj ,d ,slh Øe&c)
i)fr gS] ftlds }kjk ,d O;fDr nwljs O;fDr ds vkarfjd thou esa dYiukRed :i ls izo's k djrk gS] ftlls og vifjfpr
gksrk gSA xqMs rFkk gkV us Hkh lk{kkRdkj dks ,d lkekftd var% fØ; dh ,d izfØ;k ekuk gSA vU; lkekftd fØ;kvksa
dh rjg lk{kkRdkj ds Hkh fofHkUu igyw gksrs gSa vkSj ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ cM+h dq'kyrk ls iz'u iqNdj v/;;u fo"k; ds ekeys
esa tkudkjh izkIr djrk gSA oh0 ,e0 ikej us Hkh blfy, lk{kkRdkj fof/k dks ,d euksoK S kfud izfØ;k esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k
gSA
mi;qZDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd lk{kkRdkj ,d ,slh O;ofLFkr fof/k gS ftlesa nks ;k nks ls vf/kd O;fDr
fdlh [kkl mís'; dks /;ku esa j[kdj okÙkkZyki ds }kjk mÙkj] izfrmÙkj djrs gSaA vFkkZr~ ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd
lk{kkRdkj esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ mÙkjnkrkvksa dh Hkkoukvks]a fopkjksa rFkk eukso‘fÙk;ksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj mldk lw{ke v/;;u djrk
gSA bl izdkj ;g okÙkkZyki ,d lkekftd izfØ;k cu tkrk gS] ftlds }kjk 'kks/kdÙkkZ egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr dj ysrk
gSA
lk{kkRdkj dh fo'ks"krk,¡
(Characteristics of Interiew)
lk{kkRdkj fof/k dh fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dh ppkZ vDlj dh tkrh gS%
1- nks ;k nks ls vf/kd O;fDr dk vkeus&lkeus gksdj ckr djuk (Face to Face contact): lk{kkRdkj fof/k
dh eq[; fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd bl fof/k esa ftu O;fDr;ksa ds chp lEidZ LFkkfir gksrk gS] og ,d nwljs ds
vkeus&lkeus gksrs gSa] ftlds dkj.k 'kks/kdÙkkZ mÙkjnkrk ds ekufld n'kk dks le>us esa lQy gks tkrk gSA
2- izkFkfed lEcU/k (Primary Relations): lk{kkRdkj fof/k dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk ;g gksrh gS fd tks O;fDr
,d&nwljs ds vkeus&lkeus gksrs gSa] muds chp ,d izkFkfed lEcU/k LFkkfir gksrk gS] ftlds QyLo:i mÙkjnkrk
fo'oluh; Lrj ij tkudkjh nsrk gSA
3- lkekftd izfØ;k (Social Process): lk{kkRdkj fof/k dk Lo:i ,slk gksrk gS ftlls ;g ,d lkekftd izfØ;k
dk ,d fgLlk cu tkrh gSA
4- fof'k"V mís'; (Special Objectives): lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/kdÙkkZ fdlh [kkl fo"k; ij tkudkjh izkIr
djus ds fy, bl fof/k dk iz;ksx djrk gSA ftl izdkj ,d MkWDVj vius ejht+ ls mlds jksx ds ckjs esa lgh
mipkj djus ds fy, okrkZyki ds }kjk tkudkjh izkIr djrk gS] mlh izdkj 'kks/kdÙkkZ Hkh fo'ks"k mís'; dks tkudj
fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr tkudkjh izkIr djrk gSA
5- lqpuk ladyu (Collection of Data): lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk izkFkfed mís'; lqpuk ,df=kr
djuk gksrk gSA lqpuk ,df=kr djus dh bl ekSf[kd fof/k dk iz;ksx vxj dq'kyrk ls fd;k tk, rks ;g fofèk
vU; fof/k;ksa ds vis{kkÑr lqpuk ladyu dh ,d mÙke fof/k dgh tk ldrh gSA
76 vuqla/kku fof/k
lk{kkRdkj ds izdkj
(Types of Interview)
lk{kkRdkj ds mís';ksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj lk{kkRdkj ds dbZ izdkjksa dk o.kZu fd;k tkrk gSaA
ih0 oh0 ;ax us dk;ks± ds vk/kkj ij fuEu pkj izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dk o.kZu fd;k gS%
pkVZ&3-1
lk{kkRdkj ds izdkj ¼ih 0 oh 0 ;ax ds vuqlkj½
mís'; ds vk/kkj ij la[;k ds vk/kkj ij le; vof/k ds vk/kkj ij lajpuk ds vk/kkj ij
(i) funkukRed (i) lkewfgd (i) vYidkfyd (i) lajfpr

(ii) mipkjkRed (ii) O;fDrxr (ii) nh?kZdkfyd (ii) vlajfpr
(iii) vuql/a kkukRed
(iv) fun'kZukRed
1- funkukRed lk{kkRdkj (Diagnostic Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dk mís'; fdlh lkekftd
leL;kvksa o tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS] tSls& cky vijk/k dh c<+rh ?kVuk,¡A
2- mipkjkRed lk{kkRdkj (Treatment Interview): leL;k dh tkudkjh izkIr dj ysus ds i'pkr~ ml leL;k
dks nwj djus ds mik; Hkh iqNs tkrs gSaA
3- vuqla/kkukRed lk{kkRdkj (Research Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj esa ubZ tkudkjh rFkk u, rF;ksa
dh [kkst dks gh eq[; mís'; ekuk tkrk gSA
4- fun'kZukRed lk{kkRdkj (Sample Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj fof/k esa dqN [kkl pqus x, O;fDr;ksa
ls lk{kkRdkj fd;k tkrk gS] vkSj bl izdkj pqus gq, O;fDr;ksa ls ckr dj egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh
gSA
la[;k ds vk/kkj ij lk{kkRdkj ds nks fuEu izdkjksa dk o.kZu fd;k tkrk gS%
1- lkewfgd lk{kkRdkj (Group Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj esa O;fDr fo'ks"k ds ctk; ,d leqg ds }kjk
iz'u iwNs tkrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, tc dHkh dksbZ izkÑfrd ?kVuk tSls HkqdEi] ck<+ vkfn vpkud vk tkrh gS]
rks mlds ckjs esa tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, lkewfgd lk{kkRdkj T;knk izHkko'kkyh ekuk tkrk gSA
2- O;fDrxr lk{kkRdkj (Individual Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj esa lwpuknkrk ,d O;fDr gksrk gS]
ftlls lk{kkrdÙkkZ iz'u iwNdj tkudkjh izkIr djrk gSA
le; vof/k ds vk/kkj ij fuEu izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dk o.kZu fd;k tkrk gS%
1- vYidkfyd lk{kkRdkj (Short Interview): vYidkfyd lk{kkRdkj esa dqN pqus gq, iz'uksa ds ckjs esa gh mÙkj
izkIr fd, tkrs gSaA vktdy nqjn'kZu ij dbZ ,sls izksxzke vkrs gSa] ftlesa n'kZdksa dks ,l0 ,e0 ,l0 ds }kjk
lSY;qyj Qksu dk bLrseky dj muls jk; yh tkrh gSA
2- nh?kZdkfyd lk{kkRdkj (Long term Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dk mís'; nh?kZdkfyd gksrk gS]
ftlesa ,d ?kVuk ds ckjs esa yEcs vlsZ rd tkudkjh izkIr djus dh ea'kk gksrh gS] tSls& vkradoknh okjnkrksa esa
Øe'k% tkudkjh] 'kks/kdÙkkZ lk{kkRdkj fof/k dk bLrseky djrk gSA
lajpuk ds vk/kkj ij fuEu izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dh ppkZ dh tkrh gSa%
1- lajfpr lk{kkRdkj (Structured Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ ftl fo"k; ij tkudkjh
izkIr djuk pkgrk gS] mldk iwoZ fu/kkZj.k dj fy;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj lk{kkRdkjdÙkkZ iz'uksa dk fuekZ.k igys
ls gh dj dqN fuf'pr tkudkjh izkIr djus ij lQy gks ikrk gSA bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj iz'kklfud rFkk
cktkj ls lEcfU/kr 'kks/k ds fy, dkQh mi;ksxh fl) gksrs gSaA
2- vlajfpr lk{kkRdkj (Unstructured Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj esa lk{kkRdkj dh fof/k vlajfpr
gksrh gSA vFkkZr~ iz'uksa dh dksbZ iwoZ fu/kkZfjr lwph ug gksrh gSA ;gk¡ ij iz'uksa dks mÙkjnkrk ds fn, x, lwpuk
ds vk/kkj ij gh fuekZ.k dj iqNk tkrk gSA blds vUrxZr ,d yphykiu n‘f"Vdks.k fn[krk gSA
blds vfrfjDr dqN vkSj izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dh ppkZ Hkh dh tkrh gS] tks fuEu gSa%
1- dsfUær lk{kkRdkj (Focussed Interview): bl izdkj ds lk{kkRdkj dk iz;ksx loZizFke vesfjdk ds
lekt'kkL=kh jkWcVZ ds0 eVZu us fd;kA lkoZtfud lans'kokguksa ds lk/kuksa tSls& jsfM;ks] nqjn'kZu] fQYe rFkk
lekti=k vkfn dk izHkko tkuus ds fy, bl lk{kkRdkj fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA fdlh [kkl dk;ZØe dks
fn[kkus ds ckn Jksrkvksa rFkk n'kZdksa dk lk{kkRdkj fy;k tkrk gS] vkSj ;g tkuus dh dksf'k'k dh tkrh gS] fd
ml dk;ZØe dk fdruk izHkko n'kZdksa ij iM+k gSA bl izdkj ds dsfUær lk{kkRdkj fof/k dk iz;ksx euksoSKkfud
vè;;u esa dkQh lQy gqvk gSA ftl izdkj ls bl lk{kkRdkj fof/k dh mi;ksfxrk dh ppkZ jkWcVZ ds0 eVZu us
dh gS] mls /;ku esa j[kdj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd dsfUær lk{kkRdkj dh yksdfiz;rk ml fglkc ls lekt'kkL=k
esa ug gqbZ gSA
2- xgu lk{kkRdkj (Depth Interview): Qsfcdk;Z tks ,d lkekftd euksoSKkfud gS] mUgksaus xgu lk{kkRdkj dks
vpsru ekufld fLFkfr dks le>us dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ fof/k ekuk gSA mudk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd vxj lk{kkRdkjdÙkkZ
dq'kyrk ls bl fof/k dk iz;ksx djsa rks bl lk{kkRdkj fof/k ls egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr gks ldrh gSA bl izdkj
dh lk{kkRdkj fof/k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ mÙkjnkrkvksa ds ekufld fLFkfr dk v/;;u djus ds fy, dkQh mi;ksxh ekurs
gSaA
lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds xq.k o nks"k
(Merits and Demerits of Interview)
lkekftd 'kks/k esa lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds egÙo dks blfy, Hkh Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gS] D;ksafd blesa vU; fof/k;ksa dk Hkh
lekos'k gksrk gSA blfy, bls vU; fof/k ds lkFk tksM+dj ns[kk tkrk gSA tgk¡ rd blds xq.kksa dk iz'u gSa ;s fuEu gSa%
1- euksoSKkfud egÙo (Psychological Importance): tSlk dh igys Hkh dgk tk pqdk gS fd lk{kkRdkj fofèk
,d lkekftd izfØ;k ds :i esa fodflr gqbZ gSA blfy, bl fof/k ds }kjk euq"; dh Hkkoukvksa] /kkj.kkvksa] rFkk
fopkjksa dk xgu v/;;u euksoSKkfud n‘f"Vdks.k ls dkQh egÙo j[krk gSA
2- lHkh Lrj ds yksxksa ls lwpuk izkfIr dk lk/ku (Collection of Data from all sections of people): bl
fofèk ds }kjk f'kf{kr] vf'kf{kr] fofHkUu lkekftd rFkk lkaLÑfrd ifjos'k ls tqM+s yksxksa ls laidZ LFkkfir djrs
gSaA ckrphr ds }kjk egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh yh tk ldrh gSA
3- Hkwrdkyhu ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u (Study of Past-events): ;g ,d ,slh fof/k gS] ftlds }kjk vrhr esa ?kVh
?kVukvksa dh egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr dh tk ldrh gSA bfrgkldkjksa us bl fof/k ds }kjk izFke fo'o ;q) rFkk
f}rh; fo'o ;q) ds nkSjku tks ;q) ls lEcfU/kr [kkl tkudkjh izkIr djuh Fkh] mlds fy, bldk iz;ksx fd;kA
4- vewÙkZ ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u (Study of Abstract Phenomena): bl fof/k ls vn‘'; ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u
laHko gks tkrk gSA
78 vuqla/kku fof/k
5- lwpukvksa dk lR;kiu (Verification of Information): mÙkjnkrkvksa }kjk nh xbZ lwpukvksa dh tk¡p iM+rky
Hkh bl fof/k ds }kjk laHko gks tkrh gSA
6- yphykiu (Flexible Method): bl fof/k dk lcls cM+k xq.k bldk yphykiu gksuk gSA yphysiu ds dkj.k
bl fof/k dk iz;ksx v/;;u ds nkSjku Hkh vxj dqN vfrfjä tkudkjh ds fy, iz'u iwNdj djuk gks rks og
laHko gks tkrk gSA
voxq.k
(Demerits)
lc xq.kksa ds ckotwn Hkh bl fof/k dh viuh dqN [kkfe;k¡ gSa ftldk mYys[k djuk vko';d gks tkrk gS%
1- vkRefu"B n‘f"Vdks.k (Subjective approach): bl fof/k ds }kjk tks tkudkjh yh tkrh gS og 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds
iwokZxzg rFkk mldh bPNkvksa ds vuq:i rks gksrh gh gS] cfYd blds lkFk&lkFk mÙkjnkrk ds iwokZxzg ls Hkh izHkkfor
gksrh gSA
2- nks"kiw.kZ Lej.k 'kfDr (Faulty Memory): ;gk¡ dbZ iz'uksa dk mÙkj lwpuknkrkvksa ds Lej.k ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
dqN ,sfrgkfld ?kVukvksa dh tkudkjh og vius Lej.k ls nsrk gS tks xyr Hkh gks ldrs gSaA
3- iwokZxzg dh laHkkouk (Possibility of Bias): mÙkjnkrkvksa }kjk nh x;h lwpuk esa dqN iwokZxzg dqN iwokZuqeku Hkh
O;kir gksrs gSa] ftlds dkj.k mlds }kjk fn;s x;s lwpuk ij iw.kZ:i ls fo'okl djuk v/;;u dh fo'oluh;rk
dks izHkkfor djrk gSA
4- i‘"BHkwfe dk fHkUurk (Difference of Background): mÙkjnkrk ls iz'u djrs le; tc 'kks/kdÙkkZ mlls
laca/k LFkkfir djrk gS rks mls mlds i‘"BHkwfe dk irk gksrk gSA dbZ ckj bl i‘"BHkwfe ds dkj.k 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks
lgh laidZ LFkkfir djus esa ijs'kkuh vkrh gSA laca/k LFkkfir dj ysus ds ckotwn Hkh nksuksa ,d&nwljs dh i‘"BHkwfe
dks ysdj vk'oLr ug gks ikrs] ftlls 'kks/kdÙkkZ }kjk izkIr tkudkjh ij ges'kk fo'okl ug fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
5- viw.kZ lwpuk (Incomplete Information): viw.kZ lwpuk feyus dh Hkh laHkkouk cuh jgrh gSA lk{kkRdkj ds
}kjk tks tkudkjh 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks izkIr gksrh gS] mlesa ges'kk dqN u dqN deh jg tkrh gS] ftlds dkj.k Lej.k
ij fo'okl djuk] mÙkjnkrk dk viuk n‘f"Vdks.k rFkk 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh euksoK S kfud n'kk & bu lHkh ds dkj.k izkIr
tkudkjh esa dqN u dqN deh jg tkrh gS ftls nwj djuk 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, eqf'dy gksrk gSA
xq.kkRed fof/k
(Qualitative Method)
mi;qZä ckrksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd lk{kkRdkj lwpuk ,df=kr djus dh mÙke fof/k gS vkSj vxj 'kks/kdÙkkZ i;kZIr
lko/kkuh vkSj dq'ky rjhds ls bl fof/k dk iz;ksx djsa rks egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr dj ldrk gSA xq.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk
Hkh vkadM+s ,df=kr fd, tkrs gSaA ;gk¡ ij ge fujh{k.k] oS;fDrd v/;;u rFkk varoZLrq fo'ys"k.k ds vFkZ ,oa izÑfr dh
O;k[;k djrs gq, budk o.kZu izLrqr djsaxsA
fujh{k.k% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a vkSj çdkj

(Observation: Meaning, Characteristics & Types)
lekt'kkL=k esa fujh{k.k fof/k dk iz;ksx vkadM+ksa ds ladyu esa ,d egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk ds :i esa vnk djrk gSA oSKkfud
;g ekurs gSa fd vuqla/kku fujh{k.k ls 'kq: gksrk gS vkSj ladfyr vkadM+ksa ds eqY;kadu ds fy, fujh{k.k dk gh lgkjk fy;k
tkrk gSA ljy 'kCnksa esa fujh{k.k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ih0 oh0 ;ax dh ;g ekU;rk Fkh fd fujh{k.k dks ,d Øec) voyksdu
ds :i esa ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A fujh{k.k ds }kjk ;|fi lHkh fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u laHko ug gS] ijUrq fQj Hkh ;g dgk tk
ldrk gS fd ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u vxj fujh{k.k ij vk/kkfjr gks rks ladfyr vkadM+ksa ds laxzg.k ij fo'okl vf/kd fd;k
tkrk gSA blfy, xqMs rFkk gkV us fujh{k.k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ;g fopkj O;Dr fd;k Fkk fd fujh{k.k fof/k ds }kjk ljy
ls ljy fØ;kvksa rFkk tfVy ls tfVy fØ;kvksa dk voyksdu lEcU/k gSA mudk er Fkk fd fujh{k.k fof/k dks iq"V djus
ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ lq{e n‘f"Vdks.k j[krk gks rFkk v/;;u fo"k; ds ckjs esa iqjh tkudkjh j[krk gksA
blfy, mudh ;g ekU;rk Fkh fd fujh{k.k ds nkSjku 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh ds ckjs esa uksV rS;kj djrs jguk
pkfg,A
fujh{k.k fof/k }kjk ladfyr vk¡dM+ksa dk Lo:i xq.kkRed gksrk gS] ftls le>us ds fy, ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ ekufo; O;ogkj ds
fofHkUu igyqvksa dk voyksdu dj mlds ckjs esa tkudkjh izkIr djrk gS] D;ksafd fujh{k.k ds }kjk cgqr lkjh tkudkjh
izkIr dh tk ldrh gS] blfy, ;g vko';d gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks vius fujh{k.k dks lnSo midYiuk dks ?;ku esa j[kdj
gh ?kVukvksa dk fujh{k.k djrs jgsA fujh{k.k fof/k dh mi;qDZ r foospuk ls blds fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa dk o.kZu fd;k tk ldrk
gSA
1. vk¡[k dk iz;ksx (Use of Eyes)% fujh{k.kdÙkkZ viuh vk¡[kksa ls tks ns[krk gS mls gh vk¡dM+ksa ds :i esa ladfyr
djrk gSA bl izdkj vk¡[kksa }kjk ns[kh xbZ phtksa dh fo'olluh;rk dh tk¡p gks ldrh gSA
2. izkFkfed lkexzh dk ladyu (Collection of Primary Data)% bl fof/k ds }kjk ftl ?kVuk ds ckjs esa
tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh gS] og fujh{k.k ij vk/kkfjr gksrh gSA
3. lq{ke v/;;u (Minute study)% fujh{k.k djus okys 'kks/kdÙkkZ rF;ksa dk ladyu xgu ,oa lq{e v/;;u djrk
gS] bl izdkj og fujh{k.k djus ds fy, vius vki dks blds fy, rS;kj djrk gSA bl izdkj ds fujh{k.k lkekU;
ns[kus dh izfØ;k ls fcYdqy fHkUu gksrs gSA
4. dk;Zdkj.k lEcU/k LFkkfir djuk (To Establish Cause – Effect Relationship)% fujh{k.k ds vk/kkj ij ftu
rF;ksa dk ladyu fd;k tkrk gS mu rF;ksa ds chp dk;Zdkj.k lEcU/k LFkkfir djuk egÙoiw.kZ gksrk gSA
5. fu"i{k v/;;u (Impartial study)% fujh{k.k ds }kjk tks rF; ladfyr fd, tkrs gSa] og fu"i{k rFkk oSKkfud
gksrs gSaA
fujh{k.k ds izdkj (Types of Observation)
ih0oh0 ;ax dh ;g ekU;rk gS dh fujh{k.k dbZ izdkj ds gksrs gSaA ijUrq tks fujh{k.k ds eq[; izdkj fu;a=k.k ds vk/kkj
ij crk, x, gSA muesa ls fuEu dks izeq[k ekuk x;k gS%
1. vfu;af=kr fujh{k.k (Uncontrolled Observation)% fujh{k.k fof/k ,d ,slh fof/k gS ftlds }kjk ?kVukvksa dk
fujh{k.k fu;af=kr rFkk vfu;af=kr nksuksa rjhdksa ls fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj ds fu;af=kr rFkk vfu;af=kr
fujh{k.k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh lgHkkfxrk (Participation) Hkh gks ldrh gSa ;k vxj og pkgs tks viuh lgHkkfxrk dks
xqIr Hkh j[k ldrk gSA lgHkkfxrk rFkk vlgHkkfxrk ds vk/kkj ij Hkh fu;af=kr rFkk vfu;af=kr ds fujh{k.k dh
O;k[;k dh tkrh gSA
tgk¡ rd vfu;af=kr fujh{k.k dk lEcU/k gS] blesa 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius Åij fdlh izdkj dk fu;a=k.k ugha j[krkA xqMs
,.M gkV dk Hkh ;g ekuuk Fkk fd lkekftd lEcU/kksa ds fo"k; esa ,d 'kks/kd ÙkkZ vf/kdka'k Kku vfu;af=kr
fujh{k.k ds }kjk gh izkIr djrk gSA vfu;af=kr fujh{k.k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ okLrftd thou ls lEcfU/kr ifjfLFkfr;kasa
dh lrdZrkiwoZd tk¡p djrk gSA bl izdkj ds fujh{k.k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius Åij fdlh izdkj dk fu;a=k.k ugha
j[krk vFkkZr~ og ?kVukvksa dk fujh{k.k LokHkkfod :i ls djrk gSA
vfu;af=kr fujh{k.k ds Hkh fuEu nks izdkj gSa] tks fuEu gSa
1. vfu;af=kr lgHkkxh fujh{k.k (Non-Controlled Participant Obervation)
2. vfu;af=kr vlgHkkxh fujh{k.k (Non-Controlled Non-Participant Observation)
1. vfu;af=kr lgHkkxh fujh{k.k (Non-Controlled Participant Obervation)% bl izdkj ds fujh{k.k eas
'kks/kdÙkkZ fujh{k.k fd, tkus okys leqg ds ckjs esa iqjh tkudkjh izkIr djus ds fy, ml leqg dks viuk cuk
80 vuqla/kku fof/k
ysrk gS vkSj ml leqg ds lnL;ksa dh rjg gh muds fØ;kdykiksa esa Hkkx ysus yx tkrk gSA bl izdkj 'kks/kdÙkkZ
vLFkkbZ :i ls ml leqg dk ,d lnL; cu tkrk gSA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS dh lgHkkxh voyksdu
esa fujh{k.kdÙkkZ v/;;u fd, tkus okys leqgksa ds lkFk jgdj rF;ksa dk ladyu djrk gSA lkekftd ekuo'kkL=k
esa bl izdkj dh fujh{k.k dh izfØ;k dkQh iqjkuh jgh gSA eSfyuksoLdh us Vªksfcz;k.M }hi dh 'vxzksukV tutkfr'
dk] jse.M QFkZ us ^fVdksfi;k* tutkfr dk ] usYl ,.Mjlu us nksuksa yksxksa dk ,oa okbZV us lM+dksa ij thou O;rhr
djus okys yksxksa dk lgHkkxh voyksdj fof/k ls gh v/;;u fd;kA bl izdkj ds fujh{k.k fof/k ds }kjk lkekU;r%
,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ yksxksa ds lkaLÑfrd] /kkfeZd] jktuhfrd rFkk vkfFkZd fØ;kvksa ,oa O;ogkjksa ds ckrs esa iqjh tkudkjh
izkIr dj ysrk gSAa bl izdkj ds fujh{k.k ds }kjk tks vk¡dM+s ladfyr fd, tkrs gS]a mldh izÑfr ;|fi xq.kkRed
gksrh gS] ijUrq mlds fuEu xq.kksa dk o.kZu vko';d izrhr gksrk gSa%
(i) izR;{k v/;;u (Direct Study)% bl izdkj ds lgHkkxh fujh{k.k dh lcls cM+h fu'ks"krk ;g gksrh gS fd
;gk¡ fujh{k.k izR;{k :i ls ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u dj vk¡dM+sa ,df=kr djrk gSaA pq¡fd og leqg dk ,d
lnL; cu tkrk gS] blfy, vf/kd ls vf/kd fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u Lo;a djus dh fLFkfr esa gksrk gSA
(ii) lq{e ,oa xgu v/;;u (Intensive study)% bl v/;;u fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/kdÙkkZ leqg ls lEcfU/kr NksVh
ls NksVh ckrksa dk Hkh v/;;u dj xgu fo"k; ij Hkh egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr dj ldrk gSA
(iii) ljy v/;;u (Easy Study)% bl v/;;u fof/k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ leqg dk lnL; cudj dke djrk gS blfy,
ml leqg ds okLrfod O;ogkj dh tkudkjh izkIr djus dh fLFkfr esa gksrk gSA
(iv) vf/kd fo'oluh;rk (Greater reliability)% bl v/;;u fof/k ds }kjk vk¡dM+sa izR;{k :i ls bdV~Bs fd,
tkrs gSa] blfy, rF;ksa dh fo'oluh;rk vf/kd gksrh gSA
(v) laxzfgr lwpukvksa dk lR;kiu (verifiability of the collected information)% bl izdkj dh fof/k dh
ize[q k fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd bl fof/k ds }kjk ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds rF;ksa dk ewY;kadu o ifj{k.k nwljs 'kks/kdÙkkZvksa
ds }kjk vklkuh ls laHko gS] vFkkZr~ ,df=kr vk¡dM+ksa dh fo'oluh;rk dh iq"Vh dh tk ldrh gSaA
fujh{k.k ,oa vUrZn‘f"V (Observation and insight)% bl izdkj ds fof/k ds }kjk ftu vk¡dM+ksa dks 'kks/kdÙkkZ ladfyr
djrk gS mlds vk/kkj ij og fo"k; ds ckjs esa ,d vUrZn‘f"V Hkh fodflr dj ysrk gS] ftlds QyLo:i fl)kUr ds
izfriknu esa mls fo'ks"k tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA
mi;qZDr xq.kksa ds ckotqn Hkh vfu;af=kr lgHkkxh fujh{k.k ds dqN lhek,a Hkh gS] tks fuEu gSa
1. iw.kZ lgHkkfxrk dh deh (Lack of full Participation)% bl fof/k dh lcls cM+h dfBukbZ ;g gS dh 'kks/kdÙkkZ
pkg dj Hkh iw.kZ :i ls leqg ds lHkh fØ;kvksa dk lgHkkxh v/;;u ugha dj ikrk gSA vr% 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks viuh
igpku xqIr j[kuk eqf'dy gksrk gSA
2. oLrqfu"Brk dk vHkko (Lack of Objectivity)% tc 'kks/kdÙkkZ leqg ds lkFk feydj lkeqfgd fØ;kvksa dk ,d
lnL; ds :i esa v/;;u djrk gS rc oLrqfu"Brk [kks cSBrk gSA og Lo;a Hkh leqg ds fØ;kdykiksa ls burk tqM+
tkrk gS fd leqg ds lkFk mldh oQknkjh c<+ tkrh gSA ,slh fLFkfr esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, oLrqfu"B n‘f"Vdks.k
viukuk eqf'kdy gks tkrk gSA
3. leqg ds O;ogkj esa ifjorZu (Change in Group Behaviour)% lgHkkxh fujh{k.k fof/k ds ek/;e ls tc
'kks/kdÙkkZ vk¡sdM+s bdV~Bk djrk gS rks mlds leqg esa Hkkx ysus ls dbZ ckj leqg ds O;ogkj eas gh ifjorZu vk
tkrk gSA blds dkj.k leqg ds okLrfod O;ogkj dk fujh{k.k djuk eqf'kdy gks tkrk gSA
4. [kphZyh fof/k (Expensive Method)% lgHkkxh fujh{k.k esa /ku rFkk le; dk vR;f/kd [kpZ gksrk gSA dbZ ckj
'kks/kdÙkkZ dks fdlh [kkl O;ogkj ds fujh{k.k dss fy, dkQh bUrtkj djuk iM+rk gSa bl izdkj 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds le;
rFkk /ku dk vR;kf/kd [kpZ c<+ tkrk gSAa
5. Hkqfedk fuokZg esa dfBukbZ (Difficulty in role adjustment)% bl fof/k dh lcls cM+h [kkeh ;g Hkh gS fd
blesa 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks nks Hkqfedkvksa dk fuokZg djuk iM+rk gS] mls 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds :i esa dke djrs gq, leqg ds lkFk
muds fØ;kvksa] mUgsa Hkh lfEefyr gksuk iM+rk gSA bu nksuksa Hkqfedkvksa dk fuokZg djuk vklku ugha gksrkA bl
izdkj nksuks Hkqfedkvksa ds chp lkeatL; j[kuk 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, eqf'kdy gksrk gSA
2. vfu;af=kr lgHkkxh fujh{k.k (Non controlled Non-Participant Observation)% vfu;af=kr vlgHkkxh
fujh{k.k esa lkekftd ?kVukvksa dk fujh{k.k vizR;{k :i ls ml ?kVuk ls fcuk tqM+s gq, 'kks/kdÙkkZ djrk gSA bl
izdkj ds fujh{k.k fof/k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ viuh igpku xqIr j[krk gSA og lewg dh xfrfof/k;ksa esa Hkkx ugha ysrk gSaA
og ,d ewd n'kZd ds :i eas fu"i{k jgdj v/;;u djrk gSA bl izdkj ds vfu;af=kr fujh{k.k esa ,d fo/kor~
v/;;u djus ds fy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ leqg ds O;ogkj rFkk mlds ckgjh y{k.kksa ij iSuh n‘f"V j[krk gSA bl izdkj
ds fujh{k.k dh fuEu fo'ks"krk,¡ gSa%
(i) oLrqfu"Brk (Objectivity)% vlgHkkxh fujh{k.k easa 'kks/kdÙkkZ rVLFk jgdj ?kVukvksa dk v/;;u djrk gS
blfy, og mu ?kVukvksa ls izHkkfor ugha gksrk vkSj u gh vius iwokZxgz dks ml ?kVuk ds v/;;u dk fgLlk
cukrk gSA
(ii) fo'oluh;rk (Reliability)% bl izdkj ds v/;;u ds }kjk tks vk¡dM+sa ,df=kr fd, tkrs gS]mudh
fo'oluh;rk vf/kd gks tkrh gS D;ksfa d blesa 'kks/kdÙkkZ ml ?kVuk rFkk leqg dh fØ;kvksa ls [kqn tqMk+ ugha
gksrkA
(iii) lg;ksx (Cooperation)% 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks bl fof/k ds }kjk 'kks/k djus esa leqg ds yksxksa dks iwjk leFkZu feyrk
gSA muds lg;ksx ls 'kks/kdÙkkZ dk dke vklku gks tkrk gSA
(iv) de [kphZyk (Less expensive)% vlgHkkxh fujh{k.k esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks ?kVuk ls tqMk+ gksuk vko';d ugha gksrk
blfy, ;gk¡ ij le; rFkk /ku nksuksa dk viO;; ugha gksrkA
ijUrq blds lkFk&lkFk tgk¡ vlgHkkxh fujh{k.k fof/k dh dqN fo'ks"krk,¡ rFkk Qk;nsa gSa] ogha bldh dqN lhek, Hkh gSa%
1. vlgHkkxh fujh{k.k fo'kq) :i esa laHko ugha gSA dqN gn rd 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks ml ?kVuk ls tqM+uk gh iM+rk
gSA
2. vlgHkkxh voyksdu esa Hkh 'kks/kdÙkkZ ?kVukvksa dks vius n‘f"Vdks.k ls ns[krk gS ftlds dkj.k mldh ekSfydrk
u"V gks tkrh gSA
3. vlgHkkxh fujh{k.k eas vkdfLed :i ls ?kVus okys fØ;kvksa dk v/;;u laHko ugha gks ikrkA vlgHkkxh fujh[k.k
esa ?kVukvksa dk lrgh LRkj ij gh v/;;u gks ikrk gSA
1. fu;af=kr fujh{k.k (Controlled Observation)% fiNys dqN n'kdksa esa fu;af=kr fujh{k.k fof/k esa dkQh lq/kkj
vk;k gS ftlds dkj.k lkekftd ?kVukvksa ls tqM+s vk¡dM+ksa dks la{kfIr :i ls ,df=kr fd, tkus dh laHkkouk c<+h
gSaA ih0oh0;ax us bl lanHkZ eas dbZ ,sls rduhfd dk o.kZu fd;k gS ftlds }kjk ?kVukvksa dk fujh{k.k vklku
gks tkrk gSA vkokt rFkk xfrfof/k;ksa dks fjdkWMZ djus ds fofHkUu rduhdksa esa tks oSKkfud [kkst gq, gSsa mlls
'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a rFkk ?kVuk ij ;kstuk c) :i ls fu;a=k.k j[krk gSA rF; ladyu ds oSKkfud lk/kuksa dk bLrseky
dj fujh{k.k fof/k ds }kjk ,df=kr rF;ksa dh fo'oluh;rk Hkh c<+ tkrh gSA vk/kqfud ;qx esa cM+s&cM+s dkj[kkuksa
rFkk m|ksxksa esa dke djus okys Jfedksa rFkk ckyx‘g esa cPpksa ds O;ogkj dk v/;;u djus esa bl fof/k dk bLrseky
lQyrkiwoZd fd;k x;k gSaA fu;af=kr fujh{k.k esa fuEufyf[kr ckrs Li"VrkSj ij dh tkrh gSa%
(i) fujh{k.k fd, tkus okys bdkbZ;ksa dh Li"V ifjHkk"kk nh tkrh gSA
(ii) fujh{k.k ls lEcfU/kr rF;ksa dk pquko Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA fujh{k.k ds fy, le; rFkk LFkku dk
fu/kkZj.k Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA fujh{k.k ds nkSjku fd, tkus okys ;a=kksa dk iz;ksx Hkh lqfuf'pr dj fy;k tkrk
gSA
82 vuqla/kku fof/k
bl izdkj fu;af=kr fujh{k.k easa nks izdkj ds fu;a=k.k ns[ks tkrs gSaA lcls igys ?kVukvksa dks fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gSA pq¡fd
?kVukvksa dks fu;af=kr dj mldk fujh{k.k fd;k tkrk gS blfy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ lkekftd ?kVukvksa rFkk ifjfLFkfr;ksa dks
vk/kj cukdj mldks iz;ksx djrk gSA blds vfrfjDr fujh{k.k djus okyk 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a dks Hkh fu;af=kr djrk gSaA
lkekftd ifjfLFkfr;k¡ o ?kVuk,¡ ,slh gksrh gSa ftl ij fu;a=k.k djuk lEHko ugha gks ikrk blfy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a ij
gh fu;a=k.k j[kus dh dksf'k'k djrk gS ftlds fy, og lk{kkRdkj vuqlwph] VsifjdkWMZj] Mk;jh] dSejk vknh vius ikl
j[krk gSA fu;af=kr fujh{k.k esa fujh{k.k rFkk mldh O;k[;k lkFk&lkFk djuh iM+rh gSaA dbZ ckj fujh{k.k ds vk/kkj ij
ftu rF;ksa dk ladyu fd;k tkrk gS mlds ifj{k.k ds fy, nks ;k nks ls vf/kd fujh{kd ,d lkFk gh ,d ?kVuk Øe
ls tqM+s rF;ksa dks ladfyr djrs gSA bl izdkj ls nks ;k nks ls vf/kd fujh{kdksa ds rF;ksa ds ladyu esa ,d :irk ikbZ
tkrh gSA rc ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd fu;af=kr fujh{k.k fo'oluh;rk gSA csYl us Hkh ftu fØ;kvksa dk fujh{k.k djuk
gS mls oxhZÑr fd;k gS rkdh fujh{kd fu;af=kr fujh{k.k ds }kjk dqN fo'ks"k fØ;kvksa ij /;ku ns ldsaA ftu fØ;kvksa dk
fujh{k.k fd;k tkuk gS mldh igpku 'kq: ls var rd dj yh tkrh gSAa fujh{k.k ds nkSjku tks :dkoVsa vkrh gS rFkk psgjs
ds gko&Hkko dk Hkh lgh vanktk igys ls gh yxk fy;k tkrk gS rkdh fujh{k.k ds ckn mu fØ;kvksa ds ifj{k.k o O;k[;ku
esa dksbZ varj u vk x,A
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd fu;af=kr fujh{k.k ds dbZ Qk;nsa gSa vkSj lhek,¡ Hkh gS]a og KkusfUnz;ksa dh lhek,¡] ekuoh;
O;ogkj dh lhek,¡ rFkk HkkoukRed Lrj ij O;ogkj ds fujh{k.k ls tqMh+ gqbZ gSAa bu lhekvksa dks ,d dq'ky fujh{kd {ksf=k;
fujh{k.k eas bLrseky vkus okys rduhfd ds lgkjs de dj ldrk gSA
oS;fDrd v/;;u fof/k% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk ,oa rduhdh

