ISSA Transformation Specialist Main Course Textbook

Transformation
800.892.4772 • ISSAonline.com
Transformation First Edition
Claire Dorotik-Nana, MA, LMFT
Course Textbook for TRANSFORMATION SPECIALIST
First Edition
Course Textbook for TRANSFORMATION SPECIALIST
International Sports Sciences Association
1015 Mark Avenue • Carpinteria, CA 93013
1.800.892.4772 • 1.805.745.8111 (international)
ISSAonline.com
Transformation
Claire Dorotik-Nana, MA, LMFT
Transformation (Edition 1)
Official course text for: International Sports Sciences Association’s Transformation Specialist Program
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
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Published by the International Sports Sciences Association, Carpinteria, CA 93013.
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This text is informational only. The data and information contained herein are based upon information from various published and
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About the Author | iii
About the Author

Claire Dorotik-Nana, MA, LMFT, is a Licensed Marriage and Family
Therapist who specializes in post-traumatic growth, optimal performance,
and wellness. Earning her BS in Kinesiology from San Diego State Uni-
versity, Claire began her career as a personal trainer and worked for many
years specializing in weight loss, performance enhancement, and marathon
and ultra-marathon training. As a Licensed Marriage and Family Thera-
pist, Claire has worked with the recovery population developing wellness
programs, in residential fitness camps as a clinical therapist, and in private
practice counseling individuals and families – including victims of the Au-
rora Theatre shooting.
As a course developer for International Sports Science Association, Profes-
sional Development Resources, and Zur Institute, Claire has written over
thirty continuing education courses on a variety of topics from Nutrition
and Mental Health, Motivation, Stigma, and her most recent course, Coun-
seling the Victims of Mass Shootings. Additionally, Claire is the author of
Leverage: The Science of Turning Setbacks into Springboards, and pens the
popular blog on Psychcentral, Leveraging Adversity.
Claire is always thinking about ways to improve physical fitness and nutri-
tion as a modality for improving mental health.

Contents
Introduction, p1 Appendix:
Why Personal Trainers Need to Know About The Complete Change Workbook, p282
Behavioral Change, p2 Self-Motivation Booster: At Home Exercises
How This Information Can Help Personal to Supercharge Motivation, p285
Trainers, p3 Get Positive: Positive Psychology Skills to
Create a Winning Mindset, p288
1 Stages of Change, p5
Change Methods That Work: The Complete
The Stages of Change and How to Identify Commitment Strategy Guide, p296
Them, p8
Am I Getting Better? How to Use Experience
Assessing the Client, p9 Sampling to Propel Change, p299
Applied Skills for Each Stage of Change, p11
2 Motivational Interviewing, p14

The Motivational Interviewing Model, p15
The New Science of Motivation:
The Latest Research and
Motivation Skills, p28
Using Ambivalence to Motivate Your
Clients, p35
The Motivational Interviewing Coach: How
Empathy Enhances Change, p39
3 The ISSA Drawing-In Process, p47

Modifying Personal Behavior, p48
Modifying Your Client’s Behavior, p55
4 Positive Psychology, p62

The Positive Psychology Model, p63
Positive Psychology Skills for Personal
Trainers, p77
5 Commitment Strategies, p107

Commitment Strategies, p108
Part Two: To Win the Game, You Have to
Know the Rules, p140
6 Flow and Experience Sampling, p193

Flow and Why It Matters, p196
Introduction
2|
Unit Outline
1. Why Personal Trainers Need to Know About Behavioral Change

2. How This Information Can Help Personal Trainers
Why Personal Trainers Need to Know About

Behavioral Change
Personal trainers have every right to expect that preparation for personal trainers, like any other
what they learn in certification programs will helping profession, cannot possibly teach all
fully prepare them to help their clients adopt of the skills and knowledge to work with the
healthier behaviors. While new protocols for huge variety of clients who will likely walk
exercise specifics may emerge, or new infor- through a personal trainer’s door. Professional
mation about nutrition may slightly alter our preparation is simply not equipped to teach
understanding of how best to lose weight, the personal trainers everything they need to know
premise is that the core of information available and the best solution for every possible case.
is enough for personal trainers to sufficiently What preparation can do though—and what it
(and hopefully excellently) perform their duties. does quite well—is to teach personal trainers to
make informed decisions about which exercis-
Also, many personal trainers state they are satis-
es to use with which types of clients, how to
fied with the certification training they receive,
prescribe and prepare exercise plans, and how
especially as new modifications, alternative
to minimize the risk of injury.
forms of exercise, and fitness specializations have
been adopted in such certification programs. However, what professional preparation does
not do is teach personal trainers what is now
However, many personal trainers report feel-
consistently recognized as the most essential
ing very unsure of how best to create behavior
component of behavioral change—that is, the
change within their clients. It is here that we
relationship they need to develop with their cli-
must also admit that there is—and perhaps
ents. What I am mean here is all of the relational
always will be—a disconnection between the
and emotional characteristics that teach not just
idealistic presentation of academia and certifi-
what to do with clients, but more importantly,
cations programs and the practical realities of
how a trainer should be with clients. This is
working in the trenches.
important as research in behavioral change now
Perhaps a larger reality is that academic clearly recognizes that, regardless of the model
Transformation Specialist
Introduction | 3
of behavioral change used, the relationship with How This Information

the personal trainer (or coach or therapist) is the
strongest predicator of long-lasting behavioral
Can Help Personal
change. It is this human connection that serves Trainers
as the glue that sustains the difficult aspects of
Personal trainers are under more pressure
behavior change. And while there are trans-
than ever before to quickly and swiftly create
formative factors that are needed for change to
change in their clients, to prove the efficacy
occur, without first developing a trusting and
of their methods, and to stand out among the
authentic relationship with a personal trainer,
competition—which comes in many forms as
clients simply will not change.
more clients turn to medication, plastic sur-
Yet it is not only in the field of personal train- gery, Botox, and liposuction to confront their
ing that the cardinal components of behavioral unhealthy compositions.
change are being overlooked; with obesity
And yet, without first understanding the cli-
rates now skyrocketing, and diversifying into
ents, such as what stage of change they may be
younger populations, how to change peoples’
in, their motivations for change, their ambiv-
behavior is something that is missing the mark
alence about change, and any mitigating life
on a national scale. While there is now greater
factors, any personal trainer’s efforts to inspire
access than ever before to information about
behavioral change will be hindered. That is to
healthy nutrition, campaigns to encourage the
say, inspiring change in a client begins with
adoption of healthy behavior, and even incen-
first understanding the client on a fundamen-
tive programs (for instance, many insurance
tal level. From this point, personal trainers
companies offer lower premiums, and many
can then tailor change approaches directly and
states have considered raising taxes on un-
uniquely to that client, avoiding a “one size
healthy foods), the obesity epidemic is showing
fits all” approach that overlooks the client’s
no signs of slowing down.
unique circumstances. Further, a client who
Personal trainers, like national campaigns to feels understood is much more likely not only
fight obesity, have plenty of useful information to return to that personal trainer, but also to
about exercise and nutritional; yet, all of this more fully engage in the process of changing
information is predicated upon not simply their behavior.
eating healthier and exercising, but also upon
Understanding behavior change can help per-
changing a person’s behavior at a fundamental
sonal trainers:
level. What is needed—and what this course
offers—is not more of the same, but rather, • To understand how the stage of change a
an inside look at the most up-to-date, evi- client is in influences the thoughts, feelings,
behaviors, motivations, and challenges of
dence-based, and innovative approaches to
the client.
changing behavior.

4|
• To develop the skills to identify the stage of change the client is in

and how best to work with the client through the different stages
of change.
• To utilize the pivotal skills of relationship building to develop a

strong rapport with any client.
• To incorporate powerful motivational interviewing techniques to

raise a client’s awareness of the benefits of change and to shift the
client’s decisional balance toward change.
• To harness the three core elements of motivation to ignite the

client’s intrinsic desire for change.
• To incorporate powerful positive psychology skills to raise the cli-

Self-efficacy: confidence ent’s self-efficacy, to teach the skills of optimistic thinking, and to
that allows changes to be restore the client’s confidence in change.
made and sustained across a
variety of situations. • To teach commanding positive psychology skills to boost the cli-
ent’s mood and to generate greater levels of fulfillment, meaning,
and achievement.
• To utilize innovative commitment strategies to dramatically moti-

vate change, and to maintain it throughout the stages of change.
To incorporate progressive experience sampling methods to help

clients uncover their unique state of flow and to utilize optimal
experience to boost autonomy, mastery, and deeper purpose—the
powerful components of lasting change.
It should be noted that behavior change is not exclusive to weight

loss or improving health. Changing behavior underlies every train-
ing situation a personal trainer may face—from coaching a team
sport to developing a corporate wellness program, to rehabilitating a
shoulder injury. The personal trainer who is equipped with the indis-
pensable skills of behavior change is not only better prepared to face
a variety of clients, but also to inspire powerful change within them.
UNIT 1
Stages of Change
6 | Unit 1
Unit Outline
1. The Stages of Change and How to Identify 3. Applied Skills for Each Stage of Change
Them 4. Summary
2. Assessing the Client
Originally developed by James O. Prochaska and colleagues in the

1970s, the stages of change model grew out of the transtheoretical
model of behavioral change, and was later refined into a set of six dis-
tinctive stages that described the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of
people in the process of making a change. The model later went much
further to clarify the motivational conflicts that people experience
when making a change. For example, in the early stages of behavior
change, people tend to weigh up the benefits and risks of a change be-
fore preparing for action. Additionally, preparation for action—where
discussion revolves around planning the steps to take—precedes any
action steps associated with the change.
Stages of change model: The stages of change model also helps describe the different cog-
model that describes the
nitive processes that underlie behavior change. For example, in the
different cognitive processes
that underlie behavior early stages of change, people engage in more evaluative processes,
change. such as reconsidering their behaviors and raising their consciousness
level about the change they would like to make; whereas in the later
stages, people focus more on their commitment to the change, and
on environmental conditioning and their social support. Research by
Prochaska and colleagues showed that interventions to change behav-
Stage-matched ior are more effective if they are “stage-matched,” that is, “matched to
interventions:
interventions that are
each individual’s stage of change” (Prochaska & Velicer, 2009). Partic-
matched to each individual’s ularly in the field of weight loss, the stages of change model has been
stage of change. shown to be effective, with successful rates of change 10% or more
above control groups, which makes it the most effective model to date
(Johnson, et al., 2008). Much of the reason for this is that the stages
of change model focuses not only on matching the intervention to
Decision balance:
an assessment of the the stage of change, but also recognizes that the following factors are
advantages (the “pros”) necessary for people to change:
of changing against the
disadvantages (the “cons”). • An increased awareness of the decision balance, i.e., that the
Stages of Change | 7
advantages (the “pros”) of changing outweigh the disadvantages

(the “cons”).
• Self-efficacy, which is described as the confidence that a person can Consciousness-raising:

make and maintain changes across a variety of situations. increasing awareness of the
benefits of change and the
• Strategies to help make and maintain change—these are called the risks of not changing.
processes of change. Dramatic relief: relief from
aversive feelings about one’s
The stages of change model describes ten processes of change: own behavior, and feelings
of hope when seeing other
1. Consciousness-raising: increasing awareness of the benefits of people in similar change
change and the risks of not changing. situations.
Self-reevaluation: the
2. Dramatic relief: relief from aversive feelings about one’s own recognition that healthy
behavior, and feelings of hope when seeing other people in similar behavior is an important part
change situations. of who we are and who we
want to be.
3. Self-reevaluation: the recognition that healthy behavior is an
Environmental
important part of who we are and who we want to be. reevaluation: the
recognition that unhealthy
4. Environmental reevaluation: the recognition that unhealthy behavior has negative effects
behavior has negative effects on others around us. on others around us.
5. Social liberation: feeling supported socially in making a change. Social liberation: feeling
supported socially in making
6. Self-liberation: feeling confident in one’s ability to change and a change.
“liberated” from the negative effects of not changing. Self-liberation: feeling
confident in one’s ability to
7. Helping relationships: feeling supported by others in making a change and “liberated” from
change. the negative effects of not
changing.
8. Counter-conditioning: conditioning healthy behaviors and
Helping relationships:
replacing unhealthy ones.
feeling supported by others
9. Reinforcement management: associating positive rewards in making a change.
with healthy behaviors and reducing the rewards from unhealthy Counter-conditioning:
behaviors. conditioning healthy
behaviors and replacing
10. Stimulus control: learning to control environmental triggers to unhealthy ones.
promote healthy behavior, and to reduce unhealthy behavior. Reinforcement
management: associating
Particularly for understanding the “decisional balance,” the stages of positive rewards with healthy
behaviors and reducing
change model is helpful for describing how people in the early stages
rewards from unhealthy
of change often see the cons of changing as being greater than the behaviors.
pros, but as this balance shifts (with the pros being considered more Stimulus control: learning
strongly than the cons), a person moves toward more solid steps of to control environmental
triggers to promote healthy
change (Hall & Rossi, 2008). Further, this model also helps describe behavior and reduce
the role that self-efficacy plays in behavior change, namely that, as unhealthy behavior.

8 | Unit 1
a person moves through the different stages of equally. Because of this, the decisional balance
change, their self-efficacy increases, which can (where they see the pros as being equal to the
predict a lasting change in behavior (Prochaska cons) can often cause a stalemate, with change
& Velicer, 2009). Let’s now take a look at the five behavior put off for some time. At this stage, a
stages of change. person may also have a high degree of ambiv-
alence, while their sense of self-efficacy is not
quite developed. People at this stage will often
The Stages of Change say things like, “I know I will feel better if I
and How to Identify lose weight, but I just don’t know if I can”, or,
Them “I know I will be happier if I start working out,
but I’m not sure I can fit it in.”
Stage 1: Precontemplation (Not
Ready) Stage 3: Preparation (Ready)
People at this stage are often either unaware People in the preparation stage see the pros as
of the risks of their behavior, or they mentally being greater than the cons, meaning that the
minimize the concern of others about the risks. decisional balance has shifted in favor of change
For this reason, clients will often say things like, and they are now ready to take action. In this
“I don’t see anything wrong with what I do, but stage, people will often begin to plan out and
I guess my wife wanted me to come here,” or, “I initiate small steps toward making the change;
think I’m fine, but my doctor said I should see however, they will usually still experience some
you.” Statements such as these indicate that the doubt about their success as their sense of
person is in the precontemplation stage and has self-efficacy is still low. For this reason, this stage
not thought much about making the change, is characterized by thinking about and planning
and does not have any concrete plans to start change in preparation for taking action. Here,
a new healthy behavior in the near future (i.e., people will often say things like, “I am going to
within the next 6 months). Further, those in the start working out three times a week, starting
precontemplation stage have a decisional bal- from next week, but I’m still not sure how I will
ance that doesn’t support change (they see more fit everything in,” or, “I am planning to eat low-
cons than pros), and may not feel a high sense carb from here on out, but I don’t know what I
of self-efficacy about making a change. will order when I eat out with friends.”
Stage 2: Contemplation Stage 4: Action

(Getting Ready) People in the action stage will have taken mea-
surable steps toward changing their behavior,
People in the contemplation stage are more
within the last six months. In this stage, peo-
aware of the pros and cons associated with the
ple give more weight to the pros of changing,
change, and at this stage they weigh them up
and less to the cons, which further shifts the
decisional balance toward change. Also, as a Assessing the Client

positive and measurable change has already
been made, their sense of self-efficacy is higher, As you can see, each stage is characterized
and hence people will speak with greater confi- by specific motivational conflicts, decisional
dence about the change; albeit at the same time, balance, and the sense of self-efficacy. Also, the
they may still express some doubt. They may language people use in speaking about a change
say things like, “I’m really happy that I’ve been is unique to the particular stage that they are
able to maintain my diet for the past few weeks, in. In terms of assessing the stages then, you,
I just hope I can keep it up,” or, “I can see my the trainer, can gain a wealth of information
body changing, and I like it, but I just hope I through listening to how your clients speak
keep on losing weight.” about the change, their thoughts about it, their
descriptions of their understanding of the risks
and benefits of the change, and their feelings of
Stage 5: Maintenance
confidence about making changes. The use of
As people in the maintenance stage have main- open-ended questions can be very helpful here
tained their positive changes for more than six in engaging your clients in a conversation about
months, they will speak with greater confidence change, which will help reveal the stage of
about themselves, experience higher levels of change they are in. However, you can also use
self-efficacy, and will consistently rate the pros the following more specific questions to assess
of change as being greater than the cons. Now their stage of change:
that their behavior is more stable, they are
• Tell me what your thoughts are about making
much more likely to continue their healthy be-
this change?
havior; however, there is still a risk that people
in the maintenance stage may relapse toward • Is there anything specific that motivated you
unhealthy behavior when in stressful situations. to make a change?
They may say things like, “I’m feeling really • How would you describe the benefits of mak-
confident with my weight now, so I’m won- ing a change?
dering if I can start eating some of the things • How would you describe the costs of making
I used to really like,” or, “I thought that maybe the change?
because I’ve been doing so well in my exercise, I
• At this point, do the benefits outweigh the
could take a few days off.” costs?
Now that you are familiar with the characteris- • On a scale of 1–10, how confident are you in
tics of each stage, the language your clients may your ability to make the change?
use, and the decisional balance and self-efficacy • On a scale of 1–10, how strong are the factors
they may experience, let’s take a look at how to that could derail your change?
assess which stage your clients are in.
• At this point have you made any plans to
change?

10 | Unit 1
• Have you taken any measurable steps toward changing?
• If you haven’t taken any steps toward change, do you plan to do so

in the next six months?
The way in which your clients answer these questions will help you
better understand their thoughts about changing their behavior, and
more importantly help you identify their stage of change. In terms
of knowing just which stage they may be in, here are some import-
ant descriptors:
Precontemplation
stage: characterized by an
Precontemplation (Not Ready)
unawareness of the risks of a The hallmark of a precontemplator is someone who underestimates
behavior, or a minimization
of the concern of others the pros of changing, overestimate the cons, and is often in denial
about the risks. about this misperception.
Contemplation stage:
characterized by a high
Contemplation (Getting Ready)
degree of ambivalence in the Someone in the contemplation stage is more aware of the pros of
contemplation stage, and
where the decisional balance changing and the risks of not changing; however at this point, the
is at a deadlock. pros and cons often receive equal weight, which can lead to a high
level of ambivalence about the change.
Preparation stage:
characterized by a readiness
Preparation (Ready)
to take action, and an The preparation stage is characterized by a person who is ready to
understanding of the pros as
being greater than the cons, start taking action within the next 30 days. Often, people in this
meaning that the decisional stage will speak about their plans to change, and tell their friends
balance has shifted in favor
of change.
and family that they want to change their behavior.
Action stage: characterized

by measurable steps that
Action
have been taken toward People at this stage have already changed their behavior; however,
changing behavior within
the last six months. because the change has occurred only within the last six months,
they may still experience some urges to return to unhealthy
behavior.
Maintenance stage:
characterized by positive
changes that have been Maintenance
maintained for more than six
months. Even though the maintenance stage is defined by changes that have
been made more than six months ago, and they can take that would raise their confidence.
where their new behavior has begun to develop Also, a discussion about the obstacles to change
more consistency, people in this stage may still can help reduce any self-doubt your clients
continue to experience urges—especially in may feel about external events that may deter
stressful situations. change. Questions such as, “What might get in
the way of change? What seems to be making
Now that you are familiar with each of the stag-
change difficult?” can help your clients reduce
es and how to identify them, let’s take a look at
the power these things have over them, and
how to work with a client in each stage.
help them see that change may not be as costly
(or have as many cons) as they initially thought.
Applied Skills for Each Lastly, people at this stage can be helped with
Stage of Change encouragement about their ability to change.
Stage 1: Precontemplation (Not Stage 2: Contemplation

Ready) (Getting Ready)
As people in the precontemplation stage are As there is a high degree of ambivalence in
either unaware of the benefits and risks (i.e., the contemplation stage, and as the decisional
the pros and cons) associated with changing balance is usually at a deadlock in this stage,
or may deny them, in order to help them move efforts toward raising self-efficacy and height-
toward change, the decisional balance needs to ening awareness of the benefits of change can
be moved (to where the benefits outweigh the be very helpful. To do this, you can draw your
cons) in order to support change. To do this, clients’ attention to some additional benefits
you can educate your clients about the healthy of changing that they might have overlooked.
behavior they are considering as well as en- Questions such as, “In what ways might your
couraging them to educate themselves. It is also relationships improve if you changed? In what
helpful to ask your clients about their percep- ways might your work life (or productivity)
tion of the negative affects their behavior might improve if you changed? In what ways would
be having on their lives, or the lives of others by you see yourself differently if you changed?” can
asking questions such as, “Describe how your help your client begin to broaden the benefits
unhealthy behavior affects you on a daily, week- of changing to other areas of their lives. Fur-
ly, and monthly basis? What long-term out- ther, it can be helpful to tell your client about
comes do you think your behavior might lead others like them who have changed and the
to? In what ways might your behavior be affect- ways in which their lives have improved as a
ing those around you?” In terms of raising their result. Turning your clients’ attention to previ-
sense of self-efficacy about the change, it is also ous challenges in their lives that they have been
helpful to ask clients to rate their confidence able to overcome (or changes they have been
in their ability to change, and ask what steps able to make) can help to raise their sense of

12 | Unit 1
self-efficacy. You can do this by asking ques- have trouble maintaining change, or art risk of
tions like, “Can you describe a time in the past relapsing to unhealthy behaviors, and make a
when you were able to make a positive change? plan for how to navigate these situations.
Describe other challenges that you have been
able to overcome? How did you manage those Stage 4: Action
changes?” Lastly, in this stage, it can be helpful
to have your clients make a list of their skills As the action stage is characterized by change
that will help them make a change. that is very new (i.e., within the last six
months), people at this stage have increased
levels of self-efficacy, and now see the benefits
Stage 3: Preparation (Ready) of changing as much greater than not changing;
Once in the preparation stage, the decisional however, in this stage, the novelty of the change
balance has shifted toward change, and cli- has worn off. For this reason, focusing on
ents are ready to start taking action. However, commitment strategies (which we will discuss
because their sense of self-efficacy about the in a later section) to maintain the change can
change has not been formulated yet, efforts to be useful in overcoming the urge to slip back to
raise their self-efficacy can be especially help- unhealthy behavior. To do this, you can teach
ful in this stage. In particular, addressing the your clients techniques that utilize incentives
fears associated with failing can help mitigate and penalties to maintain change. Focusing on
self-doubt. Questions such as, “What is your strategies like avoiding the unhealthy section
attitude toward failing? Can you learn from of the grocery store, removing unhealthy food
failing? Does failing mean that you cannot try from the home, using text reminders of the
again? “If your fail one time at making this benefits of an activity while performing it, and
change, does that mean you have failed alto- increasing awareness of the positive feelings
gether and cannot start again?” can help your associated with exercise will help maintain
clients begin to reframe any potential failure your clients motivation toward change. Lastly,
as a normal part of the learning process—and incorporating the three drivers of motivation
one that they can learn from. Additionally, as (which we will discuss in detail in the section
self-efficacy is highly linked to feeling support- on motivation), namely autonomy, mastery,
ed and believed in, efforts to help build your cli- and purpose, into your clients programs can
ents’ social support networks can be effective in enhance their motivation. To do this, questions
raising their confidence levels. To do this, you such as, “In what ways do you feel more confi-
can have your clients make a list of their sup- dent now that you have changed? What do you
porters and get your clients to inform them of feel like you are really getting good at? What
their goals and ways in which they can support steps have you taken on your own (or come
them in making changes. Lastly, to overcome up with) to help keep your change going? Can
fears about not being able to maintain change, you describe any underlying or deeper reason
it can be helpful to address situations where for this change?” can help increase your clients
your clients are likely to give in to impulses,
awareness of their sense of mastery, autonomy, in a positive way? What are three things you
and purpose in changing their behavior. can do to respond to stress in a positive way (as
opposed to reacting in a way that might hurt
Stage 5: Maintenance yourself or others)? What skills do you have
that help you deal with stress? What skills can
Once in the maintenance stage, there is greater you learn to help you better manage stress?” can
consistency in behavior as people now feel a help your clients face stressful situations with-
greater level of confidence in their ability, have out relapsing to unhealthy behavior. Lastly, in
overcome some obstacles on the path toward maintaining change, it can be especially help-
change, and have also experienced some ben- ful to help your clients engage ongoing social
efits associated with change. However, in this support for making changes. To do this, you
stage, stressful situations can pose a risk for can ask the following questions: “Who most
relapse to unhealthy behavior. For this reason, supports you in your healthy behavior? Who
addressing any stressors (or stressful situa- motivates you to continue being healthy? Who
tions) can help your clients develop a strategy do you (or can you) share your healthy experi-
for how to manage stress in a positive way. ences with? Are there any accomplishments you
Questions such as, “Who can you turn to for would like to take on now that you are healthier
support when in a stressful situation? What is (such as running a marathon, doing a bike ride,
your attitude toward stress? Can stress be used or learning a new sport)?”
Summary
While personal trainers are equipped to help different stages of change they are in, utilize ef-
clients in a variety of ways, arguably the most fective techniques to create and sustain motiva-
needed way in which clients can be helped is tion, and can offer powerful strategies to boost
through behavioral modification. However, mood, fortify change efforts, and invite optimal
for most trainers, the information, techniques, experience. All of this begins with a thorough
and skills needed to create a lasting behavioral understanding of the stages of change model,
change are missing. However, when trainers and the ability to accurately assess a client’s
begin with a solid understanding of behavioral stage of change and then utilize strategies that
change, they are equipped to meet clients at the are specific for that stage.

UNIT 2
Motivational Interviewing
Motivational Interviewing | 15
Unit Outline
1. The Motivational Interviewing Model 3. Using Ambivalence to Motivate Your Clients

a. The Five Principles of Motivational a. PowerPoint: Three Steps to Address Cli-
Interviewing ents’ Ambivalence
b. PowerPoint: Three MI Skills You Need To 4. Using Change Talk to Promote Commitment
Know: Reflective Listening, Joining With
Resistance, and Scaling a. PowerPoint: Three Ways to Boost Your
Clients’ Commitment
2. The New Science of Motivation: The Latest
Research and Motivation Skills 5. The Motivational Interviewing Coach: How
Empathy Enhances Change
a. PowerPoint: How to Boost Your Client’s
Internal Motivation a. PowerPoint: Three Ways to Express
Empathy
6. Summary
The Motivational Interviewing Model

While motivational interviewing (MI) originally began as a way to Motivational
interviewing: a method
counsel substance abuse clients, it has now become a widely ac-
that works on facilitating
cepted method of assisting any type of behavioral change. In part and engaging intrinsic
developed by clinical psychologists William R. Miller, Ph.D., and motivation within the client
in order to change behavior.
Stephen Rollnick, Ph.D., MI is a method that works on facilitating
and engaging intrinsic motivation within a client in order to change
behavior. Because it draws on the early work of humanistic psychol-
ogists, such as Carl Rogers, and places the power to change within
the client, it is typically well received by a variety of clients. The idea
behind motivational interviewing is that all people have a desire for
self-actualization, and through free choice and unconditional accep-
tance they seek to realize their potential.
MI differs from the humanistic approach in an important way: it

holds that people often experience ambivalence about change, but
through resolution of the disconnect between their desired goals and
behavior, they can make the steps to change, and so the goal of the MI
coach is to expose a client’s ambivalence, whereas, a humanistic psy-
chologist allows the client to explore their own internal states (which
may or may not include ambivalence). In the motivational interview,
the coach becomes a partner with their clients, developing a curios-
ity about them, through which the discrepancy between their stated

16 | Unit 2
goals and behavior (ambivalence) can be unmasked. By using various

types of questions—such as open-ended and scaling—the coach elicits
Change talk: language a self-motivational statements and behavioral change talk with the goal
client uses about the change
itself.
of creating a discrepancy that can enhance the motivation for positive
change (Davidson, 1994; Miller & Rollnick, 1991). Because motiva-
tional interviewing draws upon the universal feelings of self-actual-
ization and ambivalence, it activates the capacity for beneficial change
that everyone possesses (Miller & Rollnick, 1991). It is in this way that
regardless of whatever change processes a person ultimately utilizes,
motivational interviewing can be a vital launching point from which
to begin further change.
Motivational interviewing as a behavioral change method is based

upon the following assumptions:
• All people possess the capacity and desire for self-actualization.
• The power to change is within each client.
• Ambivalence is a normal part of change that can become a motiva-

tional obstacle in the process of change.
• Ambivalence can be overcome through the coach–client alliance

Collaborative: working in as a collaborative partnership that incorporates the expertise of
a way that uses the client’s both parties.
own resources as important
tools toward change. • An empathic and supportive, yet clearly defined counseling style
allows change to occur. (Conversely, an overly directive, argumen-
tative, or shaming style tends to decrease client motivation and
reduce change efforts.)
Additionally, MI sessions are guided by a set of principles that dif-

ferentiate MI from other behavioral change interventions.
The Five Principles of Motivational

Interviewing
To effectively use motivational interviewing, keep these five general
principles in mind:
Empathy: a specifiable 1. Express empathy to your client through reflective listening.

and learnable skill for
understanding another’s 2. Uncover ambivalence.
meaning through the use of
reflective listening. 3. Avoid argument and direct confrontation.
4. Adjust to client resistance rather than oppos- since we added a snack meal to your daily
ing it directly. diet. Well, what would you think if we add-
ed one more healthy snack meal later in the
5. Support the client with encouragement and
day?” approach.
optimism.
• Provides support throughout every part of
Let’s look at each of the five principles more the client’s program to change their body
closely. and life. It’s that, “You are doing so good and
I’m proud of just how far you’ve come. Please
Principle #1: Express Empathy let me know if you have any questions about
what we’re doing or about anything else on
Empathy is a specifiable and learnable skill your mind that I might be able to help you
for understanding another person’s meaning with” approach.
through the use of reflective listening. An em-
Your client wants to feel that whenever they are
pathic style:
with you, they are in a safe, open, and nonjudg-
• Communicates respect for and acceptance of mental environment, and they want to know
your clients and their feelings. It’s that, “I hear and feel assured that you will understand their
what you’re saying” response by you when unique perspective, feelings, and values. Moti-
your client tells you something.
vational interviewing is most successful when a
• Encourages a nonjudgmental, collaborative trusting relationship is established between you
relationship between you and them. It’s that, and your client. The key is to listen.
“We’re a team that’s going to make good
things happen for you” approach. If you are not listening reflectively, but are
instead imposing direction and judgment, you
• Allows you to be a supportive and knowl-
edgeable expert who is there to help them. are creating barriers that could impair your
It’s that, “You’re doing great and I’d like you relationship with your client.
to try a new way of doing an exercise that I
think you’re going to like” approach.
Let’s take a look at the 12 Barriers to Effective
Listening that every personal trainer should
• Sincerely compliments rather than tries to
know:
gain advantage by belittling them and their
efforts. It’s that, “Look at how far you’ve come
1. Ordering or directing. Directing some-
and how good you’re doing” approach.
one involves assuming the role of authority
• Listens rather than tells. It’s that, “You were or power in the relationship, such as where
saying how much you like doing those dumb- the trainer is viewed by the client as being
bell incline flys. Well, if you like them, just in a position of power, or it may be where
wait till I show you a great new exercise that the trainer’s words are simply phrased and
I’d like you to try” approach. spoken in an authoritarian manner.
• Gently persuades, with the understanding 2. Warning or threatening. Threats and

that the decision to change is, and always will warnings are similar to ordering, but include
be, the client’s. It’s that, “You were saying an overt or covert threat of impending neg-
how much increased energy your body has ative consequences if the advice or direction

