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Laser Theory Assignment
Laser Theory Assignment
University of Engineering and Technology
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Course Code: EEE‐6503
Course Name: Laser Theory
Assignment #01
Light and Blackbody Emission
Submitted By Submitted To
Md. Golam Zakaria Dr. Nasim Ahmed Dewan
ID: 0421062304 Professor
Semester: April 2021 Dept. of EEE, BUET
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET)
Dhaka‐1000, Bangladesh
August, 2021
Abstract
This assignment is about the fundamentals of thermal light emission and blackbody radiation.
Thermal light sources, often known as incandescent lamps, are one of the most common light
sources used now and in the past. This assignment covers the concept of an ideal blackbody,
nonideal blackbody radiators (objects for which ideal blackbody mathematics can be applied with
minor adjustments), absorption and emission of thermal light, wave particle duality of light, and
the quantum view of light's working. Aside from the contributions of numerous scientists in the
field of photonics and their hypotheses about how light, or photons, is emitted and absorbed,
and why there are so many colors accessible, and why they seem as they do, is also briefly
covered. The relationship between temperature and blackbody radiators, the state of light
emitting items, and the color, wavelength, frequency, and energy of emitted light are all
explored. Finally, the latter portions of this assignment describe how the thermal light emission
and blackbody radiation concepts are implemented in many aspects of our day‐to‐day
applications, as well as how we may quantify the efficiency of a light source.
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Table of Contents
1.1 EMISSION OF THERMAL LIGHT ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ................................................................................................... 1
1.3 BLACKBODY RADIATION AND THE STEFAN–BOLTZMANN LAW ................................................... 1
1.4 WEIN’S LAW .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 CAVITY RADIATION AND CAVITY MODES ...................................................................................... 4
1.6 QUANTUM NATURE OF LIGHT ...................................................................................................... 5
1.7 ABSORPTION AND EMISSION PROCESSES ..................................................................................... 6
1.8 BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION AND THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM ......................................................... 8
1.9 QUANTUM VIEW OF BLACKBODY RADIATION .............................................................................. 9
1.10 BLACKBODIES AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES .............................................................................. 10
1.11 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 10
1.12 ABSORPTION AND COLOR ........................................................................................................... 11
1.13 EFFICIENCY OF LIGHT SOURCES .................................................................................................. 11
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1.1 EMISSION OF THERMAL LIGHT
Thermal light is light which is emitted from a red‐hot object. The most common example of thermal light
is the incandescent electric lamp. In such lamps, the electricity flows through a thin filament of tungsten
metal, heating it to the point when it glows while‐hot. This heating process is called resistance heating.
However, the heating process for thermal light emission can also be of other forms like a gas flame igniting
the object, spraying a mixture of oxygen and alcohol onto the object and then igniting it, or using oxygen
and hydrogen as fuel to ignite the object.
The record of first incandescent is igniting a lime. This form of thermal light served human purpose for a
long time and upon making improvement to this lime incandescent lamp it is claimed that the light
produced by it was 83 times brighter than the light produced by gas light. Although the advancement of
technology replaced the lime incandescent light, we still can find this lime light in theaters where it is used
as a spotlight.
1.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Light exhibits both wave and particle like behavior. Light is essentially an electromagnetic wave and all
electromagnetic waves are classified based on their wavelength.
Figure 1:Electromagnetic Spectrum
In the case of visible light, which is simply electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye, the
wavelength determines the color. Red light has a wavelength of about 650 nm and blue light has a
wavelength of about 500 nm. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, x‐rays, and gamma rays are all examples of electromagnetic radiation. The whole spectrum,
including appropriate wavelengths, is depicted in Figure 1.
1.3 BLACKBODY RADIATION AND THE STEFAN–BOLTZMANN LAW
A blackbody is a substance that absorb all incident light of all frequencies shining on it. Such substance
reflects no light whatsoever and would appear to be completely black. Now, if the blackbody is heated
to the point where it glows (incandescence of blackbody), the emissions from the blackbody should be
as perfect as its absorption that is it should be able to emit light at all frequencies.
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But it is observed that, real substances absorb better at some frequencies than others. When heated,
those substances emitted more light at those frequencies. Also, the amount of radiation emitted from a
real object varies with the temperature of the object. The mathematical relationship for this temperature
dependence of emission was established by Josef Stefan.
Stefan showed that the total energy radiated by an object increases as the fourth power of the
temperature of the object. Now, Stefan proposed this in 1879 and in 1884 Boltzmann completed the
mathematical modeling of a blackbody radiator, and the Stefan‐Boltzmann law was developed.