(Case Study Method: Meaning, Characteristics & Technique)
tSlk dh igys Li"V fd;k tk pqdk gS vk¡sdM+ksa dk ladyu nks fof/k ls fd;k tkrk gS&
ifjek.kkRed ,oa xq.kkRed] bl n‘f"Vdks.k ls oS;fDrd v/;;u fof/k dk iz;ksx dj ftu rF;ksa dk ladyu fd;k tkrk
gS mldh izÑfr xq.kkRed gksrh gSA bl fof/k dk iz;ksx izkphu le; ls gh bfrgkldkjksa }kjk fd;k tkrk tk jgk gSA
oS;fDrd fof/k ds }kjk fdlh Hkh lkekftd bdkbZ rFkk mlds lEiw.kZ thou ds pØ dk v/;;u fd;k x;k gSA bl izdkj
ds v/;;u ds ihNs izeq[k mís';/izkÑfrd bfrgkl dks le>uk gS ftlds }kjk equ"; ds fodkl ml lkekftd bdkbZ ds
fof'k"V v/;;u ls tqM+k gSaA blfy, cxZl us bl izdkj ds fof/k dks ,d lkekftd êkbØksLdksi* dh laKk nh gSA
tgk¡ rd bl fof/k ds mRifÙk dk iz'u gS bl fof/k ds izfriknu esa Ýkal ds lkekftd fparu yh0 Iys0 us bls lkekftd
v/;;u ds fy, loZizFke mfpr ekuk FkkA yh0Iys0 us ikfjokfjd ctV esa mlds bLrseky fd, tkus ij Hkh bldk iz;ksx
fd;k FkkA izeq[k lkekt'kkL=kh gcZV Lisalj us O;ofLFkr rFkk oSKkfud :i ls bldk iz;ksx fd;k FkkA vk/kqfud le; esa
aoS;fDrd v/;;u i)fr dk iz;ksx vf/kdka'k iz;ksx euksfpfdRld us mipkj gsrq fd;k gSSA bl izdkj bl fof/k ds }kjk
ekuo O;ogkj ds lq{e xgu vkSj foLr‘r rF;ksa dk fooj.k fd;k tkrk gSA ih0oh0 ;ax us bldh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ;g fy[kk
gS fd "oS;fDr v/;;u fdlh lkekftd bdkbZ&pkgs og ,d O;fDr] ifjokj] laLFkk] lkaLÑfrd oxZ vFkok leLr tkfr
ds gksa thou ds vuqlU/kku o mldh foospuk djus dh i)fr dks dgrs gS"a oS;fDrd v/;;u i)fr dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq,
xqMs ,oa gkV us fy[kk gS fd ;g lkekftd rF;ksa dks laxfBr djus dk og rjhdk gS ftlls v/;;u fd, tkus okys
lkekftd fo"k; ds ,dkRed LoHkko dk laj{k.k gks ldsA gkWoMZ vksMe us viuh iqLrd lkekftd 'kks/k ,d ifjp; esa
oS;fDrd fof/k dks ,d rduhfd dh laKk nh gS ftlds }kjk izR;sd O;fDr dkjd] pkgs og laLFkk gks ;k ,d lewg dk
fo'kys"k.k] ml lewg dh vU; bdkbZ ds lEcU/k esa fd;k tkrk gSAs
mi;qZDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls ;g Li"V gS fd oS;fDrd v/;;u xq.kkRed rF;ksa dks ladyu djus dh ,d ,slh v/;;u
i)fr gS ftlds varxZr fdlh ,d lkekftd bdkbZ ls lEcfU/kr i{kksa dk O;kid] lw{e rFkk xgu v/;;u fd;k tkrk
gSA
oS;fDrd v/;;u fd fo'ks"krk,¡

(Characteristics of case study)
1. leL;k dk xgu v/;;u (Intensive Study of Problem)% bl fof/k ds }kjk v/;;u fo"k; dk xgu v/;;u
fd;k tkrk gSA ,sls v/;;u esa v/;;u fo"k; dks ,d bdkbZ ekudj mlls lEcfU/kr lHkh i{kksa] ,oa ?kVukvksa dk
foLrkj ls v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSaA
2. lEiw.kZ v/;;u (Whole Study)% bl fof/k ds }kjk leL;k dks ,d lkekftd bdkbZ ds :i esa lEiw.kZrk ls ns[kk
tkrk gSA lEiw.kZrk ls vfHkizk; ml lkekftd bdkbZ ds leLr thou ls tqM+s lkekftd] vkfFkZd] HkkSxksfyd rFkk
jktuhftd igywvksa ls gSA bl izdkj tSl dh ih0oh0 ;ax us fy[kk] bl fof/k ds }kjk rF;ksa dks muds lEiw.kZ
athou pØ ds :i esa ladfyr fd;k tkrk gSA
3. O;fDrxr v/;;u (Individual Study)% bl v/;;u esa vuqla/kkudÙkkZ ?kVuk dks ,d fof'k"V bdkbZ ds :i esa
ns[krk gS ftlds dkj.k og bdkbZ ,d ifjokj] O;fDr ;k laLFkk gks ldrh gSA
4. xq.kkRed v/;;u (Qualitative Study)% bl fof/k esa xq.kkRed rF;ksa dk ladyu fd;k tkrk gS uk fd
la[;kRed rF;ksa dk] vFkkZr~ rF;ksa dh foospuk mlds xq.kkRed igyw ls tqMh+ gksrh gSa u dh l[;kvksa ij vk/kkfjr
gksrh gS] blfy, bl i)fr ds }kjk thou bfrgkl dk fooj.kkRed Lo:i rS;kj gks dj fudyrk gSA
oS;fDrd v/;;u dh vk/kkjHkwr ekU;rk,¡ (Basic Assumption of Case Study Method)% oS;fDrd v/;;u dh
dqN ewyHkwr ekU;rk,¡ fuEukafdr gSa
1. ekuo O;ogkj dh ,d:irk (Uniformity of Human Behaviour)% bl fof/k dh ;g ekU;rk gS fd ekuo
O;ogkj esa ekSfyd ,d:irk ikbZ tkrh gSA fofo/krkvksa ds ckotwn euq"; ds O;ogkjksa esa ekSfyd ,drk ikbZ tkrh
gS ftlds dkj.k ekuoh; O;ogkj] izo‘fr;k¡ ,d tSlk crkZo djrh gSaA
2. tfVyrk (complexity)% bl fof/k dh ,d vkSj ekSfyd /kkj.kk ;g gS fd lkekftd ?kVuk,¡ tfVy gksrh gSa
ftlds dkj.k ekuo O;ogkj dh tfVyrk dk v/;;u oS;fDrd v/;;u fof/k }kjk djuk vko';d gks tkrk gSA
ekuo O;ogkj ds tfVy gksus dk ,d vkSj ize[q k dkj.k mlesa gksu
s s okys fujarj iz;Ru'khy izo‘fr dk gksuk gSA bl
n‘f"V ls ekuo O;ogkj ds tfVy izfØ;kvksa dks le>us dk oS;fDrd fof/k ,d egÙoiw.kZ vk/kkj cu tkrk gSA
3. le; dk izHkko (Time Factor)% ekuoh; O;ogkj rFkk ?kVuk dk v/;;u le; ds lhek ls Hkh c¡/kk gksrk gSA
blfy, ,d ?kVuk dk izHkko ,d le; ds lkFk tksM+dj ugha ns[kk tkrkA ml ?kVuk dk lEcU/k] vrhr ls tqM+k
gksrk gS vkSj blfy, vrhr ls tqM+h bu ?kVukvksa dk foLrkj ls v/;;u djus ij ?kVukvksa ls izo‘fr dk v/;;u
dk;Zdkj.k lEcU/k LFkkfir Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSaA
4. ifjfLFkfr;ksa dh iwujko‘fÙk (Repetition)% ekuo O;ogkj ifjfLFkfr;ksa ls Hkh izHkkfor gksrk gSA blfy, oS;fDrd
fof/k ds }kjk ,d gh ifjfLFkfr ds dkj.k fujarj ?kVus okyh fØ;kvksa rFkk euq"; ds cnyrs O;ogkj ds lanHkZ eas
Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
oS;fDrd fof/k ds rduhd (Techniques of Case Study Method)% oS;fDrd fof/k ds rduhd ds ckjs esa ppkZ dj
ysus ls igys ;gk¡ ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd bl fof/k dks lekeftd v?;;u ds fofHkUu pj.kksa ls xqtjuk iM+rk
gS vkSj blds ckn gh ;g r; gks ikrk gS fd fdl rduhfd o ;a=k dk iz;ksx T;knk mi;ksxh gks ldrk gSA oS;fDrd v/
;;u ds fy, ftu lkexzh ;k ;a=k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS og fuEu gS&
1. Mk;jh (Diary)% O;fDrxr fof/k }kjk v/;;u ds fy, Mk;jh dks ,d egÙoiw.kZ lzksr ds :i esa ns[kk tk ldrk
gS D;ksafd blds }kjk nSfud ?kVukvksa dh iwjh tkudkjh fey tkrh gSA Mk;jh ds }kjk euq"; ds euko‘fr;ksa dk
Hkh irk pyrk gSA
2. i=k (Letters)% oS;fDrd v/;;u ds fy, i=k dk v/;;u Hkh ,d egÙoiw.kZ lzksr gks tkrk gS ftlds }kjk
okLrfod ?kVukvksa ds ckjs esa tkudkjh feyrh gSA uSuh tsay ls iafMr tokgj yky usg: }kjk fy[ks x, i=kksa ds
84 vuqla/kku fof/k
ladyu dks fo'o bfrgkl dh ,d >yd ds :i esa izdkf'kr fd;k x;k gS ftlesa iafMr usg: us vius tsy ds
e/kqj Le‘fr;ksa ds lkFk&lkFk jk"Vªh; rFkk varjkZ"Vªh; Lrj ij ?kVus okys ?kVukvksa dk Hkh mYys[k fd;k gSaA
3. thou bfrgkl (Life History)% thou bfrgkl Hkh oS;fDrd v/;;u dk ,d izeq[k lzksr gksrk gSa ftlesa
?kVukvksa dk o.kZu feyrk gSaA usg: }kjk fy[ks x, vkRedFkk ds egÙo dks lHkh bfrgkldkj Lohdkj djrs gSaA
mlh izdkj gfjoa'k jk; cPpu }kjk fy[kh xbZ vkRedFkkvksa dks Hkh lHkh yksx ,d egÙoiw.kZ lkfgR;Ñfr ds :i
esa ns[krs gSaA bu thou dFkkvksa esa euq"; dh i‘"BHkwfe] thouifjp; dk ekfeZd o.kZu Hkh feyrk gSA
4. nLrkost(Documents)% oS;fDrd v/;;u esa ljdkjh fjdkWMZl rFkk nLrkostksa dks Hkh vk/kkj cukdj v/;;u
fd, tkrs gSA bu nLrkosatksa dks lekt'kkL=k easa }Srh;d lzksr ds :i eas iz;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gSaA
oS;fDrd v/;;u ds xq.k o nks"k%
oS;fDrd v/;;u ds fuEu egÙo o xq.kksa dh ppkZ djuk vko';d gS%&
1. midYiukvksa dk lzksr% oS;fDrd v/;;u ds }kjk midYiukvksa dk fuekZ.k vklku gks tkrk gSA
2. xgu v/;;u% oS;fDrd v/;;u ds }kjk leL;kvksa dk xgu v/;;u laHko gks ikrk gSA
3. vuqla/kku ds izkjafHkd Lrj dh [kkst% bl fof/k ds }kjk vuqla/kku ds izkjafHkd Lrj dh [kkst Hkh lgt :i ls gks
tkrh gSA
4. egÙoiw.kZ v/;;u ;U=kksa ds fuekZ.k esa lgk;d
5. oS;fDrd eukso‘fÙk;ksa dh tkudkjh
6. lkexzh dh iw.kZrk
7. ?kVukvksa dh fujUrj rLohj
8. rqyuk ,oa oxhZdj.k dk vk/kkj
9. lkekU;hdj.k dk vk/kkj
10. u;s vuqHkoksa dk Kku
11. thou ds izHkkfod dkjdksa dk v/;;u
12. nh/kZ izfØ;kvksa dk v/;;u
13. fofHkUu fof/k;ksa dk iz;ksx
14. euksoSKkfud v/;;uksa esa lgk;d
oS;fDrd v/;;u dh lhek,¡
oS;fDrd v/;;u dh fuEu lhek,¡ gSa%
1. dsoy dqN gh bdkb;ksa ds vk/kkj ij fu"d"kZ
2. voSKkfud fof/k
3. i{kikr dh leL;k
4. vf/kd v'kq)rk
5. vizekf.kd rF;
6. fun'kZu iz.kkyh dk izHkko
7. vR;kf/kd le; rFkk /ku dh vko';drk

8. nks"kiw.kZ thou dk çHkko
bl izdkj mi;ZqDr foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd oS;fDrd v/;;u fof/k ;fn lkekftd O;ogkj dks le>us dk
,d egÙoiw.kZ tfj;k gS ftlds }kjk euq"; ds lw{e O;ogkjksa rFkk ekufld n'kkvksa dk ifjp; feyrk gS ijUrq blds }kjk
izkIr rF;ksa dk Lo:i xq.kkRed gksrk gS ftlesa dkQh lq/kkj dh vko';drk gksrh gS vxj mls lkaddh Lrj ij iz;ksx esa
ykuk gksA
vUroZLrq fo'kys"k.k% vFkZ] pj.k ,oa egÙo