18 | Unit 2
is not followed. The threat may be one the who is listening. Reflective listening does not
personal trainer will carry out or simply a require agreement.
prediction of a negative outcome if the client
doesn’t comply; for example, “If you don’t 8. Shaming, ridiculing, labeling, or
listen to me and do what I’m telling you, name-calling. Shaming and ridiculing are
you’ll be sorry.” forms of contempt, and express overt disap-
proval and intent to correct a specific behav-
3. Giving advice, making suggestions, ior or attitude. There is perhaps no greater
or providing solutions prematurely barrier to communication and listening than
or when unsolicited. This is where a shaming.
message recommends a course of action
9. Interpreting or analyzing. Personal
based on the personal trainer’s knowledge
trainers can be frequently and easily tempt-
and personal experience. These recommen-
ed to impose their own interpretations on a
dations often begin with phrases such as,
client’s statement and to find some hidden,
“What I would do is….”
analytical meaning. However, interpretive
4. Persuading with logic, arguing, or lec- statements can seem to imply that the per-
turing. Persuading, and especially lecturing, sonal trainer knows more about the client’s
implies that the client is either not capable real problem than the client does.
or has not reasoned through the problem
10. Reassuring, sympathizing, or consol-
adequately and needs help to do so.
ing. Personal trainers often want to make
5. Moralizing, preaching, or telling the client feel better by offering consolation.
clients their duty. Moral statements, like However, such reassurance can interrupt the
ordering, assume a position of authority or flow of communication and interfere with
dominance, and often contain such words careful listening.
as “should” or “ought” to convey moral
11. Questioning or probing. Personal trainers
instructions.
often mistake questioning for good listening.
6. Judging, criticizing, disagreeing, or Although the personal trainer may ask ques-
blaming. Blaming and criticizing almost tions to learn more about the client, the un-
always shut down communication as they derlying message is that the personal trainer
imply that something is wrong with the might find the right answer to all the client’s
client or with what the client has said. Even problems if enough questions are asked. In
simple disagreements may be interpreted as fact, intensive questioning can interfere with
criticizing. the spontaneous flow of communication and
divert it in the directions of interest to the
7. Agreeing, approving, or praising. When personal trainer rather than the client.
everything the client has said is agreed with,
no matter what that is, the underlying mes- 12. Withdrawing, distracting, humor-
sage is that whatever the client does has no ing, or changing the subject. Although
relevance—as everything will always be ap- humor may represent an attempt to take the
proved. Unsolicited approval can also inter- client’s mind off the barriers and obstacles to
rupt the communication process (sometimes that client making changes in their life, it also
clients feel that they are not listened to) and can be a distraction that diverts communica-
can imply an uneven relationship between tion and implies that the client’s statements
the personal trainer speaking and the client are unimportant.
Principle #2: Uncover Ambivalence

In uncovering ambivalence, the goal is to create a discrepancy (a Uncovering ambivalence:
a way to create a discrepancy
difference) between where a person is (their current lifestyle choic- (a difference) between where
es, which include diet and exercise) and where they would like to a person is (their current
lifestyle choices, which
be (e.g., losing weight, exercising more, looking and feeling better). include diet and exercise)
Understanding that this discrepancy exists is a huge “aha!” moment and where they would like to
toward change. Once your clients understand this, they are much be (losing weight, exercising
more, looking and feeling
more aware of their own internal resistance to change, as well as better).
the ways in which their ambivalence thwarts the process of change.
Often, this means that clients will also be much more receptive
to working with you as they are aware of the need for support to
achieve their goals.
You will help them make those changes faster and more effectively
by listening carefully to your clients when they talk to you about
what is important to them.
As your clients communicate with you, you’ll be able to get a sense

of the important “focus areas” that they keep coming back to as they
describe their lives, the past, the present, and the future. Addition-
ally, you will get a sense of what is holding your clients back. For
example, let’s say that a client consistently shows up for sessions, but
also continues to overeat at night. While you know that becoming
healthy is important to your client (as evidenced by the fact that
they show up for sessions regularly), you also know that they are
engaging in a behavior that is not aligned with their ultimate goals
(to become healthy). By exposing this discrepancy through a simple Simple reflection: simplest
reflection, such as, “I can see that you are really concerned about approach to responding
to resistance is with
becoming healthy because you are so consistent in your sessions, but nonresistance, by repeating
I also hear you saying that you are overeating at night, which doesn’t the client’s statement in a
neutral form.
line up with your goals,” you can help your client become aware of
their seeming ambivalence.
As you listen carefully to your clients, your goal should be to detect

any discrepancies, which you can then bring to their attention. To do
this, it is important to listen both to what is important to your clients,
and what they are telling you about how they experience the process
of change—as this is often where ambivalence forms. Essentially,
this is the major difference between clients who stand in front of you
in the gym ready to make healthy changes in their lives, and clients

20 | Unit 2
who later go home, feel overwhelmed, doubt themselves, and act on

impulses that are not aligned with their goals. What is important to
understand is that ambivalence is not just something we all experi-
ence (for instance, less than half of the people who make New Year’s
resolutions keep them), but it is also an integral component of change.
That is, in order for change to be long lasting, we have to go through
ambivalence. Skipping ambivalence, while it may make the job of a
coach easier, typically will not lead to lasting change.
More importantly, uncovering your clients’ ambivalence through

careful listening and reflective statements will not only develop a
powerful alliance between them and you, but will also motivate
their own desires for change.
Principle #3: Avoid Argument

You may occasionally be tempted to argue with a client who is un-
sure about changing or is unwilling to change, especially if the client
is hostile, defiant, or provocative. However, trying to convince a cli-
ent that a problem exists or that change is needed could precipitate
even more resistance. If you try to prove a point, the client is likely
to take the opposite side. Arguments with clients can rapidly degen-
erate into power struggles and do not enhance their motivation for
beneficial change.
However, when it is the client, not you, who voices arguments for
change, progress can be made. In this situation, the goal is to be
supportive and understanding and to “walk” with your clients and
not “drag” them along.
Principle #4: Avoid Resistance

Client resistance is a normal reaction at any given time. Each client
Resistance points: areas of is different and each will have “resistance points” that they need
change that need more time
more time to overcome than others. Sometimes, a client will show
to overcome than others.
resistance by behaving defiantly. Others may show it by “just going
through the motions” and not making any real efforts toward the
changes they have told you they desire to make. Whenever the client
exhibits resistance, look at it as a signal to you to change direction or
listen more carefully. Resistance actually offers you an opportunity
to respond in a new, perhaps surprising, way and to take advantage

of the situation without being confrontational.
Adjusting to resistance is similar to avoiding arguments, in that

it offers another chance to express empathy by remaining non-
judgmental and respectful, encouraging the client to talk and stay
involved in the program. Try to avoid evoking resistance whenever
possible, and instead aim to divert or deflect the energy the client
may invest in resistance toward positive change.
How do you recognize resistance? And when might you expect to

see signs of resistance?
Client resistance can happen at any time. Some clients may exhibit
resistance at the beginning of their interaction with you. Others
may initially hide it, but will reveal resistant attitudes and behaviors
as your time with them progresses.
To help you deal with client resistance, follow these seven strategies.
1. Simple Reflection
The simplest approach to responding to resistance is through non-
resistance, e.g., by repeating the client’s statement in a neutral form.
This acknowledges and validates what the client has said and can
elicit an opposite response.
Client: I don’t plan to change what I’m doing anytime soon.
Personal trainer: You don’t think that exercising and eating better
would work for you right now.
2. Amplified Reflection Amplified reflection:

strategy to reflect the client’s
Another strategy is to reflect the client’s statement in an exagger- statement in an exaggerated
form, i.e., to state it in a more
ated form, i.e., to state it in a more extreme way but without sar- extreme way but without
casm. This can move the client toward positive change rather than sarcasm.
resistance.
Client: I don’t know why my family is worried about my weight and
how I look. I don’t look much different than most of my friends.
Personal trainer: So what you’re saying is that you think people

around you are worrying needlessly.

22 | Unit 2
Double-sided reflection: 3. Double-Sided Reflection

acknowledging what the
client has said but then also
A third strategy is acknowledging what the client has said but then
stating contrary things the
client has said in the past. also stating contrary things that the client has said in the past. This
requires the use of information that the client has offered previously,
although perhaps not in the same session.
Client: I know you want me to give up junk food completely, but I’m
not going to do that!
Personal trainer: I remember you saying before that you know that
too much junk food can keep you away from the changes you’d like to
make, but it sounds like you’re not at that point to think about stop eat-
ing junk food altogether.
Shifting focus: defusing 4. Shifting Focus

the client’s resistance by
helping them shift focus
away from obstacles and
You can defuse your clients’ resistance by helping them shift focus
barriers. away from obstacles and barriers. This method offers an opportuni-
ty to affirm your clients’ personal choices regarding the conduct of
their own lives.
Client: I can’t stop eating junk or fried or fatty food when all my friends
are doing it.
Personal trainer: You’re way ahead of me. We’re still talking about
whether you can… (insert different topic here, like get a new job, meet
someone to be in a relationship, meet new friends). We’re not ready yet
to decide how your eating habits fit into your goals.
Agreement with a twist: 5. Agreement with a Twist

agreeing with the client, but
with a slight twist or change
A subtle strategy is to agree with the client, but with a slight twist or
of direction to propel the
discussion forward. change of direction that propels the discussion forward.
Client: Why are you and my friends so stuck on my being overweight?
What about all their problems? You’d be unmotivated and eat like I do
too, if your friends and family were nagging you all the time.
Personal trainer: You’ve got a good point there, and that’s important.
There is a bigger picture here, and maybe I haven’t been paying enough
attention to that. It’s not as simple as one person’s eating or exercising. I
agree with you that we shouldn’t be trying to place blame here.
6. Reframing Reframing: offering a new

and positive interpretation
of negative information
A good strategy to use when a client denies personal problems is re-
provided by the client.
framing, i.e., offering a new and positive interpretation of negative
information provided by the client.
Client: My husband is always nagging me about my eating and exercis-
ing and is always calling me lazy and fat. It really bugs me.
Personal trainer: It sounds like he really cares about you and is con-
cerned, although he expresses it in a way that makes you angry. Maybe
we can help him learn how to tell you he loves you and wants the best
for you in a more positive and acceptable way.
7. Siding with the Negative Siding with the negative:

taking up the negative voice
in the discussion.
One more strategy for adapting to client resistance is to “side with
the negative” and to take up the negative voice in the discussion.
Typically, siding with the negative is stating what the client has
already said while arguing against change, perhaps as an amplified
reflection.
If your client is ambivalent, you taking the negative side of the argu-
ment can evoke a “Yes, but…” from the client, who then expresses
the other (positive) side. Be cautious, however, in using this too early
in your talks with the client.
Client: Well, I know some people think I eat too much, but I still don’t
believe I’m too fat.
Personal trainer: We’ve spent some time now going over your posi-
tive feelings and concerns about your eating, but maybe you still don’t
think you are ready or want to change your eating patterns. Maybe
changing would be too difficult for you, especially if you really want to
stay and look and feel the same. Anyway, I’m not sure you believe you
could change even if you wanted to.
Principle #5 Support Your Client with Optimism

and Enthusiasm
Many clients do not believe they have the power to make lasting
changes in how they look and feel. However, as a personal trainer,
you know they do, and you see it time and time again: People might

24 | Unit 2
begin with little belief and have many doubts, yet in a short time,
they transform their bodies and lives into something amazing.
That’s just the kind of thing your doubting client needs to hear from
you. You have the knowledge and power that can transform anyone’s
body and life. And by giving your client hope, optimism, and encour-
agement that they can change and you’ll be there to help them every
step of the way, you can infuse your client with the power they may
need to keep them committed to making the changes they desire.
Moving Clients from Resistance to Being Ready to

Change Their Bodies and Lives
Once the resistance is over, the fun part begins! It’s time to start
talking about how you and your client can change your client’s
body and life.
Here are four great ways to do it.
Strategy 1: Ask Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions: Asking open-ended questions can help you understand your cli-
questions that help trainers ents’ point of view and elicit their feelings about what’s important to
to understand the client’s
point of view and elicit them.
their feelings about what’s
important to them. For example:
• How has your body changed since we started working together?
• Which of the nutritional changes we’ve made do you like best and
why?
• Besides having more energy, strength, and tone, what other things
have you noticed that eating better and exercising more have made
you feel?
Open-ended questions encourage dialog; they cannot be answered

with a single word or phrase and do not require any particular
response. They are a means to solicit additional information in a
neutral way. Open-ended questions encourage clients to do most of
the talking, help you avoid making premature judgments, and keep
communication moving forward.
Strategy 2: Listen Reflectively Listen reflectively:

listening in a way that
Reflective listening is when you show you have accurately heard and accurately hears and
understands a client’s
understood a client’s communication by restating its meaning. That communication by restating
is, you hazard a guess about what the client intended to convey and its meaning.
express this in a responsive statement, not as a question. Reflective
listening is a way of checking rather than assuming that you know
what is meant.
Reflective listening strengthens the empathic relationship between

you as the personal trainer and your client. Reflective listening helps
your client and reduces the likelihood of resistance by encourag-
ing your client to keep talking. It helps to communicate respect,
strengthens the trainer-to-client connection, clarifies exactly what
the client means, and reinforces motivation. Using reflective listen-
ing can help you really know your clients as they give you verbal and
nonverbal responses and their possible meanings can help you zero
in on just what your client needs.
Here’s a good example of reflective listening between a client and

personal trainer:
Personal trainer: What else concerns you about your exercise and
eating habits?
Client: Well, I’m not sure I’m concerned about it, but I do wonder some-
times if I’m not doing enough or am eating too much.
Personal trainer: Too much of…?
Client: Too much junk food for my own good, I guess. Sometimes when
I wake up in the morning, I feel really awful, and then I feel awful for the
rest of the day.
Personal trainer: It messes up how you feel.
Client: Yes, and it makes me tired and lethargic for the rest of the day.
Personal trainer: And you wonder if that might be because you’re

eating too much?
Client: Well, I know it is sometimes.
Personal trainer: You’re pretty sure about that. But maybe there’s
more….

26 | Unit 2
Client: Yeah, even when I’m not eating so much, my body aches and I
have such a lack of energy and I wonder….
Personal trainer: Wonder if…?
Client: If not getting enough exercise or that eating the wrong kinds of
foods is affecting my body, I guess.
Personal trainer: You think that can happen to people? Maybe to you?
Client: Well, can’t it? I’ve heard about other people having health issues
later on in life.
Personal trainer: Um-hmm. I can see why you might be thinking

about that.
Client: But I don’t think I’ve reached that point yet.
Personal trainer: You don’t think you’re that bad off, but you do won-
der if maybe you’re overdoing it with the food and not doing enough
with the exercise and not helping yourself in the process.
Client: Yeah.
Personal trainer: Tell me, what else are you thinking about?
Strategy 3: Summarize
Personal trainers can find it useful to periodically summarize what

has occurred in a current or past one-on-one session with a client.
Summarizing: distilling Summarizing consists of distilling the essence of what a client has
the essence of what a expressed and communicating it back. Summaries reinforce what
client has expressed and
communicating it back to has been said, show that you have been listening carefully, and help
them. prepare the client to move on. Summarizing is also a good way
to begin and end each training session and can provide a natural
bridge when the client is transitioning between the stages of change.
Summarizing also serves some strategic purposes.
In presenting a summary, you can select what information should be

included and what can be minimized or left out. Correction of a sum-
mary by the client should be invited, and this can often lead to further
comments and discussion. Summarizing helps clients consider their
own responses and contemplate their own experiences. It also gives
you and your clients an opportunity to notice what might have been
overlooked as well as picking up on anything incorrectly stated.
Strategy 4: Affirm and Validate Affirm and validate:

strategy that involves
When it is done sincerely, affirming and validating your client’s affirming and validating the
client’s statements as a way
words and experiences helps build trust with your client. to build trust with the client.
By affirming, you are saying, “I hear you and I understand you,” and
this helps validate your client’s experiences and feelings.
Affirming also helps your clients to feel confident about tapping

into their inner power to take action and change their behavior.
Emphasizing past experiences can help your clients remember their
strengths, successes, and power they possess and can help prevent
discouragement.
Powerpoint: Three MI Skills You Need To

Know: Reflective Listening, Joining With
Resistance, and Scaling
Reflective Listening
Reflective listening means listening to your client without interrupt-
ing, correcting, or judging, and simply reflecting back to your client
what you heard them say. Reflective listening includes both repeat-
ing content (i.e., the words your client said) as well as emotion (i.e.,
the implied emotion behind their statements).Reflective listening
is a powerful way to dramatically improve rapport, help clients feel
understood, and connect with your client on an authentic level.
Joining With Resistance

Joining with resistance means not arguing, debating, or even at-
tempting to overcome resistance, but simply accepting it as a nor-
mal part of the change process. When you join with resistance, you
include the client in the process of looking for solutions to obstacles
to change, which is a very effective way to build rapport.

28 | Unit 2
Scaling
Scaling questions: Scaling questions are a very effective way to draw the client’s at-
questions that ask clients tention to the processes that are influencing their behavior. Scaling
to rate themselves (usually
on a scale of 1–10) on questions ask clients to rate themselves (usually on a scale of 1–10)
anything from their on anything from their motivation to change, to the degree to which
motivation to change, to
the degree to which they
they feel overwhelmed by the obstacles in her way.
feel overwhelmed by the
obstacles in their way.
The New Science of Motivation:
The Latest Research and
Motivation Skills
Motivation is perhaps one of the most misunderstood concepts
today. Ask people what motivation comprises and most will answer
with something like “the desire to do something,” “wanting some-
thing,” and “willpower.” But the real question for personal trainers
is, “HOW can we help our clients to have the desire, want, or will-
power to do something?”
Do we simply provide incentives for our clients? We could of-

fer them prizes for making changes in their lives—sort of like a
pay-for-performance plan in the workplace. We could try negative
reinforcement, such as charging them more for sessions when they
fail to make changes. This would be similar to teachers whose pay
might be dropped when their students fail to achieve minimum
standardized test scores. But, if you experiment with these tech-
niques, you will find that neither works.
In a groundbreaking study performed by Edward Deci in 1969, the

experimenter used rewards—in the form of money—to incentivize
people to complete soma puzzles (i.e., a rubix cube). However, after
splitting participants into two groups (one paid, and one not), Deci
did something interesting. First, he gave the paid group money for
puzzles and then in the last trial, he told them that he’d run out of
money and so gave them nothing. He found that in that last trial,
the non-paid group outperformed the once-paid group (Pink, 2011).
Deci concluded that “when an external reward is used for some ac-
tivity, subjects lose intrinsic interest in the activity” (pp. 31,34).
It turns out that this “intrinsic interest” is an integral part of moti-

vation, and a whole lot more important than once thought.
Why? It has been found that rewards can actually transform an

interesting task into a drudge. This is what is known as the “Sawyer
Effect.” On the other hand, take away the rewards and make some-
thing fun again and the intrinsic motivation goes back up.
A study performed by Mark Lepper and David Greene further

elaborated the Sawyer Effect. In their study, school children were
divided into three groups: Expected Award, Unexpected Award,
and No Award. The “Expected Award” group was shown a “Good
Player” certificate and then asked if they wanted to draw to earn the
certificate. The “Unexpected Award” group was asked if they wanted
to draw, and then if they did, they were given an award unexpected-
ly. The third group was given no award. Two weeks later, when the
teachers set out paper and crayons during the children’s “free play”
period, the “Expected Award” group showed much less interest and
spent much less time drawing than both the “Unexpected Award”
group and the “No Award” group (Pink, 2009).
But in practice here, it wasn’t the rewards that negatively affected the
children’s motivation; it was only the contingency (“if you do this,
then you’ll get that) that produced the negative effect.
So, if intrinsic interest is essential to motivation and if contingent

rewards don’t work to increase motivation, what does work?
Motivation is comprised of three key elements: autonomy, mastery, Autonomy: state in which
and purpose, whereby: one is not controlled by
others.
1. When people are given the autonomy to choose what they want to Mastery: having full
command or understanding
do, their motivation increases.
of a subject.
2. When people can achieve mastery over what they are doing, their Purpose: fixed intention to
motivation increases. do or achieve something,
such as an aim or goal.
3. When people have a deeper sense of purpose for the things they
do, they are much more motivated to do them.

30 | Unit 2
Autonomy Step two:

Identify current level of autonomy
Definition of autonomous: the state of being not
controlled by others. Once your clients understand the relationship
between autonomy and motivation, they are
Step one: Educate your clients about ready to identify their own level of autonomy.
the relationship between autonomy To help this process, present your clients with
and motivation the following set of questions, making sure to
instruct them to answer in general, and with
In educating your clients about the relationship
their first response.
between autonomy and motivation, present
your clients with the following Autonomy/ 1. How frequently do you feel as if you know
Motivation Spectrum, and related examples. In exactly what you are supposed to do?
doing so, emphasize that as autonomy increas- ☐☐ every day (3)
es, motivation increases, and as autonomy is ☐☐ once a week (2)
diminished, motivation declines.
☐☐ rarely (1)
☐☐ never (0)
Autonomy/Motivation Spectrum
2. How frequently do you feel as if you perform
tasks well?
☐☐ every day (3)
☐☐ once a week (2)
☐☐ rarely (1)
☐☐ never (0)
High Autonomy Low Autonomy 3. How frequently do you feel confident in

High Motivation Low Motivation what you do?
High autonomy / Low autonomy / ☐☐ rarely (1)
High motivation Low motivation
Being forced to do some- ☐☐ never (0)
Discretion over what you
thing not of your own
do 4. How frequently do you feel as though you
choice
Being allowed to choose Being told when some-
could teach others what you do?
when you do things thing must be done ☐☐ every day (3)
Being allowed to choose Being told how some-
how you do things thing must be done
Discretion over who you Being told who you must ☐☐ rarely (1)
work/play with work or play with
☐☐ never (0)
5. How frequently do you get to choose what clients a gage of their level of autonomy. You
you do? should inform your clients that as autonomy
☐☐ on a daily basis (3) exists on a spectrum, there is no such thing as
☐☐ once a week (2) the “wrong” amount of autonomy, and also that
☐☐ rarely, if ever (1) through specific steps it can be increased.
☐☐ never (0)
Step three:
6. How frequently do you get to choose how Identify any barriers to autonomy
you do things?
☐☐ on a daily basis (3) Once clients understand the importance of
autonomy and have identified their own level of
autonomy, the next step is to identify what may
☐☐ rarely, if ever (1)
be standing in the way of autonomy. To help
☐☐ never (0) your clients do this, use the following questions:
7. How frequently do you get to choose when
you do things? 1. Who do you feel restricts your autonomy
the most?
☐☐ on a daily basis (3)
☐☐ once a week (2) 2. What events or circumstances in life most
restrict your autonomy?
☐☐ rarely, if ever (1)
☐☐ never (0) 3. What places most restrict your autonomy?
8. How frequently do you get to choose with Step four: Create concrete methods to
whom you do things? increase autonomy
☐☐ on a daily basis (3)
Once the importance of autonomy is instilled
and the barriers to autonomy have been iden-
☐☐ rarely, if ever (1) tified, your clients must create solid steps to
☐☐ never (0) increase autonomy. To do this, present your
clients with the following:
Scoring guide:
10–12 Very high autonomy 1. Identify three steps to increase the amount
7–9 Moderately high autonomy of control you have over what you do.
4–6 Moderately low autonomy
2. Identify three steps to increase the amount of
3 or less Very low autonomy
control you have over when you do things.
To score the questionnaire, total the num- 3. Identify three steps to increase the amount
bers that correspond to each response. Once of control you have over how you do things.
these numbers are tallied, the total can then 4. Identify three steps to increase the amount
be matched to the scoring guide to give your of control you have over with whom you do
things.

32 | Unit 2
By completing these steps, your client increases Step two:

autonomy and feels more motivated. This suc- Identify the current level of mastery
cess experience can then facilitate and promote
Once your clients have been presented with
increased autonomy in the future.
some examples of high and low mastery and are
clear about the role mastery plays in motivation,
Mastery they are ready to identify their current level of
Definition of mastery: having full command or mastery. To do this, present your clients with
understanding of a subject. the following questions:
1. How frequently do you feel as if you know

Step one: Educate your clients about
exactly what you are supposed to do?
the relationship between mastery and
motivation
To begin the process of educating your clients
☐☐ rarely (1)
about the relationship between mastery and mo-
☐☐ never (0)
tivation, first clarify that mastery and motivation
are directly linked, whereby as mastery increas- 2. How frequently do you feel as if you perform
es, motivation follows suit, while decreases in tasks well?
mastery tend to have a deleterious effect on mo- ☐☐ every day (3)
tivation. The following figure and examples will ☐☐ once a week (2)
help your clients better understand the concept. ☐☐ rarely (1)
☐☐ never (0)
3. How frequently do you feel confident in

what you do?
☐☐ rarely (1)
High Mastery Low Mastery
☐☐ never (0)
High Motivation Low Motivation
4. How frequently do you feel as though you
could teach others what you do?
High mastery / Low mastery /
High motivation Low motivation ☐☐ every day (3)
Performing a task that Feeling intimidated by a ☐☐ once a week (2)
you know well task
☐☐ rarely (1)
Knowing exactly how to Feeling unclear about
do something the steps to take when ☐☐ never (0)
performing an activity
Scoring guide: Step four: Create concrete methods to

10–12 Very high mastery build mastery
7–9 Moderately high mastery
Now that your clients are aware of what stands
4–6 Moderately low mastery
in the way of their sense of mastery, they are
3 or less Very low mastery
ready to make a plan to increase it. To do this,
To score the questionnaire, total the numbers pose the following questions:
that correspond to each response. The total can 1. What three steps can you take to overcome
then be matched to the scoring guide to give the internal barriers to mastery?
your clients a gage of their level of mastery. Here
again, you should inform your clients that mas- 2. What three steps can you take to overcome
tery exists on a spectrum and that no amount of the external barriers to mastery?
mastery is too low or too high. The questionnaire This process increases your clients’ sense of
is therefore only a guide from which desired mastery as they takes positive steps toward
changes in mastery can be made. overcoming what may have seemed insur-
mountable in the past. Now that your clients
Step three: understand these steps, they will be prepared to
Identify any barriers to mastery use them again in the future.
To move in the direction of increased mastery,

your clients must both understand the impor- Purpose
tance of mastery in motivation, and be aware of Definition of purpose: a fixed intention in doing
their current level of mastery. From this point, something: an aim or goal.
the next step is to identify what is currently im-
peding their mastery. To do this, present your Step one: Educate your clients about
clients with the following questions. the relationship between purpose and
motivation
1. What internal factors (fear, intimidation, lack
of trust) most stand in the way of your sense To begin the process of addressing and manag-
of mastery? ing your clients’ sense of purpose, review the re-
2. What external factors (people, places, things)
lationship between purpose and motivation with
most stand in the way of your sense of your clients. In this step, it is important that your
mastery? clients understand that as their sense of purpose
increases, their motivation will increase as well,
and when lacking purpose, their motivation will
suffer too. The following Purpose/Motivation
Spectrum illustrates this relationship.

34 | Unit 2
Step three:
Create concrete steps to increase
purpose
Now that your clients are aware of the role that
purpose plays in instilling motivation and now
they are also much more conscious of their own
High Purpose Low Purpose
unique sense of purpose, they are ready to take
steps to increase it. Ask the following questions:
1. What steps can you take to increase the sense

High purpose / Low purpose /
High motivation Low motivation of connection to those around you?
Feeling connected to Feeling detached from 2. What three steps can you take to increase the
those around you those around you
importance of your actions?
Feeling as if your efforts Feeling as if your efforts
have a measurable impact do not matter
3. What three steps can you take to increase the
Feeling as if your efforts Feeling as if your efforts
are appreciated by those are not appreciated by
appreciation your actions are given?
around you those around you
Step four:
Connect the purpose to a larger
Step two: context
Identify a unique purpose
In terms of maintaining a sense of purpose, the
While identifying a unique sense of purpose act of connecting it to a larger context cannot
can be somewhat challenging, it is a very im- be overlooked. Not only does this step solidify
portant part of the process. Utilize the follow- the process of identifying purpose, but it also
ing questions to prompt insight: ensures that it is supported by the external en-
vironment. To help guide your clients through
1. When do you feel most connected to those
around you? this last step, ask the following questions:
2. When do you feel as if your efforts matter 1. Who do you feel would most support your
the most? actions/efforts?
3. When do you feel as if your efforts are appre- 2. What steps can you take to connect yourself
ciated the most? more to this person or organization?
4. When do you feel as though your efforts Enhancing, promoting, and developing moti-
have the most impact? vation is an ongoing process, and by directing
your clients through these methodical steps, the
odds for success are increased immensely!
PowerPoint: How to Boost Your themselves, and in what ways will people see
them differently).
Client’s Internal Motivation
Allow Your Clients to Have Using Ambivalence to
Autonomy
Motivate Your Clients
Asking your clients what they would like to do,
Changing behavior is not a seamless process.
what is important to them, and how they think
For many people, they experience a mixture
they are doing are all ways of allowing your
of feelings about the process itself. On the one
clients to have some autonomy in the training
hand, they may say that they want to lose weight,
program. When your clients feel like they have
for example, and yet continue to engage in the
some control over their change process, and
very behaviors that lead to weight gain. Simi-
choose the activities they enjoy doing, their
larly, they may join a gym and begin a training
motivation will soar.
program, but after the first week, lose steam
and fail to show up again. Inconsistencies and
Focus on Mastery disparate feelings such as these are a normal
People naturally want to feel competent and and expected part of the process of change.
skilled, and not surprisingly, this is a very pow- The theory of motivational interviewing pivots
erful component of motivation. Finding ways around accepting ambivalence as the primary
within the training program to develop your cause of lack of motivation (Miller & Rollnick,
clients’ unique skills and to hone their sense of 1991). It is through exposing people’s opposing
mastery will not only increase their confidence attitudes (I do want to lose weight, but going to
but will dramatically boost their motivation too. the gym takes too much time) that opportunities
for tremendous growth occur. When a client is
Identify the Deeper Purpose allowed to uncover their own ambivalence and
then, with your support, finds ways to overcome
Understanding why we are doing something it, they also uncover strengths and skills they
and identifying the deeper purpose beneath it, were most likely unaware of. It is in this way that
powerfully connects us with our desire to con- ambivalence can be construed not as resistance,
tinue. You can help your clients connect with but instead as a sign of a potential for growth.
their underlying purpose by asking them what However, when ambivalence is characterized as
is most important to them, and what would denial or resistance, your relationship with your
be most dramatically affected should they clients will suffer, as does their motivation.
manage to successfully change their behavior.
You can also ask them to describe and clarify In handling ambivalence, here are few things to
for you what achieving their desired goals will keep in mind:
mean to them (how will their lives be different, • Ambivalence is a normal part of the change
in what ways will they feel differently about process that is experienced by everyone.