So, according to the Stefan‐Boltzmann law the total energy integrated over a blackbody spectrum is given
by‐
𝑊 𝜎𝑇
Where, 𝜎 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 5.67 10 𝑤/𝑚 . 𝑘
However, this formula is only applicable for ideal blackbodies. For a nonideal blackbody radiator, the law
becomes‐
𝑊 𝑒𝜎𝑇 watt per square meter
Where, e= emissivity of an object. This emissivity is a measure of how well an object radiates energy. For
an ideal blackbody radiator e=1, but for non‐ideal blackbody the value of e is between 0 and 1. Now if the
surface area of the object is known then the total power output from the object can be calculated as‐
𝑃 𝐴𝜎𝑇 watt
1.4 WEIN’S LAW
It is observed that the wavelengths of radiation emitted from a heated object also change as an object is
heated. Objects at relatively low temperatures such as 2008C (473 K) do not glow but do indeed emit
something—namely, infrared radiation—felt by human beings as heat. As an object is heated to about
1000 K, the object is seen to glow a dull‐red color. We call this object “red hot.” As the temperature
increases, the red color emitted becomes brighter, eventually becoming orange and then yellow. Finally,
the temperature is high enough (like that of the sun at 6000 K) that the light emitted is essentially white
(white hot).
The physicist Wilhelm Wein, in 1895, thought of a way to produce, essentially, a perfect blackbody in a
cavity radiator. His thought was to produce a heated object with a tiny hole in it which opens to an
enclosed cavity as in Figure 2. Light incident on the hole would enter the cavity and be absorbed by the
irregular walls inside the cavity—essentially a perfect absorber. Light that did reflect from the inner walls
of the cavity would eventually be absorbed by other surfaces that it hit after reflection, as evident in the
figure. If the entire cavity is now placed in a furnace and heated to a certain temperature, the radiation
emitted from the tiny hole is blackbody radiation.
Wein’s studies of cavity radiation showed that regardless of the actual temperature of an object, the
pattern of the emission spectrum always looked the same, with the amount of light emitted from a
blackbody increasing as wavelengths became shorter, then peaking at a certain wavelength and decreased
rapidly at yet still shorter wavelengths in a manner similar to that shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 2:Cavity radiator absorbing incident radiation.
Figure 3:Typical blackbody output for an object at 3000 K.
Wein’s law predicts the wavelength of maximum emission as a function of object temperature:
𝜆 𝑇 2.897 10 𝑚. 𝐾
where 𝜆 is the wavelength where the peak occurs and T is the temperature in kelvin. Wein’s law allows
the prediction of temperature based on the wavelength of peak emission and may be used to estimate
the temperature of objects such as hot molten steel as well as stars in outer space.
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1.5 CAVITY RADIATION AND CAVITY MODES
As it is difficult to compute the behavior of a real blackbody, an easier avenue was found by Wein in the
form of a cavity radiator, in which we assume that the object is a heated (isothermal) cavity with a hole in
it from which light is emitted. Inside the enclosure the absorption of energy balances with emission. The
cavity itself may be seen as a resonator in which standing waves are present. To simplify the problem
further (to permit mathematical analysis), consider a cubical heated cavity of dimensions L.
Figure 4:Modes in a heated cavity.
A standing wave can be produced in any one of three dimensions, and standing waves of various
wavelengths are possible as long as they fit inside the cavity (i.e., are an integral multiple of the dimensions
of the cavity). The condition exists, then, that any electromagnetic wave (e.g., a light wave) inside the
cavity must have a node at the walls of the cavity. As frequency increases, more nodes will fit inside the
cavity, as evident in Figure 4.
Rayleigh and Jeans showed mathematically that the number of modes per unit frequency per unit volume
in such a cavity is
8𝜋𝑣
𝑐
A different approach to the problem was developed by Max Planck in 1899. His key assumption was that
the energy of any oscillator at a frequency v could exist only in discrete (quantized) units of hv, where h
was a constant (called Planck’s constant). The fundamental difference in this approach from the classical
approach was that modes were quantized and required an energy of hv to excite them. Upper modes,
with higher energies, were hence less likely to be occupied than lower‐energy modes.
Bose–Einstein statistics predict the average energy per mode to be the energy of the mode times the
probability of that mode being occupied. Central to this idea was that the energy of the actual wave itself
is quantized as E=hv. Multiplying this energy by the probability of a mode being occupied (the Bose–
Einstein distribution function) gives the average energy per mode as
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ℎ𝑣
𝑒 1
where h is Planck’s constant, v the frequency of the wave, k is Boltzmann’s constant, and T is the temperature.