(Content Analysis: Meaning, Steps & Importance)
lkekftd vuqla/kku esa vUrZoLrq fo'kys"k.k dks Hkh xq.kkRed rF;ksa ds ladyu dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ fof/k ekuk tkrk gSA bl
fof/k ds }kjk rF;ksa dk ladyu Hkh ,d egÙoiw.kZ v/;;u lzksr cu tkrk gSAvkt ls yxHkx 80 o"kZ iwoZ 1926 eas eSydkse
foyh esa vUrZoLrq fo'kys"k.k dk iz;ksx lekpkj i=kksa ds ek/;e ls fd;k FkkA blds ckn 1930 eas cqMySaM }kjk bl v/;;u
dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA 1930 rFkk 1940 ds n'kd esa gsjkWyM yslosy rFkk vU; jktuhfr 'kkL=kksa ds fo)kuksa ds tuer ds
v/;;u esa vUroZLrq fo'kys"k.k fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k FkkA
vUroZLrq fo'kys"k.k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, oSfiYl rFkk cSVUlu us bls miyC/k lkexzh dks O;ofLFkr dj mldh O;[;kRed
xq.kksa ds vk/kkj ij oLrqfu"B rjhds ls fo'kys"k.k djus dk ,d mÙke fof/k ekuk gSA bl fof/k ds }kjk mu lHkh lkexzh
dk fo'kys"k.k laHko gks tkrk gS tks ikBdksa o Jksrkvksa ds fy, miyC/k djk, tkrs gSaA vUrZoLrq fo'kys"k.k esa oS;fDRd
fof/k dh rjg lkexzh dk fooj.kkRed O;k[;k ugha gksrk cfYd miyC/k lkexzh dk oSKkfud Lrj ij izLrqr fd;k tkrk
gSA cSjsUlu ds vuqlkj vUroZLrq fo'kys"k.k fof/k lapkj ds vUrZoLrq dks oSKkfud o.kZu djrk gS tks fd vUrfoZr‘ u gksdj
izdV gksrk gS] ftldk fujh{k.k ckgs Lrj ij lEHko gSA
ih0oh0 ;ax us vUroZLrq fo'kys"k.k dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, dgk gS fd "vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k lk{kkRdkjks]a iz'ukofy;ks]a vuqlp
w hvksa
rFkk vU; fyf[kr ;k ekSf[kd Hkk"kkxr vfHkO;fDr;ksa }kjk izkIr 'kks/k rF;ksa dk vUroZLrq dk Øec)] oLrqfu"B rFkk
ifjek.kkRed o.kZu ds fy, viukbZ tkus okyh ,d 'kks/k izfof/k gSA bl izdkj ;g Li"V gS fd vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k ,d
oSKkfud fof/k gS ftlds }kjk vUrZoLrq dk v/;;u dj mldk fo'ys"k.k fd;k tkrk gSA bl fof/k ds }kjk fo'ys"k.k fd,
tkus okys rF;ksa dk fujh{k.k laHko gSaA bl fof/k esa xq.kkRed o.kZu dk Lo:i de gksrk gS vFkkZr~ xq.kkRed rF;ksa dks
ifjek.kkRed vfHkO;fDr nsdj bldh mi;ksX;rk dks c<+k;k tk ldrk gS%
vUrZoLrq fo'ys"k.k ds pj.k
(Steps of Content Analysis)
vUrZoLrq fo'ys"k.k ds fuEu pj.k izeq[k gSaA
1. fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr rF;ksa dk pquko (Collection of Data on the subject concerned)% bl izdkj ds
fof/k ds }kjk vktdy v[kckjksa esa fookg lEcfU/kr tks foKkiu fn, tkrs gS] mldk v/;;u dj ;g irk yxk;k
tk ldrk gS fd tkfrxr ekU;rk,¡ vkt Hkh fdruh egÙo j[krh gSA
2. v/;;u dh bdkbZ;ksa dks pquuk (Selecting the units of study)% lkexzh dks ,df=kr dj ysus ds ckn ml
lkexzh ls tqMs+ vU; lEcfU/kr rF;ksa dks bdkbZ ds :i eas Hkh pquk tk ldrk gSA
3. vUroZLrq ds Jsf.k;ksa dk foHkktu (Classification of content into categories)% bdkbZ;ksa dk pquko dj ysus
ds ckn mu bdkbZ;ksa dk dqN [kkl Js.kh eas oxhZÑr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
4. Jsf.k;ksa dk ifj{k.k (Verification of Categories)% vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k dks lkFkZd cukus ds fy, fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa
dk ifj{k.k Hkh vko';d gks tkrk gSA
5. i)fr dk lgh mi;ksx (Proper Utility of the Method)% bl fof/k dk iz;ksx v/;;u dh :ijs[kk ds vuqlkj
Hkh fd;k tkuk vko';d gksrk gSA
86 vuqla/kku fof/k
6. vUroZLrq dh bdkbZ;ksa dk ekiuk (Measuring the units of contents)% vUroZLrq dh bdkbZ;ksa dks lkaf[;dh;
iz.kkyh }kjk ekius dk dke Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA
7. fo'ys"k.kkRed O;k[;k (Analytical interpretation)% vUroZLrq dh bdkb;ksa dk mfpr o ifjek.kkRed eki dj
ysus ds i'pkr~ mudk fo'ys"k.kkRed O;k[;k djuk gksrk gSaA
8. fjiksVZ rS;kj djuk (Preparing the reports)% vUroZLrq dh fo'ys"k.kkRed O;k[;k dj ysus ds ckn lEiw.kZ
v/;;u ds fo'ys"k.k esa ,d Øec) fjiksVZ rS;kj dh tkrh gSA
vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k dk egÙo
(Importance of Content Analysis)
lkekftd vuqla/kku esa vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k dk fuEu egÙo gS%
1. xq.kkRed fo"k;ksa dk ifjek.kkRed v/;;u djuk bl izfof/k dh lgk;rk ls lEHko gksrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,
miU;kl ds ik=k vFkok ,d Hkk"k.k vFkok ,d lekpkj&i=k dk lEikndh; ;s lc xq.kkRed fo"k; gSA
2. lapkj ds fofHkUu lk/kuksa dh izÑfr dks Li"V djus esa vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k izfof/k viuk egÙoiw.kZ ;ksxnku nsrk gSA
lapkj ds lk/ku tSls iqLrd] Hkk"k.k] lekpkj&i=k] jsfM;ks dk;ZØe] vkfn gekjs lkekftd thou dks izHkkfor o
funsZ'ku djus esa egÙoiw.kZ gSaA
3. lapkj ds vUrjkZ"Vªh; vk/kkjksa dk rqyukRed v/;;u Hkh bl i)fr dh lgk;rk ls lEHko gksrk gSa izR;sd ns'k ds
lapkj lk/kuksa dk vUroZLrq ,d leku ugha gksrs] ij mudk foLrkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gks ldrk gSA
4. izpkj dh fof/k;ksa dk turk ij iM+us okys izHkkoksa dh izÑfr ds lEcU/k eas v/;;u dh bl izfof/k dh lgk;rk
ls oSKkfud :i esa fd;k tk ldrk gSaA
5. tuer dks tkuuk Hkh bl izfof/k dh enn ls vkt ljy gks x;k gSA
6. O;fDrRo ds v/;;u esa Hkh ;g izfof/k lgk;d fl) gqbZ gSA
7. lewg ;k leqnk; ds eukoSKkfud >qdko dk v/;;u Hkh bl izfof/k ds }kjk lEHko gksrk gSA
bl izdkj mi;aDZq r foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gS fd vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k fof/k ds }kjk tks vk¡dM+s ladfyr fd, tkrs gSa mudk
Lo:i xq.kkRed gksrk gS ijUrq rF;ksa ds ladyu esa vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k ds }kjk ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ mls fo'ys"k.kkRed O;k[;k
iznku djus ds fy, Js.khc) dj izLrqr djrk gS rkdh bdkb;ksa dks lkaf[;dh; Lrj ij of.kZr fd;k tk ldsA bl izdkj
ifjek.kkRed eki ds vk/kkj ij vUroZLrq dk fo'oluh; ewY;kadu lEHko gks ikrk gSA ;|fi bl izdkj ds izLrqrhdj.k
dh dbZ lhek,¡ gksrh gSa ijUrq 'kks/kdÙkkZ viuh dq'kyrk ls bl pqukSrh dk eqdkcyk dj egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr dj ldrk
gSA
lkjk¡'k
bl [k.M eas ifjek.kkRed] xq.kkRed rFkk rqYukRed fof/k ds vFkZ] izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krkvksa dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k x;k
gSAa lkekftd vuql/a kku eas bu rhsuksa fof/k dk viuk vyx egÙo gSA lekt'kkL=k esa tks v/;;u fd, x, gS]a muesa bu rhuksa
fof/k dks vk/kkj cukdj] fl)kUr izfrikfnr djus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA bl [k.M eas 'kks/k fof/k ds igys fun'kZu ds egÙo
dh ppkZ mlds izÑfr ,oa izdkj ds o.kZu ds }kjk Hkh dh xbZ gSa vk¡dM+s ladyu djus ds nks fof/k ifjek.kkRed rFkk xq.kkRed
fof/k ds vUrxZr fofHkUu fof/k dh ppkZ Hkh dh xbZ gSA ifjek.kkRed fof/k ds vUrxZr vk¡dM+kas ds ladyu esa iz'ukoyh] vuqlp
w h
rFkk lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krkvksa dk foLrkj ls mYys[k fd;k gSA blds lkFk gh xq.kkRed fof/k ds }kjk rF;ksa
ds ladyu esa fujh{k.k] oS;fDrd v/;;u rFkk vUroZLrq fo'ys"k.k dk v/;;u Hkh foLrkj ls fd;k x;k gSA bl [k.M ea
'kks/kfof/k ds }kjk dSls rF;ksa dk ladyu fd;k tkrk gS mldh iwjh tkudkjh nh xbZ gSsA
lzksr] oxhZdj.k rFkk vk¡dM+ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k 87
v/;k;&4
lzksr] oxhZdj.k rFkk vk¡dM+ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k
(Sources, Classification and Presentation of Data)
lkekftd 'kks/k eas rF;ksa ds lzksr dk viuk ,d vyx egÙo gksrk gSA rF;ksa ds fcuk lkekftd 'kks/k dh dYiuk Hkh ugha
dh tk ldrh gSA ijarq tc ge rF;ksa dh izÑfr ds ckjs eas fopkj djrs gS rks lzksr ds ckjs es fopkj djuk vko';d gks
tkrk gSA rF;ksa dk ldayu lkekftd 'kks/k dh ,d ekSfyd izfØ;k gS blfy, Hkh lzksrksa ds ckjs esa leqfpr tkudkjh j[kuk
vko';d gSA rF;ksa dks muds lzksrksa ls tksM+dj ns[kk tk;s rks mUgsa nks oxksZ ds ck¡Vk tk ldrk gS%
1. izkFkfed rF; (Primary data)% izkFkfed lzksr os lzksr gksrs gSa ftls ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a okLrfod v/;;u {ks=k
ls O;fDr;ksa ds lk{kkRdkj dj ;k fQj mudk izR;{k fujh{k.k dj Lo;a izkIr djrk gSA bu rF;ksa dks izkFkfed
lzksr blfy, Hkh dgk tkrk gS D;kssafd ,d 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius v/;;u midj.kksa dh enn ls izFke ckj Lo;a ,df=kr
djrk gSA izkFkfed rF;ksa dks Hkh ,df=kr djus ds nks izeq[k lzksr gksrs gSa ,d rks thfor O;fDr;ksa ls lk{kkRdkj
ds }kjk egÙoiw.kZ tkudjh ysdj bdV~Bh dh tkrh gSa vkSj nwljk izR;{k fujh{k.k ds }kjkA
2. f}rh;d rF; (Secondary data)% f}rh;d rF; os vk¡dM+sa o rF; gksrsa gSa ftls 'kks/kdÙkkZ izdkf'kr izys[kksa]
fjiksVZ] lkaf[;dh] ik.Mqfyfi] i=k&Mk;jh vkfn ls izkIr djrk gSA f}rh;d rF;ksa dh fo'ks"krk ;g gksrh gS fd
;s rF; o lwpuk,a 'kks/kdÙkkZ }kjk Lo;a ugha ,d=k fd;s tkrsa gSsa cfYd bls nwljs vuqla/kkudÙkkZ }kjk ,d=k fd;k
tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds rF;ksa dks Hkh nks Hkkxksa essa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gS
(i) O;fDrxr izys[k (Personal Documents)
(ii) lkoZtfud izys[k (Public Documents)
O;fDrxr izys[k ds mRÑ"V mnkgj.kksa esa vkRedFkk] Mk;jh rFkk i=k vkrs gSa tcfd lkoZtfud izys[k fjdkMZ] iqLrdksa]
tux.kuk fjiksVZ] fof'k"V desfV;ksa dh fjiksVZ] lekpkji=k o if=kdkvksa esa izdkf'kr lwpuk,a vkfn dk mYys[k fd;k tkrk
gSA
izkFkfed lzksr% vFkZ ,oa fo'ks"krk
(Primary Source: Meaning & Importance)
izkFkfed lzksr os lzksr gksras gSa tks izkFkfed Lrj ij rF;ksa ds ladyu eas lgk;d gksrs gSaA izkFkfed lzksr ds ckjs es ;g
tkudkjh j[kuk i;kZIr gS fd blesa 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a rF;ksa dk ladyu djrk gSA bl izdkj ds rF; ladyu ds izkFkfed
lzksr dks Hkh nks Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr fd;k tkrk gS ftls izR;{k lzksr (Direct source) rFkk vizR;{k lzksr (Indirect
source) dgk tkrk gSaA izR;{k lzksr esa 'kks/kdÙkkZ Lo;a lhs/kk laidZ LFkkfir djrk gS tcfd vizR;{k lzksr esa 'kks/kdÎÙkkZ v/
;;u bdkbZ;ksa ls lh/kk laidZ LFkkfir fd;s fcuk gh lkexzh ,df=kr djrk gSA
izR;{k lzksr ds varxZr rF;ksa ds ladyu esa fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%
1- fujh{k.k (Obervation)% fujh{k.k rF; ladyu izkFkfed lzksr dk fgLlk gksrk gS ftls bLrseky dj 'kks/kdÙkkZ
egÙoiw.kZ rF;ksa dks ,df=kr djrk gSA bl fof/k dk foLrkj ls o.kZu ckn esa fd;k tk,xkA la{ksi eas bl fof/k
ds ckjs esa ;g Lej.k j[kuk vko';d gS fd fujh{k.k ds nks izdkj fu;af=kr rFkk vfu;af=kr ds varxZr lgHkkfxrk
fujh{k.k rFkk vlgHkkfxrk fujh{k.k nksuksa igyw vkrs gaSA
88 vuqla/kku fof/k
2- lk{kkRdkj (Interview)% izkFkfed lzksr ds }kjk rF;ksa dk ladyu lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds }kjk gksrk gSA bl fofèk
dks lk{kkRdkj fof/k blfy, dgk tkrk gS fd bles 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks izR;{k :i ls lwpuknkrk ds }kjk laidZ LFkkfir
dj rF;ksa dks ladfyr djus dk ekSdk feyrk gSA fiNys [kaM esa lk{kkRdkj fof/k ds fofHkUu izdkjksa ,oa mudh
mi;ksfxrk ,oa egÙo dk o.kZu foLrkj ls fd;k tk pqdk gSA
3- vuqlwfp (Schedule)% vuqlwph iz'uksa dh ,d lwph gksrh gS ftls 'kks/kdÙkkZ iz'u iwNdj Lo;a Hkjrk gSA ;gk¡ Hkh
izkFkfed rF;ksa ds ladyu ds fy, 'kks/kdÙkkZ lwpuknkrk ls izR;{k lac/a k LFkkfir djrk gS vkSj egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh
izkIr djrk gSA ;g fof/k lwpuk o rF; ladyu djus dh ,d izeq[k fof/k gS ftldk o.kZu fiNys [kaM es foLrkj
ls fd;k tk pqdk gSA
4- iz'ukoyh (Questionnaire)% iz'ukoyh }kjk vizR;{k :i ls izkFkfed Lrj ds vk¡dM+sa ,df=kr fd;s tkrs gSaA
bl fof/k ds }kjk jsfM;ks] Vsyhfotu] vihy] VsfyQksu vkfn Hkh izeq[k gSaA iz'ukoyh dk egÙo blfy, Hkh
egÙoiw.kZ gS D;ksafd tc {ks=k O;kid] foLr‘r vkSj dkQh QSyk gks rFkk 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds ikl bruk le; u gks fd
lHkh txg og Lo;a tkus esa vleFkZ gks] rc bldk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
izkFkfed lzksr dk egÙo
(Inportance of Primary Source)
rF;ksa ds ladyu esa izkFkfed lzksrksa dk fuEu egÙo gS%
1. v/;;u eas yphykiuA
2. O;kid {ks=k ds v/;;u ds fy, mi;qDrA
3. v/;;u ;FkkFkZ ,oa fo'oluh; gksrs gSaA
4. vkarfjd o xqIr lwpukvksa dk ladyu Hkh laHko gks ikrk gSA
5. fu"d"kZ rd igq¡pus dk ;g ,d izekf.kd lzksr gSA
6. bl izdkj ds rF; ladyu esa /ku o le; dk T;knk viO;; ugha djuk iM+rk gSA
izkFkfed lzksrksa dh lhek,a
(Limitation of Primary Source)
izkFkfed lzksrksa ds }kjk rF; ladyu dh fuEu lhek,a gSa ftldk /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS%
1. i{kikr rFkk feF;k >qdko dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA
2. rF;ksa dk xq.kkRed Lo:i gksrk gS vkSj blfy, oLrqfu"Brk esa Hkh deh vk tkrh gSA
3. rF;ksa dh viuh LokHkkfodrk gksrh gS ftlds u"V gksus dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA
4. 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks izf'k{k.k dk vHkko gksrk gSA
5. vrhr dh /kVukvksa dk v/;;u fo'oluh; ughsa gksrk gSA
6. vf/kd ekuo lalk/ku ,oa le; dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd izkFkfed lzksr }kjk ,df=kr vkadM+ksa dk Lo:i xq.kkRed gksrk gS blfy, bl fofèk
ds }kjk ladfyr rF;ksa dk dksbZ lkaf[;dh; :i ugha gksrk gSA
f}rh;d lzksr% vFkZ ,oa egRo

(Secondary Source: Meaning and Importance)
lkekftd 'kks/k f}rh;d lzksr }kjk ladfyr rF;ksa dk viuk ,d vyx egÙo gksrk gSaA ;gk¡ ij ftl lkexzh dk iz;ksx
gksrk gS og nwljksa }kjk ladfyr fd;s x;s gksrs gSa ftls vk/kkj cukdj 'kks/kdÙkkZ viuh midYiuk rFkk fo"k; ds mís';
dks /;ku es j[kdj rF;ksa dk iz;ksx djrk gSA }Srh;d lzksr ls ladfyr rF;ksa dks ,df=kr djus okys 'kks/kdÙkkZ fHkUu gksrs
gS vkSj bls iz;ksx djus okys 'kks/kdÙkkZ vyx gksrs gSa rF;ksa ds }Srh;d lzksrksa dks Hkh eq[;r% nks Hkkxksa es foHkkftr dj ns[kk
tkrk gSA
1. O;fDrxr izys[k (Personal Document)
2. lkoZtfud izys[k (Public Document)
O;fDrxr izys[k ds rgr os lkexzh vkrs gSa tks ,d O;fDr vius Lo;a ds ckjs esa ;k lkekftd ?kVukvksa dks ,d fo'ks"k
n‘f"Vdks.k ls ns[kdj mls le>dj izLrqr djrk gSA O;fDrxr izys[k ds varxZr dbZ xq.kkRed rF; vkrs gSa tks fuEu gS
1. i=k (Letters)
2. Mk;jh (Diary)
3. thou bfrgkl (Life-History)
4. laLej.k (Memories)
5. vkRedFkk (Autobiographies)
O;fDrxr izys[k
(Personal Documents)
O;fDrxr izys[k ds bu lkefxz;ksa o rF;ksa dh foospuk foLrkj ls fiNys [kaM esa dh tk pqdh gS tgk¡ O;SfDrd fofèk dk
o.kZu foLrkj ls fd;k x;k gSA bu rF;ksa dk Lo:i xq.kkRed gksrk gS ftldh fuEu lhek,a gksrh gS%
1. bUgsa izkIr djuk dfBu gksrk gS D;ksafd ;s O;fDrxr çys[k vR;Ur gh nqyZHk gksrs gSaA
2. budh izekf.kdrk ij ,d iz'ufpUg yxk gksrk gSA
3. budks vk/kkj cukdj oSKkfud lkekUohdj.k djuk dfBu gksrk gSA
4. budk lkaf[;dh; fo'ys"k.k Hkh eqf'dy gksrk gSA
5. O;fDrxr i{kikr dh ek=kk dkQh gksrh gSA
lkoZtfud izys[k
(Public Documents)
lkexzh ladyu ds }Srh;d lzksr ds :i eas lkoZtfud izys[k dk vyx egÙo gksrk gSA lkoZtfud izys[kksa ds Hkh nks Hkkx
gksrs gSSa%
izzdkf'kr izys[k
(Published Documents)
izdkf'kr izys[kksa eas fuEu lkexzh egÙoiw.kZ gksrh gSa%
1. 'kks/k laLFkkuksa ds izfrosnu] 'kks/k izi=k] ekuokf/kdkj dh okf"kZd fjiksVZ
2. O;fDrxr 'kks/kdÙkkZvksa ds izdk'ku&'kks/k izi=k] vkfn
3. lehfr;ksa o vk;ksxksa ds izfrosnu
4. O;kolkf;d laLFkkvksa ,oa ifj"knksa ds izdkf'kr lkexzh
5. vUrjkZ"Vªh; laxBuksa ds izdk'ku&fo'o LokLF; laxBu (W.H.O.) ;q0 ,u0 vks fjiksVZ] varjkZ"Vªh; Je laxBu
(ILO) varjkZ"Vªh; cky lgk;rk dks"k (International Children Welfare Fund) vkfnA
6. i=k&if=kdk,a
90 vuqla/kku fof/k
vizdkf'kr izys[k
(Unpublished Documents)
dqN ljdkjh o xSj ljdkjh laxBuksa }kjk ,df=kr lkexzh dh xksiuh;rk dks cuk;s j[kus gsrq izdkf'kr ugha fd, tkrs gS
ftues ls fuEu izeq[k gSa%
1. vfHkys[kd ljdkjh fjiksVZ] vkadM+sa tks xksiuh; gksrh gSa
2. vuqla/kkudÙkkZvksa ds izfrosnu
3. ikaMqfyfi;ka
4. vizdkf'kr yksdxhr] yksd laLd‘fr] f'k{kk ys[k rFkk yksdxkFkk,a] vkfn
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd izkFkfed rFkk }Srh;d lzksrks }kjk ,df=kr vkadM+ksa o rF;ksa dk viuk vyx egÙo
gSA 'kks/k eas buds egÙo dks le>dj 'kks/kdÙkkZ mlh ds vuq:i vius v/;;u fo"k; dks lqfu;ksftr dj oSKkfud fof/k
}kjk v/;;u djrk gSSA
oxhZdj.k% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk ,oa çdkj

(Classification: Meaning, Characteristics & Types)
lkekftd 'kks/k es oxhZdj.k dk viuk vyx egÙo gksrk gSaA ;ksa rks vke nSfud thou esa oxhZdj.k ge :fVu ds vk/kkj
ij djrs gSA dgha tkuk gks\ fdlh dks laidZ djuk gks\ rks D;k gekjk tkus dk lk/ku gksxk\ vkSj fdlls laidZ LFkkfir
djuk gksxk\ dSls mlls ge laidZ LFkkfir djsaxs\ laidZ LFkkfir djus ds fy, fdl ek/;e dk iz;ksx djsaxsa ;gk¡ rd dh
tkuojksa dk tc Ldwy ds Nk=kksa dks oxhZdj.k djus ds fy, dgk tkrk gS rks mUgsa crk;k tkrk gS fd tehu ij jgus okys
tkuoj dkSu ls gS]a ikuh eas ik;s tkus okys dkSu ls tkuoj gSa rFkk gok esa mM+us okys tkuoj dkSu ls gSAa bl izdkj rkfdZd
rFkk oSKkfud n‘f"Vdks.k rFkk mldh mi;ksfxrk ds vk/kkj ij ge oxhZdj.k dk bLrseky djrs gSA ;g ,d ekufld fØ;k
gSA lajpukoknh n‘f"Vdks.k ds leFkZd Ýkal ds fpard ysoh LVªkl dk ekuuk Fkk fd ge lHkh uSlfxZd :i ls ijLij
fojks/kh Lo:i dh igpku ds fy, vius thou esa nks izdkj ds oxhZdj.k lekU; rkSj ij djrs gSA iq:"k efgyk] lgh&xyr]
Åij&uhsps] nkfguk&ck¡;k] dkyk&lQsn vkfn bl izdkj ds oxhZdj.k dh fØ;k LokHkkfod gSA
ijarq 'kks/k esa oxhZdj.k dk vFkZ fof'k"V gks tkrk gSA bldk ,d [kkl lanHkZ esa vyx egÙo gks tkrk gSA oxhZdj.k dks ,d
Øec) v/;;u dk vk/kkj cukdj ?kVukvksa rFkk ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk oxhZdj.k fd;k tkrk gSA lhs/ks 'kCnksa eas ;g dgk tk
ldrk gS fd rF;ksa dks ,df=kr dj ysus ds ckn mu rF;ksa dks mudh lekurk rFkk fo"kerk ds vk/kkj ij oxhZÑr fd;k
tkrk gS ih0 oh0 ;ax dk ;g ekuuk Fkk fd rF;ksa ds Øec) oxhZdj.k dh t:jr rF;ksa ds ladyu ds ckn gh 'kks/kdÙkkZ
djrk gSA oxhZdj.k dh izÑfr v/;;u fo"k; rFkk rF;ksa ds ladyu ,oa mldh lgh O;oLFkk ls tqMh+ gksrh gSA bl oxhZdj.k
ls gh varn‘f"V rFkk 'kks/kdÙkkZ dh dq'kyrk dk Hkh vankt yxk;k tk ldrk gSA
oxhZdj.k dh fo'ks"krk
(Characteristiecs of Classification)
1. oxhZdj.k fuf'pr rFkk rF;ksa dks Li"V djus ds fy, iz;ksx eas yk;h tkrh gSA vlhfer rF;ksa dks lhfer djus
esa bldk egÙoiw.kZ ;ksxnku gksrk gSaA
2. oxhZdj.k dh fo'ks"krk LFkkf;Ro ls Hkh tqM+h gSA tux.kuk rFkk vkfFkZd losZ{k.k vkfn eas dbZ ,sls rF;ksa dks oxhZÑr
djds izLrqr fd;k tkrk gS fd 'kks/kdÙkkZ mlds vk/kkj ij mldk fo'ys"k.k dj ldsaA
3. ifjorZu'khyrk Hkh oxhZdj.k esa gksuh vko';d gSA u, rF;ksa dh tkudkjh izkIr djus ij u;s izdkj ds oxhZdj.k
dh Hkh vko';drk eglwl gksrh gSA dqN u;s rF; ,sls Hkh gksrs gS ftudk oxhZdj.k vklkuh ls ugha gks ldrk
gS vkSj 'kks/kdÙkkZ mu rF;ksa dks vU; rF;ksa ds lkFk feykdj mls oxhZÑr djrk gS rks mldk vFkZ dkQh izklafxd
gks tkrk gSA
4. oxhZdj.k ls lekurk rFkk fHkUurk dk Hkh vkHkkl feyrk gSA dqN [kkl vk; ds ayksxksa dks muds O;olk; ds
vk/kkj ij oxhZÑr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
5. oxhZdj.k dh lcls cM+h fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd blesa ,d lkekUohdj.k vUrfuZfgr gksrk gSA lkekUohdj.k ds
vk/kkj ij gh oxhZdj.k dh ckr lksph tkrh gSA
6. oxhZdj.k ds dkj.k gh lkaf[;dh; Lrj ij rF;ksa dk vFkZiw.kZ rjhds ls fo'ys"k.k laHko gks ikrk gSA
oxhZdj.k ds izdkj
(Types of Classification)
oxhZdj.k ds izdkj dh ppkZ djus ls igys oxhZdj.k ds fofHkUu vk/kkjksa ds ckjsa es tku ysuk mfpr gksxkA oxhZdj.k ds
fuEu pkj ewyHkwr vk/kkj gSa%
1. HkkSxkSfyd (Geographical)
2. le;kuqlkj (Chronological)
3. xq.kkRed (Qualitative)
4. la[;kRed (Quantitative)
1. HkkSxksfyd oxhZdj.k (Geographical Classification)% tc ladfyr rF;ksa dks LFkku ;k fLFkfr ds vk/kkj ij
oxhZÑr fd;k tkrk gS rks mls HkkSxksfyd oxhZdj.k dgrs gSa tSls%
rkfydk&4- 1
fo'o ds fofHkUu ns'kksa dk fyax vuqikr
ns'kksa ds uke ¯yx vuqikr
fo'o 986
phu 944
Hkkjr 933
vesfjdk 1029
baMksusf'k;k 1004
czkthy 1025
ikfdLrku 938
:l 1140
ckaXykns'k 953
tkiku 1041
ukbtsfj;k 1061
lzksr% oYMZ iksiqys'ku izkslisDVl] 1998 la'kksf/kr] oksY;qe&2

mi;qZä rkfydk ls L=kh&iq:"k vkSlr ls tqM+s rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu ns'kksa ds ¯yx vuqikr ls efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dk
Hkh vuqeku dqN gn rd yxk;k tk ldrk gSA
92 vuqla/kku fof/k
2- le;kuqlkj oxhZdj.k (Periodical Classification): ;g le; ij vk/kkfjr oxhZdj.k gksrk gSA tc ,df=kr
rF;ksa dks le;kuqlkj vFkkZr~ eghuksa] o"kZ] nl o"kZ ds varjky esa izLrqr dj oxhZÑr djrs gSa rks blls Hkh gesa
egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh feyrh gSA fuEu rkfydk }kjk bldk vanktk yxk;k tk ldrk gS%
rkfydk&4- 2
gfj;k.kk ds uxjhdj.k dk :>ku] 1901&2001
tux.kuk o"kZ dqy 'kgjh vkcknh izfr'kr
1901 574]074 12-42
1911 449]704 10-77
1921 481]195 11-31
1931 564]743 12-38
1941 705]9145 13-39
1951 968]494 17-07
1961 1]307]680 17-23
1971 1]772]959 17-67
1981 2]827]387 21-88
1991 4]054]744 24-63
2001 6]114]139 29-00
lzksr% Hkkjr dh tux.kuk] 2001] lhfjt&7] gfj;k.kk

3- xq.kkRed oxhZdj.k (Qualitative Classification): xq.kkRed oxhZdj.k ds Hkh nks miizdkj gSa%
(i) ljy oxhZdj.k (Simple Classification): bl izdkj ds oxhZdj.k esa xq.kksa dks vk/kkj cuk;k tkrk gS] tSls
fookfgr&vfookfgr] f'kf{kr&vf'kf{kr] L=kh&iq#"k vkfnA
(ii) cgqxq.kh oxhZdj.k (Manifold Classification): bl izdkj ds oxhZdj.k esa f'kf{kr&vf'kf{kr Js.kh dks fQj
vkSj Hkh mlds miizdkjksa esa foHkkftr ;k Js.khc) fd;k tkrk gSA bls Hkh fuEu pkVZ ds }kjk n'kkZ;k tk
ldrk gS%
pkVZ&4- 1
tula[;k
iq#"k L=kh
f'kf{kr vf'kf{kr f'kf{kr vf'kf{kr
fookfgr vfookfgr fookfgr vfookfgr fookfgr vfookfgr
fookfgr vfookfgr
4- la[;kRed o ifjek.kkRed oxhZdj.k (Quantitative Classification): la[;kRed oxhZdj.k esa lkekU;r% oxZ
vUrjkyksa (class intervals) ds vuqlkj fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ ,d Dykl esa fo|k£Fk;ksa }kjk izkIr vadksa dks
fuEu rjhds ls izLrqr fd;k tk ldrk gS%
rkfydk&4- 3
vad fo|k£Fk;ksa dh la[;k
0 & 20 8
20 & 40 12
40 & 60 25
60 & 80 15
80 & 100 10
dqy 70
la[;kRed oxhZdj.k ds fuEu nks izdkj gSa%

(i) [kafMr Js.kh ds vuqlkj oxhZdj.k (Classification According to discrete series): dqN rF; ,sls gksrs
gSa tks iwjs&iwjs vad ;k la[;k esa izdV fd;s tkrs gSa tSls cPpksa ;k ifjokjksa dh la[;kA cPpksa dh la[;k 1]
2] 3] 4 vkfn iw.kZ vad gSa vkSj mlh izdkj ifjokj ds lnL;ksa dh la[;k 2] 3] 4] 5 esa vafdr gksrh gSA bl
izdkj ds vadksa dks [kafMr Js.kh (discrete series) dgk tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ fuEu rkfydk&4-4 ls ;g Li"V
gks tkrk gS%
rkfydk&4- 4
[kf.Mr vko‘fÙk fooj.k
cPpksa dh la[;k ifjokjksa dh la[;k
0 10
1 40
2 80
3 100
4 250
5 150
6 50
dqy 680
(ii) v[kafMr Jsf.k;ksa ds vuqlkj oxhZdj.k (Classification according to continuous series of class
intervals): tc ,df=kr fd;s x;s rF;ksa dh la[;k cgqr vf/kd gks vkSj lcls cM+s o lcls NksVs in esa varj
Hkh cgqr vf/kd gks rks ,slh fLFkfr esa rF;ksa dks ,d&,d lewg ds :i esa izdV fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ
vxj vk; 100 #i;s ls 1000 ds chp gks rks buds chp dqN vk; lewg cuk;s tk ldrs gSa vkSj blds vuqlkj
O;fDr;ksa dks ml vk; lewg ds lkFk j[kk tk ldrk gSA
94 vuqla/kku fof/k
rkfydk&4- 5
vk; lewg ifjokjksa dh la[;k
100 & 199 10
200 & 299 15
300 & 399 40
400 & 499 45
500 & 599 20
600 & 699 4
700 & 799 2
800 & 899 2
900 & 999 2
dqy 140
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd oxhZdj.k rF;ksa ds izLrqrhdj.k dh ,d ,slh fof/k gS] ftlesa rF;ksa dks mudh
lekurkvksa rFkk fHkUurkvksa ds vk/kkj ij O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gSA
ladsru% vFkZ ,oa fof/k