36 | Unit 2
• Ambivalence presents a powerful opportunity Step Two: Ask scaling questions about
for growth. the things that are holding your clients
• Your clients’ motivation is dependent on over- back
coming their own ambivalence.
Once your clients are aware of the things that
• Your clients must be allowed to overcome are holding them back (even when these things
ambivalence in their own way.
arise from within themselves) posing scaling
• When ambivalence is construed as resistance, questions can be a wonderful way to help them
your clients’ motivation will suffer, as does understand the power these things have over
your relationship with them. them. For example, asking your clients ques-
When handled correctly, ambivalence can be a tions such as, “On a scale of 1–10, rate how
very powerful motivational tool. Through the much you feel you might not be able to reach
use of scaling questions (which ask a client to your health goals?”, “On a scale of 1–10, rate
rate themselves on a scale of 1–10), resources the likelihood that you will not change your
can be directed toward overcoming ambiva- behavior?” In identifying their ambivalence
lence and activating change. Let’s take a look at toward change in a quantifiable way, reducing
just how to use scaling questions to turn your (and eventually overcoming) it becomes a much
clients’ ambivalence into motivation: more manageable process.
Step One: Ask scaling questions about Step Three: Ask your clients what
your clients’ desire for change actions they can take to reduce the
power their resistance has over them
Because they draw your clients’ attention to the
thoughts, feelings, and actions that influence Now that your clients are aware of the extent of
their behavior, posing scaling questions that ask both their desire for change and their ambiv-
them to quantify the extent to which they desire alence about it, questions that ask them what
change can help clients’ increase their aware- small steps they can take to reduce the power
ness of their motivation toward change. Here their ambivalence has over them will orient
are some examples of scaling questions: “On a them toward solutions to initiate the process
scale of 1–10, how much do you want to become of change. Instead of focusing on what is hold-
healthier?”, “On a scale of 1–10, how much do ing them back, or ways in which change has
you want to lose weight?” Often when asked not been accomplished, these questions should
alongside other questions about the things that focus on what resources your clients possess to
are holding them back, scaling questions can begin activating their natural desire for change.
help your client to understand that their moti-
Positioned in this way, your clients’ ambiva-
vation toward change is reflected in the ratio of
lence can ignite their most powerful tool in the
their desire for change and their own resistance
process of change: their motivation.
to the change itself.
PowerPoint: Three Steps to clients may express a variety of feelings and at-
titudes, from desire, to commitment, resistance,
Address Clients’ Ambivalence
self-doubt, and anxiety. While change talk has
Draw Your Clients’ Attention to long been considered a powerful component
Their Discrepancies of change—relating how clients speak about
change through their intentions to change,
Once you notice that there is a disconnection plans to change, and awareness of the risks of
between what your clients are saying about not changing—the work of psychologist Paul
their desire to reach their goals and their Armhein distilled change talk into one power-
behavior toward those goals, drawing their ful parameter. What Armhein found was that
attention to it is the first step to addressing their the more a person’s language revealed a com-
ambivalence. mitment toward change, the more likely that
change was to occur. Here, commitment was
Ask Your Clients How They Would found to be different from the desire for change,
Like to Proceed intent to change, and awareness of the need for
change, which, although they were considered
When your clients are aware of their discrep-
to be preparatory change talk components, did
ancies, asking them how they would like to
not predict behavior change. Further, Arm-
proceed (as opposed to telling them what to do),
hein found that the pattern of commitment
puts the responsibility for change in their court.
change talk also significantly correlated with
Asking, as opposed to directing, is also a way of
a positive outcome; whereby a positive slope
respecting that ambivalence is an internal state
of commitment across the MI session was
that must be resolved by each client alone.
linked to an increased likelihood of success in
making a change, with the strongest predictor
Ask Your Clients What They Intend
being derived from the client talk at the end of
to Do
the session (Armhein, et al., 2004). Armhein’s
Like asking your client how she would like to findings were later replicated in studies into
proceed, asking her what she intends to do, is drug abuse, where commitment change talk
a much stronger way of ensuring change than predicted an increased likelihood of success
telling her what to do, as people are much more in abstinence (Aharanovich et al., 2008), and
likely to follow their own intentions, as opposed again with problem gamblers (Hodgkins et al.,
to others’ directions for them. 2009). Here again, preparatory change talk—as
expressed through desire, intent, and need for
Using Change Talk to Promote change—did not predict client change.
Commitment The takeaway from studies such as these is that
Change talk is the language a client uses about talk matters, and specifically talking about com-
the change itself. When speaking about change, mitment to change matters. While expressing
the desire to change can indicate a preparation

38 | Unit 2
to change, expressing a commitment to change is change can help direct their focus toward just
a much stronger predictor of future change. Put how to initiate that change. Further, because
another way, it’s the difference between a person you are asking your clients about what small
stating that they are motivated to change and a steps they can take toward change (as opposed
person speaking about measurable actions they to how to reach their long-term goals, which
are going to make toward that change. In this may seem overwhelming), these steps seem
sense, commitment change talk is much more much more attainable and their confidence and
“action-oriented,” while preparatory change talk commitment will increase.
is more closely related to the thoughts and excite-
ment about change. Step Three: Ask your clients scaling
questions about these steps.
Let’s now take a look at how to use scaling
questions to increase your clients’ commitment Identifying the small steps your clients can take
to change talk: toward change is an important part of activat-
ing change. However, your clients’ commit-
Step One: Ask scaling questions about ment toward change can be further increased
your clients commitment to change through asking scaling questions about the
steps themselves. Here are some examples: “On
Like asking scaling questions about your
a scale of 1–10, how likely are you to walk every
clients’ ambivalence, asking scaling questions
day?”, “On a scale of 1–10, how likely are you to
about your clients’ commitment to change can
reduce your sugar intake?” Keep in mind that
help to orient them toward measurable actions
these questions ask about the steps that your
that they can take to reinforce their commit-
clients themselves mentioned (as opposed to
ment. Here are some examples of scaling ques-
steps that you, the trainer, might consider im-
tions about commitment to change: “On a scale
portant). By drawing your clients’ attention to
of 1–10, how committed to becoming healthy
their commitment to the steps themselves, you
are you?”, “On a scale of 1–10, how committed
help them understand how manageable these
to exercising every day are you?” Questions
steps (and the overall process of change itself)
such as these can help your clients consider
feel.
their commitment as a regulating component
of change. That is, change will begin when they Through focusing on your clients’ commit-
are ready to take action steps toward it. ment to change, and what actionable steps they
can take toward initiating change, you help
Step Two: Ask about small steps your them harness their resources in a way that not
clients can take toward change. only predicts change, but also enhances their
motivation.
Once your client is aware of their level of
commitment to making a change, asking them
about what small steps they could take toward
PowerPoint: Three Ways by their positive change, and conversely, the

way in which they may be harmed if they do
to Boost Your Clients’
not change, connects them to the social context
Commitment in which change occurs—that is, others’ lives
will also be improved.
Ask Your Clients What They Will
Be Able to Do (That They Have not
Previously Been Able to Do) If They The Motivational
Reach Their Goals Interviewing Coach:
Envisioning future goals and desires helps draw How Empathy Enhances
our focus to accomplishments that we might
Change
not have ever before imagined possible. Your
clients may have never thought that they were The relational component of motivational inter-
capable of running a marathon, taking a boxing viewing relies heavily on the empathy of the mo-
class, learning tennis, or riding a horse, yet by tivational interviewing coach and links accurate
asking them about these things, the desire for empathy to the efficacy of the approach (Miller
change, and the processes that determine it are et al., 1980). These findings were later supported
powerfully activated. by a study that demonstrated positive outcomes
between therapist empathy and twelve-month
Ask Your Clients What They Will drinking outcomes (Gaume, 2008). In another
Miss Out on by not Changing study, clinician interpersonal skills were found
to correlate significantly with measures of the
Similar to “sunk costs” (which we will discuss client involvement (Miller et al., 2004). Further,
in the section on commitment strategies), the Rollnick and Miller (1995) found three crucial el-
fear of missing out is a very strong motivator ements to the spirit of motivational interviewing:
for behavior change. By drawing your clients’ 1) it should be collaborative rather than author-
attention to what they stands to lose (or miss itarian; 2) it should evoke the client’s motivation
out on by not changing), you will help increase rather than trying to install it, (3) it should honor
their awareness of just why change is so import- the client’s autonomy.
ant to them.
Let’s now take a look at how you can use each of
Ask Your Clients Who Will Be these factors to boost your clients’ motivation:
Affected by Their Change
Collaborative Rather Than
Not surprisingly, people are naturally more Authoritarian
motivated toward action when that action
affects the lives of others—especially those that Acting in a collaborative rather than authoritar-
are close to them. By asking your clients about ian manner with your clients means developing
those people in their lives who will be affected an alliance with them that values them as an

40 | Unit 2
integral part of the change process. Working 3. Ask your clients why they really want to
collaboratively also involves using the clients’ change.
resources as important tools toward change,
avoiding directing the change, and working to-
Honor Clients’ Autonomy
gether with your clients to design the steps and Honoring the clients’ autonomy means working
strategies toward change. with them in a way that allows them to have a
sense of choice in the process of their change
Here are three ways to work collaboratively
(perhaps choosing the types of exercises they
with your clients:
would like to do, the order of the exercises, and
1. Ask your clients what they think they should the goals to focus on), provides them with a
do as opposed to telling them what to do. sense of control over the process of change, and
encourages them to take responsibility for the
2. Ask your clients what they feel would be
helpful in the process of change. change.
3. Ask your clients how they feel they are doing Here are three ways to honor your clients’
(at changing their behavior). autonomy:
Evoke Clients’ Motivation Rather 1. Allow your clients to have a sense of choice
Than Trying To Install It in the process of change.
2. Ensure that your clients feel in control of

When you focus on your clients’ motivation as
their change process.
opposed to trying to supply it for them (or gen-
erate it through external means for them), you 3. Encourage your clients to develop their own
create a powerful resource toward change. As strategies to overcome their ambivalence.
your clients begin to develop their own sense of
mastery, autonomy, and deeper purpose in the Powerpoint: Three Ways to
change (i.e., what is most important to them), Express Empathy
they activate the crucial elements of internal
motivation, which is far more influential in Listen Fully and Openly
promoting change than any form of external
Listening without judgment, interruption, or dis-
motivation.
traction sends a direct message to the clients that
Here are three ways to evoke your clients’ they are important, and that they matter to you.
motivation:
Open Up
1. Ask your clients when they feel the most
competent (strong). While you don’t have to spill your life story
to your clients, you can look for ways to con-
2. Ask your clients what steps they can take,
and what plans they have, to move toward
nect with them, such as by sharing similar
change. life events, feelings, and challenges. Especially
because clients often see trainers as models of Be Mindful

perfection— often as paragons of health—open-
Being mindful with your clients means fo-
ing up about difficulties, flaws, and faults can
cusing your attention outward, toward what
help clients not just feel accepted, but also show
is most important to them, and noticing what
that you care about their feelings—because you
their unique needs, skills, and desires. Devoting
experience similar ones.
100% of your attention to your clients this way
not only expresses empathy toward your client,
but also builds your own empathy as well.
Summary
The motivational interviewing models hold ambivalence; avoiding argument and direct
that all clients possess the capacity for change, confrontation; adjusting to client resistance
and that the ambivalence they feel is a normal rather than opposing it directly; and support-
part of the change process. Through joining ing the client with encouragement and opti-
with the client to expose and work through mism—clients respond much more favorably.
this ambivalence, personal trainers can be Understanding the three core elements of mo-
very effective in helping clients identify and tivation—mastery, autonomy, and purpose—is
utilize resources within themselves to moti- also of critical importance, and when trainers
vate change. Further, when personal trainers draw upon strategies to increase the client’s
make use of the five principles of motivation- feelings of each of these elements, motivation
al interviewing—expressing empathy to the shifts from that which is externally based, to
client through reflective listening; uncovering the more lasting internal motivation.

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Motivation Assessment
Client: Date:
Autonomy: the state of being not controlled by others
High Autonomy Low Autonomy

High Autonomy / High Motivation Low Autonomy / Low Motivation

Discretion over what you do Being forced to do something not of your own choice
Being allowed to choose when you do things Being told when something must be done
Being allowed to choose how you do things Being told how something must be done
Discretion over who you work/play with Being told who you must work or play with
1. How frequently do you feel as if you know ex- 5. How frequently do you get to choose what you
actly what you are supposed to do? do?
☐☐ every day (3) ☐☐ on a daily basis (3)
☐☐ once a week (2) ☐☐ once a week (2)
☐☐ rarely (1) ☐☐ rarely, if ever (1)
☐☐ never (0) ☐☐ never (0)
2. How frequently do you feel as if you perform 6. How frequently do you get to choose how you
tasks well? do things?
3. How frequently do you feel confident in what 7. How frequently do you get to choose when you
you do? do things?
4. How frequently do you feel as though you could 8. How frequently do you get to choose with
teach others what you do? whom you do things?
Scoring guide:
10–12 Very high autonomy 4–6 Moderately low autonomy
7–9 Moderately high autonomy 3 or less Very low autonomy
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Barriers to Autonomy
1. Who do you feel restricts your autonomy the most?
2. What events or circumstances in life most restrict your autonomy?
3. What places most restrict your autonomy?
Increasing Autonomy
1. Identify three steps to increase the amount of control you have over what you do.
2. Identify three steps to increase the amount of control you have over when you do things.
3. Identify three steps to increase the amount of control you have over how you do things.
4. Identify three steps to increase the amount of control you have over with whom you do things.

issaonline.edu
Motivation Assessment (continued)

Mastery: having full command or understanding of a subject
High Mastery Low Mastery

High Mastery / High Motivation Low Mastery / Low Motivation
Performing a task that you know well Feeling intimidated by a task
Feeling unclear about the steps to take when perform-

Knowing exactly how to do something
ing an activity
1. How frequently do you feel as if you know ex- 3. How frequently do you feel confident in what
actly what you are supposed to do? you do?
☐☐ every day (3) ☐☐ every day (3)
☐☐ rarely (1) ☐☐ rarely (1)
2. How frequently do you feel as if you perform 4. How frequently do you feel as though you could
tasks well? teach others what you do?
☐☐ every day (3) ☐☐ every day (3)
☐☐ rarely (1) ☐☐ rarely (1)
Scoring guide:
10–12 Very high autonomy 4–6 Moderately low autonomy
7–9 Moderately high autonomy 3 or less Very low autonomy
Barriers to Mastery
1. What internal factors (fear, intimidation, lack of trust) most stand in the way of your sense of mastery?
2. What external factors (people, places, things) most stand in the way of your sense of mastery?

issaonline.edu
Build Mastery
1. What three steps can you take to overcome the internal barriers to mastery?
2. What three steps can you take to overcome the external barriers to mastery?
Purpose: a fixed intention in doing something: an aim or goal
High Purpose Low Purpose

High Purpose / High Motivation Low Purpose / Low Motivation
Feeling connected to those around you Feeling detached from those around you
Feeling as if your efforts have a measurable impact Feeling as if your efforts do not matter
Feeling as if your efforts are appreciated by those Feeling as if your efforts are not appreciated by those
around you around you
Unique Purpose
1. When do you feel most connected to those around you?
2. When do you feel as if your efforts matter the most?

issaonline.edu
Unique Purpose (continued)

3. When do you feel as if your efforts are appreciated the most?
4. When do you feel as though your efforts have the most impact?
Increase Purpose
1. What steps can you take to increase the sense of connection to those around you?
2. What three steps can you take to increase the importance of your actions?
3. What three steps can you take to increase the appreciation your actions are given?
Purpose in the Larger Context

1. Who do you feel would most support your actions/efforts?
2. What steps can you take to connect yourself more to this person or organization?
UNIT 3
The ISSA Drawing-In Process

48 | Unit 3
Unit Outline
1. Modifying Personal Behavior 2. Modifying Your Client’s Behavior

a. Fear and Self-Esteem
3. Summary
Modifying Personal Behavior

Conditioning Your Mind
Beyond pumping iron and careful eating, there is another kind of
preparation you can do to optimize your chances of success, one
that involves subtle factors concerning your attitude and mental
approach to training, whether it be for fitness, sports, or bodybuild-
ing. You can achieve great things with your body if you learn how
to use your mind. Learning to harness the power of your mind can
advance your physical training a giant step further. It can also mean
the difference between winning and losing and even between suc-
cess and failure to achieve your goals.
Mind power and success through mind conditioning only come

with a sustained and sincere effort. You can’t just make a wish and
then sit back and hope that it comes true and forget about working
on it. The mind reacts much the same way the body does. If you
train and condition it regularly, it responds with great efficiency and
effectiveness. On the other hand, if you assume, as so many people
do, that it’s good enough the way it is, your chances of achieving
your maximum potential are greatly diminished. If you had fool-
ishly assumed that attitude with your body, you would never have
entered the gym to train in the first place.
Some of the key ingredients to an effective mind conditioning pro-

Motivation: state of mind gram are: motivation, incentive, visualization, and, most important
that generates positive of all, belief.
feelings about achieving a
purpose.
The last point cannot be overstated. You’ve gotta believe! You’ve got-
ta believe in yourself, in your talents and capabilities, in your goals
and in all you hope to achieve, and in your methods for achieving
The ISSA Drawing-In Process | 49
them. The key to understanding what your mind holds in store for
you is a simple realization. The realization that within you is all the
power you need to succeed, both in your training and in life. Within
you already lies all the potential for success. Within you is the brain
power of an infinitely superior person, physically, spiritually, and
mentally. Once you make this realization—that your mind holds a
vast wealth of knowledge, information, control, power, ability, and
potential—you can start to tap into it. You can delve into your own
secret depths and find out what you’re really made of.
Motivation and Discipline for Mind Conditioning

Motivation is the state of mind that generates positive feelings about
achieving a purpose. Some people are motivated by financial re-
wards, others by primitive urges for physical pleasure. For you, the
most highly motivating element in your life MUST become your
dream of acquiring unsurpassed, mind-blowing power and mass.
But to be motivated isn’t enough. It also takes discipline. Discipline Discipline: skill that keeps
is what keeps you consistently scientific in your actions as you strive you consistently scientific in
your actions as you strive to
to achieve your goal. Here is a simple step-by-step method to achiev- achieve your goal.
ing what you want:
Step 1: Define your ultimate goals clearly and write them down.
This means being specific about what you want. What kind of
improvements are you looking for? Do you want simply to increase
your overall strength, your lean body mass, or reduce your percent
body fat? Maybe you’ve chosen powerlifting to excel in! Or tennis!
That, friend, is GOOD, you’ve made your choice! Now, concentrate
specifically on the actual aspects you want to improve, and write
them down. You’ll be surprised at how much clearer you can make
it by simply putting it into words. When you have to select the exact
words to define what you want, you tend to develop a super-clear
image of your goal.
Step 2: Devise a series of short-term goals which will ultimately lead

to you realizing your main goals. It’s easier to attain a short-term
goal that’s within reach than to try and make great leaps in progress
all at once. When you try to do too much at once and fail you tend
to get discouraged. Instead, set a number of short-term goals that

50 | Unit 3
you can accomplish and then knock them off Step 4: Visualize yourself succeeding. No one
one at a time. Focus exclusively on the short- would attempt to build a house without a set
term goal you wish to achieve most of all, with- of blueprints. Likewise, you must plan your
out even thinking about the next short-term success strategy, and actually “visualize” your-
goal or the long run. Achieving each one of self, in your mind’s eye, accomplishing your
your short-term goals should lead you to com- goals. Your inner feelings, your thoughts, your
pletion of your major goal. Each short-term goal daydreams must all be filled with images of
is thus a stepping stone, not an end in itself. your ultimate success. Twice a day—once after
That’s why they have to be accomplished one at training and once before bedtime—read your
a time. And as you complete each short-term goal sheet out loud. Then, close your eyes and
goal, you will find that you are all the more mo- with crystal clarity see yourself becoming ex-
tivated to continue your trek to greatness. actly how you want to be. But visualize yourself
actually accomplishing your goals of acquiring
Step 3: Create your strategy for success. This is
muscular size, low body fat, or your sports skills
your game plan, your INTEGRATED training
perfectly, don’t just wistfully think about how
program. On the same sheet that you wrote
nice it would be to look or perform that way.
your long-term goal and listed the short-term
goals that will get you there, you should break Step 5: Align your mind, body, and spirit with
down your daily activities into the best means achievement. By affirming your commitment
to get you where you’re going. This means the to your stated goals and by actually visualizing
routines, exercises, sets, reps, intensity, practice, and verbalizing your commitment, you will
rest periods, diet, naps, practice, and so on. find that your mind, body, spirit, and emotional
Follow your own plan toward success. Prepare self all become one. The power of this union
a daily schedule that takes you in the direc- will send an emotional supercharge to your
tion you want to go, and recognize right from body by actually stimulating secretion of your
the start that you are a unique individual and body’s “emotion-producing” biochemicals. This
require a program that’s necessarily different alignment is accomplished by actually verbaliz-
from anyone else’s. Keep your goal sheet cur- ing your commitment while visualizing it. For
rent and review it day by day. A good place to example, say, “I am committed to becoming the
start is with “daily clocks” that map out precise- most massive and cut bodybuilder in history.”
ly what you will do throughout the day, when to Or perhaps, “I am committed to looking and
take which supplement, each meal, each visual- feeling great by next summer”. Repeat your
ization session, and so forth. These daily clocks commitment statement before, during, and
are devised to allow you to take advantage of after your success visualization every day.
all the various technologies science has to offer
Step 6: Give yourself a reward for your accom-
and—at the same time—allow you to thorough-
plishments. After you’ve achieved a sub-goal
ly PERSONALIZE your goal-oriented training.
or your ultimate goal(s), reward yourself in a
So, the hardest part is already done for you!
significant fashion. I don’t mean just having an
ice cream cone after a training cycle! That’s not steps toward goal achievement. What got you
significant enough to “anchor” the significance into your chosen sport or activity? Was it seeing
of your achievement firmly in your mind and a bodybuilding show or watching the Olym-
soul. Personally dwell upon your achievement pics? Was it the incredibly muscular kid next
and your success. Congratulate yourself and door? Your older brother or sister? Whatever it
savor the feelings of pride and confidence in was, it no doubt fostered in you a deep, abiding
having taken direct action to achieve you goal, sense of passion for your sport or activity. That’s
whether that was to make yourself bigger or the way all champions begin—with abiding
stronger or whatever your goal was. The key passion for what they do. With such passion,
to mental conditioning is to make your new motivation almost always comes naturally.
thoughts and new approach a habit. The more
Passion is a hard word to define. What “turns
regular your new habit becomes, the more
your crank” may be different from anyone else.
quickly old and destructive habits fade away.
It’s easier to describe what passion is NOT:
The only way to continue making progress is
to regularly reinforce your new, goal-directed Passion is NOT a need to achieve. Instead, it’s a
integrated training. burning desire to exceed ALL limits! It’s NOT
commitment to excellence, but utter disdain for
It usually takes about three weeks to implement
anything less! And it’s NOT endless hours of
this revised way of thinking. During that time,
practice. It’s PERFECT practice! It’s NOT the
you’re likely to feel tempted to return to old
ability to cope. Rather, it’s the total domination
patterns and habits, feeling that the old way was
of ALL situations! And it’s NOT setting unreal-
easier and “good enough.”
istic or vague goals, because doing so too often
Don’t do it! prescribes performance limits! Passion is NOT
doing what it takes to win. Instead, it’s doing
The more you resist old habits, the stronger
what it takes to EXCEED! And it most certainly
you’ll become, until you develop an iron will
is NOT the force of skill or muscle. Rather, it’s
to succeed and you no longer even think about
the explosive, calamitous force of WILL!
returning to old habits. Going back to your old
mental habits would be akin to leaving the gym If you believe in and practice these things,
forever. Remember to create a goal, visualize it then for you, winning is neither everything
as real, and work regularly to successfully attain nor the only thing. It’s a FOREGONE CON-
a firm footing on each of the stepping stones CLUSION! But if, along the way, you somehow
that will take you to your ultimate goal. When stumble, PROFIT from the experience! Then,
you get there, you’ll know. vow, by the power of Almighty God, it’ll NEV-
ER happen again!
How to Get Motivated and Stay
So, you see, PASSION is all-consuming. That is
Motivated
what it takes to become a champion, and that is
Let’s back up for a minute before we review the what it’ll take for you to achieve your ultimate

52 | Unit 3
training goals. If you haven’t acquired passion yet, seek it out first.
Find it. Do not begin without it, for without it you will be severely
limited in your quest for greatness.
Incentive: The Mother of Motivation

Motivation—and passion—begins and ends with incentive. You
have to know what you want and why you want it, and achieving
Intrinsic reward: reward in it may be reward in and of itself. This is called “intrinsic” reward;
and of itself.
whereas, “extrinsic” rewards are things such as money, trophies, or
Extrinsic reward: external prizes. In both cases, the rewards serve as an incentive to contin-
rewards, such as money,
trophies, or prizes. ue. This may mean that achieving a specific improvement provides
the incentive for going after it. More strength, stamina, cuts, mus-
cle mass, skill, or greatly improved health and vitality are various
incentives. But they may also be a part of larger incentives, such
as being liked and admired, being a winner or achiever, enjoying
success, shaping a personal identity, gaining peer acceptance, and so
on. Recognize incentive as a powerful motivating force, not as some-
thing potentially destructive, evil, trivial, or shameful.
Steps to Goal Attainment

Follow these eight steps to goal attainment:
1. Set realistic short-term goals.
2. Short-term goals should lead you to a long-term goal. Allow for

occasional setbacks along the way, but regard them as learning ex-
periences; thereby turning those setbacks into something positive.
3. Set a training schedule and stick to it. (Again, the best place to find
such a training program is from among the integrated training
programs described right here in this text.)
4. Make pain and fatigue work for you, as signs that your all-out
effort is helping you attain your goals.
5. Constantly challenge yourself in your training.
6. Devise your own, personal definition of success. It’s what you say it
is, not what someone else says.
7. Believe in yourself and foster positive aggression in your training.
8. Build a strong ego, but a restrained one.
Your Emotional State any case, your mental appraisal of yourself—i.e.,

your self-esteem—counts for a great deal in
Your mind and your emotions are tightly tied
your performance.
together. It’s up to you to find a balance be-
tween them and to exert absolute control over However common this sort of scenario may
them. Your emotional state plays a large role be, it is not the sort of thing to be sought after.
in your overall training. The way you’re feeling It would be far better if your self-esteem go-
inside has repercussions on your behavior and ing into the gym or competition was such that
performance on the outside. There are many ONLY a superlative performance throughout
different factors that go into the makeup of a was possible. Building ONLY the possibility
solid emotional base, including: of success into your training—day after day,
month after month—through the careful,
• personal life,
integrated application of science will help to
• sex life, maintain a peak mental attitude and constant
• family life, feelings of self-esteem.
• job, Success begets success.
• daily schedule,
• diet, Fear and Self-Esteem

• financial matters, Fear of Failure
• health concerns, and, most importantly,
Fear, depression, anxiety, or over-arousal can
• self-esteem. all lead to sub-par training or poor competition
Your own self-esteem contributes greatly to the performance. For every winner, there are many
level of your sports performance. Self-esteem losers, and often the distinguishing feature
can vary greatly, even within the time confines between being a winner or loser is attitude,
of a single training session, and it can mean positive thinking, and the absence of inhibiting
the difference between winning and losing in fear in winners. Fear of the competition, for in-
a competition setting. One minute you might stance, can put you in a defeatist frame of mind
hate yourself over an error you’ve committed even before the competition begins. For that
on the posing platform, playing field, or in the matter, this could even be something like going
gym, but then a few moments later you could on a sugar binge or getting drunk. If you’re so
reverse that feeling completely by performing “psyched out” that you consider your opponent
exceptionally. unbeatable, or your old habits unshakable, then
you have defeated yourself.
This sort of event can—and often does—lead to
superlative performance throughout the re- Instead, your goal must be to foster belief in
mainder of your training session in the gym, or yourself, to train hard to achieve the means to
in your onstage or on-the-field performance. In victory, and then to realize that you have made

54 | Unit 3
your belief work for you. All your success comes and so you don’t want to embarrass them by
first out of a belief in yourself. In fact, belief and showing them up with your superior physique,
success go hand in hand. Once you rid yourself lower body fat, and greater strength or pain
of fear, you begin to see yourself as potentially tolerance, or whatever.
better than your opponent or addiction, and
What do you think this concern or fear will lead
that’s the key to winning!
to? Believe me, this sort of “fear” is not all that
If you give in to a state of fear, you will never uncommon! Being pals is one thing. But a real
see yourself as potentially better than your op- pal will recognize (although perhaps not fully
ponent or addiction. So, it’s obvious then, that acknowledge or accept as permanent) your supe-
your state of mind determines, to a large extent, rior abilities. Far better then to turn your friend-
whether or not you will ever “see” victory. ship with your training partner into a healthy,
constructive, friendly competitive situation!
Fear of Injury
But if you do feel that your training partner
Fear of injury is another common inhibiting is holding you back, don’t train with them
factor. Doubtless you’ve heard of “oft-injured” anymore! If you’re an aspiring bodybuilder or
athletes who are forever on the injured list. athlete, your training program isn’t going to
Sometimes, when these athletes return to active match theirs anyway. Being buddy-buddy to the
play, they can be slightly gun-shy, afraid of extent of following identical training programs
injury, and might even alter their style of play rep-per-rep, exercise-per-exercise, day after day
to protect themselves from injury. Ironically, is downright stupid.
playing to protect yourself against injury often
Some other situations involving unreasonable
leads to it, because you’re e.g., pulling up, not
fear of succeeding are:
following through with movements, or con-
tracting your muscles irregularly. The same sort • Not wishing to attain your ultimate goal for
of protective training occurs in all sports and fear of no longer having anything to strive for.
fitness-related activities. The effects of a torn • Not wishing to be forced to accept the so-
rotator cuff, a pulled hamstring, or whatever cio-psychological responsibilities associated
injury you may have suffered, all tend to linger with winning or succeeding.
long after the injury is healed sufficiently to be • Not being willing to totally commit to do-
trained again. Of course, being careful is pru- ing everything necessary in order to win or
dent, but being overcareful will serve for noth- succeed.
ing but keeping you from your goal.
The first step in eliminating these sorts of fears
is to realize that they exist. Then, it’s a simple
Fear of Success matter of using intellectual reasoning to figure
Picture this scenario. Your best buddy is your out why such fears exist and how utterly silly
training partner. He or she means a lot to you, such fears really are.
A skilled sports hypnotherapist or sports psy- response, one you never consciously think
chologist may be able to assist you in eliminat- about anymore.
ing these potentially debilitating roadblocks to
Then, apply this sort of laser focus rep-per-rep
success.
and set-per-set in your workouts. Apply it when
following your daily integrated training pro-
Concentration
gram. Just as success begets success, remember
Success in sports performance can be likened that imperfect practice makes your performance
to the practice of Zen masters. Their aim is imperfect and needs to be nipped in the bud.
that concentration should be so complete that
there is no consciousness of such concentration. Modifying Your Client’s
Athletes must be one with their sport in order
to execute it to their optimal ability. You have Behavior
no doubt been in a situation where your en-
tire attention was so rapt and absorbed in one Psychological Considerations
thought that you completely blocked out every- When it comes to fitness, we can divide people
thing else. This was most probably due to your in to two classes of people: the fit and the unfit.
high concentration level on some thought of Clearly these people further exist on a continu-
great importance to you. This kind of focus can um, meaning that some are fit or almost fit and
be a great confidence builder. some are barely fit or downright unfit. Now,
The more you focus on what you’re working to most of the fit people exercise regularly, while
achieve, the less distractions enter your aware- most of the unfit do not. Furthermore, most
ness. This lifts you out of the state of mind that of the fit are conscientious of the quality of the
can’t “visualize” success. Once you begin to food they eat, while the unfit are not. Then too,
“visualize” success, you consider yourself po- depression, procrastination, laziness, and a host
tentially better than the competition, or above of other psychological anomalies seem to occur
your old addictions. Little by little, you will be more frequently among the unfit. Clearly, med-
able to concentrate more and more, until you ical problems of every sort are far more preva-
reach a state where you’re unaware of anything lent among the unfit. Can we not see then that
in your way. You see your way clearly to victory there is a crying need for there to be developed
and success. This is total concentration. a psychology of fitness as a legitimate area of
scholarly research?
This kind of total concentration comes to those
who have developed total self-confidence. You The task of developing such an academic dis-
must have high self-esteem, high motivation, cipline falls squarely on the shoulders of those
and be consistent in your training program. people who most understand the interconnect-
You must develop your mind to the point edness of mind, body, and spirit, such as:
that total concentration is merely a learned • healthcare professionals,

