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4 (a) from liquid to gas (accept liquid to vapour) nitrogen change starts at 1 min or
stops at 4 min or lasts 3 min (all times ±0.2 min) oxygen boils/liquid to gas starts at
4.8 min or stops at 5.6 min or lasts 0.8 min
(b) mcT algebraic (or words) formula
9 (°C) seen
any 1 correct calculation 3060 or 14400 (J) 17000 J (17460 J)

10 (a) (i) transverse-crest and troughs and longitudinal-compressions and rarefactions

C1
transverse vibration at right angles and longitudinal along wave A1
diagram showing transverse wave at least one wavelength B1
diagram showing longitudinal wave (slinky/layers, etc.) at least one wavelength B1
(ii) high(er) pressure or denser or molecules/atoms/layers closer together B1
low(er) pressure or molecules, etc. further apart B1
[Total: 6]
(b) (i) tank containing water/waves and labelled dipper/vibrator B1
source of light (labelled or clear) and screen/paper/projected image
or stroboscope to view or illuminate B1
(ii) plane barrier (labelled or clear) + incident waves B1
reflected waves correct B1
(accept circular waves with correct centres 0/2 if waves go through barrier)
[Total: 4]
(c) (i) 1.5 m B1
(ii) 5/10 or no of waves per second or f = 1/T C1
0.5 Hz A1
(iii) v = fλ or (i) × (ii) allow v = fλ anywhere in (c) C1
0.75 m/s ecf (i) and (ii) A1
[Total: 5]

You can help to reduce the demand for fossil fuels, which in turn reduces global
warming, by using energy more wisely. Here are 10 simple actions you can take to
help reduce global warming.

1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Do your part to reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables.

Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that
makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste. And whenever you can, recycle paper,
plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans. If there isn't a recycling program at your
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workplace, school, or in your community, ask about starting one. By recycling half of
your household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

2. Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning

Adding insulation to your walls and attic, and installing weather stripping or caulking
around doors and windows can lower your heating costs more than 25 percent, by
reducing the amount of energy you need to heat and cool your home.

Turn down the heat while you're sleeping at night or away during the day, and keep
temperatures moderate at all times. Setting your thermostat just 2 degrees lower in
winter and higher in summer could save about 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide each
year.

3. Change a Light Bulb

Wherever practical, replace regular light bulbs with compact fluorescent light (CFL)
bulbs. Replacing just one 60-watt incandescent light bulb with a CFL will save you
$30 over the life of the bulb. CFLs also last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs,
use two-thirds less energy, and give off 70 percent less heat.

If every U.S. family replaced one regular light bulb with a CFL, it would eliminate 90
billion pounds of greenhouse gases, the same as taking 7.5 million cars off the road.

4. Drive Less and Drive Smart

Less driving means fewer emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are
great forms of exercise. Explore your community mass transit system, and check out
options for carpooling to work or school.

When you do drive, make sure your car is running efficiently. For example, keeping
your tires properly inflated can improve your gas mileage by more than 3 percent.
Every gallon of gas you save not only helps your budget, it also keeps 20 pounds of
carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

5. Buy Energy-Efficient Products

When it's time to buy a new car, choose one that offers good gas mileage. Home
appliances now come in a range of energy-efficient models, and compact florescent
bulbs are designed to provide more natural-looking light while using far less energy
than standard light bulbs.
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Avoid products that come with excess packaging, especially molded plastic and other
packaging that can't be recycled. If you reduce your household garbage by 10 percent,
you can save 1,200 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

6. Use Less Hot Water

Set your water heater at 120 degrees to save energy, and wrap it in an insulating
blanket if it is more than 5 years old. Buy low-flow showerheads to save hot water
and about 350 pounds of carbon dioxide yearly. Wash your clothes in warm or cold
water to reduce your use of hot water and the energy required to produce it. That
change alone can save at least 500 pounds of carbon dioxide annually in most
households. Use the energy-saving settings on your dishwasher and let the dishes air-
dry.

7. Use the "Off" Switch

Save electricity and reduce global warming by turning off lights when you leave a
room, and using only as much light as you need. And remember to turn off your
television, video player, stereo and computer when you're not using them.