(Codification: Meaning & Procedure)
tgk¡ rd ladr s u dk iz'u gS] lkekftd 'kks/k esa rF;ksa dks ,d lewg esa O;ofLFkr djus ds fy, bldk bLrseky fd;k tkrk
gSA rF;ksa dks ;k iz'ukoyh esa fofHkUu rF;ksa dks ,d ladsr fn;k tkrk gSA bu ladsr dks ftl Js.kh ;k Øe esa ;s rF; vkrs
gSa mlds vuqlkj bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bu ladsrksa dks ge fxu dj ;g irk yxk ldrs gSa fd ,d Js.kh lewg esa
bl izdkj ds fdrus ladrs fn;s tkrs gSa vkSj mlds vk/kkj ij Hkh rF;ksa dk oxhZdj.k fd;k tkrk gSA ih0 oh0 ;ax us ladrs u
dks fofHkUu Js.kh ls tksM+dj ns[kk gSA mudk dguk Fkk fd fdlh Hkh rF; ds izLrqrhdj.k esa bldk egÙo gksrk gS] blesa
rF;ksa dks ,d ladsru fn;k tkrk gS] tks izk;% lkaf[;dh ladsru (Numerical Index) gksrk gS] ftls iwoZfu/kkZfjr rF;ksa ds
ladfyr lewg esa Js.khc) fd;k tkrk gSA tc Js.kh ds ckjs esa irk py tkrk gS rks ml izdkj ds rF;ksa dks ladsru ds
:i esa iz'ukoyh esa gh ¯izV fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj 'kks/kdÙkkZ ;k lk{kkRdkjdÙkkZ lwpuknkrk ds mÙkj dks ml ladr s u
ls js[kkafdr dj pqu ldrk gSA
ladsru ls igys dh izfØ;k rF;ksa ds izLrqrhdj.k ds igys mlds laiknu dh gksrh gSA laiknu ds fy, ;g vko';d gS
fd rF;ksa dks iz'ukoyh ds ek/;e ls ladfyr fd;k x;k gS mls fuEu rhu vk/kkjksa ij iw.kZr% rlYyh dj fy;k tk;s%
1- iw.kZrk (Completeness): lcls igys ;g vk'oLr gks ysuk t:jh gksrk gS fd lHkh iz'uksa ds mÙkj fn;s x;s gSa
;k ug A rhu dkj.kksa ls iz'uksa ds mÙkj ug fy[ks gks ldrs gSa%
(i) mÙkjnkrk mÙkj nsus ls euk dj nsA
(ii) 'kks/kdÙkkZ iz'u dk mÙkj iwNus ls jg tk;sA
(iii) og iz'u mÙkjnkrk ds fy, vFkZiw.kZ ug FkkA
2- fuf'prrk (Accuracy): iw.kZrk ds ckn bldh laiknu dh izfØ;k esa egÙoiw.kZ pj.k rF;ksa ds fuf'prrk ls gSA
fn;s x;s iz'uksa ds mÙkj esa dksbZ Hkh vfu;ferrk gks rks mls Hkh nwj djuk vko';d gks tkrk gSA ;g vk'oLr gksuk
vko';d gS fd mÙkjnkrk ds lgh mÙkj lgh [kkus esa izfo"V fd;s x;s gksaA
3- ,d:irk (Uniformity): iz'uksa dks lHkh mÙkjnkrk ls iwNk tkuk pkfg, rkfd ckn esa ,slh dksbZ vk'kadk fnekx
esa u jgs fd lHkh ls os iz'u iwNs x;s gSa ;k ug A
ekstj rFkk dkYVu dk dguk Fkk fd laiknu ds mi;qZä ekSfyd ckrksa ij vk'oLr gks tkus ds ckn ladsru dh voLFkk
vkrh gS ftlesa fuEu nks voLFkk,a egÙoiw.kZ gS%
1- loZizFke ;g r; dj ysuk t:jh gS fd fdl izdkj ds Js.kh (Categories) dk bLrseky djuk gS vkSj fQj
2- mlds ckn mUgsa oS;fDrd ladsru ds }kjk lacksf/kr djukA
xqMs rFkk gkV us ladsru dh nks egÙoiw.kZ izfØ;k dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gS tks fuEu gSa%
ljy ladsru fof/k
(Simple Coding Procedure)
vDlj ;g eglwl fd;k tkrk gS fd ladr s u dh t:jr o‘gr Lrj ij los{Z k.k ds fy, gksrh gS] ijUrq ;gk¡ ;g /;ku j[kuk
vko';d gS fd y?kq Lrj ij Hkh 'kks/k ds fy, ladsru dk iz;ksx dkQh ykHknk;d gksrk gSA ladsru ds ckjs esa fuEu ckrksa
dks /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gSa%
1- dc ladsru djuk pkfg, (When to code): ladsru ls rF;ksa dks Js.khc) fd;k tkrk gS vkSj lHkh rF;ksa ds
igyq dks ,d ladsr fpUg fn;k tkrk gS] ftl Js.kh esa os vkrs gSaA dSls ladsru ds }kjk oxhZdj.k fd;k tkuk gS]
;g lc fuHkZj djrk gS iwNs x;s iz'uksa ds mÙkj rFkk v/;;u ds mís'; ijA dc ladsru djuk mi;ksxh gksrk gS]
og fuEu rhu ckrksa ij fuHkZj djrk gS%
(i) v/;;u esa iz;qä L=kksrksa ds mij(
(ii) iwNs x;s iz'uksa dh la[;k ds mij(
(iii) v/;;u esa lkaf[;dh fu;kstu ds mijA
2- fdl voLFkk ij ladsru djuk pkfg, (At What stage to code): bl iz'u ds mÙkj esa ;gh dgk tk ldrk
gS fd v/;;u dh fdlh Hkh voLFkk esa ;g mi;ksxh gks ldrk gS] ijarq lkj.kh;u ls igys bldk iz;ksx vo';
fd;k tkuk pkfg,A iz'u iwNrs le; Hkh iz'uksa ds mÙkj dks ladsru dh t:jr iM+rh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% D;k vki
Lora=krk lsukuh gS% gk¡@ug
mÙkj fy[krs oDr Hkh bldk bLrseky gks ldrk gSA ladsru ds fy, iapdkMZ dk iz;ksx Hkh mi;ksxh fl) gksrk
gSA vkb0 oh0 ,e0 e'khu ds }kjk gkysfjFk dkMZ dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ekSdch fdlksVZ iap dkMZ dk bLrseky
de [kphZyk crk;k tkrk gSA eSdch dkMZ esa blds fdukjksa ij la[;k iafDrc) gksrh gSa ftu ij ladsru] rF;ksa
dh Js.kh ds vuq:i fn;s x;s gksrs gSaA bl izdkj bl dkMZ dks mu rF;ksa ds vuq:i gh ladsr ds esy esa Mkydj
Nsn djuk gksrk gSA vxj rhu fodYi fn;s x;s gksa ftlesa (i) eatjw ] (ii) ekyqe ugha] (iii) ukeatjw & ;s rhu fodYi
gksa rks uacj 1 ds lkFk gh ladrs ¼1½ dks feykdj dkMZ esa Nsn dj fn;s tkrs gSa vkSj fQj mUgsa lkaf[;dh fof/k }kjk
tSls Hkh bLrseky djuk gks] mudk bLrseky dj fy;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds dkMZ ds iz;ksx ds dbZ Qk;ns gSa]
D;ksafd buds }kjk gh dkQh tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh gSaA
xq.kkRed ladsru
(Qualitative Coding)
bl izdkj ds ladsru esa /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr ;g gS fd ladsru Hkh ,d izdkj ls rF;ksa dk oxhZdj.k gSA tc rF;ksa dks
v/;;u fo"k; ds vuq:i pqu fy;k tkrk gS] rc leL;k flQZ ;kaf=kdh jg tkrh gS] ijarq tc rF;ksa dks ljafpr ug fd;k
x;k gks] rc leL;k fu'p; gh tfVy gks tkrh gSA fuEu fof/k dks Øec) rjhds ls xq.kkRed ladsru esa iz;ksx esa yk;k
tkrk gS%
1- rF;ksa ls D;k fu"d"kZ fudkyuk gS& bl mís'; dk Li"Vhdj.k vko';d gSA
2- ftu vuqlwph dks iw.kZ :i ls Hkjk x;k gS] mldk fof/kor ;k /;kuiwoZd v/;;u fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA
3- mu Js.kh dk rFkk mu Js.kh ls tqM+s ladsru dk v/;;u Hkh /;kuiwoZd fd;k x;k gksA
96 vuqla/kku fof/k
4- mu Jsf.k;ksa dk iz;ksx ftuds vuqlkj rF;ksa dks yxkuk gS] mls blds vuq:i j[kuk vko';d gSA vFkkZr~ dqN rF;
,sls gksrs gSa ftls dg Hkh mi;qä rjhds ls Js.kh ds vuq:i ug yxk;k tk ldrk rc bl izdkj ds rF;ksa dks
mudh mi;ksfxrk ds vuqlkj NksM+us dk fu.kZ; Hkh fy;k tk ldrk gSA
5- lHkh mÙkjksa dks ladsru }kjk i;kZIr ek=kk esa fpfUgr dj fy;k tkrk gSA
bl izdkj mi;qZä foospu ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd oxhZdj.k ds rjg gh lkekftd 'kks/k esa ladsru dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ
LFkku gS ftlds }kjk ladfyr rF;ksa dks O;ofLFkr rFkk ,d rk£dd n‘f"Vdks.k ls Js.khc) dj mldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA
lkj.kh;u% vFkZ] mís'; ,oa çdkj

(Tabulation: Meaning, Aims & Types)
lkekftd 'kks/k esa v/;;u fo"k; ls lacaf/kr rF;ksa ds ladyu ds ckn mu ladfyr rF;ksa dks lkjf.k;ksa rFkk rkfydk ds
:i esa izdV Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA lkj.kh;u ds }kjk ladfyr rF;ksa dks O;ofLFkr] cks/kxE; rFkk Li"V fd;k tkrk gSA blfy,
tgksnk rFkk vU; us lkj.kh;u dh O;k[;k djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ftl izdkj ladr s u (coding) dks rF;ksa dks Js.khc) djus
dh izfof/k ekuk tkrk gS] mlh izdkj lkj.kh;u dks lkaf[;dh; rF;ksa ds fo'ys"k.k dh izkfof/kd izfØ;k dk ,d vax ekuk
tk ldrk gSA ekstj rFkk dkYVu us lkj.kh;u fof/k dh laf{kIr O;k[;k izLrqr djrs gq, fy[kk Fkk fd vf/kdka'k losZ{k.k
esa rF;ksa dks laikfnr djus rFkk ladsru ds i'pkr~ mUgsa ,d lkfj.kh dk :i fn;k tkrk gS vkSj ml lkfj.kh dks lkaf[;dh
fo'ys"k.k ds dbZ vkSj Hkh :i fn;s tk ldrs gSaA eq[; :i ls lkfj.kh;u ,d ,slh izfØ;k gS] ftlesa rF;ksa dks Js.khc)
dj mldh fxurh dh tkrh gSA blesa eq[; :i ls ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd ,d iz'u ‘A’ ds fy, fdrus yksxksa us ‘X’ mÙkj
ij fu'kku yxk;k gS vkSj fdruksa us ‘Y’ ij fu'kku yxk;k gSA ;g ,d ljy izfØ;k gS] ftls 'kks/kdÙkkZ vxj rF;ksa dh
la[;k lhfer gks rks vius gkFkksa ls gh dj ldrk gSA blfy, ekstj rFkk dkYVu dk ekuuk Fkk fd ;g ,d ljy izfØ;k
gS] ftlds fy, fdlh fo'ks"k rduhdh Kku rFkk dEI;qVj ;qä Kku dh vko';drk ug gSA vxj fdlh O;fDr dks lkfj.kh
cukdj ;g ns[kuk gks fd is'ks ds vk/kkj ij yksxksa dh D;k vk; gS] rks ,d dkjd rÙo dks lekukUrj (Horizontal) j[kuk
gksxk rFkk nwljs rÙo dks yacor (Vertical) :i esa fy[kdj ,d lk/kkj.k lh lkfj.kh cuk;h tk ldrh gS] mnkgj.kkFkZ%
rkfydk&&4- 6
rkfydk
mÙkjnkrkvksa ds is'ks
vk; f'k{kd MkDVj odhy bathfu;j m|ksxifr
1501& 2000 6
2001& 2500 5
2501& 3000 5 3
3001& 3500 6
3501& 4000
;ksx 6 5 3 5 6
bl izdkj mi;qZDr ifjHkk"kk ls ;g Li"V gS fd rF;ksa dks iafDr;ksa (Rows) rFkk LraHkksa (Columns) esa O;ofLFkr :i ls
Øec) djus dh izfØ;k dks gh lkj.kh;u dgk tkrk gSA iafDr;ksa dks le&Lrj (Horizontal) rFkk LrEHkksa dks yacor
(Vertical) j[kk tkrk gSA blfy, ,ygkal us lkj.kh; dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fy[kk gS] foLr‘r vFkZ esa] lkj.kh;u rF;ksa dh
LrEHkksa rFkk iafDr;ksa es O;ofLFkr O;oLFkk gSA muds vuqlkj ;g ,d vksj rF;ksa ds ladyu vkSj nwljh vksj rF;ksa ds vfUre
fo'ys"k.k ds chp dh ,d izfØ;k gSA ljy 'kCnksa esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd tc dqN LrEHkks rFkk iafDr;ksa dks O;ofLFkr
<ax ls ltk fn;k tkrk gS] rks rqyukRed egÙo bldk c<+ tkrk gS vkSj fu"d"kZ fudkyuk vklku gks
tkrk gSA
lkj.kh;u ds mís';
(Aims of Tabulation)
lkj.kh;u ds fuEu mís'; gSa%
1- tfVy rF;ksa dks ljy cukdj izLrqr djukA
2- rF;ksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k vklku gks tkrk gSA
3- rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij lkj.kh;u ds }kjk lkaf[;dh; fo'ys"k.k vklku gks tkrk gSA
4- rF;ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k vkd"kZd gks tkrk gSA
5- rF;ksa dh igpku vklku gks tkrh gSA
6- LFkku dh cpr gksrh gSA
7- rF;ksa dh oSKkfudrk c<+rh gSA
mi;qZDr mís';ksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj ,d vPNs lkj.kh;u dks cukus ds fy, dqN fuEu ckrksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk vko';d
gksrk gS%
1- lkj.kh dk ,d vkd"kZd 'kh"kZd fn;k tkuk pkfg,A
2- lkj.kh dk vkdkj rF;ksa rFkk dkxt ds vkdkj ds vuq:i gksuk pkfg,A
3- lkj.kh esa iafDr;ksa rFkk LrEHkksa dks O;ofLFkr :i ls Øec) djuk pkfg,A
4- eki dh bdkbZ dks ifjHkkf"kr djuk vko';d gksrk gSA
5- dqN rF;ksa dks fo'ks"k egÙo lkfj.kh esa nsuk gks rks mls dks"B esa j[kuk pkfg,A
6- izfr'kr rFkk vuqikr esa rF;ksa dks nsus ls mldh fo'ys"k.kkRed O;k[;k c<+ tkrh gSA
7- ;ksx rFkk var;ksZx dks tgk¡ vko';d gks nsuk pkfg,A
8- lkj.kh dk lzksr Hkh vo'; nsuk pkfg,A
lkjf.k;ksa ds izdkj
(Types of Tabulation)
lkjf.k;ksa dk oxhZdj.k vk/kkjksa] mís';ksa ,oa izÑfr ds vk/kkj ij fd;k tkrk gSA fuEu pkVZ ds vuqlkj lkjf.k;ksa ds izdkj
dks le>k tk ldrk gS%
lkjf.k;ksa ds izdkj
mís'; ds vk/kkj ij izÑfr ds vk/kkj ij
lkekU; fof'k"V ljy lkj.kh tfVy lkj.kh
f}xq.kh f=kxq.kh cgqxq.kh

98 vuqla/kku fof/k
mís'; ds vk/kkj ij lkjf.k;ksa dks nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tkrk gS%
1- lkekU; o ljy lkj.kh (Simple Table): bl izdkj dh lkj.kh dks ewy lkj.kh dgk tkrk gS] ftlesa rF;ksa
ds dqN lkekU; bdkbZ dks vk/kkj cukdj ladfyr vkadM+sa ls lkj.kh cuk;h tkrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ fuEu lkj.kh
esa izR;sd o"kZ [kk|ku esa fdruh c<+ksrjh gqbZ gS] mldk vankt feyrk gS%
rkfydk&4- 7
ns'k esa dqy [kk|ku mRiknu] 1995&2002
o"kZ [kk|ku mRiknu ¼fefy;u Vu esa½
1995 180-4
1996 199-4
1997 192-3
1998 203-6
1999 209-8
2000 195-9
2001 212-0
2002 183-0
lzksr % ÝaVykbZu] ebZ 2003] i‘"B la[;k&100
2- fof'k"V lkj.kh (Specific Tables): fof'k"V lkj.kh esa fdlh ,d leL;k dks vk/kkj cukdj rF;ksa dks ladfyr
fd;k tkrk gS vkSj fQj ladfyr rF; dks lkj.kh ds ek/;e ls n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ lkj.kh 4-8 esa ;g
n'kkZ;k x;k gS fd ftl o"kkZ dh Hkfo";ok.kh dh x;h Fkh ogk¡ o"kkZ fdruh gqbZ%
rkfydk&4- 8
ns'k esa ekulwu dh fLFkfr
o"kZ Hkfo";ok.kh o"kkZ tks fjdkMZ dh x;h
1996 96 103
1997 92 102
1998 99 105
1999 108 96
2000 99 92
2001 98 92
2002 101 81
lzksr % ÝaVykbZu] ebZ 2003, i‘0 la0 100
izÑfr ds vk/kkj ij
(On the Basis of the Nature)
1- ljy lkj.kh (Simple Table): bl izdkj dh lkjf.k;ksa esa dsoy ,d izdkj ds rF;ksa dks vk/kkj cukdj muds
xq.kksa dks n'kkZ;k tkrk gS%
rkfydk&4- 9
2001 ds vuqlkj Hkkjr dh tula[;k
ns'k@jkT;ksa ds uke dqy vkcknh
Hkkjr 1]027]015]247
gfj;k.kk 21]082]989
iatkc 24]289]296
fgekpy izns'k 6]077]248
fnYyh 13]782]976
lzksr % Hkkjr dh tux.kuk 2001] Ja‘[kyk&7] gfj;k.kk] i‘0 la0 XIV

2- tfVy lkj.kh (Complex Table): bl izdkj dh lkj.kh dks tfVy lkj.kh blfy, dgk tkrk gS] D;ksafd blesa
fofHkUu izdkj dh lwpukvksa dks ,d lkFk gh fn[kk;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj dh lkj.kh esa fofHkUu rF;ksa dks ,d
lkFk gh izLrqr fd;k tkrk gS] ftlds dbZ vU; izdkj gSa tks fuEu gSa%
(i) f}xq.kh lkj.kh (Bivariate Table): bl izdkj dh lkj.kh esa nks xq.kksa dk izn'kZu ,oa rqyuk ,d lkFk gh
fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, fuEu lkj.kh 4-10 esa ;s nks xq.kksa ds vk/kkj ij iq#"k rFkk efgyk ds f'k{kk
izfr'kr dqN pqus gq, jkT;ksa ds lanHkZ esa nh xbZ gS%
rkfydk& 4- 10
Hkkjr ds fofHkUu jkT;ksa esa iq#"k&efgyk dk f'k{kk Lrj
ns'k@jkT;ksa ds uke iq0 L=kh
Hkkjr 75-85 54-16
fnYyh 87-37 75-00
fgekpy izns'k 86-02 68-08
iatkc 75-63 63-55
paMhx<+ 85-65 76-65
jktLFkku 76-46 44-34
gfj;k.kk 79-25 56-31
(ii) =khxq.kh lkj.kh (Trivariate Table): bl izdkj dh lkj.kh esa rhu rF;ksa dks bdkbZ ekudj mudk
rqyukRed izLrqrhdj.k gksrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, fuEu lkj.kh 4-11 dks fy;k tk ldrk gS] ftlesa rhu
rF;ksa dh rqyuk dh x;h gS%
rkfydk& 4- 11
vk; ds vuqlkj ifjokj dk vkdkj
vk; NksVk e/;e cM+k
mPp 5 25 60
e/;e 25 65 20
fuEu 35 55 10
(iii) cgqxq.kh lkj.kh (Multivariate Table): bl izdkj dh lkj.kh esa rhu xq.kksa ;k mlls vf/kd xq.kksa okys
ladfyr rF;ksa dks lkj.kh ds }kjk izdV fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, lkj.kh 4-12 esa vk; ds lkFk
gh rhu izdkj ds xzkeh.k rFkk 'kgjh ifjokj ds vkdkj dks n'kkZ;k x;k gS%
100 vuqla/kku fof/k
rkfydk& 4- 12
'kgjh rFkk xzkeh.k ifjokj ds vkdkj vkSj mudh vk;
'kgjh o‘gr ifjokj 'kgjh e/;e ifjokj 'kgjh NksVk ifjokj
vk; NksVk e/;e cM+k NksVk e/;e cM+k NksVk e/;e cM+k
mPp 5 35 60 5 70 25 10 60 30
e/;e 25 65 20 10 65 25 40 55 5
fuEu 35 55 10 35 55 10 75 25 0
xzkeh.k o‘gr ifjokj xzkeh.k e/;e ifjokj xzkeh.k NksVk ifjokj

vk; NksVk e/;e cM+k NksVk e/;e cM+k NksVk e/;e cM+k
mPp & & & & & & & & &
e/;e & & & & & & & & &
fuEu & & & & & & & & &
mi;qDZ r foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkj.kh;u dk egÙo rF;ksa ds izLrqrhdj.k esa dkQh egÙo
j[krk gSA blds vk/kkj ij tks fu"d"kZ fudkys tkrs gSa] mldh fo'oluh;rk fo'ys"k.k ds fy, dkQh egÙo j[krh gSA
ladfyr rF;ksa dks lkj.kh;u ds }kjk v/;;u ds oSKkfud fo'ys"k.k esa dkQh enn feyrh gSA
rF;ksa dk fp=ke; fcUnq js[kh; izn'kZu

(Graphic Presentation of Data)
lkekftd vuql/a kku esa rF;ksa ds oxhZdj.k (classification), ladr
s u (codification) rFkk lkj.kh;u (tabulation) ds i'pkr~
rF;ksa dk fo'ys"k.k ,oa O;k[;k fd;k tkrk gSA vxj bu rF;ksa dks ;ksa gh oxhZÑr rFkk lkj.kh ds ek/;e ls bldk o.kZu
fd;k tk; rks rF;ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k uhjl rFkk v:fpdj yxsxkA blfy, bu rF;ksa dks xzkQ rFkk fp=ke; izn'kZu ds
}kjk vkd"kZd] :phdj ,oa izHkko'kkyh cuk;k tkrk gSA xzkQ rFkk fp=kksa ds izn'kZu ds ek/;e ls rF;ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k
u dsoy ljy] vklku o cks/kxE; gksrk gS] cfYd vkt daI;qVj us bu xzkQ rFkk fp=kksa dks cukuk bruk vklku dj fn;k
gS fd vkt Ldwyh Nk=k Hkh vius izkstsDV dk;Z esa bldk bLrseky NksVs ls NksVs rF;ksa ds izLrqrhdj.k esa djrs gSaA cktkj
esa fcdus okyh phtksa dks mudh fcØh ds vk/kkj ij] mRiknu djus okys mRikfnr eky rFkk v[kckjksa esa pqukoh vkadM+ksa
ds fo'ys"k.k] vk£Fkd losZ{k.k dh ljdkjh fjiksVZ rFkk tux.kuk fjiksVZ esa bldk iz;ksx bruk lkekU; gks x;k gS fd vc
vke 'kgjh] f'kf{kr turk bu rF;ksa ds fp=ke; izn'kZu ds }kjk gh mu phtksa ds izfr vkd£"kr gksrh gS] oju~ ml mRikfnr
phtksa esa fnypLih gh ug gksrh gSA bu fp=kksa dks fofHkUu jax ds feJ.k ds }kjk vyx&vyx Js.kh esa ck¡Vdj xzkQ rFkk
pkVZ ds }kjk izdV fd;k tkrk gS rks fu'p; gh buds izfr lk/kkj.k O;fDr dk Hkh vkd"kZ.k c<+rk tkrk gSA
blfy, ih0 oh0 ;ax us fy[kk gS fd dksbZ Hkh O;fDr tks lkekftd 'kks/k esa fnypLih j[krk gS] mlds fy, xzkQ dks cukus
dh fof/k rFkk pkVZ cukus ds rjhds dks tkuuk vfuok;Z gks tkrk gSA lkekftd 'kks/kdÙkkZ ds fy, u dsoy pkVZ dk fuekZ.k
vko';d gksrk gS cfYd mls pkVZ dk vk;kstu] mldk iz;ksx vkSj nwljs yksxksa }kjk cuk;s x;s pkVZ dh O;k[;k djus dh
{kerk Hkh gksuh pkfg,A vxj xzkQ rFkk pkVZ lgh rjhds ls cuk;s x;s gksa rks rF;ksa dks laf{kIr rjhds ls izdV djuk rFkk
vU; rF;ksa ds lkFk mlds laca/k dks le>uk Hkh vklku gks tkrk gSA fp=ke; izn'kZu dh fuEu fo'ks"krkvksa ij /;ku nsuk
vko';d izrhr gksrk gSa%
1- fp=ke; izn'kZu vkadM+ksa dks ljy (simple) cukrk gS vkSj ;g lHkh dks cks/kxE; gksrk gSA
2- rF;ksa dh rqyukRed izÑfr (comparative nature) dks Hkh le>uk vklku gks tkrk gSA
3- fp=ke; izn'kZu ls v/;;u ds fu"d"kks± dks n'kkZuk Hkh vklku gks tkrk gSA
4- fp=ke; izn'kZu dk izHkko vf/kd le; rd jgrk gSA
5- fp=ke; vfHkO;fDr }kjk rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij fdlh leL;k dk ?kVuk ;k c<+uk vklkuh ls le> esa vk tkrk gSA
fp=ke; ¼fcUnq js[kh;½ izn'kZu dk egÙo ,oa mi;ksfxrk
(Importance & Utility of Graphical Presentation of Data)
fp=ke; izn'kZu ds egÙo ,oa mi;ksfxrk fuEu gSa%
1- rF;ksa dk Li"Vhdj.k (Classification of Data): rF;ksa dks Li"V dj mls izLrqr djuk bldk ,d izeq[k mís';
gksrk gSA
2- rF;ksa dks tfVy gksus ls cpkuk (To make data less complicated): rF;ksa dks tfVy gksus ls cpkdj mls
ljy djuk gksrk gSA
3- rF;ksa ds teko dks lqfuf'pr djuk (To avoid facts being crowded): rF;ksa ds teko dks vf/kd gksus ls
cpkuk rFkk mls i;kZIr ek=kk esa lhfer djuk gksrk gSA
4- rF;ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k leL;k ds vuq:i j[kuk (Appropriate to the Problem): rF;ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k
leL;k ds vuq:i j[kdj mls fdlh my>u (confusion) ls cpkukA
5- fulansg fp=ke; izn'kZu dks 'kks/kdÙkkZ vius fo"k; ds vuqlkj pqurk gS vkSj mls gh ;g r; djuk gksrk gS fd
dkSu&lk fp=k o xzkQ mlds rF;ksa ds fy, fdruk mi;qä gksxkA
6- rkRdkfyd n'kkvksa dh tkudkjh (knowledge of immediate Affairs) Hkh gksrh gSA
7- 'kks/k rFkk izpkj esa mi;ksxh (Helpful in Research & Propaganda) gksrh gSA
8- iwokZuqeku esa lgk;d (Helpful in Prediction): ;g iwokZuqeku esa Hkh dkQh lgk;d gksrk gSA
'kks/kdÙkkZ rF;ksa ds ladyu ds ckn mldk fp=ke; (Diagramatic) izn'kZu rFkk fcUnqjs[kh; (graphic) izn'kZu djrk gS vkSj
blds fy, fo"k;ksa ds vuq:i og bldk p;u djrk gSA tgk¡ rd ¯cnqjs[kh; izn'kZu dk iz'u gS] ;gk¡ ij fofHkUu T;ehrh;
vkdkjksa ds }kjk bls izdV fd;k tkrk gSA ih0 oh0 ;ax dh iqLrd esa dkYohu ,Q 'ehM us rhu eq[; T;ksehfr; Lo:i
ds mi;ksfxrk dh ppkZ djrs gq, ¯cnqjs[kh; fp=k dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gS tks fuEu gSa%
1- ,d vk;rukRed fcUnqjs[kh; fp=k (Linear or One Dimensional)
2- nks vk;rukRed fcUnqjs[kh; fp=k (Aereal or Two Dimensional)
3- rhu vk;rukRed fcUnqjs[kh; fp=k (Cubical or Three Dimensional)
mi;qZDr fcUnq js[kh; fp=k fd ,d vkSj fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd ;gk¡ ij fofHkUu fp=ke; vkÑfr;ksa ds }kjk rF;ksa dks izn£'kr
dj mUgsa jkspd rjhds ls izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA 'kks/k esa ljy NM fp=k (Bar diagram) rFkk fp=kys[k (Pictograms),
ekufp=k (Maps), vk;r fp=k (Histogram), vko‘fÙk cgqHkqt (Frequency Polygon), vko‘fÙk pØ (Frequency Curve),
o‘Ùkkdkj ;k ikbZ fp=k (Circular or Pie Chart), ?kukdkj fp=k (Cubes), vk;rkdkj fp=k (Rectangular Diagram),
oxkZdkj fp=k (Square Diagram) vkfn dk iz;ksx vkerkSj ij ladfyr rF;ksa ds izn'kZu ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;gk¡ ij
ftu fp=ke;@fcUnqjs[kh; izn'kZu dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k tk;sxk os fuEu gSa%
1- vko‘fÙk vk;r fp=k (Frequency Histogram)
2- vko‘fÙk cgqHkqt (Frequency Polygon)
3- o‘Ùkkdkj ;k ikbZ fp=k (Circular or Pie Chart)
1- vko‘fÙk vk;r fp=k (Frequency Histogram): vko‘fÙk vk;r fp=k ls igys vko‘fÙk (Frequency) dks le>
ysuk vko';d gSA x.kukRed oxhZdj.k (quantitative classification) esa rF;ksa dks iwj&s iwjs vadksa ;k la[;k esa izdV
fd;k tkrk gS] tSls ifjokj esa cPpksa dh la[;k dks iw.kZ vad vFkkZr~ 1] 2] 3] 4] 5-------- bl izdkj ls vadksa dks [kafMr
102 vuqla/kku fof/k
Js.kh (Discrete Series) dgrs gSa vkSj vxj ,d gh [kafMr vad o Js.kh ,df=kr rF;ksa esa ckj&ckj izdV gks rks
og ckj&ckj vkus okyh la[;k ml Js.kh dh vko‘fÙk (Frequency) dgykrh gSA ;s Js.kh (Series) nks izdkj dh
gks ldrh gSa%
(i) [kafMr Js.kh (Discrete Series): tSls& 1] 2] 3] 4] 5] 6---------
(ii) v[kafMr Js.kh (Continuous Series): tSls& 0&20] 20&40] 40&60] 60&80---------- v[kafMr Js.kh esa gesa oxZ
vko‘fÙk (class intervals) dk irk pyrk gSA vxj ge ;g ikrs gSa fd 20&40 o"kZ dh mez esa gh vfèkdka'k
yksx fookg djrs gSa rks mu vf/kdka'k yksxksa dks mudh vko‘fÙk ds vk/kkj ij ml oxZ lewg ;kfu 20&40
o"kZ ds oxZ lewg esa j[ksxsaA vxj rF;ksa ds fujh{k.k ds ckn ;g ik;k tkrk gS fd 50 yksxksa ds iwNus ij fd
mudh fookg fdl mez esa gq;h Fkh rks 40 yksxksa dk dguk gksrk gS fd 20&40 rks ml oxZ lewg esa fookfgr
yksxksa dh vko‘fÙk 40 gksxh vkSj 10 vU; nwljs oxZ lewgksa esa mudh vko‘fÙk (Frequency) ds vk/kkj ij fy[ks
tk;saxsA vko‘fÙk dks fudkyus dk vPNk rjhdk gksrk gS feyku js[kkvksa (Tally Bars) ds }kjk mldk
izLrqrhdj.k uhps dh lkj.kh esa bldk mnkgj.k fn;k x;k gSA
rkfydk&4- 13
vko‘fÙk forj.k dh jpuk
vad feyku js[kk;sa vko‘fÙk
10 | 1
20 || 2
30 ||| 3
40 |||| 4
50 |||| 5
;ksx 15
;g rjhdk ogk¡ T;knk mi;ksxh gksrk gS tc fujh{k.k fd;s x;s rF;ksa dh iqukZo‘fÙk vf/kd gksrh gSA bl izdkj dh iz'uko‘fÙk
vFkkZr~ rF;ksa dks vko‘fÙk vk;r fp=k (Histogram) ds }kjk n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gSA fofHkUu oxk±rjksa esa vkus okyh vko‘fÙk;ksa
dks xzkQ isij ij vk;rksa (Rectangles) dh jpuk djds n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gSA fuEu fp=k esa x dks Hkqtk{k vFkkZr~ f{kfrt
js[kk (horizontal line) ds :i esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS vkSj y dks dksVh v{k vFkkZr~ yacor ;k [kM+h js[kk (vertical line) ij n'kkZ;k
x;k gSA Hkkjr dh lk{kjrk nj dks vko‘fÙk vk;r fp=k 4.1 esa rFkk mlds L=kh&iq#"k vuqikr dks fp=k 4.2 esa n'kkZdj ;g
crk;k x;k gS fd tc f'k{kk&nj leku :i ls js[kh; fn'kk (linear direction) esa c<+ jgs gksa rks fp=k dSlk cusxk vkSj tc
L=kh&iq#"k vuqikr js[kh; fn'kk ds ctk; mij&uhps vFkkZr~ ?kV&c<+ (fluctuate) dj jgsa gksa rks fp=k dSlk curk gSA vko‘fÙk
vk;r fp=k dbZ izdkj ds gks ldrs gSa] blfy, ;gk¡ fuEu nks izdkj ds fp=kksa dks tks xzkQ ds }kjk n'kkZ;s tk jgs gSa] mUgsa
mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij fn;k x;k gSA ;g Lej.k j[kuk Hkh vko';d gS fd fo|k£Fk;ksa dks dqN vkadM+sa nsdj mu vkadM+ksa ds
vk/kkj ij vko‘fÙk forj.k dh jpuk (Histogram) cukus ds fy, dgk tk ldrk gSA
¼xzkQ ij cus fp=k la[;k 4-1] 4-2 dks ns[ksaA½
Hkkjr dk lk{kjrk nj (1951-2001)