56 | Unit 3
• nutritionists,
• psychologists,
• medical practitioners,
• health and physical education teachers,
• gym owners,
• personal fitness trainers, and
• fitness experts.
This unlikely cadre of professionals seem to be the only ones (other

than the unfit themselves) who actually have a stake in all this. And
they are also the best equipped to provide solutions to the problem,
which (as we are all aware) is of pandemic proportions in the mod-
ern world. In truth, the whole of society is negatively affected as the
unfit suffer from a host of medical, nutritional, and psychological
problems.
The ISSA has a huge stake in this effort, both because we are fitness
professionals ourselves and because we play a role in educating
and certifying trainers worldwide to tackle and seek to reverse this
historic pandemic. We cannot fail at this task. The cost of failure is
too great to bear. And, decades of experience of teaching others has
told us at ISSA, in crystal-clear terms, that success is going to take a
strong interdisciplinary effort.
A Case for the Study of Fitness Psychology

Fitness psychology: study The academic discipline of fitness psychology is a fledgling area
of the psychological and
of interest, with most of the research reports appearing in relevant
spiritual elements of fitness.
journals over the past decade or two, but with a small handful of
research reports published as long ago as the ‘70s and ‘80s as well. In
fact, most of this research was done against the backdrop of exercise
behavior, and has focused on the factors that contribute to describ-
ing, explaining, predicting, and improving exercise behavior in a
culture whose sedentary, generally unhealthy lifestyle is resulting in
increasingly poorer health (1).
Exercise is important for achieving optimum fitness, to be sure. But

the bumpy road of life involves more than just having a body that
is fit. Your health, diet, and percentage of body fitness is necessary. So, in this section, we focus
fat play important roles too, perhaps every bit on the factors that contribute to describing,
as important as exercise. Also, psychological explaining, predicting, and improving those
and spiritual health—as elements of fitness that behaviors that contribute to a heightened level
probably have more to do with driving people of fitness, and that contribute to each individual
into the gym in the first place—play pivotal ultimately adopting a new fitness lifestyle. Make
roles. Since its inception in 1988, ISSA has de- no mistake, as a personal fitness trainer, your
scribed fitness as a wheel having no fewer than job goes far beyond just the confines of the gym
18 spokes. These include aspects such as: you work in. Your professional obligation is to
help your clients adopt a fitness lifestyle.
• cardiovascular/cardiorespiratory endurance,
• healthy body composition,

Problems Fitness Trainers Face
• metabolic health,
Now the fight begins. You see, no one has yet
• freedom from stress, come up with a viable intervention strategy that
• psychological/spiritual peace, will effectively and permanently change health-
or fitness-related behavior (2, 3). However, there
• freedom from disease,
have been dozens of conceptual frameworks
• freedom from injury, presented in the research literature that seek to
• preventive lifestyle. address this problem. But almost all end with
the conclusion, “More research is needed.”
• As well as the physical attributes that contrib-
ute to efficient human movement, namely: In 2007, writing in the Journal of the American
• limit strength, Board of Sport Psychology, Mark Anshel pre-
• starting strength,
sented an extensive review of the literature per-
taining to fitness psychology, and lamented that
• explosive strength,
his review revealed equivocal and disappointing
• strength endurance, results. (1) No one, it seems, has yet been able
• speed endurance,
to provide a means of providing people with a
positive, long-term strategy for beginning and
• local muscular endurance,
maintaining a fitness lifestyle.
• agility,
That’s where you come in. You see, you have
• flexibility, an ace in the hole. When a new client comes to
• static balance, you, and pays you for your expertise, you must
assume that there is at least a modicum of com-
• dynamic balance.
mitment on their part. They are motivated, they
We all intuitively know that a wheel works best recognize their need for improved health and
if all of the spokes are strong. Clearly, follow- fitness, and recognize that their behavior must
ing an integrated approach to achieving sound

58 | Unit 3
be modified. They also recognize that they can’t The “Health Belief Model”, first proposed by
do it on their own, so they came to you. It is by Becker and Maiman in 1977, posits that your
far the greater population of Americans who clients will be far more likely to comply if they
are in dire straits, and who never even tender believe that exercise and sound nutrition are
the thought of going to a gym, let alone hiring a both healthy and desirable (4). Discuss these
personal fitness trainer. points during each day you meet with your cli-
ent, and take careful note of any points that will
Exercise psychology is a far-reaching field.
likely help you during the drawing-in process.
Here, we do not discuss the psychological
variables involved in getting people to want to
Social Facilitation
join a gym, problems with special populations,
athlete behavior, child obesity, and the host of Clients whose friends or family members
other factors traditionally identified as being exercise regularly are more apt to comply. In
within the remit of interest of an applied exer- fact, they will be more likely to internalize the
cise psychologist. Instead, we concern ourselves value of exercise and nutrition if social factors
with that population with whom we have come are involved in their decision to exercise. It is
into direct contact with, i.e., the clients. conceivable that socializing while at the gym
will be highly motivating for them. If so, make
Why Did Your Client Come to You? a suggestion for such clients to bring along a
friend to exercise with them (5).
Simple anthropometric measurements could
reveal the physical deficiencies that likely
Unrealistic Expectations
prompted them to seek your help. But what
sorts of behaviors got them to that point in the Often a client will want to lose a huge amount
first place? How can those behaviors be extin- of weight, or may desire the incredible phy-
guished and replaced with healthier options? sique of a competitive bodybuilder or want to
How will you change the way your clients per- become a marathon runner. Such goals are
ceive themselves? Do your clients have mental almost always beyond the ability of your client
barriers or a negative attitude toward exercise? to achieve, and will thus set them up for fail-
Toward dieting? Toward themselves? ure. You must direct them to a path where they
learn how to walk before they run, and ensure
Search for some specific reasons for your clients
that they are provided constant feedback as to
seeking your help. Is there a genetic predispo-
their progress. The last thing you or your client
sition in their family that they are concerned
needs is a loss of perceived competence (6). A
with? Are they concerned about the fact that
fully fifty percent of individuals who join a gym
they’re getting older? Did they read something
drop out within 6 months because of feelings of
in a magazine or see a program or advertise-
no progress or lack of skill in performing their
ment on television that prompted their interest?
exercise program (7).
Self-Efficacy
One of the elements of the ISSA drawing-in process involves “guided
discovery.” Does it not seem likely that a client will be more likely to
comply and actually grow to like their exercise protocol if they are
the one who chooses the exercise or protocol? This is in fact the case.
In a 1998 review of over 100 studies on exercise behavior, McAuley
and Mihalko found that self-efficacy was higher if the individual
was allowed to select the exercises, the degree of effort expended
on the activities, and the degree to which they would persist at the
activities over time (8). They called this “perceived choice.”
Of course, you are the one providing the various exercise options for
your client, especially during the guided discovery phase. So, you
are ultimately in control. However, be sure that their choices are in
line with sound science. Remember too that providing your clients
with positive feedback based upon performance data will heighten
their feeling of self-efficacy.
Disconnect
It is likely that many of your clients’ lifestyles have been long devoid Disconnect: when negative
behaviors persist despite
of exercise, and thus they are firmly entrenched in their behavior. It
your client knowing the
may be that they have an array of long-held negative attitudes that value of a fitness lifestyle.
are reflective of negative experiences they have had with exercise.
Perhaps a physical education teacher disciplined them with push-
ups. Perhaps an injury from a previous attempt at exercise remains
fresh in their minds. Or, it may be that an unacceptably high degree
of physical discomfort from the stress of previous exercise damp-
ened their short-lived attempt to exercise (9).
A disconnect can exist if these negative behaviors persist despite

your client knowing the value of a fitness lifestyle, and that their
slovenly behavior is not in their best interests. This disconnect exists
because the client has made the decision (wittingly or unwittingly)
that the benefits of exercising do not outweigh the costs or long-term
consequences. In this scenario, their free time, the avoidance of dis-
comfort, the cost of a gym membership or hiring a personal fitness
trainer, or being criticized for their obese state are of paramount
concern to them.

60 | Unit 3
However, the fact that they came to you is clear- need achievement, intrinsic motivation, fear
ly indicative of a value shift. It is up to you then, of failure, eating disorder, addiction, … to
name a few).
as a professional, not to let their old habits cause
another disconnect. These individuals need 2. Create a sense of urgency for a client to con-
constant reminding of the value of exercise and tinue exercising (provide quantitative data
good health, and constant praise with accom- on a client’s fitness level or lack thereof) and
the consequences of quitting.
plishment, however slight. The disconnect must
be made unacceptable. 3. Foster a positive attitude in your client (per-
ceived competence, setting realistic goals).
Exercise Barriers 4. Continually provide instructive feedback so

that continued improvement takes place.
Of all the barriers to exercise, the most com-
5. Provide social support by praising your client
mon excuse is “lack of time.” This excuse is
in front of their friends, or by getting one of
easily overcome, however, by: 1) allowing your
their friends to be their exercise partner.
client to pick the most convenient time for
them, and 2) by pointing out that only three 6. Provide educational materials (magazines, in-
ternet) on exercise techniques and nutrition.
hours per week is being asked for—less than 2%
of the total hours in a week, involve only a small 7. Work with your client beyond just the con-
sacrifice of TV time, snacking time, internet fines of the gym or exercise circuit in areas
time, or phone time (10). such as nutrition, how to shop for food, how
to reduce stress through meditation, visual-
Helping your client develop their time manage- ization techniques, and sports participation,
ment skills and showing them how any barri- and generally on fostering good health and
fitness habits.
ers to exercise are easily overcome by simply
rearranging their exercise schedule may well
represent one of your most important skills in Conclusion
helping your client adopt a fitness lifestyle.
Anyone could squeeze Ms. Jones into a size 5
dress for the first time since college. Simply
Seven Strategies
wire her mouth shut and keep her moving hard.
As a professional fitness trainer, you are going Right? But will that actually solve her problems?
to be challenged constantly in regard to draw- No, it will in fact exacerbate them! Your job, if
ing your client into a fitness lifestyle. You will we may risk being overly repetitive, is to draw
have to develop ways to overcome their objec- your client into a fitness lifestyle! That’s going to
tions, and provide convincing reasons for your take careful planning far beyond just setting a
client to continue. Here are seven strategies to weight training or aerobics program.
consider (11).
ISSA’s method of helping clients find their way to
1. Be aware of your client’s psychological a fitness-centered lifestyle is actually predicated
dispositions that could cause disconnect on several tenets of applied exercise psychology.
(anxiety, depression, self-consciousness,
Summary
What a personal trainer represents to a cli- clients from unfit to fit is a major challenge that
ent plays a pivotal role in the client’s ultimate trainers face today. Clients often have unreal-
ability to change, and their overall success. istic expectations, yet lack self-efficacy, which
When trainers symbolize positive change—the creates a disconnect between their behavior
ability to set larger goals, break them down into and the outcome. Further, clients may also have
smaller pieces, develop a strategy for success, exercise barriers that preclude certain types of
visualize success, and overcome obstacles such exercise. One way trainers can be helpful—and
as fear of failure, fear of success, fear of injury, draw clients in—is to be aware of the discon-
low self-esteem, and poor concentration—they nect clients often come with, create a sense of
act magnetically on clients, effectively draw- urgency around change, then foster a positive
ing them into the change process. Yet, moving attitude, effective instruction, and social sup-
port to pave their path to fitness.

UNIT 4
Positive Psychology
Positive Psychology | 63
Unit Outline
1. The Positive Psycholog Model

a. The Importance of Learning to Think Optimistically
b. Using Strengths to Repurpose Adversity
c. Flourishing: PERMA: The Five Cornerstones of Positive Psychology
2. Positive Psychology Skills for Personal Trainers
a. The Optimism Test and Assessment
b. Attribution Exercises to Boost Optimism
c. Cultivating and Activating Strengths to Propel Performance
d. Identifying and Generating Engagement and Flow
e. Positive Exercises and Skills
f. Finding and Activating Meaning
g. Using Small Changes to Create Large Achievements
3. Summary
The Positive Psychology Model

When the study of psychology was in its infancy, the aim was to
identify, characterize, study, and eventually alleviate psychologi-
cal disorders. The thought was that through studying what caused
people distress, it would be better understood how to treat symp-
toms and return people to a state of normal functioning—or at least
“pre-distress” functioning levels. Positive psychology, which be- Positive psychology:
a branch of psychology
came formally recognized when Martin Seligman took the helm as that seeks to use people’s
president of the American Psychological Association in 1998, takes strengths to move them
a sharply different look at people. The concern that Martin Seligman beyond distress and toward
recognizing their best selves.
raised—and which is now well supported—is that by only studying
what is wrong with people (their disorders), we only come to a par-
tial, and indeed quite limited understanding of them. As he warned,
the exclusive focus on pathology—although it has dominated so

64 | Unit 4
much of the discipline—results in a model of the human being

lacking the positive features that make life worth living. What we
miss, according to Seligman and many others, is an understanding
of what makes life worth living: what Seligman calls “the good life”.
The factors Seligman was concerned with were those that contribute
the greatest value toward life—things like hope, wisdom, creativity,
future mindedness, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and per-
severance. Seligman further defined the good life as, “Using your
signature strengths every day to produce authentic happiness and
abundant gratification” (Seligman, 2002).
Positive psychology is now widely referred to as a strengths-based

approach, and one that seeks to identify, cultivate, and use strengths
to create a life filled with meaning. As opposed to studying the
symptomatology of disorders, positive psychology looks to the
constellations of strengths exemplified in extraordinary people to
understand how to move people not simply back to baseline, but to
Flourishing: a term that a state of flourishing (Seligman, 2011). The idea is that psychologists
describes the following should not just be relieving people of their distress, but looking to
elements of positive
psychology: positive access their strengths in unique and creative ways to move them
emotions, engagement, beyond their “pre-distress” levels. In many ways, it is the study of
positive relationships,
meaning, and achievement.
the top half (or above baseline levels) of functioning, as opposed to
the bottom half (below baseline).
It is here that positive psychology also takes a different approach. As

happiness is defined as a construct that can be operationalized, it is
also something that can be learned, practiced, and improved. While
traditional psychology had few words to say about happiness, and in
many ways described what many know as “positive states”—such as
elevation, courage, humanity, justice, and transcendence—as defense
mechanisms for underlying and unresolved distress, positive psychol-
ogy looks to these strengths as a way to transcend distress. The idea
is that through identifying, cultivating, and expressing our strengths,
we raise our levels of happiness, such that we move past simply sur-
viving, to a state of thriving (or flourishing). The strengths that posi-
tive psychology is concerned with can be measured in many ways, but
one of the most popular methods is through what is called the “VIA
Strength Survey,” which was created under the direction of Martin
Seligman. The test comprises 120 questions designed to identify 24
“signature character strengths.” It is regarded from animals. According to Fromm, the guilt
as the central tool of positive psychology and and shame that Adam and Even felt is embodied
has been used in hundreds of research studies, in what he called the “disunited human exis-
and been taken by over 2.9 million people in 34 tence,” the cure for which can be found through
countries (VIA Institute on Character, 2015). the cultivation of our strengths (Fromm, 1941).
While we take a look at the VIA Strength Survey As Fromm wrote, “I believe that the man choos-
in the section on cultivating and activating client ing progress can find a new unity through the
strengths, what is important to remember for development of all his human forces, which are
now is that when people flourish—that is, when produced in three orientations. These can be
they lead lives imbued with meaning, achieve- presented separately or together: biophilia (love
ment, positive emotions, positive relationships, for humanity and nature), and independence,
and engagement—positive psychology purports and freedom” (Fromm, 1997). Fromm further
that their distress symptoms will naturally be- defined eight basic needs: relatedness, transcen-
come less defining, and less severe. dence, rootedness, frame of orientation, sense of
identity, excitation and stimulation, unity, and
This is not to say that positive psychology
effectiveness (Mohammed, 2014; Engler, 2008).
ignores distress symptoms altogether. Rath-
According to Fromm, it is through satisfaction of
er, it redefines them. Distress is not viewed as
these needs, i.e., the enduring desire for growth,
a weakness, as negative symptoms, or even
that we become more human. Fromm’s theory
as something to be avoided. Instead, distress
that humans have needs that must be satisfied
is viewed as a catalyst for growth. Similar to
in order to grow and overcome existential angst
Nietzsche’s famous quote, “That which doesn’t
(the desire for meaning) is not far from Maslow’s
kill you, makes you stronger,” positive psychol-
theories. Through studying what he called
ogy believes that is through facing adversity
exemplary people, such as Albert Einstein, Jane
and searching for meaning in the aftermath of
Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Dou-
difficult life events that we find strengths we
glass, rather than mentally ill or neurotic people,
didn’t know we had, and where we improve our
Maslow came to understand that, “The study
thought processes and ultimately expand upon
of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy
our understanding of the world.
specimens can yield only a cripple psycholo-
It is in this way that positive psychology draws gy and a cripple philosophy” (Maslow, 1954).
upon the work of many earlier theorists, such Maslow proposed a “hierarchy of needs” that
as Erich Fromm, Abraham Maslow, and Victor describes the development progression through
Frankl. Fromm, for one, wrote extensively about which needs are satisfied and growth occurs.
humans’ need to grow, expand their understand- According to Maslow, physiological needs, such
ing, and overcome “existential angst.” Pointing as hunger, thirst, and warmth, must be satisfied
to the story of Adam and Eve, Fromm described before more elaborate ones, such as safety, love,
their instinctive drives—that they ultimately belonging, esteem, and self-actualization, can
gave in to—as precisely what separated them be met. Maslow later added self-transcendence

66 | Unit 4
to this list of needs, positing that self-actual- Here are the important points to take away:
ization (realizing one’s true potential) can only
1. Positive psychology looks to the constella-
be accomplished through self-transcendence tion of strengths exemplified by extraordi-
(giving oneself to a higher goal outside oneself, nary people to better understand how to
such as altruism) (Maslow, 1996). The work of move people from baseline to above average
Victor Frankl, who is regarded as the father of functioning.
“logotherapy,” and the author of Man’s Search 2. Unlike traditional psychology, positive psy-
for Meaning, dovetailed that of Fromm and chology does not study weaknesses, rather it
Maslow. Drawing upon his experiences as a Ho- studies strengths.
locaust survivor, Frankl described the search for 3. Positive psychology looks to adversity as a
meaning in two ways: it is an essential human catalyst for growth.
need to have a sense of meaning in life and it is
4. Positive psychology recognizes the universal
through finding meaning in distress that we can
human need for growth—to experience ful-
endure it. As Frankl writes in Man’s Search for fillment, meaning, and mastery—and looks
Meaning, “When Man cannot express himself to the ways in which our strengths can be
in positive action, when his only achievement used to enhance our growth.
may consist in enduring his sufferings in the
In the upcoming sections, we learn how the cen-
right way—an honorable way—in such a position
tral concepts of positive psychology—learning
Man can, through loving contemplation of the
to think optimistically, flourishing, cultivating
image he carries of his beloved, achieve fulfill-
the components of “the good life,” and finding
ment” (Frankl, 2006). According to Frankl, it
flow—can help us to move from an understand-
was through the ultimate recognition that his
ing of what is wrong, to one of what is right, and
“only achievement” may be in how he chooses to
further, how this understanding can help us cre-
endure his sufferings (in the “right way”) that he
ate a more fulfilled, meaningful, and happy life.
can also become fulfilled, and find meaning in
his existence.
The Importance of Learning to
While Fromm drew upon the satisfaction of hu-
Think Optimistically
man needs to overcome the “disunited human
existence” and arrive at a “new unity,” Maslow The early work of Martin Seligman—who many
pointed to the essential need to fulfill our po- refer to as the father of positive psychology—
tential (self-actualization), through service to centered around how people’s thoughts affect
something larger than ourselves (self-transcen- their levels of happiness. Originally he began
dence) as a way to overcome a “cripple philoso- his work by studying behavioral conditioning in
phy,” and Frankl found reprieve from suffering dogs, when Seligman noticed something inter-
by choice to endure it in the “right way,” which esting. Seligman’s experiment began by separat-
meant to find meaning in it. For all, the point is ing the test dogs into three groups: Group 1 (the
the same: it is through developing our strengths control group) was put into a harness and then
that we overcome our weaknesses. released; Group 2 was put into the same harness
and then delivered an electrical shock, which could be stopped by

pressing a lever; and Group 3 dogs were wired to the Group 2 dogs
and experienced the same shock’ however, because the lever was
pressed by the dogs in Group 2, it appeared to the Group 3 dogs
that the shock ended at random. Next, Seligman placed all three of
the groups into a shuttle-box apparatus, which comprised a cage
in which the dogs could escape the shock by jumping over a low
partition. While both the Group 1 and Group 2 dogs jumped over
the partition to escape the shock, the Group 3 dogs didn’t even try.
What Seligman noticed was that the Group 3 dogs had “learned”
that their responses had no bearing over whether or not they were
shocked—he termed this “learned helplessness.” And, perhaps
more importantly, Seligman also noticed that the dogs with learned
helplessness behaved much in the same way as clinically depressed
people do. This inspired Seligman to investigate the connection fur-
ther. Thus, curious as to what could explain why the clinically de-
pressed failed to act when exposed to adverse situations where relief
is possible, Seligman began studying their thought processes. What
he found was that the way a person interprets a situation (known
as their attributional style) determines how they will respond to
the situation (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978). According
to Seligman, what a person says to themselves about the events in
their life—where the theory accounts for both positive and negative
events—also explains why some people seem resilient (or even grow
stronger) in the face of adversity, while others seem to be only made
weaker (Peterson & Seligman, 1984).
Seligman later developed what is now known as the “Optimism Optimism test: test that
Test” to measure these attributional styles. For both positive and assesses a person’s level of
optimistic thinking through
negative events, attributions are categorized in three separate di- attributions to positive and
mensions: permanence, pervasiveness, and personalism. A perma- negative events.
nent attribution occurs when a person believes that events have a
permanent or long-lasting quality. Statements such as, “This always
happens,” and “I never win,” fit into this dimension. Pervasive
attributions, on the other hand, occur when a person believes that
one negative event colors many aspects of their life. A person who
gets fired from their job and later says to themselves, “I am such a
loser,” is exhibiting a pervasive attribution. Lastly, personal attribu-
tions can also occur, such as when a person believes that events are

68 | Unit 4
caused—or at least directly related to—them. “never” to describe them), they are able to com-
Using the example above, a person who gets partmentalize them (they do not let them bleed
fired from their job and then says, “It’s all my into all areas of their lives), and they do not see
fault, I’m just no good,” would be using a per- them as personal (while they take responsibility
sonal attribution style. for what is truly their fault, they do not dispro-
portionally attribute fault to themselves). When
When bad events happen and we interpret them
these people get fired, while there is a tempo-
in permanent, pervasive, or personal ways, we
rary hit to their happiness levels, their attribu-
are exhibiting what Seligman termed a “pessi-
tional style—where they say things like, “Some-
mistic explanatory style,” which is one that does
times crappy things happen” (not permanent),
not easily allow us to recover from such bad
“I’m a good worker, but perhaps I just wasn’t the
events. People using this style, Seligman argued,
right guy for the job” (not pervasive), or “Maybe
tend to respond to negative events much in the
the boss just had a bad day” (not personal)—
same way the dogs with learned helplessness re-
quickly allows them to rebound. That is, they
sponded in the shuttle boxes. That is, even when
take action to swiftly remedy adversity.
harm is avoidable, they don’t take action.
Also optimists, unlike pessimists, do get a boost
As you might expect, a pessimistic explanatory
from good events—again, because they inter-
style responds just the opposite way to positive
pret them differently. Unlike their pessimistic
events. When something good happens, peo-
counterparts, optimists explain good events in
ple with this style do not see it is long lasting,
permanent, pervasive, and personal ways. Get-
do not see it as a stable character trait (rather,
ting promoted, for example, happens “Because I
attributing it to chance causes instead), and do
always work really hard and do a great job” (per-
not see themselves as responsible for it. Getting
manent), “Because I’m smart and I add a lot to
a promotion at work, for example, might be
the company” (pervasive), or “Because I worked
explained with statements such as, “I was just
really hard on that last project” (personal).
lucky” (not personal), “I will probably get de-
moted soon anyway” (not permanent), or “My Seligman’s findings later formed what many
marriage is still on the rocks,” (not pervasive). would consider the cornerstone of positive
While typically good events will boost happi- psychology—that is, that if helplessness can be
ness levels, for those with a pessimistic explan- learned, optimism can also be learned (Peter-
atory style, this is not the case. In fact, good son, Maier, & Seligman, 1995).
events seem to have little to no effect.
Learning to be optimistic has many important
An optimistic explanatory style, on the other implications. Studies have consistently demon-
hand, interprets bad events as impermanent, strated that people who do not feel that they
not pervasive, and not personal. For optimists, have a sense of control, and who see bad events
when bad things happen, they don’t last forev- as largely inescapable, not only suffer emotion-
er (they don’t use words such as “always” and ally and physically, but also have difficulty with
problem-solving tasks (Roth, 1980; Wortman 3. Those with an “optimistic attributional

& Brehm, 1975). And perhaps because they also style” see negative events as not permanent,
pervasive, or personal, and positive events as
adopt a habit of passivity in the face of adversi-
permanent, pervasive, and personal.
ty, whereby pessimists often neglect their diet,
exercise, and medical treatment. Complicating 4. Optimism can be learned, and correlates
the problem even more, stress seems to have a strongly with mood, health, social relation-
ships, and motivation.
compounding effect on pessimists, whereby the
more they experience, the less control they feel Optimism is something that plays a powerful
they have, and the less hope they hold for the role in our lives, and crucially, it can be learned.
future (Sullivan, Liu, & Corwin, 2012; Henry, While we will address specific ways to learn
2005; Jones, 2010). Not surprisingly, a pessimistic how to think optimistically in the upcoming
explanatory style also correlates strongly with sections of this course, what is important for
depression (Chang & Sanna, 2007) and difficul- you to remember at this point is that the way we
ty engaging in the very cognitive processes that explain the events that occur in our lives (our
enact problem-solving skills (Henry, 2005; Wel- attribution style) colors not just how we respond
borne et al., 2007). Pessimists also suffer from to these events, but the way we feel about our-
more immunity problems and are at greater risk selves, the future, and the world around us.
of heart diseases and a plethora of other diseases
(Bennet & Elliot, 2005). And much in the same PowerPoint: Three Ways to
way that a pessimistic explanatory style can Teach Your Clients to Think More
reinforce depressive symptoms, it also appears Optimistically
to affect both motivation—e.g., those who have
failed at tasks previously are unlikely to try again Look for the Hidden Opportunities in
(Stipek, 1998)—and social relationships—as Setbacks
those who exhibit a learned helplessness style
typically give up trying to gain social respect Setbacks can often feel like there is nothing
(Ramirez et al., 1992). positive to be gained. However, setbacks, like
any adversity we face, present a set of circum-
Here are the important points to take away: stances that demands our skills. And this is the
1. Our level of optimism is determined by our opportunity that setbacks offer: an opportu-
attributional style, and can be measured nity to learn new skills and to refine existing
through the use of the Optimism Test. ones. When you teach your clients to reframe
2. Those with a “pessimistic attributional style”
setbacks in this way and to look not to what is
see negative events in permanent, pervasive, difficult, but at what must be learned, you help
and personal ways, and see positive events them take a powerful step toward thinking
as just the opposite, i.e., as not permanent, more optimistically.
pervasive, or personal.

70 | Unit 4
Use Paradoxical Thinking with the corresponding criteria to differentiate

them. While the purpose of traditional psy-
Paradoxical thinking is about seeing every-
chology is to return people to baseline levels of
thing in life as a paradox: with both good and
functioning—thereby alleviating the criteria that
bad qualities. While in love there is joy, there
qualify them as disorders, or at the very least, to
is also loss, and with success, there is also
help them better manage their symptoms—what
struggle. Using paradoxical thinking not only
occurs above the baseline is unaddressed.
helps us see life in a more balanced way, but
helps us find creative solutions that we might Positive psychology, on the other hand, takes a
have otherwise overlooked. Teaching your much different approach. While those in the field
clients paradoxical thinking helps them see would not shy away from referring to the DSM
things from multiple perspectives, which is a if necessary, this is not the manual that governs
critical part of thinking optimistically. the field. Instead, because positive psychology
seeks to identify, study, and cultivate strengths,
Identify Strengths the manual it uses is a handbook of people’s
strengths. Developed in 2004 by Martin Selig-
Facing challenges gets a whole lot easier when man and Christopher Peterson, the Character
you know what your strengths are and how Strengths and Virtues Handbook is a counterpart
they can be used. By asking your clients what to the DSM. Where the DSM seeks to classify
their strengths are, and how they use them, disorders (and find ways to treat them), the Char-
you not only boost their confidence imme- acter Strengths and Virtues Handbook seeks to
diately (speaking about strengths as opposed classify strengths and virtues and find adaptive
to weaknesses has a lasting positive effect on ways to express them. In researching the book,
mood), but you also help them to see that these Peterson and Seligman looked across several
strengths can be used effectively to help them cultures to distill universal strengths and virtues
face the many challenges that life brings. that were independent of any moral constraints.
Their list included six character strengths (each
Using Strengths to Repurpose with three to five sub-entries): wisdom/knowl-
Adversity edge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance,
and transcendence, which have also been shown
The path that Martin Seligman took—and the
to be highly valued from ancient civilizations
path that positive psychology follows—veers
to contemporary Western culture. In order to
sharply from that of traditional psychology in
classify a strength it must be fulfilling; intrinsi-
many ways. Traditional psychology seeks to
cally valuable; non-rivalrous; trait-like, but not
identify, study, and treat disorders, and here
the opposite of a trait, and not the combination
the manual that is used for everything from
of two traits; personified; observable; nurtured in
diagnosis and treatment planning to insurance
society; and absent in some individuals (Peterson
authorization is the Diagnostic Manual of Mental
& Seligman, 2004). The VIA Strength Survey
Disorders (DSM). This manual is a listing of all
and Brief Strength Survey—which we discuss in
of the current classifications of disorders, along
the section on cultivating and activating strengths— was also de-

signed by Seligman as a way to assess strengths.
In allowing a better understanding of strength and virtues, and

ways in which they may elevate peoples’ lives beyond what would be
considered baseline, positive psychology paved the ground for what
many now refer to as a “strength-based approach.” That is, it is an
approach that starts with strengths and not weaknesses.
The methodology for which weaknesses are addressed then also

differs sharply from in traditional psychotherapy. According to tra-
ditional psychology, weaknesses arise because people have disorders,
and treating them requires focusing on them. Positive psychology,
on the other hand, holds that weaknesses arise out of a failure to
fully develop and express strengths. Much like Maslow would have
argued that when people cannot fully self-actualize, their lives will
feel incomplete. In order to overcome this incompleteness—or what
Frankl would have called “existential crisis”—we must find ways
to utilize our strengths to create lives imbued with everything that
makes a life worth living: meaning, connection, fulfillment of our
potential, positive relationships, love, and belonging.
Positive psychology seeks to develop a way of facing adversity that

goes beyond simply mitigating the negative symptoms and emo-
tions that may accompany it. As opposed to attempting to devel-
op resistance to adversity, positive psychology seeks to find a use
for it. Much like Frankl had to find a use for his suffering, using a
strength-based approach looks for ways in which difficult life expe-
riences can be used as catalysts for growth. It is here that a strength-
based approach incorporates the concept of post-traumatic growth. Post-traumatic growth:
Originally defined by Richard Tedeschi and Richard Calhoun, growth that occurs in the
search for meaning after a
two psychology professors at the University of North Carolina, traumatic event and that
post-traumatic growth reframes everything we think about trau- exceeds pre-trauma levels of
functioning.
matic and adverse life experiences. That is, that more people report
growth after difficult life experiences than report distress symptoms
(Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).
Post-traumatic growth is obviously a dramatic step away from

the DSM, which contends that adverse life experiences cause
mental disorders—or at the very least negative symptomatology.