It's also a good idea to turn off the water when you're not using it. While brushing
your teeth, shampooing the dog or washing your car, turn off the water until you
actually need it for rinsing. You'll reduce your water bill and help to conserve a vital
resource.

8. Plant a Tree

If you have the means to plant a tree, start digging. During photosynthesis, trees and
other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are an integral part of
the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to
fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by automobile traffic,
manufacturing and other human activities. A single tree will absorb approximately
one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

9. Get a Report Card from Your Utility Company

Many utility companies provide free home energy audits to help consumers identify
areas in their homes that may not be energy efficient. In addition, many utility
companies offer rebate programs to help pay for the cost of energy-efficient upgrades.

10. Encourage Others to Conserve

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Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends,
neighbors and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to
establish programs and policies that are good for the environment.

These 10 steps will take you a long way toward reducing your energy use and your
monthly budget. And less energy use means less dependence on the fossil fuels that
create greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.

Blue shift is the shortening of a transmitted signal's wavelength, and/or an increase in

its frequency, due to the relativistic Doppler effect, which indicates that the object is
moving toward the observer. The name comes from the fact that the shorter-
wavelength end of the optical spectrum is the blue (or violet) end, hence, when visible
light is compacted in wavelength, it is shifted towards the "blue" end of the spectrum.
Since the longer-wavelength end of the visible electromagnetic spectrum is red, the
opposite effect, of a lengthening of a signal's wavelength, is referred to as redshifting.

While the terms "redshifting" and "blueshifting" imply significantly redder or bluer
light, only the most distant galaxies and those moving at speeds far above average
emit light that arrives with perceptible red or blue tinges. For the most part, shifting is
not a visible phenomenon.[1]

These terms and conventions ("blue" = compaction, "red"= diffusing) are used even
when referring to signals outside the optical range (for instance, radio waves, x-rays
and gamma rays).

Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as

snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to
have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's
surface. On Earth, it is the condensation of atmospheric water vapor into drops of
water heavy enough to fall, often making it to the surface. Two processes, possibly
acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated leading to rainfall: cooling the air
or adding water vapor to the air. Virga is precipitation that begins falling to the earth
but evaporates before reaching the surface; it is one of the ways air can become
saturated. Precipitation forms via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within
a cloud. Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to
small spheres for smaller drops.

Moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture

contrasts known as weather fronts is the major method of rain production. If enough
moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds
(those with strong upward vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunderstorms)
which can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation
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is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at
elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of
mountains. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry
air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass. The
movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy
seasons to savannah climes. Rain is the primary source of freshwater for most areas of
the world, providing suitable conditions for diverse ecosystems, as well as water for
hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation. Rainfall is measured through the use of
rain gauges. Rainfall amounts are estimated actively by weather radar and passively
by weather satellites.

The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity,
downwind of cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation
pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier
conditions in the tropics. Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is
responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. The globally-
averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). Climate classification
systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall
to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Antarctica is the Earth's driest
continent. Rain is also known or suspected on other worlds, composed of methane,
iron, neon, and sulfuric acid rather than water.

In physics, interference is the addition (superposition) of two or more waves that

results in a new wave pattern. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves
that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the
same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency. Interference
in physics corresponds to what in wireless communications is called multi-path
propagation and fading, while the term interference has a different meaning in
wireless communications.

Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an

obstacle. In classical physics, it is described as the apparent bending of waves around
small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings. Similar effects
occur when light waves travel through a medium with a varying refractive index or a
sound wave through one with varying acoustic impedance. Diffraction occurs with all
waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as
visible light, x-rays and radio waves. As physical objects have wave-like properties
(at the atomic level), diffraction also occurs with matter and can be studied according
to the principles of quantum mechanics.
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While diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such changes, its
effects are generally most pronounced for waves where the wavelength is on the order
of the size of the diffracting objects. If the obstructing object provides multiple,
closely-spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result. This is due
to the superposition, or interference, of different parts of a wave that traveled to the
observer by different paths (see diffraction grating).

The formalism of diffraction can also describe the way in which waves of finite extent
propagate in free space. For example, the expanding profile of a laser beam, the beam
shape of a radar antenna and the field of view of an ultrasonic transducer are all
explained by diffraction theory.