tux.kuk o"kZ lk{kjrk nj
1951 18.33
1961 28.30
1971 34.45
1981 45.57
1991 52.20
2001 65.38
lzksr% Hkkjr dh tux.kuk] 2001
Hkkjr dk lk{kjrk nj
(1951-2001)
80
60
40
20
0
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
fp=k& 4- 1
L=kh&iq#"k vuqikr (1901-2001)
tux.kuk o"kZ L=kh&iq#"k vuqikr
1901 972
1911 964
1921 955
1931 950
1941 945
1951 946
1961 941
1971 930
1981 934
1991 927
2001 933
980
970
960
950
940
930
920
910
900
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
fp=k 4- 2
104 vuqla/kku fof/k
2- vko‘fÙk cgqHkwt (Frequency Polygon): vko‘fÙk forj.k (Frequency Polygon) dks vko‘fÙk cgqHkqt }kjk Hkh
izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA bldh pkj ;k pkj ls vf/kd Hkqtk;sa gksrh gSa] ftls vk/kkj cukdj oxk±rj dks vk;rksa ds
}kjk n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA vFkkZr~ ;gk¡ ;g Lej.k j[kuk t:jh gS fd vko‘fÙk cgqHkqt ds fy, Hkh vko‘fÙk vk;r fp=k
dh jpuk djuh iM+rh gS vkSj blds ckn lHkh vk;rksa ds 'kh"kZ Hkkx ds e/; ¯cnq dk irk dj mUgsa feyk fn;k
tkrk gSA vxj vk;r ds fcuk bldh jpuk djuh gks rc vko‘fÙk ls lacaf/kr ¯cnq dks vafdr dj mls mlh ds
lacaf/kr oxk±rj ds e/; ¯cnq ds lkeus ykuk iM+rk gSA /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr ;g Hkh gS fd izR;sd ¯cnq ,d oxk±rj
ds e/; ds lh/k esa gksA bu ijs'kkfu;ksa ls cpus ds fy, vk;rksa dh enn ls vko‘fÙk cgqHkwt dk fuekZ.k vklku gks
tkrk gSA bl izdkj ls fu£er vko‘fÙk pØ (Frequency curve) dks lajfpr vko‘fÙk pØ dgrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ
vxj fuEu rF; fn;s x;s gSa rks mlls vko‘fÙk Hkwt dk fp=k ¼fp=k la[;k&4.3) fuEu izdkj ls cuk;k tk ldrk
gSA
vk;&lewg ¼gtkj esa½ lnL;ksa dh la[;k

2-3 3
3-4 16
4-5 33
5-6 55
6-7 30
7-8 15
8-9 2
vko‘fÙk cgqHkqt
vko‘fÙk vk;r
lnL;ksa dh
la[;k
60
50
40
30 vko‘fÙk cgqHkqt
20
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
vk;
fp=k 4-3
bl çdkj ds mi;qZDr rF;ksa ds vk/kkj fuEu vko‘fr cgqHkqt cuk;k tk ldrk gSA bl fp=k (4.3) ls ;g Li"V
gks tkrk gS fd nksuksa fof/k ls vko‘fr cgqHkqt cuk;k tk ldrk gSA loZçFke vko‘fr (Frequency Histogram)
cukdj ;k fQj nwljk e/; fcUnq dks vk/kkj cukdjA
vko‘fr cgqHkqt dk ,d [kkl mi;ksx ;g gS fd vko‘fr forjdksa dh rqyuk Hkh fp=k ds }kjk laHko gS ysfdu vko‘fr
ls ;g laHko ugha gks ikrk gSA bl dkj.k gh vko‘fr forj.k dh rqyuk esa vko‘fr cgqHkqt dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA ,d egRoiw.kZ ckr tks /;ku nsus ;ksX; gS og ;g fd vo‘fr forjdksa dks tc e/; fcUnq dks vk/kkj cukdj
vko‘fr cgqHkqt dk fuekZ.k gksrk gS mlls dbZ çdkj ds vko‘fr oØ (frequency curves) Hkh cuk;s tk ldrs gSa
tks rF;ksa ds çLrqrhdj.k dks vkSj Hkh vkd"kZd rFkk cks/kxE; cuk nsrk gSA ¼ns[ksa fp=k 4.3)
3- ikbZ fp=k (Pie Diagram): o‘Ùkkdj ;k ikbZ fp=k dk Hkh ç;ksx 'kks/k esa fd;k tkrk gSA rF;ksa ds çLrqrhdj.k esa
ikbZ fp=k dk ç;ksx lkekU; rkSj ij tux.kuk lacaf/kr vkadM+ksa dks çnf'kZr djus ds fy, Hkh fd;k tkrk gS fQj
mlh ds vuq:i v)Z&O;kl ekudj o‘Ùk cuk;s tkrs gSaA vUrj flQZ bruk gksrk gS fd oxks± esa rqyukRed rF;ksa
ds oxZewy ds vuqlkj oxZ dh Hkqtk dh yackbZ fu/kkZfjr dj nh tkrh gS tcfd o‘Ùkkdkj fp=kksa esa ogh oxZ ewy
v)ZO;kl (radius) ds eki ds vuqlkj çnf'kZr dh tkrh gSA /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr ;g gS fd ;fn oxZey w o‘Ùk [khapus
ds fy, cgqr cM+k gks rks ,d iSekuk (Scale) ekudj oxZewyksa dks lekuqikr :i ls NksVk dj çnf'kZr fd;k tkrk
ldrk gS o‘Ùk fp=k ;k ikbZ fp=k ds Hkh nks çdkj gksrs gS tks fuEu gSa%
(i) lk/kkj.k o‘Ùk fp=k (Simple Circle): bl çdkj ds fp=k esa vyx&vyx oxZ dk Js.kh ds rqyukRed egRo
;k ifj.kke dks n'kkZus ds fy, vyx&vyx o‘Ùkksa dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Hkkjr dh lk{kjrk nj esa 1951-
2001 ds nkSjku tks o‘f) gqbZ gS mls fofHkUu o‘Ùkksa ds }kjk n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gS%
mnkgj.k%
Hkkjr dk lk{kjrk nj 1951-2001
tux.kuk o"kZ lk{kjrk nj
1951 18.30
1961 28.30
1971 34.45
1981 45.57
1991 52.20
2001 65.38
vkadM+ksa ds vk/kkj ij lk/kkj.k o‘Ùkfp=k ls Hksn Li"V gks tkrk gS fd dSls fofHkUu o"kks± esa Hkkjr dh lk{kjrk
nj dh fLFkfr D;k jgh gSA fuEu fp=kksa ds lgkjs vkadM+kas dks çnf'kZr djus ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd fiNys
ik¡p n'kdksa esa Hkkjr esa lk{kjrk nj esa yxHkx lk<+s rhu xq.kk dh o‘f) gqbZ gS ijUrq 1991-2001 ds n'kd
esa lk{kjrk nj esa o‘f) 13 çfr'kr ds Åij ntZ dh xbZ ftls o‘Ùk fp=k }kjk vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk
gS ¼fp=k 4.4)
18.30 28.30 34.45
1951 1961 1971
45.57 52.20 65.38
1981 1991 2001

fp=k 4- 4
106 vuqla/kku fof/k
2. mi&foHkkftr ;k varfoHkØ fp=k (Sub-divided circle)% ftl izdkj NM+ (Bar) vk;r (Histogram) rFkk
èku (Cubes) ds }kjk rF;ksa dk rqyukRed ifj.kke izLrqr fd;k tkrk gS mlh izdkj o‘r dks Hkh varfoZHkDr
djds mudk rqyukRed ifj.kke çLrqr fd;k tkrk gSaA bl izdkj ds o‘Ùkkdkj fp=k ds Hkh nks laHkkfor :i
gks ldrs gSA igyk rks ;g ,d gh o‘Ùk dks varfoZHkDr djds ge Jsf.k;ksa dks muds vuqikr ds vuqlkj cjkcj
fgLlksa esa tSlk fd vkadM+as n'kkZrs gSa mlh vuqikr es iznf'kZr dj nsrs gSA bl izdkj ds varfoZHkDr fp=kksa (fp=k
4.5, 4.6) ds ek/;e ls dsoy ,d gh ?kVuk ds fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa dk rqyukRed egÙo Li"V gksrk gSA tSlk
fd nloha iapo"khZ; ;kstuk esa fofHkUu enksa es [kpZ dk çfr'kr forj.k fuEu lkj.kh es fn;k x;k gSA
fp=k 4-5: nloha iapo"khZ; ;kstukvksa ds fofHkUu enksa esa [kpZ dk çfr'kr vuqikr
;krk;kr
14.8
ÅtkZ
26.5
xzkeh.k fodkl
8.0 lkekftd lsok;sa
22.8
6.8
6.5
flpkbZ ,oa ck<+ fu;a=k.k 3.9
lapkj
3.9
2.0 2.5 1.4 1.1
Ñf"k ,oa lacaf/kr fØ;k,a

m|ksx ,oa [kfut
foKku] rduhfd ,oa i;kZoj.k
lkekU; vkfFkZd lsok;s
fo'ks"k {ks=k ;kstuk
lkekU; lsok;sa
fp=k 4-6: varfoZHkDr
jkT; ctV dsUnzh; ctV

41.5 58.5
nloha iapo"khZ; ;kstukvksa ds fofHkUu enksa es [kpZ dk izfr'kr vuqikr

Øe la[;k fodkl ds {ks=k izfr'kr fooj.k
1- Ñf"k lacaf/kr fØ;k,a 3-9
2- xzkeh.k fodkl 8-0
3- fo'ks"k {ks=k ;kstuk 1-4
4- flapkbZ ,oa ck<+ fu;a=k.k 6-8
5- ÅtkZ 26-5
6- m|ksx ,oa [kfut 3-9
7- ;krk;kr 14-8
8- lapkj 6-5
9- foKku] rduhfd rFkk i;kZoj.k 2-0
10- lkekU; vkfFkZd lsok esa 2-5
11- lkekftd lsok;sa 22-8
12- lkekU; lsok;sa 1-1
13- dqy ;ksx 100-00
a. dsanzh; ;kstuk 58-5
b. jkT; ;kstuk 41-5
bl izdkj mi;qZDr fooj.k ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd ikbZ fp=k ,d o‘Ùk gS ftles fdlh ,d ?kVuk dks bdkbZ ekudj
mlds fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa dks dbZ [kaMksa es ck¡Vdj iznf'kZr fd;k tkrk gSA blds fy, igyk dke ;g gksrk gS fd fofHkUu
Jsf.k;ksa ls lacaf/kr rF;ksa dks izfr'kr esa ck¡V fn;k tkrk gS vkSj mls o‘Ùk esa çnf'kZr djus ds fy, çR;sd Js.kh dks 3.6 ls
xq.kk dj o‘Ùk esa mlds 360° ds vuqikr esa vafdr dj fn;k tkrk gS ih0oh0;ax ds vuqlkj ikbZ pkVZ dh lcls cM+h
mi;ksfxrk bldk ljy gksuk gSA lS)kfUrd :i ls bldh fo'ks"krk mu o‘Ùk esa dVs o‘Ùkkdkj fp=kksa ls gS ijUrq fdl dks.k
ij mu js[kkvksa dks [khapk x;k gS bldk vuqeku yxkuk lk/kkj.kr;k eqf'dy gh gksrk gSaA ijarq blds ckctwn Hkh ;g dgk
tk ldrk gS fd vktdy fofHkUu jaxksa esa ikbZ fp=k ds fofHkUu enksa dks rhu Lrjh; ;k pkj Lrjh; Hkkxksa es ck¡Vdj ns[kus
ls bldk vkd"kZ.k FkksM+k cM+k gS vkSj Fkzh Mh izHkko ls blds }kjk iznf'kZr fp=k dkQh ltho yxrs gSA fu'p; gh 'kks/k ds
dk;ksZ dks bl izdkj ds fp=kksa ds }kjk iznf'kZr djus ls vkadM+ksa dh jkspdrk rFkk vkd"kZ.k c<+k gSA
lkjka'k
bl [kaM es vkadM+kas ds fofHkUu lzkr
s ksa dh ppkZ djus ds ckn mu lzkr
s ksa ij vk/kkfjr rF;ksa dh xq.koÙkk dks c<+kus es oxhZdj.k]
ladsru rFkk lkj.kh;u dk D;k egÙo gS bldh tkudkjh foLrkj ls feyrh gSA dSls rF;ksa dh fo'ys"k.kkRed xq.koÙkk]
oxhZdj.k] ladrs u rFkk lkj.kh;u ls c<+rh gS bldk vuqeku blh ckr ls yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd tc bu rF;ksa dks lkj.kh
ds :i esa iznf'kZr fd;k tkrk gS vkSj fQj fofHkUu rF;ksa dk fp=ke; izn'kZu fd;k tkrk gSA os rF; tks dHkh cstku vksj
uhjl yxrs Fks os vius vki 'kks/kdÙkkZ dks mlds fu"d"kZ rd igq¡pk nsrs gSaA 'kks/k esa fnypLih j[kusokyksa dks vkt ds bl
daI;qVj ;qØ 'kks/k es bl izdkj ls rF;ksa dh vfHkO;fDr dks ,d u;k vk/kkj feyk gSA fo|kfFkZ;ksa esa Hkh y/kq Lrj ij gh
lgh tks izkstsDV ds dk;Z fd;s tkrs gS og Hkh T;knk :fpdj gks x;k gSA nwjn'kZu ij vDlj fp=ke; izn'kZu ds }kjk]
tux.kuk] ekSle] vijk/k rFkk pqukoh vkadM+ksa ds fy, bldk bLrseky ,d :Vhu lh ckr gks x;h gSA
ewY;kdau gsrq iz'u
1. lzksr D;k gS\ blds fofHkUu izdkjksa dk mnkgj.k lfgr o.kZu djsa
2. 'kks/k esa izkFkfed lzksr ds egÙo dk foLrkj ls o.kZu djsaA
108 vuqla/kku fof/k
3. }Sfr;d lzksr ds }kjk 'kks/k fdl gn rd fo'oluh; gksrk gSA

4. oxhZdj.k ds fofHkUu çdkjksa dk mnkgj.k lfgr o.kZu djsaA
5. lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkj.kh;u ds çdkjksa dk o.kZu djsaA
6. lkekftd 'kks/k esa rF;ksa ds fp=ke; çn'kZu dk ewY;kadu djsaA
lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k 109
v/;k;&5
lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k
(Statistical Methods in Social Research)
lkekftd 'kks/k esa la[;kRed rF; dk iz;ksx vc ,d lk/kkj.k ckr gks x;h gSA ;gk¡ rd dh lekpkj] foKkiu] nwjn'kZu
esa dksbZ lwpuk rFkk foKkiu vkfn esa ftl izdkj bu la[;kRed rF;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS og vius vki esa bl ckr
dk |ksrd gS fd bl izdkj ls rF;ksa dk izn'kZu fdruk izpfyr gks x;k gSA
vaxt sz h Hkk"kk ds 'kCn Statistical dh mRifÙk ySfVu Hkk"kk ds LVsVl (Status), bVsfy;u Hkk"kk ds LVkV~lk (Statsa) rFkk teZu
Hkk"kk ds LVsVhLVhd (Statistic) ls gqbZ gSA teZuh ds izfl) xf.krkpk;Z xkVÝk;M ,psuoky (Gottfried Achenwall) us
loZizFke bldk iz;ksx rF;ksa dks xf.kr ds :i esa fd;k ftlds dkj.k mUgsa lkaf[;dh dk tUenkrk dgk tkrk gSA fiNys
rhu lkS o"kZ esa lkaf[;dh foKku dk pkSeq[kh fodkl gqvk gSA blds fodkl esa vkj0 ,0 fQ'kj rFkk dkyZ fi;lZu ds uke
fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gSa ftUgksaus bls ,d izpfyr fof/k ds :i esa izfrf"Br fd;kA lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk vfHkizk; crkrs
gq, osCLVj (Webster) us fy[kk gS fd os rF; ftudks vadksa ds :i esa vFkok fdlh Hkh lkj.kh ;k o£xr i)fr }kjk izLrqr
fd;k tkrk gS lkaf[;dh dgykrs gSaA ckmys (Bowley) us lkaf[;dh (Statistics) dks vadksa esa O;Dr djus okys rÙoksa ds
fooj.k dk fo"k; dgk gS ftlesa rF;ksa dks lkaf[;dh :i nsdj blds laca/k dks n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA ljy 'kCnksa esa ;g dgk
tk ldrk gS fd lkaf[;dh esa rF;ksa ds ml lewg dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tks vusd dkj.kksa ls izHkkfor gksrs gSa ftUgsa vadksa
esa O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA
mi;qZDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd lkaf[;dh dh rhu eq[; fo'ks"krk,¡ gSa%
1- blesa rF;ksa dks la[;kRed :i esa O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA
2- ;g rF; 'kks/k ls lEcfU/kr gksrs gSaA
3- rqyuk djus ds fy, bu rF;ksa dks ,d&nwljs ds lEcU/k esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA
lkaf[;dh fof/k ds fuEu izeq[k y{k.k ggSa%
1- rF;ksa ds lewg (Aggregate of Facts) dks bdkbZ cukdj lkaf[;dh esa bldk iz;ksx gksrk gSA
2- ;gk¡ rF;ksa ds Åij dbZ dkj.kksa dk izHkko iM+rk gS] ftldk rqyukRed v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA
3- rF;ksa dks la[;kRed :i esa vfHkO;fDr feyrh gSA
4- lkaf[;dh fof/k ds }kjk ftu rF;ksa dks fo'ys"k.k ds fy, pquk tkrk gS mudh 'kq)rk (Accuracy) ij dksbZ lansg
ug gksrkA
5- rF;ksa dks lqfu;ksftr <ax ls laxzfgr fd;k tkrk gSA
6- rF;ksa dks iwoZfu/kkZfjr mís';ksa ds vk/kkj ij ,d=k fd;k tkrk gSA
tgk¡ rd lkaf[;dh ds n‘f"Vdks.k ls rF;ksa ds ladyu dk iz'u gS] bu lkaf[;dh bdkbZ ds fuEu xq.k egÙoiw.kZ gS] ftldh
ppkZ ih0 oh0 ;ax us Hkh dh gSA ih0 oh0 ;ax ds vuqlkj mu lkaf[;dh bdkbZ ds fuEu xq.k gksus pkfg,a%
1- izklafxdrk (Appropriateness): rF;ksa dh izklafxdrk 'kks/k ds mís'; ls tqM+h gksrh gSA ,d lkaf[;dh bdkbZ
vxj ,d ?kVuk ds v/;;u ds fy, lkFkZd gS rks bldk vFkZ ;g ug fudkyuk pkfg, dh nwljh ?kVuk ds vè;;u
esa ml bdkbZ dks lkFkZd ekuk tk ldrk gSA
110 vuqla/kku fof/k
2- eki;ksX;rk (Measurability)% ftu lkaf[;dh bdkbZ;ksa dk bLrseky fd;k tkrk gS] mUgsas eki;ksX; gksuk Hkh
vko';d gSA
3. Li"Vrk (Clarity)% ftu lkaf[;dh bdkbZ;ksa dks egÙo fn;k tkrk gS] mldk Li"V gksuk Hkh ,d vko';d 'krZ
gSA
4. rqyukRed {kerk (Comparability)% ,d lkaf[;dh bdkbZ dh lQyrk bl ckr ij Hkh fuHkZj djrh gS fd ml
lakf[;dh bdkbZ dks nwljh bdkbZ ds lkFk mldh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gS ;k ughaA
bl izdkj lakf[;dh dk egÙo] lkekftd 'kks/k esa dkQh gSA
ek/; izo‘fÙk;ksa dk eki

(Measures of Central Tendencies)
lkekftd 'kks/k ds nkSjku ftu lkaf[;dh rF;ksa dh ryk'k dh tkrh gS] mu rF;ksa dk oxhZdj.k rFkk lkjf.k;u djuk
vko';d gSA blh dkj.k lkaf[;dh rF;ksa dk izpyu 'kks/k dks ljy cukus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA blls ;g vuqeku yxk;k
tk ldrk gS fd 'kks/k ;FkkFkZ ij vk/kkfjr gSaA lkaf[;dh fof/k ds }kj rqyukRed v/;;u ds fy, lkj.kh;u dks vk/kkj
cukdj rF;ksa dks j[kk tkrk gSA ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd gj ,d vk¡dM+ksa dh fLFkfr ,d tSlh ugha gks ldrhA fQj
Hkh lHkh vk¡dM+ksa esa ls ,d ,sls vad dh [kkst dj yh tkrh gS tks dh lHkh O;fDrxr vk¡dM+ksa dk mfpr izfrfu/kRo dj
ldsA ,slh ;ksX;rk ;k ewY; dks gh ek/; izo‘fÙk (Central Tendency) dgrs gSaA ek/; izo‘ÎfÙk vyx&vyx vk¡dM+ksa ;k rF;ksa
;k O;fDr;ksa dh ;ksX;rk ;k ewY; ij izdk'k ugha Mkyrh] cfYd og lkewfgd :i ls lEiw.kZ oxZ ;k Js.kh dh ;ksX;rk dk
izfrfufèkRo djrh gS vkSj bl izdkj og iwjs lewg dh izo‘fÙk ;k ewY; dh vksj ladsr djrh gSA mnkgj.kFkkZ ;fn fdlh
ijh{k.k es ikap Nk=kksa dks Øe'k% 6]7]5]4 vkSj 9 vad izkIr gksrs gksrs gSa rks Åijh rkSj ij ;gh dgk tk,xk fd ik¡p Nk=kksa
dh ;ksX;rk ,d &nwljs ls fHkUu gSA ijUrq bu izkIrkadksa dks /;kuiwoZd ns[kus ls ekywe gksxk fd 6 vad ,slk vad gS ftlds
vkl&ikl vU; vad fLFkr gSA nks vad 6 ls NksVs vkSj nks 6 ls cMs+ gSaA vr% ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd 6 bl iwjs lewg
dk izfrfufèkRo djus okyk vad gSA blfy, ge 6 dks mijksDr ik¡pksa izkIrkadksa dh dsUnzh; izo‘fÙk dgsaxsA la{ksi esa ge ;g
dg ldrs gSa fd og ewY; tks gesa lewg dh ;ksX;rk dks laf{kIr :i ls ,d vad es gh cryk nsrs gS dsUnzh; izo‘fÙkd eki
(Measures of Central Tendency) dgykrs gSaA bu ewY;ksa dks lkaf[;dh esa ek/; (Mean or Average) dgrs gSaA
bl izdkj ek/; ,d ,slh ljy vfHkO;fDr gS ftles dbZ la[;kvksa dk lkj dsUnzhr gksrk gSA ,sYgkal dk ;g ekuuk Fkk
fd ek/; ,d ,slh la[;k gS ftldk iz;ksx lEiw.kZ Jsf.k;ksa dk izfrfuf/kRo djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA og Js.kh u rks
U;wure ewY; gksrh gS vkSj u gh mPpre ewY;] cfYd og ewY; bu nksuksa lhekvksa ds chp dk ,d ewY; gksrk gS tks ewY;ksa
ds chp esa dsfUnzr gksrh gSA bl izdkj ek/; dks /;ku esa j[kdj lEiw.kZ Jsf.k;ksa dh dsUnzh; fo'ks"krk dk irk yxk;k tk
ldrk gSA lkekftd 'kks/k es rF;ksa dh foospuk] fo'kys"k.k rFkk fu"d"kZ fudkyus es ek/;e dh mi;ksfxrk Lohdkj dh xbZ
gSA ,d vkn'kZ ek/; ds fuEufyf[kr vko';d rRo gksrs gSa
1- fuf'prrk ,oa Li"Vrk (Definite and clarity)% ek/; dk iw.kZr;% fuf'pr ,oa Li"V gksuk ,d vkn'kZ ek/; dh
fo'ks"krk gksrh gSA
2- ljyrk (Simplicity)% ,d vkn'kZ ek/; dk xq.k gksrk gS] mldh x.kuk i)fr dks ljy rFkk mi;qDr cukukA
3- lewg dk izfrfuf/kRo (Representative character of the Group)% ek/; iwjh Js.kh dh fo'ks"krkvksa dk Hkh
izfrfuf/kRo djrk gSA
4- fuisZ{krk (Secular)% ek/; iw.kZr;% fuZis{k gksrk gS] ;g de o vf/kd rFkk ?kVus dk c<+us okyk ugha gksrkA
5- chtxf.krh; foospu (Algebric Description)% ek/; ds }kjk chtxf.krh; foospu Hkh lEHko gksrk gSA vFkkZr~
,d vPNs o vkn'kZ ek/; dks chtxf.krh; rFkk vadxf.krh; ds lq=kksa ds }kjk ij[kk tk ldrk gSA
6- fu%n'kZu ls de izHkkfor
kkfor% ,d vPNk ek/; og gS tks fu%n'kZu esa ifjorZu vkus ij Hkh mlls izHkkfor ugha gksrkA
7- Jsf.k;ksa dk laf{kIrhdj.k (Summerisation of facts)% ek/; ds }kjk tfVy Jsf.k;ksa dks laf{kIr :i ls izdV
djuk vklku gks tkrk gSA
8- rqyukRed v/;;u rFkk fo'ys"k.k esa lgk;d (Useful in Comparative Study and Analysis)% ,d vPNs
ek/; dh ;g Hkh fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd ;g rqyukRed ek/;e rFkk fof'k"V fo'ys"k.k esa lgk;d gksrk gSA
ekxZn'kZu djuk
(Path Finding)
ekxZn'kZu ek/; dh mYys[kuh; Hkqfedk gksrh gSA
bl izdkj mi;qDr fo'ks"krkvksa ls ;g Li"V gS fd ek/; ,d laf{kIr rFkk ljy fp=k izLrqr djrk gSA fu;kstu rFkk
uhfrfuZèkkj.k esa bldh izeq[k Hwfedk dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gS D;ksafd bldh lgk;rk ls rqyukRed v/;;u }kjk oSKkfud
fu"d"kZ fudkyuk vklku gks tkrk gS blfy, dqN lhekvksa ds ckotwn Hkh bldk lkekftd 'kks/k es ,d egÙoiw.kZ LFkku
gks tkrk gSA
ek/; ds izdkj
ek/;ksa ds ;w¡ rks dbZ izdkj gksrs gSa] ijUrq ih0oh0 ;ax us rhu fuEufyf[kr izdkjksa dks egÙoiw.kZ ekuk gSA
1. vadxf.krh; ek/; (Arithmetic mean)
2. cgqyd (Mode)
3. e/;adk (Median)
lekukUrj ek/;% fof/k ,oa egRo