72 | Unit 4
Post-traumatic growth, on the other hand, development of strengths and skills. Also differ-
contends that it is in the struggle with ad- ent from resilience, emotional toughness, or op-
versity that growth occurs. When life events timism, each domain of post-traumatic growth
cause a dramatic rupture in our lives, such has a paradoxical element. Life is viewed as
that we must reconsider them, and search for being more precious and more fragile, people
new meaning, we come to identify our great- report feeling both more vulnerable and stron-
est strengths. But we also engage in the very ger, and while some relationships are more
cognitive processes that optimize the skills of tenuous, others are much deeper. It is in this
problem-solving and adaptive thinking. It is in way that post-traumatic growth is defined not
this way that it can be argued that, in post-trau- as the absence of negative emotion, but rath-
matic growth, adversity is the stone upon which er the presence of both positive and negative
our skills are sharpened. emotions (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Further,
post-traumatic growth surpasses simply becom-
But it is also important to differentiate a
ing more resistant to challenging life events and
strength-based approach from separate con-
describes the way in which adversity can spawn
cepts such as emotional toughness, resilience, or
the emergence of adaptive skills that would
even optimism, in that post-traumatic growth
otherwise not be developed. Where a resilient
involves a transcendence beyond pre-trauma
person might better plant their feet against the
(or adversity) levels of functioning. This growth
incoming waves, a person exhibiting post-trau-
can be characterized into five separate domains:
matic growth would duck dive under them.
increased openness; appreciation for life (grat-
itude); enhanced sense of personal strength; Here are the important points to take away:
deeper, more meaningful relationships; and a
1. While traditional psychology uses the Diag-
deeper understanding of faith. For this growth nostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for
to occur, however, the struggle with trauma mental disorders, positive psychology uses
is imperative, as people who score highly on the Character Strengths and Virtues Hand-
the coping skill dimensions may not report book as a guide to classify and understand
growth following a stressful event (Tedeschi strengths.
& Calhoun, 2004). The reason for this, Tedes- 2. Positive psychology begins with a study of
chi and Calhoun suggest, is that for people strengths, and sees distress as an outcome
who already exhibit adaptive functioning, not of a failure to fully develop and express
much skill sharpening has to take place. On strengths.
the other hand, those who have lower levels 3. Post-traumatic growth contends that adversi-
of coping, have more room for improvement. ty is a catalyst for growth.
It is in this way that adversity itself is viewed 4. The five domains of post-traumatic growth
through an adaptive lens, that is, it is a tool for are: openness, appreciation for life, en-
refinement. Unlike resilience, which seeks to hanced sense of personal strength, deeper,
better resist stress and adversity, post-traumatic more meaningful relationships, and a deeper
growth seeks to use it as a launch pad for the sense of spirituality.
5. Each domain of post-traumatic growth is depend on vulnerability. What vulnerability

paradoxical in nature, meaning that growth allows is the ability to embrace flaws, faults, and
is defined as the presence of both positive
imperfections in the service of learning. When
and negative emotions.
you encourage your clients to invite vulnerabili-
6. Post-traumatic growth differs from concepts ty, you not only help them see that vulnerability
such as resilience, emotional toughness, is acceptable (and a crucial part of learning),
and optimism in that it is characterized by
but that strength (and self-growth) is comprised
an adaptive response to adversity—one
that goes beyond pre-trauma levels of
of both positive and negatives.
functioning.
Encourage Openness
While we discuss specific ways in which
strengths can be identified and harnessed Openness is a vital part of learning to adapt to
to transform our lives in the cultivating and setbacks. What openness allows us to do is to
activating strengths section of this course, shift, modify, or completely change our approach
what is important to understand now is that in order to learn a new and more effective way.
a strength-based approach involves using our When you teach your clients to embrace open-
strengths not just to transcend our weakness, you not only help them counteract rigid
nesses, but to also transform adversity into a thinking, but help them develop an approach to
springboard for growth. dealing with their setbacks that involves looks
for new solutions and innovative thinking, as
PowerPoint: Three Exercises to opposed to only seeing obstacles.
Use Setbacks to Build Your Clients’
Strength Flourishing: PERMA: The
Five Cornerstones of Positive
Ask What Skills Can Be Learned
Psychology
When we can learn to look at setbacks as When Martin Seligman first introduced his
opportunities to build strength, not only are theory that optimism can be learned, his goal
we more aware of our own strengths, but we was to increase life satisfaction. To this end,
are also more focused on the process of build- he measured life satisfaction through the use
ing strength. By teaching your clients to see of self-reporting questionnaires (people were
setbacks in this way, you help them develop a asked to rate their life satisfaction on a scale
growth mindset—one that sees abilities as de- from 1–10). To achieve life satisfaction, Selig-
pendent on effort (not inherited talent), and set- man’s theory held that life satisfaction depend-
backs as a crucial part of the learning process. ed on three things: creating positive emotion
(through optimistic thinking), experiencing
Invite Vulnerability engagement (through finding flow), and finding
meaning in life (through the dedication of one’s
Strength is often construed as the absence
services to something larger than oneself).
of weakness. However, growth and learning

74 | Unit 4
And while optimism can be learned, and life But more importantly, it would overlook the
satisfaction can be increased, the problem value of difficult emotions—such as anger, fear,
Seligman realized was that his theory had two sadness, and anxiety—that can cause us to
major flaws. The first flaw Seligman identified pause and reconsider those areas of our lives
was that his theory didn’t include success and that need attention. As you saw in the previous
mastery—he neglected that some people like to section, negative emotions that arise as a result
achieve just for the sake of winning. The second of adverse life events are crucial components
flaw was that life satisfaction was defined as a of growth. Further, by hinging life satisfaction
summative measure—when in fact, well-being on being in a good mood, adverse events them-
is better defined as a construct with several selves are given no construct for which to be
independent components, each worth pursuing understood or utilized to inspire growth. This
for their own sake. approach, it would seem, would assume that a
person does not face adversity, or simply tries
Because Seligman’s original theory had pivoted
to maintain a happy mood while going through
around the idea that happiness (he measured
it—which is wholly unrealistic.
this through life-satisfaction surveys) is the
definition of a “good life,” he realized he had The summative measure of happiness also
elevated happiness to a status which, in fact, overlooks that sometimes people do things
it hadn’t earned. The idea that a good life can for their own sake, which may or may not be
only be measured through reports of happiness directly related to happiness. Achievement is
ignores the fact that sometimes we do things an example of this as we can say that many
that ultimately do make our life better, but in people are driven to excel, and that the pursuit
the moment, we may not report feeling happy of mastery is quite different from the pursuit
about them. People who are in highly engaged of positive emotions. For one, mastery involves
states (known as flow), for example, in many some degree of challenge, which may result in
ways report the opposite of happiness, that is, emotions such as fear, anxiety, and excitement.
they report having no feeling (Seligman, 2012). This is quite different from an activity such as
Pursuing meaning is another example. If we go laying on a beach, reading a book, or getting
back to the life experiences of Victor Frankl, we a massage, which would all result in positive
can say that he was pursuing meaning while in emotions, yet have no degree of mastery associ-
a concentration camp, and this indeed made his ated with them.
life better. But, to be sure, his mood was proba-
What Seligman ultimately realized was not only
bly not happy at the time he was doing it.
that his theory had flaws, but that the goal itself
In addition, Seligman also construed happiness was misguided. In pursuing life satisfaction,
to mean “always being in a cheerful mood.” he had missed other crucial components that
And if happiness is the measuring stick with describe a good life. In redefining his theory
which we evaluate our lives, certainly a life that then, Seligman chose a different goal: instead of
has no room for any mood other than happi- aiming to increase life satisfaction, he looked to
ness, would be nothing more than a happiology. increase well-being. And where life satisfaction
has one single measure, Seligman’s new theo- find a deeper sense of purpose—transcending
ry—which he called flourishing—has five. our own self-interests. It is also through mean-
ing that we can experience a deeper unity, and a
The five elements of well-being that define
deeper connection to the world around us.
flourishing are:
Achievement. Achieving something uniquely
Positive emotions. Positive emotions, such as
fulfills the universal human need for mastery.
warmth, rhapsody, ecstasy, and pleasure are
And important within the definition of flour-
what Seligman calls “the pleasant life.” Howev-
ishing is that mastery can be undertaken for
er, while these emotions may make us feel good,
its own sake. That is to say that the pursuit of
they will not give our lives meaning. Also, posi-
mastery does not need to lead to any positive
tive emotions can be quickly achieved—buying
emotions in the moment, but it could still
a sundae, taking a bath, and getting a massage
contribute to an individual’s overall sense of
take minimal amounts of time—and therefore
well-being.
require little effort.
Known as PERMA, these five elements go
Engagement. Engagement, which is also
beyond previous measures of life satisfaction to
described as the state of flow, occurs when
define a theory of well-being. Here, no longer
the challenges we face perfectly match our
is happiness considered the single measure of
strengths, such that we are neither over-
life satisfaction, but rather, a person’s well-being
whelmed nor bored. In a state of engagement,
comprises five separate elements, where each
we become completely absorbed in the activity,
may be pursued for its own sake, and can be
and both conscious thought and time appear to
measured independent of the others, but all con-
stop. There is an intense focus, a merging of ac-
tribute to well-being. That is to say, e.g., that we
tion and awareness, and the activity is autotelic,
may pursue achievement and measure our sense
meaning it is intrinsically rewarding. (We will
of mastery, simply because we like winning.
explore flow more fully in the next section).
Similarly, we may increase our positive emotions
Positive relationships. Positive relationships simply by doing what makes us feel good, and
capture the universal human desire for con- we can measure the effect of things like getting
nection. Essentially, these involve the presence massages or watching movies on our moods.
of family, friends, and social connections, with What creates overall well-being, however, is the
whom we can feel understood, validated, and incorporation of all five elements.
valued. It is these relationships that not only give
Here are the important points to take away:
us a sense of belonging, but act as a resource to
help us get through difficult life events. 1. Seligman’s original theory defined happiness
as one summative measure, which over-
Meaning. Meaning is the act of belonging to looked things such as meaning and mastery
and acting in the service of something greater that do not directly bring positive emotions,
than oneself. It is through acting in the pursuit but do contribute to well-being.
of something larger than ourselves that we can

76 | Unit 4
2. A singular focus on life satisfaction fails are completely focused on the task at hand, and
to understand well-being as an overarch- about the ways in which they feel this enhances
ing construct comprised of five separate
their lives and mood. Through becoming more
elements.
aware of the times they feel engaged and the af-
3. Focusing only on creating life satisfaction fect this has on their mood, you will be helping
through happiness ignores the presence of your clients capture one of the most promising
adversity—and the negative emotions that
components of a happy, fulfilled life.
result—as catalysts for growth.
4. One summative measure of happiness Deepen Relationships

doesn’t account for the fact that some-
times people do things—such as aiming for Relationships are a central part of a positive
achievements—just for their own sake. mood, and yet many of us focus very little
5. Flourishing consists of five separate ele- energy on developing and maintaining deep
ments: positive emotions, engagement, meaningful relationships with those around
positive relationships, meaning, and us, especially when we don’t feel good about
achievement. ourselves. You can help your clients make use
While we will explore specific ways to enhance of this powerful component of mood by ask-
and build upon each of the five elements in the ing them about those who they feel the closest
positive psychology skills section of this course, bonds with (or most connected to), the ways in
what is important to remember for now is that which they spend time with these people, and
well-being is comprised of five separate ele- the ways in which they feel this improves their
ments, also known as PERMA. lives. By drawing their attention to the import-
ant relationships in their lives, the energy that
PowerPoint: Three Ways to Use they devote to them, and the gains they receive
PERMA to Boost Your Clients’ from them, you can help them to see relation-
Mood ships as a pivotal part of a meaningful life.
Practice Engagement Find Unique Achievements
When we are engaged in something, our at- Achieving is an essential part of feeling good.
tention is completely devoted to the task in In many ways, people are wired to achieve,
hand and we are free from distractions that so master, grow, and realize our potential. To help
often derail happiness. Most importantly, we your clients make use of this critical compo-
are free from our own internal criticisms and nent of happiness, ask them about the previ-
self-doubt. You can help your clients find more ous achievements they are most proud of, the
engagement in their lives by asking them when achievements they are working on right now,
they feel most absorbed in an activity, when and what they would like to accomplish in
they feel as if time has stopped, or when they the future, and the ways in which these things
would bring them joy and a sense of satisfac- explanatory style is imperative to creating a
tion. By drawing their attention to the positive training program that meets their needs. To
boost that achievements bring, you will help be effective, you will need to know how your
them see that realizing their potential is a vital clients internalize successes and failures, both
part of a happy life. within the training program and outside of it.
For example, let’s say your client has an explan-
atory style that causes them to believe that neg-
Positive Psychology ative events are their fault. They will likely feel
Skills for Personal that any setbacks in training are also their fault,
Trainers and perhaps even begin to give up on them-
selves (i.e., to not even try to succeed). However,
So far we have explored the model of positive if you know this about your client from the very
psychology, the importance of thinking opti- beginning of the training program, you will be
mistically, how strengths can be used to repur- able to modify the training program to meet
pose adversity, PERMA (the five cornerstones their needs; for example, when they experience
of positive psychology), and what it means to a setback in the training program, decrease the
find flow. The purpose of the discussion thus far intensity of the program to allow them to feel
has been to ensure your understanding of the successful again.
important components of positive psychology.
In this section, we learn ways to put all of this As you will recall from the section on learning
knowledge into action to improve the lives of all to think optimistically, measuring a person’s
the clients you work with. We begin with a look optimism is done through the use of the Op-
at the Optimism Test, and learn how to admin- timism Test, developed by Martin Seligman.
ister and interpret it; then, we look at specific The test consists of a single sentence describing
ways to improve your client’s attributions. a situation, and two responses that explain the
From there, we turn our attention to the VIA situation. Your client will choose the response
Strength Inventory, and learn how to identify that best describes their situation. In order to
and activate your clients’ strengths. Lastly, we accurately measure your client’s explanatory
look at the five components of positive psychol- style, it is important that you understand how
ogy: positive emotions, engagement, positive to administer the Optimism Test:
relationships, meaning, and achievement, and
1. You must not tell your client what the test
learn ways to harness these powerful drivers to is measuring, but simply instruct them to
help your clients create a life full of well-being. answer the questions naturally, based on the
first response that springs to mind.
The Optimism Test and 2. You must not tell your client that the test
Assessment is about explanatory styles, but simply ask
them to choose the response that best ex-
As you know, understanding your client’s plains the situation that is presented.

78 | Unit 4
3. You must tell your client that although some things, is more than just their choice of words.
responses might not fit exactly, they should It is a window into the very thought processes
choose the best response.
they learned in youth and that now color how
4. You must tell your client that there is no they conduct their life. As a person’s explan-
time limit for the test; however, they should atory style comes directly from that person’s
choose their first response not sit and mull it view of their place in the world, someone who
over too much.
thinks that they are valuable and competent as
The assessment test consists of 48 questions, a person would be classified as an optimist, and
with two choices for answers: A or B (see the would tend to act in optimistic ways. On the
Optimism form). other hand, a person who thinks that they are
worthless would be classified as a pessimist, and
To score the test, begin by totaling the numbers would respond to both positive and negative
in the right-hand margin for each factors: events in pessimistic ways. As you know, the
Write your totals on the line corresponding to test is designed to reveal the three important
each factor measured. To complete the scoring dimensions of your client’s explanatory style:
of the test, look at the remaining four factors: permanence, pervasiveness, and personaliza-
tion. Let’s now take a closer look at how each of
HOB: PVB total + PMB total these dimensions affects your client’s thought
Total B: PMB total + PVB total + PSB total processes.
Total G: PMG total + PVB total + PSB total
Permanence
G – B: Total G – Total B
Clients who give up easily, tend to explain the
Optimism Test Evaluation bad things that happen to them in a permanent
way, believing that they will always affect their
To evaluate the assessment test, we first have lives the same way. Clients who do not give up
to understand what it is measuring. The test easily, and who resist feeling helpless, tend to
measures your client’s explanatory style, which believe that the causes of their bad events are
is how they think about the cause of events— temporary. Here are some examples:
both positive and negative—in their life. For
example, a person who gives up easily, will tend Permanent Temporary
(pessimistic): (optimistic):
to explain their misfortunes by saying things
“I always bulk up with “When I lift heavy
like, “It’s my fault, this always happens.” On the exercise.” weights I bulk up.”
other hand, a person who doesn’t tend to give “I can’t ever play varsity “I can’t play varsity foot-
up, might say, “It was just bad timing, it isn’t football.” ball this year.”
going to go on forever, I can’t forget all the good “My husband always “My husband nags me
nags me.” when I’m late.”
things that have also happened.”
“My shoulder never gets “My shoulder wasn’t
any better.” helped by doing over-
Your client’s patterned way of explaining head lifts.”

issaonline.edu
Optimism Test
Client: Date:
1. The project you are in charge of is a PSG 10. You host a successful dinner. PMG
great success. a. I was particularly charming that 0
a. I kept a close watch over everyone’s 1 night.
work. b. I am a good host. 1
b. Everyone devoted a lot of time and 0
11. You stop a crime by calling the police. PSG
energy to it.
a. A strange noise caught my attention. 0
2. You and your spouse [boyfriend/girl- PMG
friend] make up after a fight. b. I was alert that day. 1
a. I forgave him/her. 0 12. You were extremely healthy all year. PSG
b. I’m usually forgiving. 1 a. Few people around me were sick, so 0

I wasn’t exposed.
3. You get lost driving to a friend’s house. PSB
b. I made sure I ate well and got 1
a. I missed a turn. 1
enough rest.
b. My friend gave me bad directions. 0
13. You owe the library ten dollars for an PMB
4. Your spouse [boyfriend/girlfriend] sur- PSG overdue book.
prises you with a gift. a. When I am really involved in what I 1
a. He/she just got a raise at work. 0 am reading, I often forget when it is
b. I took him/her out to a special dinner 1 due.
the night before. b. I was so involved in writing the re- 0
5. You forgot your spouse’s [boyfriend/girl- PMB port that I forgot to return the book.
friend’s] birthday. 14. Your stocks made you a lot of money. PMG
a. I’m not good at remembering 1 a. My broker decided to take on some- 0
birthdays. thing new.
b. I was preoccupied with other things. 0 b. My broker is a top notch investor. 1
6. You get a flower from a secret admirer. PVG 15. You win an athletic contest. PMG
a. I am attractive to him/her. 0 a. I was feeling unbeatable. 0
b. I am a popular person. 1 b. I train hard. 1
7. You run for a community office position PVG 16. You fail an important examination. PVB
and you win. a. I wasn’t as smart as the other people 1
a. I devote a lot of time and energy to 0 taking the exam.
campaigning. b. I didn’t prepare for it well. 0
b. I work very hard at everything I do. 1
17. You prepared a special meal for a friend PVB
8. You miss an important engagement. PVB and he/she barely touched the food.
a. Sometimes my memory fails me. 1 a. I wasn’t a good cook. 1
b. I sometimes forget to check my ap- 0 b. I made the meal in a rush. 0
pointment book. 18. You lose a sporting event for which you PVB
9. You run for a community office position PSB have been training for a long time.
and you lose. a. I’m not very athletic. 1
a. I didn’t campaign hard enough. 1
b. I’m not good at that sport. 0
b. The person who won knew more 0
people.
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ered from this form is not shared with ISSA. ISSA is not responsible or liable for the use or incorporation of the information contained in or collected from this form. Always consult your doctor concerning your health,
diet, and physical activity.

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Optimism
19. Your car runs out of gas on a dark street PSB 28. Your boss gives you too little time in PVG
late at night. which to finish a project, but you get it
a. I didn’t check to see how much gas 1 finished anyway.
was in the tank. a. I am good at my jo0
b. The gas gauge was broken. 0 b. I am an efficient person. 1
20. You lose your temper with a friend. PMB 29. You’ve been feeling run-down lately. PMB
a. He/She is always nagging me. 1 a. I never get a chance to relax. 1
b. He/She was in a hostile mood. 0 b. I was exceptionally bust this week. 0
21. You are penalized for not returning your PMB 30. You ask someone to dance and he/she PSB
income-tax forms on time. says no.
a. I always put off doing my taxes. 1 a. I am not a good enough dancer. 1
b. I was lazy about doing my taxes this 0 b. He/she doesn’t like to dance. 0
year. 31. You save a person from choking to PVG
22. You ask a person out on a date and he/ PVB death.
she says no. a. I know a technique to stop someone 0
a. I was a wreck that day. 1 from choking.
b. I got tongue-tied when I asked him/ 0 b. I know what to do in crisis situations. 1
her on the date. 32. Your romantic partner wants to cool PVB
23. A game show host picks you out of the PSG things off for a while.
audience to participate in the show. a. I’m too self-centered. 1
a. I was sitting in the right seat. 0
b. I don’t spend enough time with him/ 0
b. I looked the most enthusiastic. 1 her.
24. You are frequently asked to dance at a PMG 33. A friend says something that hurts your PMB
party. feelings.
a. I am outgoing at parties. 1 a. She always blurts things out without 1
b. I was in perfect form that night. 0 thinking of others.
25. You buy your spouse [boyfriend/girl- PSB b. My friend was in a bad mood and 0
friend] a gift and he/she doesn’t like it. took it out on me.
a. I don’t put enough thought into 1 34. Your employer comes to you for advice. PVG
things like that. a. I am an expert in the area about 0
b. He/she has very picky tastes. 0 which I was asked.
26. You do exceptionally well in a job PMG b. I am good at giving useful advice. 1
interview. 35. A friend thanks you for helping him/her PVG
a. I felt extremely confident during the 0 get through a bad time.
interview. a. I enjoy helping him/her through 0
b. I interview well. 1 tough times.
27. You tell a joke and everyone laughs. PSG b. I care about people. 1
a. The joke was funny. 0 36. You have a wonderful time at a party. PSG
b. My timing was perfect. 1 a. Everyone was friendly. 0

b. I was friendly. 1

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Optimism
37. Your doctor tells you that you are in PVG 45. You win the lottery. PSG
good physical shape. a. It was pure chance. 0
a. I make sure I exercise frequently. 0
b. I picked the right numbers. 1
b. I am very health conscious. 1
46. You gain weight over the holidays and PMB
38. Your spouse {boyfriend/girlfriend] takes PMG you can’t lose it.
you away for a romantic weekend. a. Diets don’t work in the long run. 1
a. He/She needed to get away for a few 0
b. The diet I tried didn’t work. 0
days.
47. You are in the hospital and few people PSB
b. He/She likes to explore new areas. 1
come to visit.
39. Your doctor tells you that you eat too PSB
a. I’m irritable when I am sick. 1
much sugar.
b. My friends are negligent about 0
a. I don’t pay much attention to my 1
things like that.
diet.
48. They won’t honor your credit card at a PVB
b. You can’t avoid sugar, it’s in 0
store.
everything.
a. I sometimes overestimate how much 1
40. You are asked to head an important PMG
money I have.
project.
b. I sometimes forget to pay my credit 0
a. I just successfully completed a simi- 0
card bill.
lar project.
Scoring
b. I am a good supervisor. 1
41. You and your spouse [boyfriend/girl- PSB Factor Total
friend] have been fighting a great deal.
PVB (questions 8, 16, 17, 18, 22, 32, 44, 48)
a. I have been feeling cranky and pres- 1
sured lately. PMB (questions 5, 13, 20, 21, 29, 33, 42, 46)
b. He/She has been hostile lately. 0
PSB (questions 3, 9, 19, 25, 30, 39, 41, 47)
42. You fall down a great deal while skiing. PMB
a. Skiing is difficult. 1 PMG (questions 2, 10, 14, 15, 24, 26, 38, 40)
b. The trails were icy. 0 PVG (questions 6, 7, 28, 31, 34, 35, 37, 43)
43. You win a prestigious award. PVG
PSG (questions 1, 4, 11, 12, 23, 27, 36, 45)
a. I solved an important problem. 0
HOB (PVB + PMB)
b. I was the best employee. 1
44. Your stocks are at an all-time low. PVB Total B (PMB + PVB + PSB)
a. I didn’t know much about the busi- 1
Total G (PMG + PVB + PSB)
ness climate at the time.
b. I made a poor choice of stocks. 0 G–B (Total G — Total B)
82 | Unit 4
If your client explains bad events using words The optimistic style of explaining bad events
like “always” and “never,” or as an ongoing trait, involves finding a temporary cause for the bad
then they are considered as having a perma- events. As you know, the optimistic style of ex-
nent, pessimistic style. Conversely, if your client plaining good events is just the opposite. Clients
explains bad events as temporary conditions— who believe that good events have permanent
using words like “sometimes” and “presently,” causes are more optimistic than clients who be-
or using qualifiers like “when I’m late,” “this lieve that good events are caused by temporary
year,” “lately,” etc.—then they are considered as conditions. Here are some examples:
having an optimistic style.
Temporary Permanent
Now look at the questions marked, “PMB” (pessimistic): (optimistic):
(stands for permanent bad): 5, 13, 20, 21, 29, “I got lucky in that race.” “I’m always lucky.”
“It was good conditions.” “I race well.”
33, 42, and 46. These questions measure how
“I’m energetic today.” “I’m an energetic
permanent your client thinks the causes of person.”
bad events are. The answers followed by a 0 are
optimistic, and the ones followed by a 1 are Optimistic clients will explain successes to
pessimistic. For example, if your client chose themselves in terms of permanent causes: traits,
“I always put off doing my taxes” instead of “I abilities, or by using words such as “always.”
was lazy about getting my taxes done this year,” Pessimistic clients believe just the opposite, i.e.,
then they chose a more permanent, and pessi- that successes are explained by temporary caus-
mistic, cause. Now go back to the scoring key, es: moods, conditions, effort, or by using words
and look at the total next to PMB. such as “sometimes.”
PMB Total Explanation Looking back at the test, you will notice that
0 or 1 he/she is very optimistic on this some of the questions involve about good events,
dimension like, “You are asked to head an important proj-
2 or 3 is a moderately optimistic score ect.” The questions followed by PMG (Permanent
4 is average
Good): 2, 10, 14, 15, 24, 26, 38, and 40, measure
5 or 6 is quite pessimistic
your client’s explanatory style for good events.
7 or 8 he/she is very, very pessimistic on this
dimension
The answers followed by 1 are the permanent,
optimistic answers, while the answers followed
The reason this dimension is so important is by 0 are the temporary, pessimistic answers.
that failure makes everyone at least momentari-
PMG Total Explanation
ly helpless. For some clients, the hurt goes away
7 or 8 he/she is very optimistic about the likeli-
almost instantly; these are the clients who score hood of good events continuing
a 0 or 1; which represents very optimistic in 6 is a moderately optimistic
this dimension. However, for other clients, the 4 or 5 is average
hurt does not go away quickly, it lasts, and these 3 is moderately pessimistic
are the clients who tend to score a 7 or 8 in this 0, 1, or 2 he/she is very pessimistic
dimension. They can remain helpless for days,
even after only small failures.
Clients who believe that good events have everything when a failure strikes in one area,
permanent causes try even harder after they while those who make specific explanations may
succeed, while clients who believe that good become helpless in that one part of their lives, yet
events have temporary causes, may give up remain strong in the other areas. Here are some
even when they succeed, believing that the examples of universal and specific explanations:
success was a fluke.
Universal Specific (optimistic):
(pessimistic):
Pervasiveness “Trainer’s never work for “That trainer didn’t work
me.” for me.”
While permanence is about whether events “I hate my body.” “I hate my thighs.”
have temporary or permanent causes and is de- “Supplements are “That supplement is
scriptive of time, pervasiveness is about whether useless.” useless.”
events affect only a small part of a person’s life Sally and Joe both had the same high score on
or color their entire life (i.e., it is about space). the permanence dimension of the test. They
For example, let’s say both “Sally” and “Joe” get both were pessimists in this respect. When they
laid off by the same accounting firm, and for were laid off, they both remained depressed for
a while both experience some depression and a long time. But they had the opposite scores
try to avoid doing anything that reminds them on the pervasiveness dimension. Joe believed
of accounting. Sally, however, remains a loving that being laid off would affect everything he
mother, devoted wife, and active in her social tried; he thought he was no good at anything.
life and exercise program. Joe, on the other Sally believed that bad events have very specific
hand, falls apart. He isolates himself from his causes. When she was laid off, she only thought
family and friends, becomes irritable, and stops she was no good at accounting.
his jogging program. He even refuses to go out
with his wife, claiming that he does not want to The permanence dimension determines how
risk seeing anybody from his old workplace. long a person gives up for. Permanent expla-
nations for bad events produce long-lasting
The difference here is that some people can put helplessness, while temporary explanations
their failures or troubles into a compartment, produce resilience.
where they will not affect the rest of their lives.
Whereas others can let their failures in one The pervasiveness dimension determines how
area affect their whole life. They make ca- much of a person’s life a failure can affect
tastrophes out of even small failures, and when them. Universal explanations for bad events
one thread of their life snaps, the whole fabric produce helplessness across many situations,
comes unraveled. while specific explanations for bad events pro-
duce helplessness in only the one bad area of
This difference is best described by the expla- the person’s life.
nations that people give for their failures: those
who make universal explanations give up on For example, the person who answers question
#18 (“You lose at a sporting event for which