When this is multiplied by the number of modes per unit frequency per unit volume, the same number that
Rayleigh and Jeans computed, the resulting formula allows calculation of the intensity radiated at any given
wavelength for any given temperature:
8𝜋ℎ𝑣
𝑒 1
𝑘𝑇
Comparing Planck’s radiation formula to the classical Rayleigh–Jeans law, we see that the two results agree
well at low frequencies but deviate sharply at higher frequencies, with the Rayleigh–Jeans law predicting the
UV catastrophe that never occurred (Figure 5).
Figure 5:UV catastrophe and Planck’s law.
1.6 QUANTUM NATURE OF LIGHT
Newton postulated that light is a stream of particles based on the behavior of light in exhibiting reflection
and refraction. But this postulate fails to explain interference. Later Young proved that light do have wave
properties.
To explain the blackbody spectrum of light emitted from heated objects and issues such as the UV
catastrophe, Max Planck postulated that the atoms in a blackbody acted as tiny harmonic oscillators, each
of which had a fundamental quantized energy that obeyed the following relationship‐
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 ℎ𝑣
𝜆
Where, h is Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of the radiation emitted. where 𝜆 is the wavelength
in meters. This concept of quantization was also embraced by Einstein, who utilized it to explain the
photoelectric effect, which clearly demonstrated that light has particle qualities. These light particles
became known as photons, and according to the relationship above, they had a definite energy and
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frequency value. So, light can be thought of as a wave that has particle like qualities (or, a particle with
wavelike qualities.
Using the above relation, we now find that a photon at a particular wavelength has a distinct energy. For
example, photons of green light at 500 nm have an energy of‐
ℎ𝑐 6.625 10 3 10
𝐸 3.98 10 2.48 𝑒𝑉.
𝜆 500 10
Figure 6:Electromagnetic spectrum with energies.
Low‐energy radio waves, microwaves, and infrared radiation have energies of up to 1.7 eV. Red to violet
light, or 1.7 to 3.1 eV, makes up the visible spectrum. Photon energy in UV, x‐rays, and gamma rays are
now exceeding 1 GeV. Figure 3 depicts the spectrum, which includes both energy and wavelengths.
1.7 ABSORPTION AND EMISSION PROCESSES
When an electron in an atom is excited to a high energy state and later loses that energy light is produced.
An atom at a low energy state can absorb energy and in doing so will be elevated to a higher energy state.
Now the difference in the energy states; original(lower) and final (upper) is equal to the amount of energy
absorbed by the atom. The energy absorbed can be in almost any form, including electrical, thermal,
optical, chemical, or nuclear.
An atom in high energy state will certainly fall to a lower energy state since according to the law of entropy
of thermodynamics, nature always favors a lower energy state. When an electron within an atom jumps
from a higher to a lower energy state, the energy is conserved according to the law of conservation of
energy and the released energy appears as photons with the photon energy being the difference in energy
between the two atomic energy states. This process is called emission.
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Figure 7:Absorption and emission of energy.
If the energies at two atomic states are known, the wavelength of the emitted photon can be predicted.
So‐
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 ℎ𝑣
However, not all energy emitted is in the forms of visible light. Some photons appear as infrared light.
All atoms and molecules have discrete and distinct energy levels such as those depicted in Figure 4, which
shows the levels for a hydrogen atom.
Figure 8:Simplified hydrogen energy levels.
Light is produced when an atom at a higher energy level loses energy and falls to a lower level in what is
called a radiative transition. The larger the transition the higher the emitted photon energy is. For
instance, blue photons have more energy than red photons. While emitting photons there is also non‐
radiative transitions in which energy is lost for example as heat.
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Now, among the energy levels the ground state is the lowest energy state that an atom or molecule can
have. All the atoms and molecules assume this state at absolute at absolute zero. The addition of energy
causes the energy of the atom to rise to an upper level. The radiative transition can be between two upper
energy state or could also be between an upper energy state and the ground state. In the later case the
photon energy is really high.
1.8 BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION AND THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Every system has thermal energy. Thermal energy also excites atoms (in any form: gas, solid, or liquid),
causing them to reach greater energy levels: The more the energy levels are filled, the more thermal
energy is fed into the system (i.e., the higher the temperature). To determine how many atoms are at a
particular energy state, Boltzmann distribution concept is used. Boltzmann’s law predicts the population
of atoms at a given energy level as follow‐
𝑁 𝑁𝑒
Where, 𝑁 population of atoms at a given energy level
The law predicts an exponential drop in population of atoms in higher energy states. The resulting
distribution of energy for various energy levels is graphed in a generalized form in Figure 5.