(Mean: Procedure of its Calculation and Importance)
lekukarj ek/; (Mean) okLro esa vkSlr 'kCn dk gh :ikarfjr Lo:i gSA blds }kjk (Mean) Js.kh ds leLr enksa ds
ewY;ksa ds ;ksx dks mudh la[;k ls Hkkx ns dj izkIr fd;k tkrk gSA vFkkZr~ lekukarj ek/; og ewY; gS tks fdlh Js.kh
ds leLr ewY;ksa ds ;ksx esa mudh la[;k dk Hkkx nsus ls izkIr gksrk gSA ih0oh0 ;ax us Hkh ;g fy[kk gS fd lkaf[;dh 'kksèk
esa x.kuk (Calculate) djus dk ;g ,d lcls vklku rjhdk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, vxj 6 fo|kFkhZ 50, 55, 60, 50, 45,
40 vad izkIr djrs gSaA tks mu lcds ;ksx vFkkZr~ 300 dks 6 ls xq.kk dj bldk ek/; vklkuh ls fudkyk tk ldrk gSA
bl mnkgj.k es 6 fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds izkIrkad dk ek/; 50 vkrk gS vr% ek/; 50 gqvkA
lekukarj ek/; dh fuEufyf[kr fo'ks"krk,¡ gSaA
1. ljy fof/k (Simple Series)% lekukarj ek/; dsUnzh; fof/k dh izo‘fÙk dks eki djus dh ,d ljy fof/k gSaA
2- leku egÙo (Equal Importance)% blesa leLr in ewY;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj lHkh leLr inksa
dks egÙo fn;k tkrk gSA
3- vklku x.kuk (Easy Calculation)% lekukarj ek/; dk irk djus ds fy, izR;sd in dh x.kuk dsoy ,d ckj
gh dh tkrh gSA
4- inewY;ksa dk egÙo (Importance of Total)% lekukarj ek/; eas inksa dh vko‘fr dh rqyuk es inewY;ksa dks vfèkd
egÙoiw.kZ le>k tkrk gSA
ljy Js.kh }kjk lekukarj ek/; fudkyus dh fof/k
(Calculation of Mean in Simple Series)
lekukarj ek/; ljy Js.kh (Simple Series)] [kf.Mr Js.kh (Discrete Series) rFkk lr~r Js.kh (Continuous Series)esa
fofHkUu fof/k;ksa }kjk fudkyk tkrk gSA ;gk¡ ljy Js.kh eas lekarj ek/; fudkyus dh fof/k ij fopkj fd;k x;k gSA
112 vuqla/kku fof/k
lekukarj ek/; nks fof/k;kasa }kjk fudkyh tkrh gS] tks fuEu gSa
1. izR;{k jhfr }kjk (Direct Method)
2. y/kq jhfr }kjk (Shortcut Method)
1- izR;{k jhfr (Direct Method)% bl fof/k ds }kjk lekuarj ek/; fudkyus ds fy,] lcls igys leLr inksa ds
ewY;ksa dk ;ksx fudkyk tkrk gS] fQj ml ;ksx esa inksa dh dqy la[;k dk Hkkx fn;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ls izkIr
yCèkh lekarj ek/; gksrk gSA fuEufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk bls le>k tk ldrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
10 fo|kFkhZ;ksa dh yEckbZ dk lekurj ek/; Kkr djus ds fy, fuEu vk¡dMsa+ miyC/k gSAa lHkh fo|kFkhZ;ksa dh yEckbZ
lSUVhehVj esa bl izdkj gS 155] 153] 168] 162] 164] 166] 180] 165] 157] 160
lekuarj ek/; fudkyus ds fy, mi;ZqDr rF;ksa dks fuEu lkj.kh es O;ofLFkr dj fn;k x;k gSA
la[;k X
1 155
2 153
3 168
4 162
5 164
6 166
7 180
8 165
9 157 Σxdx
=
10 160
N=10 ΣX =1630
izR;{k jhfr }kjk Åij fn, x, leLr inksa ds ewY;ksa dks tksM+us ls mudk dqy ;ksx 1630 vkrk gSA bl ;ksx dks inksa dh
dqy la[;k vFkkZr~ N=10 ls Hkkx nsus ij izfrQy 163 vkrk gSA bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd mi;qZDr vk¡dM+ksa
dk lekurj ek/; 163 gSA
blds fy, fuEu lw=k bl izdkj gSa
Σx
lw=k x= lw=kksa ds vk/kkj ij fudkyk x;k lekarj ek/;
N
=163
tgka = lekarj ek/;
Σ = ;ksx
X = inksa dk ewY;
N = inksa dh dqy la[;k
Σx = leLr in ewY;ksa dk ;ksx
bl izdkj izR;{k jhfr }kjk fo|kFkhZ;ksa dh yackbZ dk lekarj ek/; 163 lsaVhehVj izkIr gqvkA
2. y/kq jhfr }kjk (Short cut Method)% tc Js.kh yach gks] inksa dh la[;k gks] os cM+h la[;k gks] os cM+h la[;k
esa ;k n'keyo okyh la[;k esa gks] rc y/kq jhfr }kjk lekarj ek/; Kkr djus esa ljyrk jgrh gSA bl jhfr esa
loZiFz ke Js.kh ds fdlh Hkh in dks dfYir ek/; (Assumed mean) eku ysrs gSAa dfYir ek/; eku ysus ds i'pkr~
lHkh ewY;ksa ls fopyu (Deviation) dk irk pyk;k tkrk gSA blds ckn ek/; fudkyus ds fy, ftl lw=k dk
iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS og fuEu gS%
;gk¡
= lkekUrj ek/;
A = dfYir ek/;
N = inksa dh la[;k
d = fopyu
x = inewY;
= fopyu ls izkIr inewY;ksa dk ;ksx
fuEu mnkgj.k eas Hkh mlh rF; o vkadM+ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gS tSalk fd izR;{k jhfr }kjk ek/; fudkyk tk;sxkA
mnkgj.k
ΣΣdx
xdx
Χ Σdx
−30
x ==A
Χ + +
166
N 10
la[;k yackbZ (ls-eh-es)a A=166
N X dx
1 155 (155-166)-11
2 153 (153-166)-13
3 168 (168-166)+2
4 162 (162-166)-4
5 164 (164-166)-2
6 166 (166-166)-0
7 180 (180-166)+14
8 165 (165-166)-1
9 157 (157-166)-9
10 160 (160-166)-6
N=10 = -46+16
= -30
Χ = 166-3
= 163
114 vuqla/kku fof/k
vr% lekarj ek/; 163 lsaVhehVj gksxkA ;gk¡ Lej.k j[kus ;ksX; ckr ;g gS fd lekarj pkgs izR;+{k jhfr ls fudkyk tk,
;g y?kq jhfr ls nksuksa dk mÙkj ,d leku gh vkrk gSA
[kafMr Js.kh easa lekarj ek/; fudkyuk
(Calculation of Mean in Discrete Series)
[kafMr Js.kh esa Hkh lekarj ek/; izR;{k rFkk y/kq jhfr ls fudkyh tk ldrh gSA izR;{k jhfr ds ek/; Kkr djus dh fofèk
fuEufyf[kr gSA
çR;{k jhfr
(Direct Method)
1. loZizFke in ewY;ksa dks vko‘fr ls xq.kk djrs gSaA
2. lHkh inksa ds xq.ku Qy dk ;ksx djrs gSaA
3. xq.ku Qy ds ;ksx dks vko‘fr;ksa ds ;ksx ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA
4. Hkkx nsus ls izkIr yfC/k dks gh lekarj ek/; dgk tkrk gSA izR;{k jhfr ls bls ,d lw=k eas Hkh izLrqr fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
tgk¡
Χ = lekarj ek/;
= inksa dh vko‘fr
Σfx = in ds ewY;ksa vkSj vko‘fr ds xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx Σf f
Χ
mnkgj.k
izkIr vad % 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 18, 15, 10, 20, 25
Nk=k % 4, 6, 10, 2, 3, 5, 7, 5, 3, 5
izkIrkad Nk=k ewY;ksa dk vko‘fr dk ;ksx
x f fx
24 4 96
23 6 138
22 10 220
21 2 42
20 3 60
18 5 90
15 7 105
10 5 50
30 3 90
25 5 125
N=50 =1016
1016
=
50
= 20.32
bl izdkj ;g Li"V gS fd bl mnkgj.k eas lekarj ek/; 20.32 vkrk gSA

y?kq jhfr
(Short-Cut Method)
[kafMr Js.kh esa lekarj e/; y/kq jhfr ls Hkh fudkyk tk ldrk gSA y/kq jhfr esa fuEu pj.k (Steps) dks viuk;k tkrk
gS%
1. in&ewY;ksa es ls fdlh ,d dks dfYir e/; (Assumed Mean) eku fy;k tkrk gSA
2. dfYir ek/; ls ewY;ksa dk fopyu irk yxk fy;k tkrk gSA
3. izR;sd fopyu dk lEcfU/kr vko‘fr ls xq.kk djds dqy fopyu dk Hkh irk yxk fy;k tkrk gSA fQj fopfyr
eqY;ksa ds xq.ku Qyksa dk ;ksx fudky fy;k tkrk gSA lw=k rFkk blds mnkgj.k uhps n'kkZ, x, gSa
lw=k Σfdx
Χ = A+
N
Χ = lekarj ek/;
A = dfYir ek/;
N = inksa dh la[;k
f = inksa dh vko‘fr
d = fopyu
= vko‘fr o fopfyr ewY;ksa ds xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx mnkgj.k
izkIrkad % 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 18, 15, 10, 30, 25
Nk=k % 4, 6, 10, 2, 3, 5, 7, 5, 3, 5
izkIrkad Nk=k la[;k fopyu fopfyr ewY; o vko‘fr

Σfdx Σfdx
Χ = A+ x f A=22 fdx
N
22 4 +2 +8
23 6 +1 +6
22 10 0 0
21 2 -1 -2
20 3 -2 -6
18 5 -4 -20
15 7 -7 -49
10 5 -12 -60
30 3 +8 +24
25 5 +3 +15
N=50 +14-26= -12 = 53-137

= - 84
−84
= 22 +
50
= 22 -1.68
= 20.32
= 20.32
vr% ;gk¡ ij bl mnkgj.k eas Nk=kksa ds izkIrkadksa dk lekarj ek/; 20-32 vkrk gSA
116 vuqla/kku fof/k
3- lr~r Js.kh esa lekarj ek/; fudkyuk (Calculation of Mean in Continous Series) % lr~r Js.kh esa Hkh
lekarj ek/; nks jhfr;ksa }kjk fudkyk tk ldrk gSA izR;{k jhfr ls lekarj ek/; Kkr djus fd fof/k fuEufyf[kr
gS&
1- lcls igys oxkZUrjksa (Class-intervals) dk e/;eku fudkyk tkrk gSA
2- e/; ewY; ls bls xq.kk fd;k tkrk gSA
3- blds ckn lHkh e/; ewY; ds xq.ku Qy dk ;ksx djrs gSaA
4- fQj xq.ku Qy ds ;ksxksa dks vko‘fÙk;ksa ds ;ksx ls Hkkx nsrs gSA vkSj Hkkx nsus ds i'pkr~ izkIr yfC/k dks gh
lekarj ek/; dgk tkrk gSA
izR;{k jhfr
(Direct Method)
izR;{k jhfr ls bls ,d lw=k rFkk mnkgj.k }kjk ;gk¡ n'kkZus dh dksf'k'k dh xbZ gSA
lw=k
Σfx
X =
N
tgk¡
X = lekarj ek/;
N = vko‘fÙk;ksa dk ;ksx
= in ewY;ksa ,oa vko‘fÙk;ksa ds xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx
mnkgj.k
nSfud etnwjh (:): 3-5, 6-8, 9-11, 12-14, 15-17, 18-20, 21-23, 24-26 Σf
X
Jfedkas dh la[;k% 2, 6, 8, 11, 10, 4, 3, 1
nSfud etnwjh Jfed la[;k e/; ewY; e/; ewY; dk ;ksx
x f x fx
3-5 2 4 8
6-8 6 7 42
9-11 8 10 80
12-14 11 13 143
15-17 10 16 160
18-20 4 19 76
21-23 3 22 66
24-26 1 25 25
N=45 =600
600
=
45
X = 13.33
bl izdkj mi;qZDr mnkgj.k ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd et+nwjh dk lekarj ek/; 13-33 gksxkA
y?kq jhfr
(Short-cut Method)
lr~r Js.kh esa lekarj ek/; y?kq jhfr }kjk Hkh fudkyk tkrk gSA y?kq jhfr ls ek/; Kkr djus dh fof/k bl izdkj gSA
1- lcls igys oxkZUrjksa ls e/; ewY; fudkyrs gSaA
2- e/; ewY;ksa esa ls fdlh ,d ewY; dks dfYir e/; eku ysrs gSaA
3- dfYir ek/; ls ewY;ksa dk fopyu irk fd;k tkrk gSA
4- izR;sd fopyu dks vko‘fr ls xq.kk djds xq.ku Qyksa dk ;ksx fudkyk tkrk gSA
y/kq jhfr ls bls lw=k rFkk mnkgj.k ds }kjk uhsps n'kkZ;k x;k gS
lw=k
Σfdx
X = A+
N
tgk¡
X = lekarj ek/;
A = dfYir ek/;
N = vko‘fÙk;ksa dk ;ksx
= in fopyuksa o vko‘fÙk;ksa ds xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx
mnkgj.k
nSfud et+nwjh % 3-5, 6-8, 9-11, 12-14, 15-17, 18-20, 21-23, 24-26
Jfedksa dh la[;k % 2, 6, 8, 11, 10, 4, 3, 1
Σfdx Σfdx nSfud et+njw h Jfed la[;k e/; ewY; fopyu fopyu ewY;
X = A+
N A=16 vko‘fr ;ksx
x f x dx fdx
3-5 2 4 -12 -24
6-8 6 7 -9 -54
9-11 8 10 -6 -48
12-14 11 13 -3 -33
15-17 10 16 0 0
18-20 4 19 +3 +12
21-23 3 22 +6 +18
24-26 1 25 +9 +9
N=45 = -159 + 39
= -120
−120
= 16 +
45
= 16-2.67
X = 13.33
118 vuqla/kku fof/k
bl izdkj mi;qZDr mnkgj.k ls ;g Li"V gS fd nSfud et+nwjh dk lekarj ek/; 13-33 gksxkA
blds vfrfjDr lr~r Js.kh esa lekarj ek/; fudkyus dh ,d vkSj fof/k dk mYys[k vkrk gS ftls in&foospu jhfr (Step
Deviation Method) dgk tkrk gSA ijUrq /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr ;g gS fd ;g jhfr T;knk izpfyr jhfr es ugha vkrh gSA
ijUrq fQj Hkh ;gk¡ bl ckr dk /;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd pkgs fdlh Hkh jhfr }kjk lekraj ek/; fudkyus dh dksf'k'k
dh tk,] bu lHkh jhfr;ksa ds fu"d"kZ ,d leku gh izdV gksrs gSaA
ek/; dh mi;ksfxrk ,oa xq.k
(Usefulness & Merits of Means)
lekarj ek/; ds egÙo rFkk mldh mi;ksfxrk fuEu gS%

1- ljyrk (Simple): lekarj ek/; dh x.kuk djuk o le>uk dkQh ljy gSA
2- fuf'prrk (Definitive): lekarj ek/; fuf'pr] fLFkj rFkk Li"V rjhds ls ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA
3- chtxf.krh; foospu (Algebric description): inksa dh la[;k vkSj in ewY;ksa ds ;ksx ds lekarj ek/; irk
ysus ds ckn mldk chtxf.krh; foospu Hkh laHko gSA
4- lHkh ewY;ksa dks leku egÙo (Equal Importance): fn;k tkrk gSA
5- rqyukRed ewY;kadu (Comparative Evaluation): lekarj ek/; es rqyukRed ewY;kadu dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA
6- tk¡p laHko (Verification): lekarj ek/; ftl izdkj fudkyk tkrk gS mldh ijh{k.k o tk¡p laHko gS tks bls
oSKkfud vk/kkj iznku djrk gSA
mi;qZDr xq.kksa ds lkFk gh ek/; dh dqN lhek,a Hkh gSa tks fuEu gSa%
1- dbZ ckj lekarj ek/; ,sls ifj.kkeksa dks izLrqr djrk gS tks okLro esa vlaHko gksrk gSA
2- tc vlk/kkj.k bdkb;k¡ cgqr cM+h ;k cgqr NksVh gksa rc lekarj ek/; ij bldk vuqfpr izHkko iM+us dh laHkkouk
cuh jgrh gSA
3- tc inksa dh la[;k vf/kd gks rks bls fujh{k.k ek=k ls irk ugha yxk;k tk ldrk gSA
4- ;gk¡ ij ;g vko';d gksrk gS fd inek=kk ds leLr inksa ds ekiksa dk ;ksx vyx&vyx ekywe fd;k tk;s] ;fn
dksbZ in NwV tkrk gS tks ek/; fudkyk ugha tk ldrk gSA
5- lekarj ek/; izxfr'khy (Progressive) rFkk izrh;xkeh (Regressive) dks ugha n'kkZrk gSA
cgqyd% vFkZ] fof/k ,oa egRo

(Mode: Meaning, Procedure of the Calculation and Importance)
vaxt a Hkk"kk ds La mode ls gqbZ gS ftldk vFkZ fjokt] QS'ku (fashion) ls tqMk+ gSAa lakf[;dh
zs h ds eksM+ 'kCn dh mRifÙk Ýsp
es cgqyd ml eku dks dgrsa gSa tks ml inek=kk esa vf/kd ckj vkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ ;fn et+nwjksa dks Øe'k% 70, 90, 70,
50, 80, 120, 70, 60, 80 :i;sa ,d fnu dh et+nwjh feyrh gks rks bldk cgqyd 70 vkrk gS tks bl ckr dks n'kkZrk gS fd
vf/kdka'k et+nwjksa dks nSfud et+nwjh 70 feyrh gSA
fxyQksMZ us cgqyd dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fy[kk gS fd cgqyd eki ds iSekus dk og fcUnq gS tgk¡ fd fdlh forj.k eas
lokZfèkd vko‘fr gksrh gSA
cgqyd dh fo'ks"krk,a
(Chracteristics of Mode)
1- fadlh Hkh inewY;ksa esa cgqyd og vad gS ftldh vko‘fÙk lokZf/kd gksrh gSA
2- cgqyd in ewY;ksa ij ugha] vfirq vko‘fr ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
3- bldh lcls cM+h fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd vU; dsUnzh; izo‘fÙk;ksa dh rqyuk esa bldh x.kuk ljy gSA
4- cgqyd lHkh in&ewY;ksa dk vFkkZr~ lexz dk izfrfuf/kRo djrk gSA
O;fDrxr Js.kh esa cgqyd fudkyus dh fof/k
(Computation of Mode)
1- fujh{k.k }kjk (Through Observation)
2. [akfMr Js.kh esa cnydj (Transforming them in Discrete Series)
3- ekf/;dk ,oa lekarj ek/; ds vk/kkj ij (Grouping Method)
1- fujh{k.k }kjk (Through Observation)% O;fDrxr Js.kh esa cgqyd dk irk yxkus ds fy, lcls igys inksa
dks ,d Øe esa O;ofLFkr dj fy;k tkrk gS vkSj ml in esa vko‘fÙk ds vk/kkj ij cgqyd dh igpku dj yh
tkrh gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ fn;s x;s in ewY; gSA
2, 7, 6, 5, 4, 5, 8, 5, 6 & 4
cgqyd irk yxkus ds fy, ineqY;ksa dks fuEu Øe eas j[kk tkrk gS
2, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7 & 8
mi;ZqDr in ewY;ksa esa 5 dh vko‘fÙk 3 ckj gqbZ gS vkSj bl vk/kkj ij vU; vadksa dh rqyuk esa ;g lcls T;knk gS blfy,
bl inewY; dk cgqyd 5 gksxkA
2- [kafM+r Js.kh esa cnydj cgqyd fudkyuk (Computation of Mode through Discrete Series)% tc O;fDrxr
Js.kh ds vusd ewY; nks ;k nks ls vf/kd ckj ik;s tkrs gSa rks mUgsa vkjksgh Øe esa O;ofLFkr dj mudh vko‘fÙk
dks muds lkeus fy[k fn;k tkrk gSA vko‘fr ftl ewY; dh lcls vf/kd gksrh gS og mldk ewY; cgqyd
dgykrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, fuEu lkj.kh esa 50 O;fDr;ksa dh vk;q gh vk;h gS ftldk cgqyd fudkyuk
gSA
bl vk;q Js.kh dks vkjksgh Øe esa O;ofLFkr fd;k x;k gS%
inewY; (O;fDr;ksa dh vk;q) vko‘fÙk (Frequency)
20 4
21 6
22 12
23 18
24 7
25 3
mi;qZDr lkj.kh ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd vf/kdre vko‘fÙk 18 gS ftldk inewY; 23 gSA vr% cgqyd vk;q 23 gqvkA
3- lekarj ek/; dk lkewfgdj.k jhfr ds }kjk cgqyd fudkyuk (Computation of Mode Through Grouping
Method)% fdlh O;fDrxr Js.kh dk cgqyd lkewfgdj.k jhfr ds }kjk Hkh fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gS ftlds fy,
fuEu lw=k gS
120 vuqla/kku fof/k
lw=k Z= 3M -2 x
;gk¡
Z = cgqyd
M=ekf/;dk
X= lekarj ek/;
fuEu inewY;ksa esa ls lekarj ek/; ds vk/kkj ij cgqyd Kkr djuk gksxk
33, 20, 35, 50, 37, 33, 35, 25, 35, 35, 34 & 35
bl inekyk ;k leadek;k esa ekf/;dk 35 vkSj bldk lekarj ek/; 33-8 gksxk
rks cgqyd Z = 3M -2 x
Z= 3 x 35-2 x 33.8
Z=105 - 67.6
Z= 37.4
bl izdkj bl inewY; dk cgqyd 37-4 vkrk gSA
[kf.Mr Js.kh esa cgqyd dk fu/kkZj.k
(Location or Computation of Mode in Discrete Series)
1. loZizFke fujh{k.k fof/k }kjk lokZf/kd vko‘fÙk dk ewY; ;kfu cgqyd irk djuk gksrk gSA
vxj inksa dk eku % 5, 9, 13, 17, 7, 11, 19, 15
vko‘fÙk 1, 7, 11, 5, 2, 9, 4, 8
lokZf/kd vko‘fÙk 11 gS ftldk in ewY; 13 gS rks cgqyd 13 gksxkA
2- lewg jhfr }kjk cgqyd dk fu/kkZj.k (Computation of Mode Through Grouping Method)% tc vko‘fÙk;ksa
dk Øe vfu;af=kr gksrk gS rc lewgu fof/k }kjk cgqyd dk irk yxk;k tkrk gSA bl fof/k esa vko‘fÙk;ksa ds
fofHkUu lewg cuk fy;s tkrs gaS vkSj mlds ckn fo'ys"k.k lkj.kh cukdj mudk cgqyd irk yxk;k tkrk
gSA
lewg jhfr ds fy, 6 dkye dh lkj.kh cukuh iM+rh gS vkSj fuEu pj.k dk vuqlj.k djuk iM+rk gS%
(i) inewY;ksa dks Øe esa fy[kdj vko‘fÙk;k¡ iznf'kZr dj nh tkrh gSA
(ii) nks&nks vko‘fÙk;ksa dks fy[kdj mudk ;ksx dkye 2 esa fy[kk tkrk gSA
(iii) izFke vko‘fÙk dks NksM+dj nks nks vko‘fÙk;ksa dks ysdj mudk ;ksx dkye 3 esa fy[kk tkrk gSA
(iv) rhu rhu vko‘fÙk;ksa dks ysdj mudk ;ksx dkye 4 esa fy[kk tkrk gSA
(v) izFke vko‘fÙk dks NksM+dj rhu&rhu vko‘fÙk;ksa dks ysdj mudk ;ksx dkye 5 eas fy[kk tkrk gSA
(vi) izFke nks vko‘fÙk;ksa dks NksM+dj rhu&rhu vko‘fÙk;ksa dks ysdj ;ksx djds dkye 6 esa fy[kk tkrk gSA
fuEu lkj.kh es lkewfgd jhfr ls ;g iznf'kZr fd;k x;k gS%
mnkgj.k lewgu lkj.kh
inksa ds eku vko‘fÙk 2 3 4 5 6

(f)
5 1
3
7 2 9
10 18
9 7
16
11 9
13 11 27
19 20
15 8
17 5 28
9 24
19 4 13
17
lewgu jhfr ds lkj.kh cukus ds ckn izR;sd dkye ls vf/kdre vad ds vk/kkj ij fo'ys"k.k lkj.kh cuk;h tkrh gSA izR;sd
dkye ds vf/kdre vad ls lacaf/kr vko‘fÙk ds ewY;ksa ij fu'kku yxkdj mldh fxurh dj cgqyd dk irk yxk;k tkrk
gSA
fo'ys"k.k lkj.kh
dkye ua-
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1
4 1 1 1
5 1 1 1
6 1 1 1
vko‘fÙk;ksa dk 1 3 6 3 1
;ksx
fo'ys"k.k lkj.kh ls Li"V gksrk gs fd 6 vko‘fÙk lokZf/kd gS ftldk inewY; 13 gSA vr% cgqyd 13 gksxkA ;kn jgs fd
cgqyd dh x.kuk pkgs fujh{k.k fof/k ls dh tk, ;k lewgu fof/k ls] nksuksa gh fof/k;ksa esa mÙkj ,d&lk gh gksxkA
3- rhu vko‘fÙk;ksa dh tksM+ fof/k }kjk cgqyd dk fu/kkZj.k & nks in&ewY;ksa dh vko‘fÙk ,dleku gksus ij bl fofèk
dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa vf/kdre vko‘fÙk ds vkxs vkus okyh ,oa ihNs vkus okyh vko‘fÙk;ksa dks tksMk+ tkrk
gSA rhuksa vko‘fÙk;ksa dks tksM+dj ;ksxQy dh rqyuk djds lokZf/kd ;ksxQy Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA bl ;ksxQy
ls lEcfU/kr ewY; gh cgqyd gksrk gSA
122 vuqla/kku fof/k
mnkgj.k
in dk ewY; % 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
vko‘fÙk % 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 6, 7, 4, 4
vf/kdre vko‘fÙk 7 nks ckj gS] vr%
lEHkkfor cgqyd ewY; & 5 7
lEHkkfor cgqyd ewY; ds vkxs dh vko‘fÙk 6 4
lEHkkfor cgqyd ewY; ds ihNs dh vko‘fÙk 6 6
lEHkkfor cgqyd ewY; ds vko‘fÙk 7 7
19 17
nksuksa ;ksxQyksa esa 19 vko‘fÙk dk in ewY; 5 gS] vr% cgqyd 5 gksxkA
lr~r Js.kh eas cgqyd dk fu/kkZj.k