84 | Unit 4
you have been training a long time.”), with A. 34, 35, 37, and 43, measure your client’s perva-
“I’m not very athletic,” has chosen a univer- siveness for good events. The responses followed
sal (pessimistic) explanation for their failure. by a 0 are pessimistic (specific) responses, while
On the other hand, a client who answers with the responses followed by a 1 are optimistic
response B. “I’m not good at that sport,” has (universal) responses. For example, the optimis-
chosen a specific (optimistic) explanation for tic response to question #6 (“You get a flower
their failure. from a secret admirer.”) is B. “I am a popular
person.” On the other hand, the pessimistic
Now look back at the test. The questions fol-
response to question #6 is A. “I am attractive to
lowed by “PVB” (Pervasiveness Bad): 8, 16, 17,
him/her.”
18, 22, 32, 44, and 48, measure your client’s
pervasiveness for bad events. The responses fol- PVG Total Explanation
lowed by a 0 are the optimistic responses, while 7 or 8 he/she is very optimistic
the responses followed by a 1 are the pessimistic 6 is a moderately optimistic
responses. 4 or 5 is average
3 is moderately pessimistic
PVB Total Explanation
0, 1, or 2 he/she is very pessimistic
0 or 1 he/she is very optimistic
2 or 3 is a moderately optimistic score
Personalization
4 is average
5 or 6 is quite pessimistic While permanence is about time, and perva-
7 or 8 he/she is very, very pessimistic siveness is about space, personalization is about
whether a person blames themselves for the mis-
While the optimist believes that bad events have
fortunes or failures in their life. When bad things
specific causes, they believe that good events
happen, a person has a choice: to either blame
have universal causes. In the dimension of
themselves (to internalize) or to blame external
pervasiveness, the optimistic explanatory style
circumstances (to externalize). When your client
for good events is opposite that for bad events.
blames themselves, low self-esteem is the conse-
Conversely, the pessimist believes that bad events
quence. As a result, they will likely feel worthless,
have universal causes, while good events have
untalented, and like a failure when bad events
specific causes. Here are some examples:
strike. On the other hand, the client who blames
Specific (pessimistic): Universal (optimistic): external circumstances will not take such a hit to
“I’m good at running.” “I’m a good athlete.” their self-esteem when bad events strike, and is
“I did well on that project “I’m a good employee.” better able to separate the cause of the bad events
at work.”
from themselves. That is not to say that those
“I just looked thin in that “I am a thin person.”
outfit.” who score high on the external dimension do not
take responsibility for their actions, they do, they
Now look back at the test, the questions fol- just don’t take the level of excessive responsibil-
lowed by PVG (Pervasiveness Good): 6, 7, 28, 31, ity that those with an internal attribution style
do. Let’s look at some examples of internal and optimistic style of explaining events is opposite
external attributions: the pessimistic style of explaining events (i.e.,
it is internal not external). People who believe
Internal (low External (high
self-esteem): self-esteem): that they are the cause of good events are often
“I’m not strong enough.” “The weight is too heavy more optimistic and positive than people who
for me.” believe that the cause of good events in their life
“I’m not good at running “The marathon course is other people or circumstances. Here are some
marathons.” was really tough.”
examples of external and internal attributions:
“I pissed off my “My husband was in a
husband.” bad mood.”
External (Pessimistic): Internal (Optimistic):
Now look back at the questions followed by PSB “My competitor had a “I ran a great race.”
bad day.”
(Personalization Bad): 3, 9, 19, 25, 30, 39, 41,
“My teammates are very “I played well.”
and 47. The responses followed by 1 are pessi- talented.”
mistic (internal or personal), and the responses
followed by 0 are optimistic (external). Now look at the questions labeled PSG (Person-
alization Good): 1, 4, 11, 12, 12, 23, 27, 36, and
PSB Total Explanation 45. The responses followed by a 0 are external
0 or 1 indicates very high self-esteem (pessimistic), while the responses followed by 1
2 or 3 indicates moderate high self-esteem are internal (optimistic).
4 is average
5 or 6 indicates moderately low self-esteem PSG Total Explanation
7 or 8 indicates very low self-esteem 7 or 8 he/she is very optimistic

6 is a moderately optimistic
Out of the three dimensions, personalization is 4 or 5 is average
the easiest to understand, and for that reason, 3 is moderately pessimistic
is often overrated. Personalization controls how 0, 1, or 2 he/she is very pessimistic
you feel about yourself, while permanence and
pervasiveness control what you do (i.e., how Hope
long you are helpless and across how many di-
mensions). Because personalization is the easi- Now that we have explored the three dimen-
est dimension to understand, it is also very easy sions of the explanatory style, let’s take a look
to fake. It is possible to immediately change the at the Hope Score (HOB). We know that people
way you talk about your troubles from internal who find temporary and specific causes for
to external. On the contrary, it is not possible their misfortunes are more optimistic than
to immediately change the way you talk about people who find permanent and universal caus-
your troubles from having permanent and uni- es for their misfortunes. But there is another
versal causes to having temporary and specific important difference: Optimists are also more
causes, without some practice. hopeful. Finding temporary and specific causes
for misfortune is the practice of hope. Tempo-
For the dimension of personalization, the rary causes limit helplessness in time, while

86 | Unit 4
specific causes limit helplessness to the original • Step 1: Add the three Bs (PMB, PVB, PSB).
situation. On the other hand, permanent causes This is the total B (bad events) score.
produce long-lasting helplessness, and univer- • Step 2: Add the three Gs (PMG, PVG, PSG).
sal causes produce helplessness that spreads This is the total G (good events) score.
across many aspects of a person’s life. Let’s • Step 3: Subtract total B from total G. This is
look at some examples of hopeless and hopeful the overall score.
statements:
• Step 4: Review the charts below to see what
Hopeless: Hopeful: the totals mean.
“I’m an idiot.” “I was really exhausted.”
Total B Score
“I’m not strong.” “I have not trained.”
3 to 6 very optimistic
“All men are pigs.” “My boyfriend was in a
6 to 9 moderately optimistic
bad mood.”
10 to 11 average
Because the hope score characterizes how well 12 to 14 moderately pessimistic
we contain our failures (limiting them to time above 14 very pessimistic
and space), it is possibly the single most import-
ant score from the test. Those who can contain Total G Score
failures are not overwhelmed by them and can 19 or above very optimistic about good events
17 to 19 moderately optimistic
find adaptive responses to them. On the other
14 to 16 average
hand, when failures bleed across many areas of
11 to 13 moderately pessimistic
our lives, and seem endless, we are held hostage
10 or less very pessimistic
by them. In fact, what research on the Opti-
mism Test has demonstrated consistently is Total G – Total B
that no single score is as important as the hope above 8 very optimistic across the board
score. To calculate the hope score, add the PMB
total to the PVB total. This is the hope score for 6 to 8 moderately optimistic
bad events. 3 to 5 average
1 to 2 moderately pessimistic
HOB Total Explanation
0 or less very pessimistic
0, 1, or 2 he/she is extraordinarily hopeful
Now that we have completed the scoring of the
3, 4, 5, or 6 is a moderately hopeful score
test, let’s take a look at how the results will your
7 or 8 is average
client. If your client scored poorly (scores in the
9, 10, or 11 is moderately hopeless
pessimistic range), there are several areas they
12 thru 16 he/she is severely hopeless
may have trouble with. First, they will likely
be heavily affected by any failures, but will not
Totals
receive much of a boost from successes. Second,
Now that we have explored all three dimensions they will probably achieve less than their talents
of the explanatory style, as well as the hope warrant. Third, as you will recall form the sec-
score, we can compute the totals. tion on thinking optimistically, their physical
health and immune function will likely reflect only makes the negative feelings associated with
their pessimistic explanatory style. Lastly, your the event last longer, but also paralyzes our re-
client’s life is probably not as pleasurable as it sources to respond adaptively. For pessimists, the
should be. A pessimistic explanatory style in life real problem is thinking in rigid, inflexible ways.
is generally a misery. Because pessimists categorize adversity in a
formulaic way, their responses also tend to follow
But let’s say your client’s pessimism score is in
a pattern—that is to be immobilized by adversity.
the average range. While they will not experi-
On the flip side of things, when positive things
ence difficulty under ordinary circumstances,
happen, pessimists also use pattern explanations
in times of crisis, they will struggle. When hard
that fail to identify the unique outcomes that
times hit, they may feel immobilized by them.
successes represent for them. Much in the same
Things like being rejected by a loved one, losing
way an optimist will quickly brush off a bad
a job, or financial trouble may lead to a loss of
event and carry forward with their sunny nature,
energy in many areas of their life, and it will be
a pessimist will quickly brush off a good event
challenging for them to respond adaptively. For
and continue seeing the glass as half empty. One
many people, this is a very common reaction, as
of the reasons for this is that pessimists have a
the majority of people fall into this range.
low tolerance for uncertainty. And using formu-
The optimistic client, on the other hand, will laic explanations is one way to ensure certainty.
view adversity as a growth opportunity, and What is difficult for a pessimist to see is that life
will understand negative events can and do does not always follow a pattern and there are
happen, but they do not last forever, and do not no predictable explanations for things. That is,
negate other positive areas of life. Further, it is sometimes things happen (like getting fired) that
through facing challenges in life that we come seem to have no explanation. Instead of accept-
to know our greatest strengths, and recognize ing the uncertainty, however, what pessimists
our deepest potential. frequently do is employ the same explanations
(which is to say that things like this always
Now that you understand how to measure
happen), even when they don’t necessarily fit the
optimism, and how the results of the Optimism
situation. For the pessimist, what matters more
Test can reveal the ways in which your client
than getting the explanations right (or at least
will respond to failures and success both in and
accepting alternative explanations) is avoiding
out of the training program, we look at some
uncertainty. That is, perhaps bad things don’t
specific ways in which you can improve attribu-
always happen, and they don’t need to affect your
tions to boost your client’s optimism.
entire life when they do.
Attribution Exercises to Boost In order to help the pessimist client then, you are
going to have to find ways to help them think
Optimism
in more flexible and less rigid ways. But perhaps
As you know, when it comes to bad events, more importantly, you are going to need to build
thinking in permanent and pervasive ways not their tolerance for uncertainty. It is here that

88 | Unit 4
you can play an instrumental role in shifting the more political interest from members, as partic-
way that your client responds to negative events. ipation, and even protest, is seen as a vehicle for
When you can help your client build a tolerance change (Hofstede, 1993).
for uncertainty, not only will you reduce their
In education, cultures that rely heavily on
rigid thinking and help them think in more
educators to have the answers display high
flexible and adaptive ways, but you will also
uncertainty avoidance compared to those where
help them uncover unique outcomes (where bad
children are encouraged to be open-minded.
things don’t always happen) or find alternative
High uncertainty avoidance in family life leads
explanations for them when they do. But most
to role rigidity and well-defined patriarchal and
importantly, you will help your client see that
maternal figures, while low uncertainty avoid-
there are other—more solution focused—re-
ance allows for greater flexibility in family and
sponses to adversity available to them.
gender roles.
Let’s begin with an exercise to build your cli-
On an individual level, people with a high
ent’s tolerance for uncertainty.
uncertainty avoidance often like clear and
predictable rules, tend to be formal in inter-
Uncertainty Brainstorm
actions, have a strict and rigid schedule, and
The tendency to tolerate uncertainty is univer- are resistant to change. These people prefer
sal to everyone. Yet some cultures, as a whole, a careful, circumspect approach, do not like
tolerate uncertainty better than others. This unpredictability, and tend to be more emotion-
tendency was first noticed by Geert Hofstede, al. Conversely, people with low uncertainty
author of Cultures and Organizations: Software avoidance abide by fewer rules, do not have a set
of the Mind. Hofstede uncovered that some cul- routine or structure, are more informal in their
tures prepare us to feel more comfortable with approach, and are more open to change. These
uncertainty than others. According to Hofst- people feel much more comfortable with fewer
ede, there are several factors that determine rules, a more changeable structure, and often
whether or not a culture has a high uncertainty appear more calm and collected.
avoidance. For example, cultures with a high
At this point, we should know that bad events
uncertainty avoidance tend to have more laws
usually bring uncertainty with them. Familiar
and regulations than those with a low uncer-
beliefs, values, and priorities often change in
tainty avoidance. Additionally, cultures with
drastic and unexpected ways. To help your cli-
high uncertainty avoidance tend to have more
ent become more comfortable with uncertainty,
oppressed members, and members display less
you should start by first assessing your client’s
interest or participation in politics than those
uncertainty avoidance. Begin by asking your
with a low uncertainty avoidance. Whereas
client to respond to the following eight state-
cultures with a high uncertainty avoidance tend
ments, giving themselves a rating from 0 to 10,
toward very strict and specific laws and rules,
with 0 meaning “not very much like me” and 10
those with low uncertainty avoidance have
meaning “very much like me”:
1. I prefer having the answers. What would you have done if you didn’t_?
2. I prefer a set structure. (Write the answer from the first question here.)
3. I tend to take a planned approach to life. Your client should answer this question, listing
4. I prefer formality in interactions.
as many possible options that come to their
mind. For example, if their original question
5. I tend to avoid change.
was, “What would you have done if you didn’t
6. I avoid unusual or unknown situations. get married?”, the answer could be anything
7. I prefer an orthodox approach as opposed to from travel, go to school, start a business, or
an unorthodox one. pursue a life passion. On the other hand, if the
question was, “What would you have done if you
8. I prefer set roles.
didn’t become wealthy?”, the answer might be
Then, tabulate your client’s answers. While volunteer, join the Peace Corps, live more simply,
your client’s score can be anywhere between 0 or live in a different location altogether. The goal
and 80, those with a score of 40 or less tend to here is for your client to list as many different
be low in uncertainty avoidance, while a score options as they can think of. Once they have
of 40 or more can be described as high uncer- written all the options down, have your client
tainty avoidance. Ideally, in order to learn how move on to the next part of the exercise.
to adapt, the score should be over 40, perhaps
Starting with the first option, instruct your
closer to 60 or 70. Certainly, there is no set
client to consider each one as completely as
perfect score. However, generally, very low
possible. Your client should take each one sepa-
scores do not permit change. And adapting to
rately and visualize what it would be like to e.g.,
the changing circumstances that bad events
start a business, travel, volunteer, live off the
typically bring will require that your client is
land, and so on. As your client does this, have
willing to try something different—and more
them write down their reactions to each op-
importantly, something unproven. To help your
tion, beginning with their initial thoughts and
client do this, now have them do an uncertainty
adding any thoughts that follow. For example,
brainstorm. Begin by instructing your client to
your client’s initial reaction to traveling may
first answer this question:
be that it would be costly, but as they think it
Describe a recent setback. What was one thing over, they might start to feel more excited about
you lost because of it? it and perhaps even start to look forward to
exploring where they might travel to. Whatever
The answer can be anything from a marriage,
your client’s reactions are, they should write
a child, a career, wealth, health, or a personal
them down. Then, instruct the client to go back
goal. Whatever the answer is, your client must
and together look over what they wrote down.
write it down. Next, have your client answer the
Do your client’s answers reflect a resistance to
following question:
change? Does your client tend to focus on what
is wrong with each option? Or perhaps on why

90 | Unit 4
things won’t work? If so, you should instruct And the more a pessimist adopts this way of
your client to reconsider each of their options, thinking, the less likely they are to see the times
and ask the following questions for each one: when things go well. Much in the same way that
doing a daily gratitude list primes the brain to
• What could be one benefit of doing this?
find the positive things around us, using pes-
• What could be one thing I learn from doing simistic attributions primes the brain to find
this?
pessimistic explanations—even when things are
• What is one positive thing that could happen going well. To overcome this then, we have to
unexpectedly? learn to find the unique outcomes. That is, the
• Is there something I could see myself enjoying times when the outcomes are positive.
about this?
To help your client begin to find unique out-
The goal of these questions is to begin to shift comes, begin by asking your client the follow-
your client’s attitude toward uncertainty. When ing questions:
your client can see that each option could have
1. Describe a time when you thought things
a hidden benefit, allow them to learn something
were going to go poorly, and instead they
new, or offer hidden enjoyment, they may also worked out well?
start to view uncertainty differently, as some-
2. Describe a time when something bad hap-
thing that leads to new discoveries—the discov-
pened, yet you learned a valuable lesson?
ery of valuable information about the self, what
makes them happy, and what could lead them 3. Describe a time when something positive
unexpectedly happened?
to the life they want. And more importantly,
your client can start to see uncertainty as an 4. Tell me about a time when you were pleas-
important part of adapting. antly surprised?
5. Tell me about a time when someone exceed-

In order to help your client adopt more op-
ed your expectations?
timistic explanations—and ones that lead to
better outcomes—you are also going to have 6. Describe a time when your expectations
to help them recognize unique outcomes (the about a situation were exceeded?
times when things do go well), and identify The goal of these questions is to help your client
alternative explanations (that are not rooted in see past their rigid thinking and patterned
rigid thinking). explanations, and begin to question the per-
manent ways they typically describe things.
Let’s take a look at how you can do this.
In identifying these unique outcomes, you
will also be helping your client become more
Finding Unique Outcomes
open to an optimistic explanatory style, and to
As you know, the pessimist sees things in taking an optimistic approach to events in their
predictable and rigid ways, which unfortunate- life. Ultimately, you will be helping your client
ly tends toward patterned gloomy outcsome. begin to shift their views of themselves, from
someone who is held hostage by adversity, to a defeatist sort of thinking. Because there is
someone who can find positive outcomes—even a comfort and predictability (remember that
when things don’t go well. pessimists do not have a high tolerance for
uncertainty) in their attributions, pessimists,
Shifting our attributions toward optimism de-
although they may desire for things to be differ-
pends first on being able to tolerate uncertainty
ent, may also be uncomfortable with the uncer-
enough to permeate inflexible thinking with
tainty it will bring. This, of course, complicates
positive outcomes, and then finding alternative
the process of finding alternative explanations.
explanations for both positive and negative
However, finding alternative attributions, just
events. We do not just have to be able to see
like learning to tolerate uncertainty, can be
that bad events do not always have permanent
improved with practice.
causes, or describe ourselves as optimistic peo-
ple, but need also to be able to see that positive To help your client find alternative explana-
events can be related to stable causes, such as tions, present them with the following list of
our character, our traits, habits and talents. statements, which describe negative events.
What this means for you client is not just a new
• You got fired from your job.
way of describing the events in their life, but a
new way of thinking about them. Here again, • You injured your knee running.
you can play a crucial role in helping your • Your car was stolen.
client see themselves differently—that is that
• Someone very close to you became ill.
they do not always need to be paralyzed when
bad things happen. Simply by opening your • Your missed your flight.
client’s eye to alternative explanations, you will Next, you are going to ask your client to write
be building their sense of hope—that there can down three to five possible explanations for
be another way of responding to events in their each negative event that each involve temporary
life, and another, more hopeful way of living. causes. Your client may list things like, “Some-
Let’s now take a look at how you can help your times bad things happen,” “My boss was in a
clients find alternative (and more adaptive) bad mood,” “I was late leaving the house,” or
attributions. “I neglected to strengthen my knee properly to
run.” While the explanations your client choos-
es to use for negative events can be anything
Finding Alternative Explanations
they like, the most important thing is that they
Because the pessimist is used to explaining stay away from listing permanent causes (e.g.,
things in a characteristic way, they often do using words like “always” and “never”) and
not see past these explanations. That is, they instead find explanations related to temporary
lack the very creative thinking that alternative (and fixable) conditions.
explanations depend on. Much of the prob-
Now, present your client with the following list
lem is due to the pessimist’s familiarity with
of statements, which describes positive events.

92 | Unit 4
• You got a promotion at work. For clients, knowing their strengths and how
• Your spouse (or significant other) surprised they can use them effectively is a very import-
you with a gift. ant part of changing behavior, as it is often
these very strengths that can utilized to over-
• You won a prize in a drawing.
come barriers in the process of change.
• You were able to run farther than your
thought possible. In order to help your client identify their
signature strengths, you are going to present
• You reached your fitness goals.
them with the Brief Strength Inventory (you
Again, you are going to ask your client to write may remember this from earlier). The test
down three to five explanations for each positive comprises 24 questions that can be answered
event that involves permanent causes. Your client on a rating from 0 (not very much like me) to
may list things like, “I am a hard worker,” “I put 5 (very much like me).
a lot of effort into the things I do,” or “I am a
lucky person.” Here, again, the words your client To administer this test, first instruct your
chooses to use are up to them, but what is most client to think about the way they have acted
important is that the attributions incorporate in the past month, and although many of the
stable traits, which are descriptive of your client’s questions ask about what most people find
character, as opposed to temporary conditions, desirable, instruct your client to answer them
or those that exist outside of themselves. in terms of how she actually behaved. (See
Strengths Inventory Form.)
Through building your client’s tolerance for
uncertainty, drawing their attention to unique Now that you have an idea of what your
outcomes, and encouraging them to find alterna- client’s signature strengths are, ask them the
tive explanations for events in their life, the goal following questions:
of these exercises is to help your client learn to • In what ways does your life reflect your signa-
think optimistically. And as you know, optimism ture strengths?
determines not just the words your client choos- • In what ways does it not?
es to explain the events in their life, but more
• Are there ways in which your signature
importantly, how they respond to those events.
strengths can be expressed more fully?
• Is there anything that holds you back from

Cultivating and Activating expressing your signature strengths?
Strengths to Propel Performance
• What steps would you need to take to bet-
As you know from the section on using ter express your signature strengths? Please
strengths to repurpose adversity, strengths can describe.
be a very strong defense against things that • Are there steps you can take immediately that
threaten to hold us back. When we know what would allow you to express your signature
our characteristic strengths are, we can also strengths?
harness them in them in a way that allows us to
feel connected, purposeful, and fulfilled.

issaonline.edu
Strengths Inventory
Client: Date:
Think of your everyday life. How frequently did
you show KINDNESS or GENEROSITY to others
Answer the following questions with the following when it was possible to do so?
responses:
Think of actual situations in which the motives
0 not applicable of other people needed to be understood and
1 never responded to. How frequently did you show
2 rarely SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE or SOCIAL SKILLS in these
3 somewhat like me situations?
4 occasionally Think of actual situations in which you were a
5 always member of a group that needed your help and
loyalty. How frequently did you show TEAMWORK
in these situations?
Think of actual situations in which you had the
Think of actual situations in which you had some
opportunity to do something that was novel or
power or influence over two or more other people.
innovative. How frequently did you show CREATIV-
How frequently did you show FAIRNESS in these
ITY or INGENUITY in these situations?
situations?
Think of actual situations in which you were a
opportunity to explore something new or to do
member of a group that needed direction. How
something different. How frequently did you show
frequently did you show LEADERSHIP in these
CURIOSITY or INTEREST in these situations?
situations?
Think of actual situations in which you had a
Think of actual situations in which you had been
complex and important decision to make. How
hurt by someone else. How frequently did you
frequently did you show CRITICAL THINKING,
show FORGIVENESS or MERCY in these situations?
OPEN-MINDEDNESS, or GOOD JUDGMENT in
these situations? Think of your everyday life. How frequently did
you show MODESTY or HUMILITY when it was
possible to do so?
opportunity to learn more about some topic, in or
out of school. How frequently did you show LOVE Think of actual situations in which you were tempt-
OF LEARNING in these situations? ed to do something that you might later regret.
How frequently did you show PRUDENCE, DISCRE-
TION, or CAUTION in these situations?
opportunity to offer advice to another person who
needed it. How frequently did you show PERSPEC- Think of actual situations in which you experi-
TIVE or WISDOM in these situations? enced wishes, desires, impulses, or emotions that
you wished to control. How frequently did you
Think of actual situations in which you experi-
show SELF-CONTROL or SELF-REGULATION in
enced fear or threat. How frequently did you show
these situations?
BRAVERY or COURAGE in these situations?
Think of actual situations in which you faced a
you show APPRECIATION OF BEAUTY AND EXCEL-
difficult and time-consuming task. How frequently
LENCE or AWE when it was possible to do so?
did you show PERSEVERANCE, PERSISTENCE, DILI-
GENCE, or INDUSTRIOUSNESS in these situations? Think of actual situations in which someone else
helped or benefited you. How frequently did you
Think of actual situations in which it was possible
show GRATITUDE or THANKFULNESS?
for you to present a false view of who you are or
what had happened. How frequently did you show Think of actual situations in which you experi-
HONESTY or AUTHENTICITY in these situations? enced failure or a setback. How frequently did you
show HOPE or OPTIMISM in these situations?
you show ZEST or ENTHUSIASM when it was possi- Think of your everyday life. How frequently did
ble to do so? you show PLAYFULNESS or HUMOR when it was
possible to do so?
you express your LOVE or ATTACHMENT to others Think of your everyday life. How frequently did
(friends, family members) when it was possible to you show RELIGIOUSNESS or SPIRITUALITY when it
do so? was possible to do so?

issaonline.edu
Strengths Inventory (continued)

Evaluate the following according to how they relate to Zest/Enthusiasm
you: Love/Attachment
0 not applicable Kindness/Generosity
1 not like me
Social Intelligence/Social Skills
2 a little like me
3 somewhat like me Teamwork
4 like me Fairness
5 very much like me
Leadership
Creativity/Ingenuity
Forgiveness/Mercy
Curiosity/Interest
Modesty/Humility
Critical Thinking/Open-Mindedness/Good
Prudence/Discretion/Caution
Judgment
Self-Control/Self-Regulation
Love Of Learning
Appreciation Of Beauty And Excellence
Perspective/Wisdom
Gratitude/Thankfulness
Bravery/Courage
Hope/Optimism
Perseverance/Persistence/Diligence/
Industriousness Playfulnesss/Humor
Honesty/Authenticity Religiousness/Spirituality
In answering these questions, it is helpful to So let’s take a look at some of the ways you can
remind your client that there are no right or raise your client’s gratitude levels—and boost
wrong answers, and that how they choose to ex- their positive emotions.
press their strengths is completely up to them.
The goal here is simply to help your client begin Do a Gratitude List
to become more familiar with their strengths
and then to think about ways in which they can To do a gratitude list, have your client write
be more fully expressed. down three new things they are grateful for
every day for twenty-one days. Your client can
list things like their child’s smile, their health,
Growing Positivity
nice weather, a compliment someone gave
As you know, positive emotions are one of the them, their ability to help someone in need, or
five components of PERMA, and are a very even simple things like having a roof over their
important part of creating a life of well-being. head and food on the table. There are no right
Generating positive emotions through activ- or wrong answers. What is important is simply
ities such as taking a walk, enjoying a sunset, that your client lists three new things every day,
or eating a tasty meal are what create a plea- and avoids repeating the same answers.
surable life, and one worth living. However,
Over time, what your client will find is not just
one criticism of fostering positive emotions
a greater variety of things to be grateful for, but
through pleasant experiences, such as those
that finding them becomes easier. Your client
described, is that the effect is short lived and
will become what Achor calls “more primed to
does not lead to lasting change. To be sure,
the positive,” and her brain will simply get better
while it feels good to take a hot bath, you not
at getting grateful. And gratitude, as we know, is
may remember those feelings the next day.
a powerful antidote in the face of setbacks.
But there is another way that we can create posi-
tive emotions and which seems to be much more Give Thanks
promising. Recent studies in positive psychology
have demonstrated that when performing tasks Another way to improve gratitude is to offer
designed to raise gratitude levels, people expe- thanks. When we offer thanks to those around
rience a significant boost in their mood, which us, like keeping gratitude lists, our brain be-
lasts well after they stop doing them (Achor, comes more primed to being positive as we
2010). In terms of where we allocate energy to search for reasons to thank people.
create more positive emotion, gratitude seems to To do this exercise, instruct your client to
be the better bet. Even further, performing acts write, verbally deliver, or in some measurable
of gratitude orients the brain to notice more pos- way, communicate thanks to three people a
itives, and pay less attention to negatives, which day. Your client can choose any three people
enhances the effect (Achor, 2010). they like, such as close family, extended family,

96 | Unit 4
coworkers, friends, or even strangers. Again, • www.humaxnetworks.com This site offers a

the people your client chooses, or what they suite of social networking tools for individu-
als and organizations. There are materials to
thank them for, is not important—it is the act of
run a “reciprocity ring,” where a community
thanking that matters. However, like a gratitude
of people—typically fifteen to thirty—come
list, they must choose three different people together, and as each person presents their
every day. Also ask your client to keep a list of request to group members, they make a con-
who they thank every day, and for what rea- tribution too, such as knowledge, resources,
sons, so as not to duplicate themselves. and connections, to fulfill each other’s needs.
• www.hopemob.org This initiative is called

As your client moves through this exercise,
“the place where generous strangers unite to
what they will find is not only that offering
bring immediate hope to people with press-
thanks becomes more natural, but that they ing needs all over the world.”
enjoy doing it. And finding joy in things is a
• www.thekindnessoffensive.com The Kindness
powerful way to cope with losses.
Offensive is a group of people who strive to
be aggressively helpful, organizing some of
Give Back the greatest acts of random kindness in his-
tory. They’ve provided a toy for every child in
Helping others not only connects us with our a hospital in London, given away a half a mil-
own capacities and skills, but it also deeply con- lion pancakes, distributed tons of giveaways
nects us to a sense of purpose, and a sense of at festivals around Britain, and provided free
gratitude. When we search for ways to be help- medical supplies and housing to support
ful, we also search our own skills and strengths families in need.
and look for unique ways to apply them in ways • www.good.is/post/the-good-30-day-chal-
that are impactful not just for others, but our- lenge-become-a-good-citizen Each day of the
selves as well. month, this site suggests a different way to
give.
In this exercise, instruct your client to perform
• www.kickstarter.com Known as the world’s
one act of service per week. Your client can
largest funding platform for creative projects,
choose the act themselves, but the following list Kickstarter hosts a variety of projects—every-
of resources may provide some ideas, or find thing from games, books, movies, art, music,
another resource entirely that suits your inter- plays, and services and products—that need
ests, such as a charity or volunteer organization. funding to launch. You can also watch the
progress of a project you fund, and see your
Here is the list of some giving resources: name listed as one of the project’s supporters.
• www.freecycle.org The freecycle community • www.kiva.org On Kiva, you can identify

is an online list of people with things to give, opportunities to make microloans of $25 or
and people with things they need. You can more to entrepreneurs in the developing
search the list as a way to connect with oth- world. Like Kickstarter, you can see and track
ers, and to see what they need, and what you the progress of the people you help.
can give away.
While it is up to your client to choose what act determines whether or not your client will
of service they perform every week, you should continue with the training program or not. But
instruct them to keep a weekly list to ensure flow can also play an even more powerful role
that a different act is performed every week. in your clients’ lives. While flow brings tremen-
dous enjoyment, it also offers a potent remedy
Giving is a natural remedy for boosting positive
for negative feelings. It is for this reason that cli-
emotions. Not only will your client find that
ents who have flow are consistently better able
giving improves their own sense of well-being,
to tolerate setbacks in and out of the training
but giving also creates positive feelings that are
program.
powerful and that have a long-lasting pur-
pose—crucial components of creating the life Let’s take a look at a few of the ways you can
they wants to lead. help your client find flow.
Identifying and Generating Take a Mental Detour

Engagement and Flow There are many reasons why we hesitate to try
As you may recall, the state of flow can be new things. We may fear failure. We may feel as
described as an experience where one’s percep- if we don’t really want to change our approach
tion of skills aligns with the challenges at hand, as we have already invested too much time
and where there is complete immersion in the in learning what we know. And we may have
activity, a loss of self-consciousness, a merg- simply become too attached to familiarity. Fa-
ing of action and awareness, and an autotelic miliarity, much like with attributions, can keep
experience is attained, i.e., the experience has us doing the same thing over and over again—
its own rewards. Because flow is highly linked even when it doesn’t bring the results we want.
to a self-transcendent experience and has deep Yet finding flow depends on being willing to try
historical roots, it also appears to be an integral something new without any guarantee of suc-
part of what contributes to a life of well-being. cess. In short, we are going to have to be willing
As you may also recall, flow has been linked to take a measured risk, or several, until we find
with numerous positive outcomes. However, what works. But we are also going to have to be
while we know the conditions that lead to flow open to new experiences, because they offer the
include, clear goals, immediate feedback, and a chance to discover something that we didn’t
perception that the abilities match the demands realize we enjoyed.
of the task, identifying what exactly leads to
To help your client do this, have them do what I
flow can be a bit more challenging. And like,
call taking a mental detour.
finding meaning, it’s a process of trial and error.
To begin, instruct your client to recall five hap-
However, for your clients, finding flow can
py memories from their childhood. These can
have tremendous benefits. For one, it can
be anything from family vacations, to summer
mean a shift in attitude toward an activity that
pastimes, hobbies, playing sports, or time spent