Figure 9:Generalized Boltzmann distribution of atomic energies.
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So, according to the distribution we can see if the temperature of the entire system is increased, the
distribution would shift and more atoms would reach higher energies; however, the population of a lower
level will always exceed that of a higher level.
1.9 QUANTUM VIEW OF BLACKBODY RADIATION
A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, and emission from such an entity is purely dependent on the
body's temperature. It has a higher blue content at higher temperatures, and a lower blue content (seen
as red) at lower temperatures. This phenomenon is displayed in Figure 6.
This is because at lower temperatures only low energy level are excited. The atoms in this case will have
enough energy to cause transitions creating a reasonable amount of infrared light and some red light, but
very few atoms will have enough energy to allow the production of blue light. As the temperature of the
object is increased, higher atomic levels will be excited and blue emissions will be seen. This shift is due
to the fact that blue light is literally more energetic than red light, as evident from the Planck relationship
𝐸 ℎ𝑣.
Figure 10:Energy‐level populations at various temperatures.
It should be noted that blackbody radiation is broadband. If the discrete energy levels in Figure 6 were
replaced by wide bands of possible energies, it is easy to see that the average light emitted will be
broadband.
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1.10 BLACKBODIES AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
Figure 11:Blackbody radiation spectra.
At 6000 K, a great deal of radiation is emitted in the infrared region of the spectrum; the vast majority lies
in visible range and most specifically in the blue region. An object at 6000 K is said to have a color
temperature of 6000K and the light emitted by it matches the light produced by the sun.
At somewhat cooler temperature like 3000 K, the object appears red when viewed since more red light is
emitted than blue light. Incandescent lamps have a color temperature of 3500 K. As this object cools to,
say, 1000 K, the emission of light shifts even further into the infrared, and only a small amount of red light
is emitted (with almost no blue). Such an object is said to be “red hot” and the vast majority of its emission
is in the infrared region between 2‐ and 6‐mm wavelengths. Objects at room temperature (300 K) also
emit radiation in the infrared centered at about 10 mm. In fact, even objects at a cold 3 K emit radiation
at 3‐mm wavelengths.
1.11 APPLICATIONS
The human body at a temperature of about 312 K emits a large amount of infrared radiation centered
about a wavelength of 10 mm. This is used for security and convenience lighting purposes by passive
infrared (PIR) motion detectors.
clothing and other items normally opaque to visible light are often quite transparent to far‐infrared
light. To this end a commercially viable security camera is available which, quite literally, has the ability
to see through clothing. In this age of tight airport security, this would make it quite impossible to
conceal a weapon of any type, including those that do not affect metal detectors.
More mundane applications of blackbody radiation include noncontact thermometers used worldwide
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by the medical community. These in‐the‐ear thermometers measure the IR radiation emitted from the
eardrum (which is inside the body and hence accurately reflects the body’s core temperature) and
calculate body temperature from this.
1.12 ABSORPTION AND COLOR
If a low‐energy atom absorbs a photon with a specific amount of energy, it will transition to a high‐
energy state with a final energy equal to its initial energy plus the energy of the absorbed photon. This is
why particular hues emerge in substances.
A red liquid appears red because it absorbs all other photons except red. Similarly blue liquids allow blue
photons to pass through but absorbs all other colors of photons. Now, the energy of red photons is less
than that of a blue photon. But the blue liquid absorbs low energy red photon and let high energy blue
photon through. Conversely, red liquid lets low energy photon to pass but absorb high energy blue
photon. This is due to the nature of absorption. If energy levels in a particular atom exist 2.1 eV apart, a
2.1‐eV photon is required to excite the atom from the lower level to the upper level. A photon with 1.7
eV of energy falls short of the energy needed to make the jump, whereas a 2.3‐eV photon has too much
energy.
Another way of looking at absorption is as the opposite of emission. This is expected in nature: If atoms
can emit light to lose energy, they must be able to absorb it to gain energy. Because of the quantized
nature of energy levels, it is possible to find atomic and molecular species that have energy levels allowing
the absorption of photons of essentially any energy.
1.13 EFFICIENCY OF LIGHT SOURCES
To compare light output by various sources, a unit called lumen is used, which represents the power of
light emitted by a source. Efficiency is measured as a function of light output to power input using the
unit lumens per watt, which measures the number of lumens a light source emits for 1 W of input
power. In theory, a perfect light source emitting at the peak sensitivity of the human eye could deliver
622 lm/W. Practical light sources fall far below this figure.
Incandescent lights have poor efficiency because it is a thermal light source. However fluorescent and
sodium lamps have higher efficiencies where electricity is directly converted to light not heat.
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