(Computation of Mode in Continuous Series)
lr~r Js.kh esa nks fof/k;ksa }kjk cgqyd fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gS%
1- fujh{k.k fof/k }kjk (Observation Method)
2. lewgu fof/k }kjk (Grouping Method)
lr~r Js.kh esas cgqyd fu/kkZj.k ds fy, loZizFke fujh{k.k }kjk ;g Kkr fd;k tkrk gS fd lcls vf/kd vko‘fÙk okyk oxZ
dkSu lk gS] ogh cgqyd oxZ dgykrk gSA lcls vf/kd vko‘fÙk okys oxZ ,d ls vf/kd gksa rks fujh{k.k }kjk cgqyd Kkr
Z
ugha gksrk] rc lewgu fof/k }kjk cgqyd oxZ fuf'pr fd;k tkrk gSA cgqyd oxZ fuf'pr gks tkus ds ckn lw=k }kjk cgqyd
fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gS%
lw=k
f1 − f 0
z = L1 + ×i
2 fi − f 0 − f 2
bl lw=k esa &
Z = cgqyd
L1 =cgqyd oxZ dh fuEu lhek
f1 =cgqyd oxZ dh vko‘fÙk
f 0 =cgqyd oxZ ls igys okys oxZ dh vko‘fÙk
f 2 =cgqyd oxZ ls ckn okys oxZ dh vko‘fÙk
i =cgqyd oxZ dh fuEure o mPpre lhekvksa dk vUrj
fujh{k.k fof/k }kjk cgqyd fu/kkZj.k
(Computation of Mode through Observation Method)
mnkgj.k & fuEu leadksa ls Hkwf;"Bd etnwjh Kkr dhft,A
etnwjh (:i;ksa eas ) : 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40,
etnwjksa dh la[;k % 3 8 10 15
40-50, 50-60, 60-70
12 7 5
etnwjh(:i;ksa esa ) etnwjksa dh la[;k
(x) (f)
0-10 3
10-20 8
20-30 10fo
30-40 15 f
40-50 12 f 2
50-60 7
60-70 5
fujh{k.k ls Li"V gS fd lcls vf/kd vko‘fÙk 15 gS] vr% cgqyd oxZ 30&40 gqvkA
f 1 − f0
lw=k% Z = L1 + ×i
2 f1 − f0 − f 2
15 − 10
Z = 30 + × 10
2 × 15 − 10 − 12
5
= 30 + × 10
8
50
= 30 +
8
=
L 30
Z L+ 6.25
= 36 .25 f 1 − f 0
Z1 = L1 + ×i
2 f1 − f0 − f 2
vr% cgqyd etnwjh 36-25 #i;s gksxhA
2- lewgu fof/k }kjk cgqyd fu/kkZj.k (Computation of Mode through Grouping)& loZizFke [kf.Mr Js.kh
ds leku lewgu o fo'ys"k.k lkj.kh }kjk cgqyd oxZ Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA fQj fuEu lw=k }kjk cgqyd fu/kkZfjr
fd;k tkrk gS%
lw=k%
etnwjh etnwjksa vf/kdre
¼#0 esa½ dh la[;k vko‘fÙk;ksa ;ksx
x f (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) dh la[;k
0—10 3
11
10—20 8 1 1
18 21
20—30 10 33
25
30—40 15 27 ||| 3
37
40—50 12 34 ||||| 6
19 24
50—60 7 12 ||| 3
60—70 5 | 1
124 vuqla/kku fof/k
bl rkfydk ls ;g Li"V gS fd vf/kdre vko‘fÙk 6 gS] mldk oxZ 30&40 gh cgqyd oxZ gksxkA
lw=k esa iz;qä fpÐksa dk vFkZ igys fn;k tk pqdk gSA
5
= 30 + × 10
30 − 22
50
= 30 +
8
vr% cgqyd etnwjh 36-25 #i;s gksxhA

cgqyd ds xq.k
(Merits of Mode)
blds xq.k fuEufyf[kr gSa% =
Z
Z
1- lokZf/kd izfrfuf/kRo (Adequate Representation): cgqyd lEiw.kZ Js.kh dh lokZf/kd vko‘fÙk ij fuHkZj gksus
ds dkj.k dsUæh; izo‘fÙk ds eki dh vU; fof/k;ksa dh rqyuk esa Js.kh dk lokZf/kd izfrfuf/kRo djrk gSA
2- ljy ,oa yksdfiz; (Simple & Popular): cgqyd dks le>uk ,oa x.kuk djuk ljy ,oa vklku gSA
3- Js.kh dk egÙoiw.kZ eki
eki& Js.kh ds leLr ewY;ksa esa ls cgqyd og vad gS tks lcls vf/kd ek=kk esa ,d leadekyk
esa ik;s tkus ds dkj.k okLrfod ,oa egÙoiw.kZ eki gSA
4- pje ewY;ksa dk U;wure izHkkokko& cgqyd ij Js.kh dh cM+h la[;k ;k NksVh la[;k dk dksbZ izHkko ug iM+rkA
cgqyd rks vko‘fÙk ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
5- fcUnqjs[kh; fof/k }kjk fu/kkZj.k
.k& cgqyd dk fu/kkZj.k fcUnqjs[kh; fof/k ,oa xzkQ dh lgk;rk ls cgqr ljyrk
ls fd;k tk ldrk gSA
6- cM+s iSekus ds mRiknu esa egÙoiw.kZ& cM+s iSekus ds mRiknu okys mRikndksa ds fy, cgqyd vR;f/kd egRoiw.kZ
gksrk gSA mRiknu ds vkdkj dks mRiknd cgqyd dh lgk;rk ls gh fu/kkZfjr djrk gSA
cgqyd ds nks"k
(Demerits of Mode)
blds nks"k bl izdkj gSa%
1- lHkh ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr ug & cgqyd esa U;wure vkSj vf/kdre in&ewY;ksa dh vogsyuk dh tkrh gSA ;g rks
dsoy vf/kdre vko‘fÙk okys in&ewY;ksa ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
2- chtxf.krh; foospu vlEHko gS & lHkh ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr u gksus ds dkj.k] cgqyd dh chtxf.krh; foospuk
djuk laHko ug gksrkA
3- fuf'prrk dk vHkko & dHkh&dHkh ,d Js.kh esa nks ;k nks ls vf/kd Hkwf;"Bd vk tkrs gSaA ,slh fLFkfr esa vko‘fÙk
dks ns[kdj Hkwf;"Bd fu/kkZfjr ug fd;k tk ldrkA
4- vuqi;qä eki & dHkh&dHkh cgqyd }kjk izkIr fu"d"kZ okLrfodrk ls ijs gksrs gSa] tSls] 50 fo|k£Fk;ksa esa ls 5
fo|k£Fk;ksa ds vad vkB&vkB gSa rks cgqyd 8 gksxk tks 'ks"k 45 fo|k£Fk;ksa dk okLrfod izfrfuf/kRo ug djsxkA
cgqyd esa mi;qZä dfe;ka gksrs gq, Hkh fofHké {ks=kksa esa vkt bldk iz;ksx c<+rk gh tk jgk gS] tSls rkieku] o"kkZ ds vkèkkj
ij LFkkuksa dk fu/kkZj.k djus esa cgqyd dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
ekfè;dk% vFkZ] fof/k ,oa egRo

(Median: Meaning, Procedure of its Calculation & Importance)
fdlh lead Js.kh dks vkjksgh ;k vojksgh Øe esa tek dj e/; in ekywe fd;k tkrk gSA ml e/; in dk ewY; gh ekfè;dk
dgykrk gS] tSls ifjokj ds 11 lnL;ksa dks vk;q ds vuqlkj [kM+k fd;k tk, rks NBs lnL; dh vk;q ekf/;dk dgyk;sxhA
;fn leadekyk esa inksa dh la[;k le (even number) esa gS rks e/; ds inks ds ewY;ksa dks tksM+dj vk/kk djus ls ekfè;dk
ewY; Kkr gksrk gSA
16
14
12
10
vk;q ¼o"kks± esa½
dk
ekf/;
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
lnL;
dkuZj (Corner) ds vuqlkj] Þekf/;dk ,d leadekyk dk og in&ewY; gS tks lewg dks cjkcj Hkkxksa esa bl izdkj ckaVrk
gS fd ,d Hkkx ds lkjs ewY; nwljs Hkkx ls de gksrs gSaAß
vr% Li"V gS fd ekf/;dk og dsUæh; ewY; gS tks Øec) ,oa O;ofLFkr leadekyk dks nks leku Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrk
gSA
ekf/;dk dh fo'ks"krk,a
(Characteristics of Median)
1- ekf/;dk leadekyk ds dsUæ esa fLFkr ,d fo'ks"k in&ewY; gksrk gSA
2- ekf/;dk lEiw.kZ lead Js.kh dks nks cjkcj&cjkcj Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrh gSA
126 vuqla/kku fof/k
3- ekf/;dk Kkr djus ds fy, inksa dks vkjksgh vFkok vojksgh Øe esa O;ofLFkr djuk iM+rk gSA
4- ekf/;dk dks izk;% in&ewY;ksa dh Øfed o‘f) ij gh vk/kkfjr fd;k tkrk gSA
ekf/;dk dk fu/kkZj.k
(Computation of Median)
fofHké izdkj dh leadekykvksa ls ekf/;dk fudkyus dh fof/k;ka bl izdkj gSa%
1- O;fäxr Js.kh esa ekf/;dk fudkyuk (Calculation of Median in Individual Series):
(i) lcls igys Js.kh dks vkjksgh vFkok vojksgh Øe esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gSA
(ii) Js.kh dks O;ofLFkr djus ds ckn fuEu lw=k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
F
GN + 1I
M = Size of H2 JKth item
vFkok
F
GN + 1I
M = Size of H2 J Kosa in dk eku
(iii) ;fn Js.kh esa dqy inksa dh la[;k le (even number) gks rks fuEu lw=k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS& mnkgj.k
ds :i esa] ;fn 8 lnL;ksa dh vk;q dk ekf/;dk Kkr djuk gS rks
M = Size of (N + 1)th item
F
8 + 1I
G
M = Size of H2 J Kth item S
M = 4.5th item
Size of 4.5th item =
}kjk ekf/;dk Kkr dh tkrh gSA

mnkgj.k & fo"ke la[;k ls ekf/;dk dk irk pykuk gks rks fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%
lnL; % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vk;q ¼o"kks± esa½ % 15 17 23 19 15 14 13

gy&
lnL; vk;q ¼o"kks± esa½
1 13
2 14
3 15
4 15
5 17
6 19
7 23
N=7
M = Size of th item
tgk¡] M = Median ¼ekf/;dk½

N = Number of items
F
7 + 1I
G
M = Size of = 4th item
4osa in dk ewY; 15 gS] vr% ekf/;dk vk;q 15 o"kZ gksxhA

mnkgj.k & le la[;k ls ekf/;dk Kkr djuk gks rks fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%
lnL; % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
vk;q ¼o"kks± esa½ % 10 12 24 42 29 13 18 54 48 18

gy&
lnL; vk;q ¼o"kks± esa½
1 10
F8NI+of1I5th item + Size of 6 th item

2 12
G
11
J2 J
Size
22 K
H K 2 3 13
4 18
5 18
6 24
7 29
8 42
9 48
10 54
M = Size of th item
F
10 + 1I
G
M = Size of H2 J Kth item
M = Size of = 5.5th item

128 vuqla/kku fof/k
ekf/;dk vk;q 21 o"kZ gksxhA

2- [kf.Mr Js.kh esa ekf/;dk dk fu/kkZj.k (Calculation in Discrete Series)
(i) lcls igys ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd [kf.Mr Js.kh O;ofLFkr Øe esa gS ;k ug ] ;fn og vO;ofLFkr gks rks Js.kh
dks O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gSA
(ii) Js.kh dh vko‘fÙk;ksa dh lap;h vko‘fÙk Kkr djrs gSaA
(iii) fuEukafdr lw=k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%
F
GN + 1I
bl izdkj tks in vkrk gS og ftl lap;h vko‘fÙk esa fLFkr gksrk gS] ml lap;h vko‘fÙk dk in ewY; ekf/;dk dgykrk
gSA
mnkgj.k & fuEu Js.kh dh ekf/;dk Kkr djuk gks rks fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%
ewY; ¼#i;ksa es½a % 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
nqdkusa % 9 10 21 27 21 6 4 2
ew Y ; nqdkusa lap;h vko‘fÙk
x f fx
10
18
44 9 9
2
45 10 19
46 21 40
47 27 67
48 21 88
49 6 94
50 4 98
51 2 100
N = 100
F
GN + 1I
M = Size of H2 J Kth item
M = Size of F
100 + 1I
G
H2 J Kth item
M = Size of = 50.5th item
50-5oka in lap;h vko‘fÙk 67 esa 'kkfey gSA 67 lap;h vko‘fÙk dk in ewY; 47 gS rks ekf/;dk = 47 #i;s foØ; ewY; gksxkA
3- lrr Js.kh esa ekf/;dk dk fu/kkZj.k (Computation of Median in constant series)

(i) lrr Js.kh esa fofHké inksa dh vko‘fÙk;ksa dks lap;h vko‘fÙk;ksa esa cny ysrs gSaA
(ii) th item }kjk ekf/;dk oxZ Kkr djus ds ckn fuEu lw=k dh lgk;rk ls ekf/;dk Kkr dh tkrh gSA
M=
tgk¡] M = ekf/;dk
f = ekf/;dk oxZ dh vko‘fÙk
c = ekf/;dk oxZ ls igys okys oxZ dh lap;h vko‘fÙk
n
m= ls fudkyk x;k in
2
L1 = ekf/;dk oxZ dh fuEure lhek
L2 = ekf/;dk oxZ dh mPpre lhek
i = ekf/;dk oxZ dk oxkZUrj

mnkgj.k & lrr Js.kh ls ekf/;dk Kkr djuk gks rks fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
vk; ¼#0 es½a % 100& 200 200& 300 300& 400 400& 500 500& 600
N L − L1
294
L1 + 2 (m − c)
22 f O;fä;ksa dh la0 % 15 33 63 83 100
vk; ¼#i;ksa esa½ O;fDr;ksa dh la[;k lap;h vko‘fÙk
x f cf
100 & 200 15 15
200 & 300 33 48 (15+33)
300 & 400 63 111 ¼48+63½
400 & 500 83 194 ¼111+83½
500 & 600 100 294 ¼194+100½
N = 294
M= th item
M= = 147th item
147oka in lap;h vko‘fÙk 194 esa fLFkr gS ftldk oxkZUrj 400&500 gSA ;gh 400&500 ekf/;dk oxkZUrj dgykrk gSA
130 vuqla/kku fof/k
lw=k%
M=
500 − 400
M = 400 + (147-111)
83
M = 400 + (36)
M = 400 +
M = 400 + 43.37 = 443.37

vr% vk; dh ekf/;dk 443-37 #i;s gksxhA
mnkgj.k &
etnwjh % 40 & 50 30 & 40 20 & 30 10 & 20 0 & 10
O;fä;ksa dh la0 % 7 14 13 11 5
etnwjh O;fDr;ksa dh la[;k lap;h vko‘fÙk
x f cf
F
G
10
53
40 & 50
30 & 40
7
14
7
21
H
L
82
20 & 30 13 34
10 & 20 11 45
0 & 10 5 50
N = 50
M = Size of th item
M = Size of = 25th item
25oka in 34 lap;h vko‘fÙk esa 'kkfey gS rks ekf/;dk oxZ 20&30 gqvkA
M=
30 − 20
M = 30 − ( 25 − 21 )
13
10
M = 30 − (4)
13
40
M = 30 −
13
M = 30 – 3.08
M = 26.92 #i;s
vr% ekf/;dk etnwjh 26-92 #i;s gksxhA

ekf/;dk ds xq.k
(Merits of Median)
1- ljyrk & ekf/;dk dks le>uk o x.kuk djuk cgqr vklku gS] D;ksfa d O;ofLFkr Js.kh esa chpkschp ekf/;dk fLFkr
gksrh gSA
2- Li"Vrk & izR;sd leadekyk esa ekf/;dk ewY; Li"Vrk ls dsoy inksa dh la[;k ekywe gksus ij Kkr fd;k tk
ldrk gSa
3- fcUnqjs[kh; foospu & ekf/;dk dk fu/kkZj.k fcUnqjs[kh; i)fr ls Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
4- pje ewY;ksa dk U;wure izHkko & ekf/;dk ij Js.kh dh cgqr cM+h la[;k ;k NksVh la[;k dk vuqfpr izHkko ug
iM+rk gSA
5- xq.kkRed rF;ksa ds v/;;u esa lgk;d & xq.kkRed rF;ksa] tSls LokLF;] bZekunkjh] ckSf)d Lrj vkfn dk vè;;u
djus esa ekf/;dk }kjk izR;{k eki lEHko gksus ds dkj.k] ;g lcls mi;qä ek/; gSA
6- mfpr izfrfuf/kRo & ekf/;dk eku esa lHkh inksa ij vk/kkfjr gksus ds dkj.k mfpr izfrfuf/kRo dk xq.k ik;k tkrk
gSA
7- lkekftd leL;kvksa] tSls csdkjh] fu/kZurk] tula[;k leL;k] vkfn ds v/;;u esa Hkh ekf/;dk dk iz;ksx fd;k
tkrk gSA
ekf/;dk ds nks"k
(Demerits of Median)
1- leadksa dks Øe esa tekuk vko';d & dsoy ekf/;dk esa gh lEiw.kZ Js.kh dks vkjksgh ;k vojksgh Øe esa O;ofLFkr
djuk vko';d gS vU;Fkk ekf/;dk ewY; lgh ug gksxkA
2- mfpr izfrfuf/kRo ug & ekf/;dk Js.kh ds lHkh inksa ij vk/kkfjr ug gksus ds dkj.k bls mfpr izfrfuf/kRoiw.kZ
eki ug dgk tk ldrkA
3- chtxf.krh; foospu vlEHko & ekf/;dk dk chtxf.krh; foospu djuk lEHko ug gS] tSls fofHké Jsf.k;ksa dh
dsoy ekf/;dk Kkr gks rks mudh lfEefyr ekf/;dk Kkr ug dh tk ldrhA
fopyu dk eki
(Measures of Variation)
lakf[;dh esa fopyu dks ,d egÙoiw.kZ vo/kkj.kk ds :i eas ns[kk tkrk gSA fopyu 'kCn dk lEcks/ku vaxt
sz h ds fuEu 'kCnksa
132 vuqla/kku fof/k
}kjk Hkh fd;k tkrk gS] ;g 'kCn gS fMLi'kZu (Dispersion, Scatteration, Spread and Deviation). bl bdkbZ esa ek/;
cgqyd rFkk e/;kad dk foLrkj ls o.kZu fd;k gS vkSj buds o.kZu ls ,d lEiw.kZ Js.kh dh dsUnzh; izo‘fÙk dk dSls irk yxk;k
tk ldrk gS] ml fof/k dks Hkh n'kkZ;k x;k gS] ysfdu blds ckotwn Hkh fofHkUu O;fDrxr ekuksa dk vkSlr D;k gS vkSj Js.kh
dh jpuk rFkk Lo:i D;k gS] ;g irk ugha yx ikrk fu%lUnsg ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd vadksa dh x.kuk esa dbZ ckj ,sls
LFky vkrs gSa tc fu"d"kZ Hkze iSnk djrs gSa vxj fdlh rkykc dh vkSlru xgjkbZ 4 QqV gks vkSj fdlh lewg dks ;g rkykc
ikj djuh gks tgk¡ lHkh lnL;ksa dh Å¡pkbZ 5 QhV ls Åij gks rks ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd ml lewg ds lHkh lnL;
rkykc dks ikj dj ldrs gSAa ijUrq okLro esa fopkj fd;k tk, rks ,slh fLFkfr Hkzked Hkh gks ldrh gS] D;ksfa d mlh rkykc
esa dbZ LFkku ,sls Hkh gks ldrs gSa] tgk¡ rkykc dh xgjkbZ 6 QqV gks ldrh gS vkSj dgha ;g 3 QqV Hkh gks ldrh gSA ,slh
fLFkfr esa rkykc dks ikj djus okys lewg ds oks lnL; ftudh Å¡pkbZ 6 QhV ls de gks og lHkh Mwc Hkh ldrs gSaA ,slh
fLFkfr esa dsoy ek/; dks izkIr djds gh ge lgh fu"d"kZ ugha fudky ldrsA mldk lgh vuqeku ml rkykc dh vf/kdre
xgjkbZ vkSj mldh vkSlr xgjkbZ eas varj djds gh irk yxk;k tk ldrk gSA blls ;g Li"V gS fd i;kZIr tkudkjh
ds fy, fdlh inekyk dk ek/; tkuuk gh vko';d ugha gS cfYd fofHkUu O;fDrxr ek/;ksa dk ml ek/; ls vkSlr varj
tkuuk Hkh vko';d gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd Js.kh dk izR;sd e/;] ek/; ls fdruh nwjh ij ;k fdruk
cM+k ;k NksVk gS] ;g tkuuk vko';d gSA blfy, fopyu dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ckmys us dgk gS fd ";g vifdj.k
(Dispersion) enksa (Items) ds fopyu dk eki gS (Measures of Central Tendency) ,d vkn'kZ fopyu dh fuEu
fo'ks"krk,¡ ekuh tkrh gSA
1- le>us eas ljy
2- fu/kkZj.k eas ljy
3- Js.kh ds lHkh ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr
4- fun'kZu ds ifjorZu dk U;wure izHkko
5- Li"V ifjHkk"kk
6- chtxf.krh; foospu laHko
fopyu ds egÙo dh ppkZ djrs gq, ih0 oh0 ;ax us dgk gS fd ewY;ksa ds forj.k esa vDlj ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd mu lHkh
dk vkSlr yxHkx ,d gS ijarq mu inewY;ksa eas dkQh varj ik;k tkrk gSA dqN forj.k eas dqN inewY; ,sls Hkh gks ldrs
gSa tc vkSlr mu inewY;ksa ds utnhd gks vkSj nwljksa esa ;s dkQh fc[kjs gksaA blfy, ;g vR;ar vko';d gks tkrk gS fd
O;fDrxr ewY;ksa dk fu/kkZj.k ek/; izo‘fÙk;ksa ds nksuksa rjQ gks ldsA ;gk¡ ij ge ek/; izo‘fÙk;ksa dh rhu fof/k;ksa dk foLrkj
ls o.kZu djsaxs%
1- izlkj {ks=k ;k ifjlj (Range)
2- prqFkZka'k fopyu (Quartile Deviation)
3- vkSlr ;k e/;eku fopyu (Average or Mean Deviation)
4- ekud fopyu (Standard Deviation)
ifjlj ;k foLrkj
(Range)
fdlh inekyk ds lcls cM+s o lcls NksVs eku ds varj dks foLrkj dgrs gSa] ;g fopyu Kkr djus dh lcls ljy fofèk
gSA ifjlj dh x.kuk fuEufyf[kr izdkj ls dh tkrh gS%
1- Js.kh dk vf/kdre eku vkSj U;wure eku fudkyk tkrk gSA v[kf.Mr Js.kh esa U;wure oxZ dh fupyh lhek dk
U;wure eku vkSj vf/kdre oxZ dh mPp lhek dks vf/kdre eku ekuk tkrk gSA
2- ifjlj fudkyus ds fy, fuEu lw=k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%

R = L-S
R = foLrkj (Range)
L = Js.kh dk mPpre ewY; (Largest value)
S = Js.kh dk fuEure ewY; (Smallest value)
mnkgj.k ds fy, ;g eku ys fd nl Nk=kksa ds izkIrkad bl izdkj gSa& 90] 60] 55] 52] 50] 48] 45] 44] 43 vkSj 40 buesa
mPpre ewY; 90 vkSj fuEu ewY; 40 gS] vr% mi;qZä lw=k ds vuqlkj bldk foLrkj {ks=k 90&40 = 50 gksxkA
prqFkZd fopyu
fdlh Hkh Js.kh ds r‘rh; o izFke prqFkZdksa ds vk/ks dks prqFkZd fopyu (Quartile Range) ;k vUrj prqFkZd foLrkj ;k
ifjlj (Semi-inter Quartile Range) dgk tkrk gSA prqFkZd fopyu dks irk djus ds fy, fuEu lw=k dk iz;ksx fd;k
tkrk gS%
Q 3 - Q1
Q -D =
2
Q - D = prqFkZd&fopyu (Quartile Deviation)
Q 1 = izFke prqFkZd (First Quartile)
Q 3 = r‘rh; prqFkZd (Third Quartile)
prqFkZd&fopyu xq.kd (Coefficient of Quartile Deviation) prqFkZd&fopyu] vfidj.k (variation) dk fujis{k eku
gksrk gSA bldk lkis{k eki prqFkZd&fopyu xq.kd dgykrk gSA bls Kkr djus ds fy, prqFkZd&fopyu ds fujis{k eki
dh nksuksa prqFkZdksa ds ek/; ls Hkkx ns fn;k tkrk gSA
Q 3 − Q 1
2 Q − Q1
Coeff. of Q . D = Q + Q
= 3
3 1 Q 3 + Q1
2
prqFkZd&fopyu rFkk prqFkZd&fopyu xq.kd dk ewY; Kkr djus ds fy, izFke prqFkZd rFkk r‘rh; prqFkZd dk ewY; Kkr
djuk iM+rk gS] fQj mi;qä lw=kksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k% vxj fuEu inewY;ksa ls prqFkZd&fopyu Kkr djuk gks%
inewY; % 170] 82] 110] 100] 150] 120] 200] 116] 250
fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx djsaxsA lw=k%

Q3 - Q1
Coef. of Q - D =
Q3 + Q1
vFkkZr~ Q1 vkSj Q3 dk ewY; fudkyus ls prqFkZd fopyu xq.kd dh x.kuk dh tk ldrh gSA Q1 vkSj Q2 dk ewY; Kkr
djus ds fy, loZizFke inewY;ksa dks vkjksgh (Ascending order) esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gS tSls%
134 vuqla/kku fof/k
82 150
100 170
110 200
116 250
120
N +1 9 +1
Q1 = Size of 4
th item = Q1 = = 2.5th item
4
F
GN + 1I
H4 J
3 × 10
Q2 = Size of 3 Kth item = 4 = 7.5 th item
7 th item + 8th item 170 + 200
Size of 7.5th item = = = 185
2 2
Q3 = 185; Q1 = 105
185 − 105 80
Coef. of Q.D = = = 0.276
185 + 105 290
ifjlj ds xq.k ,oa nks"k 2

xq.k
lkaf[;dh esa ifjlj dh dbZ mi;ksfxrk,a gSa tks fuEufyf[kr gSa%
1- ;g fopyu dk lcls ljy vkSj lkekU; ekid gSA
2- tc fopyu dk 'kh?kzrk ls vuqeku yxkuk gksrk gS rc bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
3- ;gka dsoy mPpre ,oa fuEure ewY; dks gh <wa<uk iM+rk gS tks ljyrk rFkk 'kh?kzrk ls Kkr fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
nks"k
1- ifjlj ds iz;ksx esa fo'oluh;rk dh deh gksrh gS D;ksafd blesa dsoy inekyk ds mPpre ,oa U;wure ewY;ksa dks
gh egÙo fn;k tkrk gSA
2- blesa fopyu dk ;FkkFkZ eki ug gks ikrk gSA
3- ifjlj dks bldh v'kq)rk ds dkj.k fopyu ekiu dk ,d eksVk lk/ku (crude method) dgk tkrk gSA
bl izdkj ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd ifjlj dk lkaf[;dh esa izHkkoh rjhds ls iz;ksx ug fd;k tk ldrk ijUrq vxj
lEiw.kZ in ewY;ksa dk fdlh Js.kh esa eku izkIr djuk gks rc ifjlj dk iz;ksx ykHknk;h gks ldrk gS vxj in ewY;ksa dh
la[;k T;knk cM+h uk gksA
ek/; fopyu ;k vkSlr fopyu