98 | Unit 4
with friends. Next, ask your client to elaborate even new things, and maybe to find something
on these memories with as much detail they they enjoys doing again.
can remember. Your client should write who
Finding flow can be a bit like taking a detour:
was there, what they were doing, and where it
we have to be willing to travel through unfamil-
was, describing each component of the memory
iar territory to arrive at a desired destination.
as completely as possible.
Yet detours also offer the chance for your client
When your client is finished, they should have to see things differently, to remember a road
written down five experiences that include some they might have traveled before, and perhaps to
sort of activity, in a specific place, with or with- rediscover something they love. Taking a men-
out others. For most people, these memories will tal detour, just like a physical one, encourages
usually involve some sort of shared experience your client to be open to changing course—and
that revolved around a mutually held goal. Com- a chance to find flow.
mon themes are things like organizing a party
with friends, playing on a sports team, building Become A Superhero
something with others, or taking a class. How-
ever, there are no right or wrong answers. The Because flow is uniquely connected to the
goal is simply for your client to recall five activ- complete direction of our awareness to the task
ities that they used to enjoy and that they found at hand, it is a state where we do not questions
themselves immersed in. ourselves. It is absent of self-doubt, criticism,
and judgment. For this reason, when in the
Next, instruct your client to try each of these state of flow, we almost feel like a superhero. We
activities again. For example, if one of your feel completely in control of our actions, have
client’s memories is playing on a softball team supreme confidence in our abilities, and are
as a kid, instruct your client to find an adult ready (and even excited) by the challenges we
softball league and go give it a try. Or if your face. Most people, if they dig deep enough, have
client recalls enjoyed building forts in the living a place where they feel this way.
room with a sibling or friend, instruct them
to build something again with somebody they To help your client find this place (and to find
enjoy spending time with. The experience may their flow), have them do an exercise that I call
not match exactly what your client described in “become a superhero.”
their memory recollection; however, the gen- To begin, ask your client the following
eral theme should be the same. Similarly, you questions:
should remind your client not to worry if they
• When do you feel most strong?
feel that their skills are not what they used to
be. The point is not for your client to measure • When are you least likely to question yourself?
their success at remembering how to do things • What makes you feel unstoppable?
from the past; the goal is to become comfort-
• What charges you up?
able with trying old things again or perhaps
• When do you feel most ready to take on a antidote to the feeling of isolation. Recent statis-
challenge? tics by the National Institutes of Health (NIH)
• What challenges do you feel uniquely pre- estimate that as many as 6 out of every 10
pared for? people feel isolated more often than not. What
• What skills set you apart from your peers?
is most surprising about this number is not
that it is more than half of the population, but
• What do you feel that you know better than
that this is despite access to others via mobile
almost anybody?
technology has made communication easier
Now ask your client to review all of their an- than ever. However, as Sherry Turkle, author of
swers and consider the following questions: Alone Together, states, “We used to reach for our
smartphone to express a feeling, now we reach
• If you could be any kind of superhero, per-
forming any kind of duty, what/who would for our smartphone to have a feeling” (Turkle,
you be? Describe the experience in detail. 2012). And isolation has been linked to a host
of problems, such as increased rates of addic-
• What steps can you take toward experiencing
something like this in your current life?
tion, all forms of disease, depression, and even
suicide (NIH, 2015).
• Is there anything that holds you back and if
so, how can you overcome it? Relationships matter. But how we go about
• What would be the benefits of doing some-
creating positive ones is another concern al-
thing that makes you feel like a superhero? together. Because as soon as we start isolating
ourselves, keeping relationships at a distance
• Take a minute to imagine how you would feel
feels normal. We simply get used to not really
being a superhero? Describe in detail.
connecting. And what we don’t realize is that
How your client answers these questions is when we don’t connect, we also don’t overcome
completely up to them, and you should remind the things that make connection difficult, i.e.,
them that there are no right or wrong answers. shame and fear. For most people, the feeling of
The goal of this exercise is simply to begin to shame—i.e., that we are bad, unworthy, or in-
identify what makes your client feel the most adequate in some way—is a powerful deterrent
strongly, and what distinct conditions may lead against connection. But there is another thing
to them finding a state of flow. that gets in the way. When we don’t connect,
we don’t develop trust in other, and instead
Positive Relationship Exercises cultivate suspicions, which then emerge in the
and Skills projections we hold about others. Much in the
same way that rigid thinking keeps us finding
Relationships are a critical component of how pessimistic explanations, avoiding connecting
we rate our happiness, the general sense of keeps us finding reasons to avoid it.
well-being we feel, and how well easily we can
rebound from adversity. But perhaps more im- To help your clients overcome this, and to
portantly, positive relationships are a powerful learn how to create deeper, more meaningful

100 | Unit 4
relationships, we are first going to start with the As your client answers each question, you
relationship your client with you. should be careful not to defend, or in any way
judge or criticize the client’s answers. As the
Let’s take a look at how you can do this.
goal of this exercise is for your client to become
more comfortable with connection in general
Letting Go of Projections and with the trainer–client relationship specif-
In relationships, there is often a lot left unsaid, ically, it is imperative that you respect and be
especially emotionally charged material. Yet accepting of your client’s answers. As the name
what is unsaid is often more important than of the exercise denotes, your client’s answers
what is said. Further, what is unsaid is often what are their projections that are often not spoken.
blocks connection. And we know that shame When your client can disclose distressing pro-
has a way of making us avoid disclosure—even jections and have them heard and accepted, not
though it is when we need it the most. just is connection enhanced, but the projections
themselves are eased. Letting go of projections
To help your client become more comfortable also paves the way for more open and honest
in speaking openly and to help develop connec- dialog between you and your client, which is
tion in the trainer—client relationship, present crucial for change to occur.
your client with an exercise I call, “letting go of
projections.” Facing fears inherent in disclosing projections,
or the type of emotionally charged material
To begin, first explain to your client that the that often results from shame, is how we learn
exercise is intended to help them feel more com- how to connect on a deeper level and can let us
fortable, and that any answers—even if your cli- develop the kind of relationships that allow us
ent thinks they are not OK—are acceptable. Then to transcend our challenges and create deeper,
present your client with the following questions: more meaningful lives.
• What is it like for you to come here and meet
Now let’s take a look at how your clients can cre-
with me?
ate more positive relationships in their own lives.
• Do you have any fears about coming here? If
so, describe them.
Relationship Litmus Test
• Do you have any fears about what I will think
of you? If so, describe them. For most people, feeling connected to those
around us matters deeply. Yet, as you know,
• Is there anything you’d like to say, but feel
people have many reasons they avoid connection.
afraid to?
But, you should also know that connection is
• Is there anything you feel you need to say? both vital and extremely challenging. In many
• Can you describe the thoughts that went ways, it is the ultimate paradox: we need others
through your head on your way here? to feel better, yet we are also incredibly afraid.
Part of learning to create positive relationships perception. Your client should also remem-
is about finding out just who will stand by us ber that there is no right or wrong way to feel.
when we need them, and letting go of those Next, have your client work their way down the
who won’t. In order to help your client under- second list, repeating the steps above with each
stand this, you are going to have them do what I person until they have identified the people
call a “Relationship Litmus Test.” they feel most connected to and most safe with.
Begin by asking your client to list all the As your client goes through this exercise, re-
people they know on one list, and on a second mind them to keep a few things in mind:
list, write down every person that they would
• Disclosing emotionally charged informa-
feel comfortable disclosing any difficult expe- tion is an exercise in trust, vulnerability, and
riences to. Your client may find that while the connection.
first list is quite long, the second one is pretty
• Not all relationships will survive adversity, and
short. Not surprisingly, most people have a
that is OK. Some people are more able to sit
large valence of relationships with only a few with difficult circumstances, charged emo-
people they feel very connected to. tions, and vulnerability than others.
Once your client has written the two lists, ask • Not all people will be able to understand your
them to select the person from the second list reality. You will find some people can relate to
how you feel better than others.
that they feel most comfortable with and get
them to ask that person to meet with them. • You only need a few people. The benefits
Instruct your client not to explain why they are that come from feeling heard, understood,
asking to meet, and make sure to schedule the and connected don’t come from disclosing to
everyone. It only takes a select few who can
meeting to last at least one hour. In the meet-
truly be there to help you through adversity.
ing, your client should disclose as much as they
are comfortable with about the details of what How your client goes about the process of de-
they are going through, how they feel, and what veloping trust in their relationships is complete-
it is like for them to talk about it. You should ly up to them, and certainly there is no right or
instruct your client to pay careful attention to wrong way. The goal of these exercises is simply
how they feel as well as their friend’s reaction. to draw their attention to some of the things
After your client finishes, they should ask them- that may hinder trusting relationships and then
selves a few questions: Did I feel heard? Did I to begin to overcome them.
feel accepted? Did I feel as if my friend made
an attempt to understand me? Did I feel judged Finding and Activating Meaning
in any way? Did I feel that I could ask for help
The pursuit of meaning, as you know from the
if I needed to? You should remind your client
early work of Maslow, Frankl, and Fromm, and
to keep in mind that what is most important is
the later work of Seligman, is an essential part
how they felt in the interaction—that is, their
of well-being. Yet, recent statistics from the

102 | Unit 4
Center for Disease Control estimate that 4 out we can go about crafting the life that reflect those
of 10 Americans have not discovered a satisfy- values. But we have to start with what matters.
ing life purpose. Much of the reason for this is
Clients often seek your help because they would
that we often confuse happiness with meaning.
like to change their lives. Understanding (and
And according to Frankl, “It is the very pursuit
often changing) values is at the root of chang-
of happiness that thwarts happiness” (Frankl,
ing their lives, and here, even adversity can
2006). Meaning is a much larger and more com-
offer a unique opportunity. When your clients
plex concept than happiness and is intrinsically
are faced with the realization that something in
connected to something larger than ourselves.
their lives has to change, the desire for change,
That is, in order to find meaning, we need to be
and for growth, is catalyzed. The next step is for
giving of ourselves (or our services) to something
you to take an unbiased appraisal of your cli-
beyond ourselves. Meaning is also strongest
ent’s values, and to determine what values will
when we feel as though our strengths and skills
now work under the changed circumstances. To
uniquely position us for the task at hand. But
do this, use what I call a “Values assessment.” A
part of the problem is, as much as we pursue
values assessment begins by asking your client
meaning, it doesn’t happen extemporaneously.
to make a list of all of the values they can think
Rather, it involves deliberate dedication of our
of, considering every area of their life, such as
strengths toward something that has deep im-
family, career, friendships, spirituality (or lack
portance for us. Which is a tall order for sure.
thereof), personal goals, hobbies, and things
The process of finding meaning, then, may be they are passionate about. Your client can list
one of trial and error. First, we have to deter- anything from honesty and integrity to connec-
mine what matters to us, i.e., what is deeply tion and trust. They could also list things such
important. We also have to know our values, as acclaim, success, and feeling significant and
priorities, and strengths. And then we simply appreciated. Once your client has created a list,
have to try things until they “feel” right. ask them the following questions:
In order to help your client find more meaning, • What values no longer seem important?
then, we are going to start with two exercises • What values now seem more important?
to identify their values and priorities, and then
one to help direct these priorities toward some- Once your client has answered these questions,
thing larger than themselves. it’s up to them as to how to proceed. The most
important thing is that your client now has a
clearer sense of what they value.
Assessing Values
Changing your life and constructing one that Realigning Priorities
better fits you depends on first knowing your
values. When we know what is important to us, Like values, priorities are at the heart of
change. How we understand our priorities often
regulates how we conduct our lives and the Take the Volunteer Test
importance we give to activities in our life. And
Volunteering, because there is no compensation,
change is often inspired by conflict between
is a wonderful way to consider what really mat-
what we would like to happen (the ideal) and
ters. When we remove money from the equation,
what we actually do (the reality). This conflict
we can begin to think differently about what
reflects a crucial misunderstanding of our
we’d like to do with our time, what our unique
values. Often, we find that we are not living in
talents and strengths are, and how we can use
accordance with what is really important to us.
them to help others. Volunteering also orients us
In the case of your clients, identifying priorities toward helping others, and re-connects us with
can be a very powerful motivator for change the joy of giving back (or paying forward). But
because it highlights a disconnect, which can more importantly, volunteering, because it in-
then materialize often in undesirable ways. Pri- volves acting beyond our own interests, is a very
orities, aligned with behavior, are the recipe for powerful way to find meaning.
change. However, your client must first become
For clients, having a sense of meaning can be a
aware of what their current priorities are, and
powerful inducer of change. As you will re-
then re-align them to reflect their current reali-
call from Frankl, meaning can help us endure
ty. To do this, do what I call a “Priorities Rank-
tremendous hardship. Because changing lives is
ing.” Get your client to start by listing the most
not easy, finding a deeper reason to create a bet-
important thing in their life, and put a number
ter life can be a tremendous resource for clients.
one next to it. Then, ask them to write down the
When they can connect why they are enduring
second most important thing and put a number
the challenges inherent in the process of chang-
two next to it. Your client will continue with
ing their life, their challenges are transformed
this list until they have listed ten items. Then,
to meaningful endeavors.
ask your client the following questions:
• Have any priorities become more important To help your client begin to find meaning, have
now? them take the volunteer test.
• Have any priorities become less important Begin by asking your client to consider the fol-
now? lowing question:
Once your client has the answers, ask them to If money were not a factor, and I could volunteer
recreate the list, ranking the priorities as they my time anywhere I choose, what would I do?
now apply. Here again, where your client goes
from here is up to them. What is important is Next, tell your client to write down the first three
that they have a clear idea of what their priori- things that come to their mind. They may list
ties now are. things like “help at the animal shelter,” “vol-
unteer at an elementary school,” or “help at a
homeless shelter.” There are no right or wrong
answers. The goal is simply for your client to

104 | Unit 4
consider what they enjoy doing, regardless of lends itself to an external standard. What one
the extrinsic payment attached to it. It is what person may consider an achievement, may
they would like to do just because they feel good have no importance to another. But what this
doing it, not for any other reason. The answers also means is that in terms our experiencing
to this question are typically autotelic in na- a sense of achievement, what matters most is
ture, meaning that they are rewarding in and of our own perception of our triumphs. This also
themselves. For this reason, autotelic activities do holds tremendous promise, because what this
not require external motivating factors, such as means is that achievement can come in any
fame, power, or wealth. For example, your client size and any form. And often, the road to large
may find that they enjoy rescuing dogs because achievements is paved by smaller, more seem-
it feels rewarding to them. Similarly, they may ingly insignificant ones.
find themselves helping out at their child’s school
For clients, using smaller achievements to create
because, again, it feels rewarding to them.
larger ones is a framework with which to not
What autotelic activities—things that do not only feel a greater sense of achievement, but also
offer external rewards—do for your client is ease to understand the process of change. By start-
their natural resistance to trying something dif- ing with more manageable accomplishments,
ferent. Because the rewards for volunteering are your client can build a sense of confidence in
internal, and the service your client offers is free their skills along the way, and also ignite their
of charge, the evaluation of progress is measured desire to take on larger tasks. Over time, these
in terms of how your client feels. By asking your small quantitative gains add up to a much larg-
client questions like, “Did you enjoy doing this?” er, and more profound qualitative change.
“Did you feel good when I did it?” external evalu-
Let’s take at a few ways you can help your client
ations, like money and status, become secondary.
experience a greater sense of achievement.
More importantly, you will be helping your client
uncover what is truly meaningful for them.
Chunking
Using Small Changes to Create Chunking involves breaking large complex

Large Achievements tasks into smaller more manageable ones. For
example, if you want to run ten miles, yet it
For most people, finding a sense of achieve-
seems overwhelming, you can break the run
ment can feel like a vast and often complex
into five smaller runs—each of two miles in
endeavor. Much of the reason for this is due
length. As you begin your run, you will only
to the fact that achievement is often linked to
focus on the first two miles, and once you get to
accomplishing something large and admirable.
that point, allow yourself to focus on the next
However, as you can imagine, this construc-
two miles, and so on. By breaking the run into
tion of achievement also acts as a barrier. The
smaller parts, and confining your focus to only
reality is that what is considered admirable
the part you are doing at the moment, the larger
is entirely subjective, and not something that
run seems much less overwhelming.
For clients, chunking is a crucial skill because understands the process of making seemingly
often the entirety of their goals seems almost unmanageable things more manageable, and
impossible (e.g., consider losing 100 pounds). along the way, uncovers a powerful way to feel a
However, by teaching your clients to break greater sense of achievement in their life.
things into smaller pieces, you help them find
a way around the fear and anxiety associated Recreating the Story
with their larger goals. But more importantly,
you help them begin to experience a sense of In many ways people are not only held back
achievement early on in the training program, by the thought that the goals may be almost
which not only enhances motivation, it also too large to be accomplished, but they can also
enhances their well-being. often be interrupted by setbacks. When life
events get in the way, one of the first things that
To begin, first ask your client to write down the falls to the wayside is forward-focused achieve-
following list of goals: ment. Instead of thinking about what makes us
• One-year goal.
feel accomplished, adversity fixates our focus
on simply surviving. For many people, getting
• Six-month goal.
back on track (toward achieving again) can be
• Three-month goal. extremely challenging. Opportunities that are
• One-month goal.
missed are not easily recreated.
• Two-week goal. Yet for your client, the process of recreating

a life story is an opportunity. The story can
• One-week goal.
be constructed in such a way that orients
• Daily goal. your client toward their goals, harnesses their
Once your client has a list of goals, ask them to strengths, and utilizes their unique skills. It
break each one into smaller separate parts, start- can also be an opportunity for your client to
ing with their daily goal. (And remember to ask recapture past dreams and hopes, try new
them to write these down). For example, if their approaches, and see things from multiple per-
daily goal is to exercise for one hour per day, they spectives: all crucial components of changing
could break this goal into twenty minutes in the behavior. What your client may also discover
morning (perhaps with abdominal exercises or is unique opportunities that they might have
walking), a twenty minute walk on their lunch otherwise overlooked.
break, and a twenty minute strength session in
To do this, have your client do what I call a
the evening. If their weekly goal is to walk ten
“setback storyline.”
miles, again, they could break this up into two
miles per day for five days, or one mile every Begin by asking your client to write down the
morning and two and a half miles each weekend events of any setback that have occurred in their
day. How your client chunks their goals is com- life, all in just one sentence. For example, they
pletely up to them, as there is no right or wrong might say, “Man fell in love, got married, had
way. What is important is simply that your client two children, and his wife left him,” or “Woman

106 | Unit 4
lived her whole life wanting to be a gymnast, wrong answers. If your client gets stuck, they can
only to break her leg in practice.” Encourage also ask you, or a trusted friend, to help come
your client to be as concise as possible, incorpo- up with story completions. The goal is to be able
rating all the relevant details into one summariz- to look at the situation in many different ways,
ing sentence. Once your client has their sentence, i.e., from multiple perspectives. What your client
instruct them to add one more. In this next will find through this exercise is not just that a
sentence, your client is going to complete the story can be told in many different ways, but that
story any way they like. For example, if the first any situation, even a very challenging or heart-
sentence is, “Man fell in love, got married, had breaking one, can be considered from multiple
two children, and his wife left him,” the second perspectives. When it is, it can also be completed
sentence could read, “Man went traveling with a it many different ways. And when your client can
friend, fell in love with hiking, and started an ad- focus on how they complete the story—as op-
venture company.” Your client is going to do this posed to the frustrating setback itself—they will
five times until they have five different stories. be more oriented toward using their strengths
and skills toward solutions that provide a sense
When your client is done, they should have five
of achievement. Not only does recreating the
alternative perspectives on the same setback.
story help your client overcome barriers, but it is
Again, what your client writes, and how the story
also a powerful way to open the door toward a
is completed, is up to them. There are no right or
greater sense of achievement.
Summary
The positive psychology model seeks to move catalyzes psychological growth in five domains:
people beyond simply alleviating distress, and appreciation for life, personal strength, openness,
toward recognizing their best self. Through relationships, and spirituality.
learning to think optimistically—to see bad
When personal trainers utilize positive psycholo-
events as impermanent, impersonal, and not per-
gy skills not only do they help clients think more
vasive, and good events as long lasting, personal
optimistically, but ultimately can help clients
and pervasive—and use strengths to repurpose
develop a strategy to move beyond distress,
adversity, clients can develop a psychology that
overcome obstacles, and become the best version
helps them overcome obstacles, reach their
of themselves. Through first assessing their level
goals, and recognize their best qualities. Positive
of optimism, then using targeted exercises to
psychology is now recognized as “flourishing,”
teach them to think more optimistically, trainers
which includes the cultivation of positive emo-
can help clients learn to interpret events in their
tions, engagement, positive relationships, mean-
lives in ways that propel them forward and make
ing, and achievement. Further, the concept of
use of their strengths and even use adversity as a
post-traumatic growth contends that adversity
launching pad for psychological growth.
UNIT 5
Commitment Strategies
108 | Unit 5
Unit Outline
1. Commitment Strategies b. A Calorie is Not a Calorie: The Hidden

a. Theoretical Orientation of Commitment Harmful Effects of Sugar
Devices c. Taking Control of Self-Control
b. Section One: Limited Resources, Fading d. PowerPoint: Three Exercises to Con-
Benefits, and Tempting Options nect Your Present Actions with Future
c. Section Two: Plan Now, Impulse Later: Outcomes
Why Our Two Selves Don’t Agree e. Section One: That Sneaky Implicit Bias and
d. Section Three: When All is Calm, Decisions How To Fix It
Are Easy: Hot States How They Get In the f. Section Two: The Ten Percent Rule: Making
Way Incentives Work for You
e. Section Four: Uncertain Futures, Perfor- g. Section Three: Commitments, Penalties,
mance Focus, and Declining Interest and Tying Yourself to the Mast
2. Part Two: To Win the Game, You Have to Know h. Section Four: What are the Rules Again?
the Rules Why We Need Referees
a. The Procrastination Problem i. Section Five: Maintenance Strategies
3. Summary
Commitment Strategies
Weight loss—and in many ways the behavior change that facilitates
it—is a game we keep playing the same way, even when we are not
winning. We continue to diet, purchase gym memberships, go on
crash diets, and buy weight loss supplements. In fact, the weight loss
industry has outgrown inflation rates, all the while remaining unaf-
fected by economic downturns. By all accounts, weight loss matters
to us—an awful lot. Yet what we fail to consider is that when it comes
to weight loss, there is a lot more that we don’t know than we do. For
example, while we may know that eating less donuts will help us lose
weight, we fail to consider that thinking about eating less donuts now
is not the same as actually turning down the donut your coworker
offers you next Friday. Just what influences those decisions and why
we may not always make the choices we intend to make—even when
Commitment device: an
we know they are good for us—is what this section is all about.
arrangement that a person
enters into with themselves
to make certain choices more Theoretical Orientation of Commitment Devices
expensive than others and
thus unfavorable. A commitment device is an arrangement that a person enters into
Commitment Strategies | 109
with themselves to make certain choices more course, we explore the three main theories that
expensive than others. The idea behind the the- characterize lack of self-control.
ory is that people consistently experience prob-
lems with self-control in a number of areas. For Section One: Limited Resources,
example, recent rates of New Year’s resolutions
Fading Benefits, and Tempting
indicated that while 52% of people are confident
of success, only 12% report success in keeping Options
New Year’s resolutions. Another example is The number one resolution of 2016 (like in
weight loss. In a Gallup poll from 2008, 56% of many years) was to lose weight. Yet losing
Americans said they would like to lose weight, weight, for most of us, is like playing the lottery:
while only 30% were seriously trying. Even the odds are not very good. In fact, it’s estimat-
more tellingly, 59% of those interviewed in 2001 ed that only 8 percent of those who make New
said they were trying to lose weight, implying Year’s resolutions actually keep them.
that at least 15% were still trying seven years
It’s not so much that we can’t lose weight, it’s
later. The question that commitment strategies
that, like keeping a resolution, we can’t keep it
asks is why do people set goals and then fail to
off. For this reason, the United States Dieters
keep them? While this question has obvious
Registry determines the difference between
universal relevance, perhaps the greatest impact
weight that is lost unsuccessfully—meaning
of these failed commitments is in the area of
it is lost and regained—and that which is lost
weight loss. It is here that failing to keep one’s
successfully as a three year deal. If we can keep
goals can have serious health consequences.
at least thirty pounds off for three years, we can
In looking at how best to address the disparity consider ourselves successful. If not, we have
between the goals people set and the actions some interest to pay.
they take to follow them, commitment devices
Studies show that the majority of dieters will
offers something very promising: An agree-
actually gain back more than they originally lost
ment one makes with oneself to fulfill a plan
(Robinson et al., 2015). Yet for those who work
for future behavior that would otherwise be
with dieters this isn’t surprising. The problem,
difficult due to an interpersonal conflict, such
as Diane Robinson, Ph.D., a neuropsychologist
as lack of self-control. The idea is that through
and Program Director of Integrative Medicine at
making the choices that contradict one’s per-
Orlando Health, notes, is that “most people focus
sonal goals more “costly” (cost can be mea-
almost entirely on the physical aspects of weight
sured financially, known as “hard costs.” or
loss, like diet and exercise. But there is an emo-
psychologically and socially, known as “soft”
tional component to food that the vast majority
costs), one will be less likely to make them,
of people simply overlook and it can quickly
and thus more likely to make choices that are
sabotage their efforts” (Robinson, 2015).
in accordance with set goals. While there are
numerous reasons we make choices that don’t What we ignore is that while weight loss is
coincide with our goals, for the purpose of this

110 | Unit 5
regulated by what we eat, those choices are food appropriately. A recent national survey of
in fact regulated by something much larger, more than a thousand people commissioned
and more powerful. Consider the emotion- by Orlando Health found that only 1 in 10
al attachment we have to certain foods for thought psychological well-being was a factor
example. From the time we are young, we in weight loss (Robinson et al., 2015). Also,
are conditioned to have preferences for cer- 31 percent of Americans think that a lack of
tain foods, partly led by food marketing to exercise is the biggest barrier to weight loss. It
children, which has dramatically increased is this clear that if there is anything we over-
in recent years. In response to this dramatic estimate, it is our ability to make the kinds of
increase, in 2008 Congress called for a Federal choices that lead to weight loss.
Trade Commission review of marketing food
However, overlooking what might be the very
to children and adolescents. In that report,
large elephant in the room is not entirely sur-
experts found not only that the total dollars
prising given that we have a natural tendency
spent on food marketing to children 0–12 and
to mispredict many things about ourselves. As
adolescents was well over the previous year’s
Dan Gilbert, author of Stumbling On Happiness,
figure of 1.6 billion, but that more than half of
convincingly demonstrated, we don’t even seem
all television advertising dollars were direct-
to be able to predict the choices that will lead to
ed toward children. Ranking second only to
happiness (Gilbert, 2007).
television advertising was money spent on toys
included in kids’ foods (which also includes But this also may explain why so many of us
restaurant foods), which came in at a whop- struggle. As Robinson explains, “In order to
ping $427 million. And even more surprising, lose weight and keep it off long term, we need
if you added the dollars that restaurants spend to do more than just think about what we eat,
on child-directed marketing to the toys they we also need to understand why we’re eating”
include with the child’s meals, that figure (Robinson, 2015).
jumps to $520 million—more than twice the
amount of child-directed marketing in any Yet for those who work in weight loss, the role
other category. As Robinson explains, “If we’re of emotions in regulating weight is a common
aware of it or not, we are conditioned to use thread. A recent survey, conducted by the Con-
food not only for nourishment, but for com- sumer Reports National Research Center, asked
fort. That’s not a bad thing, necessarily, as long more than 1,300 licensed psychologists how
as we acknowledge it and deal with it appro- they dealt with clients’ weight and weight loss
priately” (Robinson et al., 2015). challenges. The one strategy psychologists con-
sistently cited was understanding and manag-
Dealing with it appropriately might be the ing the clients’ behaviors and emotions related
operative term, because even a cursory look to weight management. This was seconded
at weight loss statistics in this country would only by “emotional eating.” Even more telling,
have us believe that we are doing anything however, was that ninety-two percent of the 306
but dealing with our emotional connection to respondents who provide weight loss treatment
reported helping a client address underlying Fancy a freshly baked cookie?; Feel like a choco-
emotional issues related to weight gain. late cake?; and Feel like a freshly baked cookie?
Look for these in a store near you.
The problem, however, is a bit bigger. We don’t
just underestimate the affect emotions have on Not surprisingly, imagining the smell along
just what and how much we eat, we also fail to with the visual image of a chocolate cake made
account for the way food affects our senses and people want chocolate cake. What is surprising,
our emotions. however, is that smelling the chocolate cake
didn’t just increase participants’ desire for it, it
Researchers at The John B. Pierce Laboratory
actually made them eat more: as much as 5.3
and the Yale School of Medicine revealed that
grams more (Krishna et al., 2013).
the ability to vividly imagine the smell of pop-
corn, freshly baked cookies, and even non-food And when it comes to weight loss, if it is emo-
odors is greater in obese adults. Their research tions running the show, the answer as to why
was published in the journal Appetite in August some of us are more affected than others may
2015 and was presented at the Annual Meeting just have to do with what regulates emotions.
of the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behav- In a recent study, researchers from Brigham
ior (SSIB), the foremost society for research into Young University asked three groups of teen-
all aspects of eating and drinking behavior. agers to fast for four hours before viewing
images of healthy and unhealthy foods during
According to Kavanagh’s Elaborated Intrusion
a brain scan. One group comprised overweight
Theory of Desire, vivid mental imagery is a key
teens. A second group was comprised of for-
factor in stimulating and maintaining food
merly overweight teens who had lost weight
cravings, which can be induced by the thought,
and kept it off for at least a year. The third
smell and sight of food.
group comprised teens who had historically
But it might not be just that obese people smell maintained a healthy weight.
more vividly than their non-obese counter-
As the teens looked at the food pictures, neu-
parts, but also that vividly smelling more makes
roscientists measured activity in the prefrontal
it that much harder to avoid the foods they
cortex of each teen. A prefrontal cortex that lit
are smelling. And not surprisingly, marketers
up indicated executive function action, which
now have a term for this: “smellizing.” Smell-
is the ability to process and prioritize compet-
izing quite deceptively prompts consumers to
ing interests. Essentially, a teen showing this
imagine the smell of a product, unconsciously
was trying to override their impulse to eat the
nudging them to buy and consume more.
unhealthy food.
Professor of Marketing Maureen Morrin of
When high-calorific foods were shown, it was
Temple University’s Fox School of Business and
the group of formerly overweight teenagers that
colleagues presented study participants with
relied most on the executive function processes
print advertisements with questions such as:
more than the other groups (Jensen & Kerwan,

112 | Unit 5
2015). For anyone who has ever tried to lose a few But here is where the joke becomes almost
pounds, this shouldn’t be surprising. Once we cruel. The one thing that the willpower need-
get used to eating chocolate donuts, we have to ed to overcome the impulse to eat tempting
work that much harder to learn to avoid them. foods relies on most predominantly is also the
one thing that dieters typically crave the most
For dieters, however, this is only one part of a
intensely: sugar.
very confusing puzzle. When we have weight to
lose, not just do we overlook the emotions that The researchers continued, “Controlled, effortful
drive weight gain, we also fail to consider that processes that rely on executive function, how-
the very foods we shouldn’t eat smell better, and ever, are unlike most other cognitive processes
when we smell them, the impulse to eat them in that they seem highly susceptible to normal
becomes that much stronger. Then, we have fluctuations in glucose” (Baumeister, 1998).
to put our executive functions on overdrive
And these normal fluctuations in glucose lead
to avoid eating what we know we shouldn’t.
to major fluctuations in self-control, especially
And executive functions are not an unlimited
when we are tired. In one study, low glucose led
resource: at some point they wear out.
to poor performance on a driving simulation
task, but only toward the end of the task when
Use and Lose It: The Problem of
participants were fatigued (Benton, et al., 1994).
Limited Resources
In fact, blood glucose seems to be so closely
The limited resource theory of executive func- associated with self-control that several studies
tions, and willpower in particular, was noted in have linked criminal behavior to impairments
a 2007 article published in the Journal of Per- in the processing of glucose (Bolton, 1979; Virk-
sonality and Social Psychology, kunen & Huttunen, 1982). Low blood glucose
has also been associated with increased aggres-
“Self-control seems to rely on a limited energy sion and impulsivity (Donahoe & Benton, 1999;
or strength, such that engaging in a single act Lustman, Frank & McGill, 1991), and poor con-
of self-control impairs subsequent attempts at centration and emotional regulation (Benton &
self-control; as if some sort of energy has been Owens, 1993; Benton et al., 1994).
used up during the initial act” (Baumeister,
Gailliot, DeWall & Oaten, in press Muravan & If you have ever had one too many cocktails
Baumeister, 2000). and said something you shouldn’t have, this in-
formation shouldn’t surprise you as alcohol also
These same researchers pointed to a 1998 study, lowers blood glucose. The problem for dieters,
where after resisting the temptation to eat fresh- however, is that to be successful, you have to be
ly baked cookies, participants quit sooner on a able to override impulses. But perhaps a much
subsequent task requiring effortful persistence, larger problem is that almost all diets work on a
compared with participants who did not have principle of keeping blood sugar low.
to resist eating the cookies (Baumeister, Brat-
slavsky, Muraven & Tice, 1998). But there might also be another reason we
have trouble overcoming those impulses. Resisting urges in the fu-

ture always sounds better then resisting them when we really need
to, i.e., in the present.
What Sounds Good Now Might Not Later: What