(Mean Deviation or Average Deviation)
ek/; fopyu dks vkSlr fopyu Hkh dgk tkrk gS D;ksafd ;g fdlh inekyk esa lHkh fofHkUu izkIrkadksa dk muds e/; eku
;k dsUæh; izo‘fÙk;ksa ls fopyuksa dk vkSlr gksrk gSA e/;eku dks gh dsUæh; izo‘fÙk ekuk tkrk gS ;|fi dHkh&dHkh e/;kad
rFkk cgqyd dk Hkh iz;ksx gksrk gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd ek/; fopyu esa ,d eq[; vkSlr fudkyus
dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gSA xSjsV us vkSlr fopyu dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, ;g fy[kk gS fd Þe/;eku fopyu fdlh inekyk
esa lc fofHkUu izkIrkadksa dk muds e/;eku ls fopyuksa dk vkSlr gksrk gSA
ek/; fopyu dh fo'ks"krk,¡%
ek/; fopyu dh izeq[k fo'ks"krk,¡ fuEufyf[kr gSa%
1- ;g xf.krh; fof/k ls fudkyk tkrk gS ftlesa Js.kh dh izR;sd bdkbZ dks vk/kkj ekurs gSaA
2- fopyu ek/; ls fudkyk tkrk gS] tks lekUrj ek/;] e/;kad vkSj cgqyd gks ldrk gSA lekUrj ek/; ls fudkys
x, fopyu dks ek/; fopyu dgrs gSa vkSj e/;kad ls fudkys x, fopyu dks fopyu e/;kad vkSj blh izdkj
cgqyd ls fudkys x, fopyu dks cgqyd ls ek/; fopyu dgrs gSaA
3- fopyuksa dk ek/; fudkyus ds fy, lekUrj ek/; dk gh iz;ksx gksrk gSA
ek/; fopyu dh x.kuk
(Computation of Mean Deviation)
ek/; fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa esa vyx&vyx <+ax ls fd;k tkrk gSA ek/; fopyu ds fu/kkZj.k dk fuEu lw=k
gS% + 14 50
6 + 8 + 10 + 12
= = 10
5 lk/kkj.k Js.kh5 esa ek/; fopyu fudkyus dk lw=k%
Σd
M.D =
N
d = ek/; fopyu & ek/; ;k e/;kad ls fopyu ¼+ ;k & fpUg dks NksM+rs gq,½
N = inksa dk ;ksx
fof/k
1- ml ek/; dk ifjx.ku fd;k tkrk gS ftlls ek/; fopyu fudkyuk gS& vf/kdrj e/;kad dk iz;ksx fd;k
tkrk gSA
2- ?ku + vkSj _.k & fpUgksa dks NksM+rs gq, e/;kad ;k vU; ek/; ls fofHkUu ewY;ksa ds fopyu fudkys tkrs gSaA
3- bu fopyuksa dk tksM+ (Σd ) izkIr fd;k tkrk gSA
4- fopyuksa ds ;ksx dks enksa dh la[;k ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA izkIr HkkxQy ek/; fopyu gksrk gSA
ek/; fopyu xq.kd fudkyus ds fy, ek/;&fopyu dks lEcfU/kr ek/; ls Hkkx ns fn;k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
fuEufyf[kr izkIrkadksa ds ek/; dks vk/kkj ekurs gq, ek/; fopyu bl izdkj ls Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gS%
6] 8] 10] 12] 14
bu izkIrkadksa dk ek/; (Mean) M =
136 vuqla/kku fof/k
ek/; = 10 ¼M = 10½
ek/; fopyu fudkyus ds fy, ge bu izkIrkadksa dks fuEukafdr rkfydk dk :i ns ldrs gSa%
izkIrkad ek/; fopyu (d)
(Scores) (Mean) (Deviation)
6 10 –4
8 10 –2
10 10 0
12 10 +2
Σfd
N 14 10 +4
N=5 Σd = 12
Σd 12
MD = =
N 5
MD = 2.4 vHkh"V mÙkjA
blh izdkj O;fDrxr Js.kh esa ¼lk/kkj.k Js.kh½ mijksDr lw=k dk iz;ksx djrs gq, cgqyd vkSj e/;kad dks vk/kkj ekudj
ek/; fopyu Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
[kaf.Mr Js.kh vkSj lrr~ Js.kh esa ek/; fopyu Kkr djus dk lw=k fuEu gS%
MD = N
mijksDr lw=k esa&

MD = ek/; fopyu
Σ = ;ksx
f = inksa dh vko‘fÙk;ka
d = ek/; ls izR;sd in dk fopyu vFkkZr~ ek/; vkSj izR;sd in ds chp dk vUrjA
N = vko‘fÙk;ksa dk dqy ;ksxA
lrr~ Js.kh esa Hkh mijksDr lw=k dk iz;ksx djrs gq, ek/; fopyu Kkr fd;k tkrk gS ijUrq ,slh fLFkfr esa igys izR;sd
oxkZUrj dk e/; fcUnq Kkr dj fy;k tkrk gSA [kafMr ,oa lrr~ Js.kh esa Hkh cgqyd] ek/; vkSj e/;kad dks vk/kkj ekurs
gq, ek/; fopyu dh x.kuk dh tkrh gSA
ljy Js.kh esa ek/; fopyu fu/kkZj.k dh fof/k e/;adk ds }kjk
blds fy, inewY;ksa dks c<+rs o ?kVrs Øe esa O;ofLFkr djrs gSa rFkk izkIrkadksa ls bldk e/;adk fudkyk tkrk gSA mlds
ckn e/;adk ls mldk fopyu Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA fuEu mnkgj.k }kjk bls n'kkZ;k x;k gS%
lw=k%
vr% e/;adk Øe la[;k 3 ds lkeus vFkkZr~ 10 gSA
Øe la[;k izkIrkad d
1 6 4
2 8 2
3 10 0
4 12 2
5 14 4
N=5 Σdm = 12
Σdm 12
MD= = = 2.4
N 5
[kf.Mr Js.kh esa ek/; fopyu fu/kkZj.k dh fof/k

bl Js.kh esa ek/; fopyu e/;] e/;adk rFkk cgqyd ds }kjk fudkyk tk ldrk gSA
mnkgj.k% fuEufyf[kr vko‘fÙk ds vk/kkj ij ek/; fopyu bl izdkj fudkyk tk ldrk gSA
inew Y ; vko‘fÙk fx d fd
x f
3 2 6 –4.49 8.98
5 7 35 –2.49 17.43
Σfd 71.27 7 10 70 –.49 4.90

= = 2.16
N 33 9 9 81 +2.49 22.41
11 5 55 +3.51 17.55
N = 33 Σfx = 247 Σfd = 71.27
Σ fx
Mean =
N
Σfx 247
Mean = = 7.49
N 33
;gk¡
Σ = ;ksx
f = vko‘fÙk
x = inewY;
N = vko‘fÙk dk ;ksx
ek/; fopyu M.D. =

ek/; ds }kjk ek/; fopyu fu/kkZj.k
blds fy, loZizFke izR;{k fof/k }kjk ek/; fudkyk tkrk gSA blds ckn ek/; ls fopyu izkIr fd;k tkrk gSA
138 vuqla/kku fof/k
mi;qZä nh xbZ lkj.kh dks vk/kkj ekudj ek/; fopyu e/;adk }kjk fudkyus dh fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS%
inew Y ; vko‘fÙk cf dm fdm

x f
3 2 2 4 8
5 7 9 2 14
7 10 19 0 0
9 9 28 2 18
11 5 33 4 20
N=33 Σfdm=60
N +1
e/;adk = =
2
N = 33
cf = lapkf;dk vko‘fÙk
mi;qZä lkj.kh esa lapf;dk vko‘fÙk j[kus ij inewY; 7 e/;adk vkrk gSA
Σfd 60
MD = = = 1.8 3
N 33
blh izdkj mi;qZä lkj.kh dks vk/kkj cukdj ek/; fopyu cgqyd ds }kjk fudkyus dh fuEu fof/k dk iz;ksx fd;k
tkrk gS%
inew Y ; vko‘fÙk dz fdz
x f
3 2 4 8
5 7 2 14
7 10 0 0
9 9 2 18
11 5 4 20
N=33 Σfdz=60
;gk¡ ij vf/kdka'k vko‘fÙk 10 gS blfy, mDr lkj.kh esa 10 ds lkeus okyh inewY; 7 oks cgqyd dgk tk;sxkA ;gk¡ Lej.k
j[kus ;ksX; ckr ;g gS fd tc vko‘fÙk;ksa dk vkilh varj ux.; gks rc cgqyd Kkr djus ds fy, vko‘fÙk;ksa dks 6 dkye
esa oxhZÑr dj cgqyd fudkyk tkrk gSA
Σfdz 60
lw=k% MD = = = 1.8
N 33
z = cgqyd ls fopyu
lrr~ Js.kh
(Continuous Series)
blh izdkj lrr~ Js.kh ;k v[kafMr Js.kh esa Hkh ek/; fopyu] ek/;] e/;adk rFkk cgqyd ls Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k% fuEu lkj.kh ds }kjk ek/; fopyu Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;gk¡ ij ek/; dks vk/kkj cukdj ek/; fopyu
fudkyus dh fof/k dks n'kkZ;k x;k gS%
izkIrkadksa M vko‘fÙk dx fdx d = 25 fd
x (f)
0–10 5 2 –2 –4 20 40
10–20 15 7 –1 –7 10 70
20–30 25 10 0 0 0 0
30–40 35 5 +1 5 10 50
40–50 45 3 +2 6 20 60
N = 27 Σfdx = 0
Σfd 220
= = 8.14
N 27
Σdx 0
Mean = A + Χ i = 25 + ×10 = 25
N 27
MD = 8.14
lrr~ Js.kh esa ek/; fopyu dks e/;adk rFkk cgqyd ls Hkh Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr ;g gS fd ;gk¡
ij fuEu lw=kksa dk iz;ksx gksrk gS%
e/;adk ds }kjk fuEu lw=k dk iz;ksx gksrk gS%
Σ fdz
MD =
N
cgqyd ds }kjk fuEu lw=k viuk;s tkrs gSa%
Σ fdz
MD =
N
ek/; fopyu ds xq.k ,oa nks"k & ek/; fopyu ds fuEufyf[kr xq.k vkSj nks"k ekus tkrs gSa%
xq.k%
1- ek/; fopyu Js.kh ds lHkh ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA
2- bldk fu/kkZj.k ekud fopyu ds vis{kk ljy gksrk gSA
3- bl fopyu ij pje enksa dk U;wure izHkko iM+rk gSA
140 vuqla/kku fof/k
4- bldh x.kuk fdlh Hkh ek/; ls vFkkZr~ e/;d] e/;kad ls gks ldrh gS] ijUrq e/;kad dk iz;ksx vU; ek/;ksa ls Js"B
ekuk tkrk gSA
nks"k%
1- ek/; fopyu dh lcls cM+h lhek ;g gS fd ;gk¡ ij fopyu fu/kkZj.k djrs le; chtxf.krh; /ku ¼+½ vkSj _.k
¼&½ dks NksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA lHkh fopyuksa dks /kukRed ekuk tkrk gSA fpUgksa dks utjvankt djus ij ;g eki
xf.krh; n‘f"Vdks.k ls v'kq) vkSj voSKkfud gks tkrk gSA
2- bl fopyu dk chtxf.krh; fooj.k laHko ugha gSA
3- ek/; fopyu dh fo'oluh;rk lnSo lafnX/k jgrh gSA D;ksfd e/;adk ds vfuf'pr gksus ds dkj.k mlls fopyu
fudkyuk gh mi;qä ugha gksrk gS tcfd e/;adk pje lhekvksa ls vf/kd izHkkfor gks ldrk gSA mi;qZä lhekvksa
ds dkj.k gh lakf[;dh esa bldk vf/kd iz;ksx ughsa gksrk gSA
ek/; fopyu ds vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk] fo'ks"krkvksa ,oa fu/kkZj.k ds fof/k dk rhuksa Jsf.k;ksa esa foLrkj ls o.kZu djus ds i'pkr~ vc
ge ekud fopyu dh vo/kkj.kk dk foLrkj ls o.kZu djsaxsaA
ekud fopyu
(Standard Deviation)
ek/; fopyu dh rjg gh ekud fopyu Hkh ek/; fopyu ds ,d bdkbZ dk izfrfuf/kRo djrk gS ;g ek/; fopyu ls
fHkUu bl :i esa gS fd blesa fopyu Kkr djrs oDr ;ksx fudkyus ls igys ineqY;ksa dk oxZewy fudkyrs gSaA ekud
fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k ek/; ls gksrk gS tcfd ek/; fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k ek/;] e/;adk rFkk dHkh&dHkh cgqyd ls Hkh
gksrk gSA
fopyu ds ekiksa esa ekud fopyu dk lakf[;dh esa lcls vf/kd iz;ksx gksrk gSA ekud fopyu ds }kjk fopyu ekiu dh
fofHkUu fof/k;ksa ds nks"kkas dks nwj fd;k tkrk gSA ekud fopyu Js.kh ds lHkh eqY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gS blds fu/kkZj.k
esa /ku ¼+½ rFkk _.k ¼&½ fpUgksa dks NksMk+ ugh tkrkA blds vykok fopyu lnSo lekUrj ek/; ls gh fy, tkrs gSa D;ksfa d
mls gh dsUnzh; izo‘fr dk loZJs"B eki ekuk tkrk gSA jh'keSu us ekud fopyu dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, bls ßvkSlr fopyu
dk oxZewy dgk gSA ;g forj.k ds vkSlr ls lc fopyuksa ds oxks± ds oxZewy dk vkSlr gksrk gSAß
ekud fopyu dh x.kuk
ekud fopyu dh x.kuk djus ds fy, fofHkUu lw=kksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA lw=kksa dk iz;ksx bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk
gS fd inekyk O;fäxr Js.kh esa gS ;k [kf.Mr vkSj lrr~ o vf[k.Mr Js.kh esa gSA izR;sd Jsaf.k;ksa esa ekud fopyu Kkr
djus dh nks jhfr;ka gSa izR;{k fof/k ¼Direct Method½ vkSj y?kq fof/k ¼Shortcut Method½-
O;fäxr Js.kh esa ekud fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k
(Calculation of Standard Deviation in Individual Series)
;{kk fof/k ¼Direct Method½ & O;fäxr Js.kh esa izR;{k fof/k }kjk ekud fopyu Kkr djus esa fuEu lw=k dk iz;ksx
izR;{
gksrk gSA
Σd 2
ekud fopyu σ = N
mijksä lw=k esa Σ= dqy ;ksx
σ = izeki fopyu
d2 = lekUrj ek/; ds izR;sd in ds fopyu dk oxZ

N= inksa dh la[;k
mnkgj.k%
fuEufyf[kr Js.kh dk ekud fopyu izR;{k fof/k }kjk fuEu izdkj ls Kkr fd;k tkrk ldrk gS
in ewY; % 15, 20, 17, 18, 25, 22, 24, 26, 30, 23
in ewY; lekUrj ek/; ls fopyu fopyu dk oxZ
(x) (d) = 21 (d2)
15 -6 36
20 -1 1
17 -4 16
18 -3 9
25 +4 16
22 +1 1
24 +3 9
26 +5 25
30 +9 81
23 +2 4
ΣΧ
ΣΧ = 210
=
210
= 21 Σd 2 = 198
N 10
lekUrj ek/; (M)=
M= 21
Σd 2 198
σ= = = 19 .8
N 10
σ = 4.45 yxHkx
y?kq fof/k }kjk ekud fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k (Short-cut Method)% O;fDrxr Js.kh eas laf{kIr fof/k }kjk ekud fopyu
fudkyus dk fuEu lw=k gS%
2
Σd 2 Σd
σ= −
N N
mijksDr lw=k esa
d = ewY;ksa dk dfYir ek/; ls fopyu
N= inksa dh la[;k
d2=lekUrj ek/; ds izR;sd in ds fopyu dk oxZ
142 vuqla/kku fof/k
Σ =dqy ;ksx
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%m
fuEufyf[kr Js.kh dk ekud fopyu laf{kIr fof/k }kjk fuEu izdkj ls Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gS%
in ewY; % 15, 20, 17, 18, 25, 22, 24, 26, 30, 23
bl fof/k }kjk lcls igys dfYir ek/; dks fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA
;gka ij in ewY; dk dfYir ek/; (A) 22 gSA
in ewY; dfYir ek/; fopyu dk oxZ

(x) (A) = 22 ls fopyu d2
d= (x-A)
15 -7 49
16 -6 36
17 -5 25
20 -2 4
22 0 0
23 1 1
24 2 4
Σ
Σ
25 3 9
26 4 16
30 8 64
N= 10
S.D. = (σ)
;gk¡
Σd 2 = 208, Σd = −2, N = 10
2
208 − 2
σ= -
10 10
σ= 20.8 − 0.04 = 20.76
σ = 4.45 yxHkx
[kafMr Js.kh esa ekud fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k (Calculation of Standard Deviation in Discrete Series)% [kafMr
Js.kh esa Hkh ekud fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k nks fof/k;ksa }kjk Kkr fd;k tkrk gS&izR;{k fof/k ,oa y/kq fof/k&ijUrq O;ogkj esa
laf{kIr fof/k dk iz;ksx gh T;knkrj fd;k tkrk gS
izR;{k fof/k (Direct Method)
lw=k%
Σ fd 2
σ =
N
σ = ekud fopyu (S.D)
Σ =;ksx
f =inksa dh vko‘fr;ka
d=oxkZUrj dk ek/; ls fopyu
N=vko‘fr;ksa dk ;ksx
mnkgj.k%
Σfd 2 ;gk¡ fuEufyf[kr izkIrkad vkSj uhps fy[kh vko‘fr dks vk/kkj ekudj ekud fopyu Kkr djus dh izR;{k fof/k dk o.kZu
=
N
fd;k x;k gSA
izkIrkad 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
vko‘fr 1 0 0 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 6 8 7 5 2 1 3
lw=k (S.D) σ
izkIrkad vko‘fr fx d= (x-m) fd fd2

(x) (f) M=11
21 1 21 10 10 100
20 0 0 9 0 0
19 0 0 8 0 0
18 2 36 7 14 98
17 1 17 6 6 36
16 2 32 5 10 50
Contd...
144 vuqla/kku fof/k
15 3 45 4 12 48
14 2 28 3 6 18
13 3 39 2 6 12
12 4 48 1 4 4
11 6 66 0 0 0
10 8 80 -1 -8 8
9 7 63 -2 -14 28
8 5 40 -3 -15 45
7 2 14 -4 -8 32
6 1 6 -5 -5 25
5 3 15 -6 -18 108
N (Σf ) = 50 Σfx = 550 Σfd 2 = 612

Σfx 550
lekUrj ek/; (M) = = = 11
N 50
M=11
Σ fd 2
ekud fopyu (σ ) =
N
Σfd2 = 162, N = 50
612 σ
σ = = 12 .4
50
σ = 3.5 yxHkx
laf{kIr fof/k }kjk gy
lw=k%
;gk¡ ij ekuk fn, x, izkIrkadksa dk dfYir ek/; (A)=10 gS

izkIrkad vko‘fr dfYir ek/; fd fd2
(x) (f) (A)=10 ls izkIrkdksa
dk fopyu d
21 1 11 11 121
20 0 10 0 0
19 0 9 0 0
18 2 8 16 128
Contd...
17 1 7 7 49
16 2 6 12 72
15 3 5 15 75
14 2 4 8 32
13 3 3 9 27
12 4 2 8 16
11 6 1 6 6
10 8 0 0 0
9 7 -1 -7 7
8 5 -2 -10 20
7 2 -3 -6 18
6 1 -4 -4 16
5 3 -5 -15 75
N=50 Σfd = 50 Σfd 2 = 662
2
Σfd 2 Σfd
σ= −
Σfd 2 N N
σ=
N 2
Σfd = 662, N = 50, Σfd = 50, N = 50
2
662 50
σ= −
50 50
σ = 13 .24 − (1) = 12.24

2
σ =3.5 yxHkx
vf[k.Mr ,oa lr~r Js.kh eas ekud fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k
(Calculation of Standard Deviation in Continous Series)
lr~r Js.kh esa Hkh ekud fopyu dh x.kuk izR;{k ,oa y/kq nksuksa fof/k;ksa }kjk dh tkrh gSA fuEu mnkgj.k esa nksuksa fof/k;ksa
dk iz;ksx djrs gq, ekud fopyu dh x.kuk dh xbZ gSA bl Js.kh esa S.D fudkyus ds fy, loZizFke Js.kh ds e/; fcUnq
Kkr dj fy, tkrs gSA
izR;;{k
{k fofèk
(Direct Method)
lw=k %
146 vuqla/kku fof/k
σ= ekud fopyu
dqy ;ksx
f = vko‘fr
N= inksa dh vko‘fr;ksa dk dqy ;ksx
mnkgj.k%
fuEufyf[kr vkdM+ksa dk vf[k.Mr Js.kh esa izR;{k fof/k ,oa laf+{kIr fof/k }kjk ekud fopyu fu/kkZj.k dh fof/k dks n'kkZ;k
x;k gSA
oxZ 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
vko‘fr 10 3 2 1 4
izR;{k fof/k
oxZ e/; fcUnw (x) f fx d=(x-m) d2 fd 2
0-10 5 10 50 -13 169 1690
10-20 15 3 45 -3 9 27
20-30 25 2 50 7 49 98
30-40 35 1 35 17 289 289
40-50 45 4 180 27 729 2916
Σ
N=20 Σfx=360 Σf
Σfx 360
M= = = 18
N 20
M=18
Σfd 2 5020
S.D(σ ) = = = 251 = 15.84
N 20
σ = 15.84
laf{kIr fof/k }kjk ekud fopyu dk fu/kkZj.k

.k% mijksDr inewY;ksa ds vk/kkj ij gh y/kq fof/k }kjk ekud fopyu dh x.kuk
djus ds fy, lcls igys dfYir ek/; dk fu/kkZj.k djrs gq, fopyu Kkr djsxsaA
lw=k %
2
Σfd2 Σfd
σ= −
N N
oxZ e/; fcUnw f d=(x-A) fd d2 fd 2

x A=25
0-10 5 10 -20 -200 400 4000
10-20 15 3 -10 -30 100 300
20-30 25 2 0 0 0 0
30-40 35 1 10 10 100 100
40-50 45 4 20 80 400 1600
N=20 Σfd = −140 Σfd2 = 6000
2 2
Σfd2 Σfd 600 − 140
σ= − = −
N N 20 20
σ = 300− 49 = 251=15.84
σ = 15.84
ekud fopyu ds xq.k ,oa nks"k
xq.k%
1. ;g eki Js.kh ds lHkh ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA
2. ;g ek/; Kkr djus ds fy, mi;ksxh gSA
3. ;g forj.k dk vf/kd fLFkj (Stable) ekid gSA
4. ;g fopyu dk Li"V vkSj fuf'pr eki gSA
5. ;g vf/kd fopyu okyh inekyk esa ljyrk ls iz;kssx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
6. ;g Js.kh esa fdlh vad fo'ks"k dh fLFkfr crkus eas lgk;d gksrk gSA
7. ;g nks ;k nks ls vf/kd inekykvksa ds fopyu dh lhek vksj letkrh;rk ds va'kksa dh rqyuk djus ds fy, mi;ksxh
gSA
nks"k %
1. bldh x.kuk ljy ugha gSA
2. ;g ek/; dh lgk;rk ls fudkyk tkrk gS blfy, bl ij pje ewY;ksa dk vR;f/kd izHkko iM+rk gSA bruk gh
ugha] e/;d ls fy, x, fopyuksa ds oxZ vkSj Hkh cM+s gksrs gSa ftlds dkj.k fopyu c<+ tkrk gSA
lkjka'k%
bl izdkj mi;qZDr foospukvksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd lkaf[;dh fof/k eas iz;qDr gksus okys 'kks/k dh fofHkUu izfØ;kvksa
dk viuk vyx egÙo gSA laHkor% blhfy, lkekftd 'kks/k eas oLrqfu"B rjhds ls 'kks/k djus dh fof/k dks lkaf[;dh rduhfd
}kjk viuk dj 'kks/k djus dk izpyu c<+k gSA ;gk¡ ij lkekftd 'kks/k eas lkaf[;dh fof/k dk egÙo n'kkZus ds fy, ekè;
148 vuqla/kku fof/k
izo‘fr;ksa dh eki dh ek/;] cgqyd rFkk e/;adk dh mi;ksfxrk dks n'kkZus ds fy, muds vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk vkSj fo'ks"krk dk
o.kZu fd;k x;k gSA rRi'pkr~ bUgsa fudkyus dh fof/k dk Hkh o.kZu fd;k x;k gSA ek/; fopyu vkSj ekud fopyu dh
vo/kkj.kk ds lkFk&lkFk] ifjlj dh vo/kkj.kk rFkk mUgsa Kkr djus dh fof/k dks Hkh mnkgj.k }kjk n'kkZ;k x;k gSA bu
mnkgj.kksa ds vykok bl izdkj ds dbZ vkSj mnkgj.kksa dks ysdj ftruk T;knk vH;kl djsaxsa mruh csgrj le> bu
lkaf[;dh fof/k ds fu/kkZj.k ds rjhdksa ds ckjs eas gksxhA
ewY;kadu gsrq ç'u%
1. lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k dh fo'ks"krkvksa ,oa egRo dk foospu djsaA
2. ek/; ço‘fr D;k gS\ blds }kjk ek/; dSls fudkyk tkrk gSA

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1

nwjLFk f’k{kk funs’kky;

Copyright © 2003, Maharshi Dayanand University, ROHTAK

Maharshi Dayanand University

v/;k; 1 lkekftd vuqla/kku dh ewyHkwr vo/kkj.kk,¡

v/;k; 2 lkekftd ?kVukvksa dk oSKkfud v/;;u

v/;k; 3 'kks/k fof/k rFkk vkadM+s ,df=kr djus dh rduhdh

v/;k; 4 lzksr] oxhZdj.k rFkk vk¡dM+ksa dk izLrqrhdj.k

v/;k; 5 lkekftd 'kks/k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k

Max. Marks : 100

lkekftd vuqla/kku dk vFkZ

lkekftd vuqla/kku dk egÙo

lkekftd vuqla/kku esa vo/kkj.kk

lkekftd vuqla/kku esa midYiuk

vPNh midYiuk dh fo'ks"krk,¡

b. rkfRod Lrj (Metaphysical stage)

lkekftd vuqla/kku esa oLrqfu"B ,oa vkRefu"B n‘f"Vdks.k dk vFkZ

1. y{; ;qfDrewyd fØ;k (Goal Oriented Action)

vuqHkkfodrk ds vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

lkekftd losZ{k.k % vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

losZ{k.k dk vk;kstu] izdkj ,oa egÙo

lzksr% ÝaVykbu] ebZ 23] 2003 % 100

lkekftd 'kks/k ds fofHkUu pj.k

lk{kjrk nj L=kh&iq0 vuqikr

2001 68.85 79.25 56.31 861

lzksr% Hkkjr dh tux.kuk 2001] lhjht&7] gfj;k.kk

'kks/k izjpuk dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

xq.kkRed fof/k dk vFkZ ,oa fo'ks"krk,a

rqyukRed fof/k dk vFkZ] izÑfr ,oa fo'ks"krk,a

rkfydk&I% ;q)fç; lekt & vkS|ksfxd lekt

fun'kZu dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk

Lrfjr ;k oxhZÑr fun'kZu

1- lexz iw.kZr;k Li"V u gks(

vkadM+s ladyu dh rduhdh

iz'ukoyh% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a ,oa çdkj

(i) fdl izdkj dh tkudkjh izkIr djuk gSA

1- rqyukRed n‘f"V ls iz'uksa dh la[;k dk lhfer gksukA

vuqlwph% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a ,oa çdkj

lk{kkRdkj% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a ,oa çdkj

mís'; ds vk/kkj ij la[;k ds vk/kkj ij le; vof/k ds vk/kkj ij lajpuk ds vk/kkj ij

(i) funkukRed (i) lkewfgd (i) vYidkfyd (i) lajfpr

fujh{k.k% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk,a vkSj çdkj

oS;fDrd v/;;u fof/k% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk ,oa rduhdh

oS;fDrd v/;;u fd fo'ks"krk,¡

7. vR;kf/kd le; rFkk /ku dh vko';drk

vUroZLrq fo'kys"k.k% vFkZ] pj.k ,oa egÙo

f}rh;d lzksr% vFkZ ,oa egRo

oxhZdj.k% vFkZ] fo'ks"krk ,oa çdkj

lzksr% oYMZ iksiqys'ku izkslisDVl] 1998 la'kksf/kr] oksY;qe&2

1911 449]704 10-77

1921 481]195 11-31

1931 564]743 12-38

1941 705]9145 13-39

1951 968]494 17-07

1961 1]307]680 17-23

1971 1]772]959 17-67

1981 2]827]387 21-88

1991 4]054]744 24-63

2001 6]114]139 29-00