Hyperbolic Discounting Can Tell Us About the
Way We Make Decisions
When Dan Ariely, author of Predictably Irrational: The Hidden
Forces That Shape Our Decisions, set out to study decision-making,
he might have been asking a question that most of us have probably
asked ourselves before: Why is it easier to make a decision to do
something in the future than to make a decision to do that same
thing in the present? As Ariely, a Duke University professor of Psy-
chology and Behavioral Economics, remarked in his 2008 Ted Talk,
“We are wonderful people in the morning” (Ariely, 2008).
What Ariely was referring to is something that behavioral econo-

mists know as the “runner’s dilemma.” In the runner’s dilemma,
a runner, let’s say Haley, wants to run the whole time during her
ten mile training session. When planning her run—what we will
call time zero here—Haley sees the benefits of running the entire
ten miles as much greater than the costs. When Haley begins her
run, the benefits still outweigh the costs. Yet as the miles add up,
and Haley becomes more fatigued, the benefits are “discounted”
relative to the costs. At some point, the equation will shift, and
walking (or stopping the run altogether) will sound a lot better
than pounding out the miles to the finish.
The runner’s dilemma is a classic example of what behavioral econ-

omists call “hyperbolic discounting.” Hyperbolic discounting tells Hyperbolic discounting:
us that while in the present the benefits of a decision (such as going a phenomenon where, in
the present, the benefits of
jogging in the morning) outweigh the costs, but over time, the ben- a decision (such as going
efits decrease and the costs increase, until the decision is no longer jogging in the morning)
outweigh the costs, yet, over
favorable to us. time, the benefits decrease
and the costs increase, until
If you have ever put your running shoes by the door in the evening, the decision is no longer
only to in the morning roll over in bed, hit the snooze button, and favorable to us.
decide that you will start that running program tomorrow instead,
then you have been a victim of hyperbolic discounting. The run

114 | Unit 5
you wanted to take simply sounded much better when it was in the
future, but in the present, not so much.
But it’s not just running (or any form of form of exercise) that causes
benefits to decrease over time. Saving money, for example, sounds
like a very good idea—until we are tempted by something we would
like to purchase. Being more productive also bears a promising
glow—until the early mornings, long hours, and late nights add up
and suddenly, when compared to relaxing in front of the television
with a bag of chips, it doesn’t seem quite so glamorous.
However, the most classic example of hyperbolic discounting—and

possibly the most troubling—is weight loss. When thinking about
losing weight, we all agree that it sounds like a great idea. Yet when
it comes down to putting in the long hours at the gym, going to bed
early, giving up that nightly cocktail, and avoiding tempting foods,
losing weight suddenly becomes a dreaded chore.
Yet it might not just be that losing weight loses its allure over time, it
might also be that the cost of avoiding all of those tempting options
is simply too much to bear.
When More is Not Better: The Problem With

Temptation Costs
While we have all resisted the urge to eat a donut or drink a glass
of wine when we know we shouldn’t, what we often fail to consid-
er is just what that choice costs us. The costs of avoiding tempta-
Temptation costs: tions—known as temptation costs—mean that for every donut we
psychological cost of
don’t eat, there is a price we pay. both in declining willpower, and
avoiding temptations, and
explaining that in order to in the feeling that we’ve missed out. And, as you might have already
make the desirable choice, guessed, the more donuts, cookies, and cakes in front of us at once,
the benefit must exceed the
sum of all the other available the greater those temptation costs.
choices.
The concept of increasing temptation costs relative to the amount
of choices we have is explained by what is known as the “choice set
theory.” While hyperbolic discounting looks at the cost benefit ratio
of making choices over time, (longitudinally) the choice set theory
explores the cost benefit ratio of making choices across a breadth of
options (vertically). Essentially, the choice set theory states that the
choices we make are a function of the benefit to eat, our limited amount of willpower, our
(utility) of those choices relative to the temp- tendency to discount the benefits of making
tation cost of the other options. When faced choices that are good for us, or the temptation
with making choices, such as eating vegetables costs of avoiding everything else we’d rather be
or ordering a burger and fries, there is always eating, there is always a big difference between
a benefit that we assign to each choice. For ex- planning for weight loss—anyone who has ever
ample, eating fish is a healthy choice. However, made a resolution knows how easy it is to jot it
of course, there are other choices we can make. down—and actually following through on the
If steak, which for the purpose of this example, actions that actually lead to weight loss—we
we will call an unhealthy choice, were on the also know just how hard it is to keep those res-
menu, we might be tempted to order it. In the olutions. But the difficulty we have in following
choice set theory, making the healthy decision through on our best intentions, as you will see
to choose the fish involves evaluating the ben- in the next section, might also be explained by
efits associated with eating fish against missing the fact that when it comes to planning and act-
out on the temptation to eat the steak. And the ing, it seems there is more than one self at work.
more tempting options we have to choose from,
the more that the “healthy” choice loses its
value. When it’s not just steak on the menu, but 1. When it comes to weight loss, we consistent-
also chili cheese fries, pizza, and onion rings, ly overlook the role of emotions.
suddenly it’s so much harder to choose the fish 2. Chronic attempts to lose weight often lead
and salad we had intended to order. When it to an increased response to desirable foods—
comes to making decisions—especially healthy particularly those that smell desirable—and
ones—having more options is not better. In an increased reliance on executive functions
fact, the more options we have, the greater the to overcome impulses.
temptations costs of avoiding those options. 3. Self-control appears to be a limited resource,

such that the more we use it, the less we are
In order to make a desirable choice then, the able to exert self-control when needed.
benefit of the choice must exceed the sum of the
4. Hyperbolic discounting describes a phenom-
temptation costs of all the other available choic-
enon where in the present the benefits of a
es. The problem for most of us, however, is that decision (such as going jogging in the morn-
we don’t make choices under ideal conditions. ing) outweigh the costs, yet over time, the
We plan that run in the morning thinking that benefits decrease and the costs increase, until
we will feel as inspired and energetic as we do the decision is no longer favorable to us.
right now. We also likely have the best inten- 5. Temptation costs refer to the psychological
tions when we cook ourselves those steamed cost of avoiding temptations, and explain
vegetables and chicken for dinner—and then of that in order to make the desirable choice,
course we spot the ice cream in the freezer. the benefit must exceed the sum of all the
other available choices.
Whether it’s underlying emotions that drive us

116 | Unit 5
Section Two: Plan Now, Impulse What effect did the action words have on
self-control? The researchers found that the
Later: Why Our Two Selves
participants who were motivated to be ac-
Don’t Agree tive were more likely to select the immediate
If you ask most people what it takes to lose rewards and had poorer impulse control than
weight, you are likely to hear words like will- those who had been primed with words sug-
power, self-control, and overcoming impulses. gesting inaction (Hepler et al., 2011). In the
And yet, our results don’t give much credence words of Justin Hepler, who led the research
to our theories. For most people, in the world study, “Overall, these experiments demon-
of weight loss, the fight to control impulses is strate that attempting to motivate oneself to
being lost. be active in the face of temptations may actu-
ally lead to impulsive behaviors. On the other
Setting Ourselves Up for Failure: hand, becoming motivated for inaction or
Why Impulse Control Doesn’t Work calming oneself down may be the best way to
avoid impulsive decisions” (Hepler, 2011).
When we think about controlling impulses, we
are usually thinking about what we shouldn’t It turns out that the pull of temptation is stron-
do. We really shouldn’t eat that ice cream after ger than we realize. And, much like a fighter
dinner. We really shouldn’t skip that workout, who is stronger than us, when we go head to
drink that beer, or have another piece of Aunt head with our impulses— such as with motiva-
Martha’s apple pie. And if self-control is a game tion strategies—we usually lose. Even worse, we
of stopping action, as opposed to starting it, the might make even more impulse decisions. As
question is: Why do most popular theories of second study lead, Dolores Albarracín explains,
self-control advocate taking action to get a grip “Those who try to be active may make wild,
on those impulses? risky investments, for example, and persist in
behaviors that clearly make them unsuccessful”
By asking just this question, along with which
(Albarracín, 2011).
form of self-control actually works best—the
effortful pursuit of one’s goals, or the delaying Contrary to what we might think, motivating
of behavior until enough information pro- ourselves to lose that weight, fit into that dress,
cessing has occurred—researchers from Idaho and to be more healthy by taking action, might
State University and the University of Southern not be the best thing for our impulses. Con-
Mississippi first exposed volunteer participants trolling impulses, as you will see in the next
to action words, such as “start” or “active,” or section, may have more to do with learning to
inaction words, such as “stop” or “pause.” Next, stop in the face of impulses, to delay gratifica-
using a classic test of self-control, participants tion, and to take less action, not more. It’s the
were asked if they would rather have some difference between free will and free won’t.
money now or more money later.
Free Will and Free Won’t: What that lit up. And when participants followed
The Brain Can Tell Us About The through and made the action, the dFMC was
Power to Stop decidedly quiet (Brass & Haggard, 2007).
In the world of addictions, it’s a cardinal truth While it’s not entirely surprising that what helps
that if you want to stop drinking, you have to us control our impulses is a small structure of
avoid the people, places, and things that are the brain lodged directly in the prefrontal cor-
likely to trigger you to drink. The idea is that tex, which is known as the center of executive
once you are surrounded by things that remind functions, like planning, organizing, and inhi-
you of the good times, these things act like bition, what is surprising is that the dFMC also
triggers, priming you to take a drink. Howev- plays a role in choosing between alternatives—
er, the truth itself might be hinting at an even with a strong preference for equitable options.
more pervasive phenomenon: once you get the
In a fascinating study, researchers first divided
idea in your head to do something, it is that
participants into two groups: one who received
much harder to stop. And the reason might
rTMS stimulation of the dFMC, which is a
have something to do with just how our brains
kind of stimulation that leads to a disruption of
handle self-control, especially after we have to
neuronal firing, and another who received no
make the decision not to do something we have
stimulation. Then, participants were asked to
already thought about doing.
play the “Ultimatum Game.” In the Ultimatum
Using functional magnetic resonance imag- Game, player A is given a sum of money, which
ing (fMRI) to study which part of the brain is can propose to split with player B. If player B
activated during self-control tasks, research- accepts the split, both players walk away with
ers Marcel Brass, Ph.D., of the Max Planck some cash. But if player B rejects the offer, both
Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain players walk away with nothing. However, the
Sciences and Ghent University, and Patrick experiment was rigged. Participants were put
Haggard, Ph.D., of University College London, in the role of responder (Player B), while player
asked participants to perform a simple task A was directed to intentionally make offers that
of pressing a button on a keyboard. However, were less than 50 percent of the total sum, and
participants were also told to choose some- thus would be perceived as unfair. The prem-
times not to hit the button, and when they did, ise is that the dFMC, which works to override
to indicate on a clock the time at which they selfish impulses and advocate for equitable
decided to hold back. Comparing the fMRI solutions, keeps us from accepting those lower
images between the times the participants offers. And when the activity of the dFMC was
hit the button, and the times they decided to disrupted, suddenly, those low offers didn’t look
inhibit action, Brass and Haggard found that so bad. In fact, they were accepted almost twice
when participants held back it was the dorsal as often (Knoch & Fehr, 2007). Like missing
fronto-median cortex (dFMC), an area on the out on tempting options, when we feel like
midline of the brain directly above the eyes,

118 | Unit 5
things are unfair, we are much more likely to be might give us a clue as to how addictions work,
impulsive. whereby we are trying to compensate for abnor-
mally low levels of dopamine. The problem is
But there might be another answer. You see, of
that, in the case of food, those temporary raises
all of the structures in the prefrontal cortex, the
in dopamine come with some nasty crashes.
dFMC is one of the slowest to develop, taking
an exceptionally long time to mature. And just Obesity has been demonstrated to act on the
what helps the dFMC mature is a neurochem- same brain reward system as drugs, with some
ical called dopamine, which is associated with studies showing that sugar is just as addictive
reward motivated behavior. Dopamine surges as cocaine. And while previous research has fo-
when we do things like eat chocolate, get a cused on the metabolic impact of certain foods,
massage, win money, or play an intense game of exploring the difference between eating fats,
racquetball. But when dopamine levels are low, proteins, or carbohydrates, looking at obesity
we have trouble regulating impulses, especially as an addictive problem means not just that the
those associated with pleasure. foods we eat may have a different metabolic im-
pact, but that they have a different reward value.
In one study, researchers from the Karolins-
Just as we don’t associate mopping the kitchen
ka Institute separated alcohol-addicted par-
floor with a reward, we don’t consider eating
ticipants into two groups and then gave one
broccoli particularly rewarding. The problem
group OSU6162 (a chemical suspected to raise
is that the dopamine reward system is a very
dopamine levels), and one group a placebo for
powerful motivator of behavior, especially when
one week. Then, both groups were exposed to
it comes to what we eat.
situations associated with a craving for alcohol.
Not only did the OSU6162 group report less One study conducted by the Department of
craving for alcohol after drinking one glass of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
an alcoholic beverage, but they also reported at Tufts University School of Medicine (TUSM)
enjoying the first sip of alcohol less. The most and the Tufts Center for Neuroscience Research
interesting finding however, was that those with (CNR) measured electrically evoked dopamine
the poorest impulse control were those with synthesis and release in obesity-prone—those
the most dramatic response to OSU6162. Pia that consumed more food and were 20 percent
Steensland, Ph.D., associate professor at the De- heavier than normal—and obesity-resistant rats.
partment of Clinical Neuroscience, who led the Amazingly, the heavier rats had dopamine levels
study concludes, “We think that OSU6162 can a whopping 50 percent lower than their normal
reduce the alcohol craving in dependent people weight counterparts, and these effects were im-
by returning the downregulated levels of dopa- mediately evident after birth (Geiger et al., 2008).
mine in their brain reward system to normal”
Studies like this give us a window into just
(Steensland, 2015).
what happens with obesity: when people suffer
And because alcohol, most drugs, and choco- from chronic low levels of dopamine, eating,
late all temporarily raise dopamine levels, this which raises dopamine levels, may simply be
a compensatory attempt to raise the baseline to get the same pleasurable reward from food,
dopamine levels to normal. But the problem and obesity itself changes the way our brain
might be even more complicated. Decreased processes dopamine—putting us in a state of
food intake, even when we are at a normal chronic dopamine deficiency.
weight, leads to decreased dopamine levels.
We can also look at the problem in another
And when dopamine levels get really low, food
way. It may not be just that obese people start
cravings go through the roof. For the person
with lower levels of dopamine, but that by
who already has a low baseline level of dopa-
eating a high-fat diet, they actually artificially
mine, trying to go on a diet may only make
lower them. Examining the “real time” chang-
that chocolate cake all the more appealing—
es in dopamine levels after rats consumed a
and seemingly impossible to resist.
high-fat diet for either 2 or 6 weeks, research-
But the problem gets even worse. Obese people ers from the University of Illinois found
may not just have less dopamine, but also less that compared to rats consuming a standard
receptors for dopamine, meaning they get less low-fat diet, the high-fat-diet rats exhibited
bang for their buck. Even when they do eat that reduced dopamine release and also a reduced
chocolate cake, the reward may not be as great as reuptake by dopamine transporters within the
for someone with a normal level of dopamine re- brain (Cone et al., 2010).
ceptors. In short, they may not feel the same level
Whether we start with lower levels of dopamine,
of satiation. And the reason they have less dopa-
or we cause our dopamine levels to drop by
mine receptors may have something to do with
eating high-fat food, the conclusion is the same:
epigenetics. As Brenda Geiger, study report first
low levels of dopamine are a major risk factor
author and graduate student in the Department
for obesity. Yet if our ability to curb our impuls-
of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeu-
es depends both on whether or not we see our
tics at TUSM, explains “Our molecular analysis
circumstances as fair, and how much dopamine
suggests that the central dopamine deficits are
we have, we still have an even more troubling
most likely caused by a reduced expression of the
problem. As you will see in the next section, the
genes encoding two proteins, one that is involved
way we think we will respond to situations that
in dopamine synthesis, and another that is a
trigger our impulses often differs dramatically
transporter responsible for packaging dopamine
from how we actually do.
into vesicles from which it is later released upon
stimulation” (Geiger, 2008).
Me and Me Too: When Our Two
Just as drinking alcohol causes a temporary Selves Don’t Agree
rise in dopamine but lower baseline levels over
time, eating to obesity may make us feel better If we really want to understand the difference
in the moment, but the effect has diminishing between how we think we will respond versus
rewards, and indeed long-lasting detrimental how we actually do respond, there is no better
effects. When we are obese, we have to eat more place to look than something we are all familiar

120 | Unit 5
with: starting an exercise program. As the story goes, we join the

gym, pack our gym bag, and tell our significant other we will be
home late for dinner, all the while indulging in appealing images of
ourselves thin, tanned, and showing off our newly crafted bodies on
some exotic beach. Yet, at the end of the day, we look at our watch,
realize how tired we are, how much we still have to do, and how we
would really rather start that exercise program on another day.
To behavioral economists, this story is not unique and it represents

a well-known phenomenon in the field: the self we make plans with
Long-run self: self that is (known as the long-run self) thinks very differently from the self
concerned with planning
that actually carries out those carefully laid plans (known as the
and implementing desirable
choices. short-run self). Called the dual self-theory, the premise is that every
Short-run self: self that decision-maker consists of two selves: a long-run self that is concerned
is that is responsible for with planning and implementing desirable choices, and a short-run
carrying out the intended
actions, all the while facing
self that is responsible for carrying out the intended actions, all the
temptations and discounting while facing other temptations and a discounting of the benefits.
benefits.
As the theory holds, the two selves are at odds with one another. For
one thing, while the long-run self thinks about the bigger picture and
tends to weigh up the benefits and costs (pros and cons) accurately,
the short-run self tends to be myopic and holds a distorted perception
of the benefits of a desirable choice (Fudenberg & Levine, 2006; Thaler
& Shefrin, 1981; Benhabib & Bisin, 2005). While the long-run self
thinks about the benefits of eating that salad for dinner, for example,
the short-run self is busy worrying about missing out on that mouth-
watering burger on the menu. And the short-run self is prone to
regrets. While the long-run self may be able to override the short-run
self’s devices, and pass on the steak or fries one or two times, it comes
at a psychological cost, whereby the more we override these impulses,
the sharper that pain of missing out becomes (Thaler & Shefrin, 1981;
Fudenberg & Levine, 2006). Over time, our willpower runs out, and
we find ourselves sitting in front of that meal we would rather have—
which is probably not the healthy one. In the brain, it seems, thinking
and doing are wired differently.
Why Thinking Won’t Get Us Doing

It is one thing to think about making choices, setting and attaining
goals, and the benefits and costs of each, and of all offers that are less than 20–30% of the
something entirely different to actually do total stake, and here, the normal diet/normal
the actions that will lead to our goals. Future serotonin group did exactly that. However, for
choices, as we know, are not the same as present the low serotonin group, the rejection rates for
circumstances. But they also don’t utilize the the same amount jumped to more than 80%
same part of the brain. The long-run self’s plan- after serotonin had been reduced. And because
ning, organizing, and inhibiting happens in depression and hypersensitivity to lost rewards
the prefrontal cortex and is engaged when the were controlled for, serotonin was isolated as a
brain is not dealing with other—more press- critical component of the social decision-mak-
ing—concerns. Yet amp up the stress a little— ing. These results are not surprising given that
like driving home a carful of screaming kids limbic system activation also lowers serotonin.
after a long day at work—and the limbic system In the words of Ph.D. student Molly Crockett,
takes over. Not surprisingly, when responding a Gates Scholar at the University of Cambridge
to impulses, it’s often the limbic system that is Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience Institute,
activated (Nigg, 2000; McClure et al., 2004). In and lead researcher, “Our results suggest that
fact, any impulsive decisions light up the same serotonin plays a critical role in social deci-
neural circuitry that is involved in the fight or sion-making by normally keeping aggressive
flight response (Winstanley et al., 2004). This is social responses in check” (Crockett, 2008).
also why we’ve all been told not go to the gro-
Just how we keep those social responses—and
cery store when we are hungry, because when
the impulses that drive them—in check might
our brain is under the physiological stress of
also have something to do with just how we
hunger, making impulsive choices becomes that
think about those choices. We already know
much more likely.
that the long-run self weighs up the benefits
In a fascinating study, researchers from the against the costs of making a decision in the
University of Cambridge separated participants future, and that when the short-run self is
into two groups and had one group eat a very engaged in the executing of the choice, these
low calorie diet to reduce brain levels of sero- benefits become smaller in light of the costs as-
tonin, while the other group maintained their sociated with the activity. Perhaps the question
normal diet. Then, both groups were asked to we should be asking then is: “Does the long-
play the “Ultimatum Game” to investigate how run self overvalue the benefits of the activity
individuals with low serotonin react to what when planning it, or is it that the short-run self
is perceived as unfair behavior. In the Ultima- undervalues the benefits when actually doing
tum Game, as we know from above, player A it?” Maybe when we are thinking about run-
is given a sum of money, and can then propose ning, we are exaggerating how great we will
to split with player B. If player B accepts, both feel, how much we will like the new clothes and
players walk away with some cash. But if player running shoes we will wear, and how trim we
B rejects the offer, both players walk away with will become. On the other hand, maybe when
nothing. On average, people reject about half we are covered in sweat trudging through what

122 | Unit 5
seems like a never-ending run, our muscles are moment (the short-run self) vs. when we plan
fatigued, and all we can think about is what for them (the long-run self). To begin, we must
else we’d rather be doing, we discount all those first understand that the long-run self is the
great benefits that come with running. self that thinks about making choices, setting
and attaining goals, and the benefits and costs
The answer is that we think a lot less accurately
of each of these, while on the other hand, the
about the benefits of our choices when we are
short-run self is the doing self that actually
actually following through on those choices. It
carries through these desired choices. That is
is the short-run self that tends to inaccurately
to say, while it is the long-run self that plans
portray the benefits of a desired choice, dis-
the choices, it is the short-run self that executes
torting it in relation to the costs of the activity
them. I emphasize this difference because for
(Fudenberg & Levine, 2006; Thaler & Shefrin,
the purposes of this discussion, it is import-
1981; Benhabib & Bisin, 2005). But the benefits
ant to know that the two selves do not oper-
are not all that the short-run self distorts. Every
ate under the same set of circumstances. The
healthy choice we make, also involves a lot of
long-run self looks at future choices, but the
missed choices we could have made. What that
short-run self deals with present circumstanc-
adds up to for the short-run self is a lot of temp-
es. The distinction also implies that different
tation costs. And when it comes to temptation
parts of the brain are involved in the actions of
costs, the short-run self overvalues them, and
the long-run self vs. the short-run self. What
makes the cost of missing them much larger
we know from research on the brain is that
than they actually are (Fudenberg & Levine,
the part of the brain concerned with planning,
2006; Thaler & Shefrin, 1981; Benhabib & Bisin,
organizing, and inhibiting responses is the
2005). This is also why we think differently
prefrontal cortex. Further research tells us that
while planning to order that salad for dinner,
the prefrontal cortex is engaged when the brain
than when we are actually sitting in the restau-
is not dealing with other—more pressing—con-
rant and we see the juicy steak on the menu, i.e.,
cerns. The concerns that do appear to take over
when it’s right in front of us, missing out seems
the actions of the prefrontal cortex are those
that much worse.
that involve the perception of threat, or some-
Probably because they are so different, and thing that jeopardizes our survival. In these
appear to operate from opposite motivations, situations, it is the limbic system that primarily
the two selves have fundamental differences in regulates the actions of the brain. Because we
three critical areas: physiology, emotion, and already know that the short-run self deals with
cognition. Let’s take a look at these in turn. present circumstances, what this tells us is that
if these present circumstances involve a percep-
Physiological Differences tion of threat, then the prefrontal cortex—and
therefore the concerns of the long-run self—
Let’s first look at the physiological differenc- will be rendered ineffective. But even further,
es between the way we make choices in the because we said that one of the functions of
the prefrontal cortex is to inhibit impulses, this we must also consider the emotions that each
should also tell us that the part of the brain self responds to. If we go back to the explana-
that responds to impulses, i.e., relating to the tion that Freud provided us, we know that the
short-run self, is a different part of the brain. long-run self is regulated by conscious motives.
Research has shown that when responding to What Freud meant by conscious motives is that
impulses, it is the limbic system that is activated they are known to us. We are aware that we
(Nigg, 2000; McClure et al., 2004). Research would like to make healthy choices, lose weight,
in neuroscience has also indicated that when save money, and be nicer to our spouses. The
making impulsive decisions, the same neural motives of the short-run self, on the other
circuitry that is involved in the fight or flight hand, are regulated by unconscious motives.
response is activated (Winstanley et al., 2004). Unconscious motives, Freud explained, are not
What this means is that when we think about known to us. We might not be aware that we
the health benefits of e.g., ordering fish, we are associate making healthy menu choices with
using the prefrontal cortex, and thus, are well the same emotional deprivation we felt with our
equipped to inhibit the impulse to eat steak mothers, or that we link saving money to losing
instead. However, when we sit at the restaurant freedom, the same way we did with our fathers,
with the menu in our hands and are faced with or that we associate nighttime eating with the
the decision to order fish or to order steak, the emotional nurturance that we never received
prefrontal cortex is often overridden by the and still long for. All of these things can be very
actions of the amygdala, which responds to the powerful influencers of our behavior when we
impulse of wanting steak. This is also what we are faced with making choices in the moment.
know as the adage to not go to the grocery store The difficulty with unconscious motives—and
when you are hungry, because when the brain Freud and many others have highlighted this
is under the physiological stress of hunger, it is point—is that they are not known to us. So
prone to make impulsive choices. If we want to while we may look to the future choices we
change this response, we have to employ strate- would like to make and say that we would like
gies designed to make the choice of eating steak to make healthy ones, and in fact we do intend
(or any other desirable choice) immediately to, in the moment, we tend to make different
more expensive (remember we can use hard or choices because we are operating under a set
soft consequences) than the fish option. But be- of desires that we are not aware of consciously.
fore we look at how we can design commitment While the long-run self may be aware of the
devices to make better choices, let’s continue emotional desires linked to making choices in
with our discussion about the differences be- the future, much in the same way we can say
tween the two selves. that we know that we will feel better if we get
up and go running in the morning, what the
Emotional Differences long-run self is not aware of is the emotions
that will act upon the short-run self in the
While the physiological differences explain part moment. In the morning when we wake up to
of the differences in actions of the two selves,

124 | Unit 5
go running, for example, we may feel that run- glamorous, or health inducing than it actually
ning is a forced choice, and we don’t like forced is—or that the short-run self undervalues the
choices because we have probably had to give in benefits when engaged in the activity—when
to too many of them in our life already. This, of actually running, it doesn’t seem very glam-
course, is an unconscious motivation that is not orous, or even beneficial at all—relative to the
known to the long-run self who is planning the costs, i.e., the muscles are fatigued, the joints
healthy choices we are trying to make. But the hurt, there are several, better things you’d rath-
real problem is that unconscious motivations er be doing, etc. The side of the fence that most
are not known to the short-run self either—un- researchers fall on is that the long-run self is
less they may have undergone psychoanalysis, actually much more accurate in the perception
which is unlikely—and therefore this makes of the benefits of a desired choice and it is the
desirable decisions even more complicated. short-run self that tends to inaccurately portray
While it is not the purpose of this course to the benefits of a desired choice, distorting it in
dissect unconscious motives, we can gain by relation to the costs of the activity (Fudenberg
understanding how they influence behavior so & Levine, 2006; Thaler & Shefrin, 1981; Ben-
that we can better design strategies to overcome habib & Bison, 2005). What this tells us is that
them and improve the choices we and our cli- when executing a healthy choice, the benefits
ents make. The idea is that although we would pale in comparison to when we are thinking
really like to eat a bowl—or several bowls—of about executing a healthy choice. But the other
ice cream at night, we can look to ways to make way we can look at the equation as we know
this choice more expensive (again in hard or from the discussion above is through the long-
soft costs) than the choice that we would really run self’s perception of future temptation costs
like to make. vs. the short-run self’s perception of these same
temptations costs. Again, what we know already
Cognitive Differences is that when we think about choosing the fish
on the menu is that either we undervalue the
Lastly, let’s look at the differences in the thought cost of the missed temptation of all of the other
processes of the short-run and long-run selves. items we would rather order—such as steak,
What we already know from the discussion fries, or pizza—or it is the short-run self that
above is that the long-run self weighs up the overvalues these temptation costs, making them
benefits against the costs of making a decision seem much greater than they actually are. Here,
in the future. However, when the short-run self we see the short-run self focusing primarily on
is engaged in the executing of the choice, these the temptations and what will be missed if they
benefits become smaller in light of the costs are passed up for a healthier alternative. Here
associated with the activity. What this tells us again, the research points to the second conclu-
is that either the long-run self overvalues the sion: that it is the short-run self that overvalues
benefits of the activity relative to the costs— the temptations and makes the cost of miss-
the example we can use is that when we think ing them much larger than they actually are
about running, it is made to be more beneficial,
(Fudenberg & Levine, 2006; Thaler & Shefrin, 7. The long-run self weighs up the benefits
1981; Benhabib & Bison, 2005). Whether we are against the costs of making desirable choic-
es, but the short-run self undervalues the
looking at the difference in the way we perceive
benefits when engaged in an activity.
the benefits of an activity when thinking about
it vs. when doing it or the difference in the way 8. The long-run self weighs up the benefits
we perceive temptation costs when thinking against the temptation costs of a desired
choice, but the short-run self overvalues the
about them vs. when making the choices that
temptation costs of making the desirable
involve them, what we should know is that choice.
there are clear differences in the way we think
when we are planning choices and the way we Thinking and doing are not the same, and the
think when we are actually making the choices power to stop—whether it’s because we are
in the moment. If we want the long-run self focusing on taking action instead of delaying
that plans the actions to have influence over the it, we think we got an unfair deal, our dopa-
short-run self that executes them, we are going mine levels are low, or we fall prey to the clever
to have to use some commitment strategies tactics of the short-run self—seems to evade us
to make the less desirable choices much more all. And yet, as you will see in the next section,
expensive that the desirable ones. when it comes to making decisions, we are also
unknowingly influenced by the state we are in.
1. The dual self-theory considers that every de- PowerPoint: Three Strategies to
cision-maker consists of two selves: a long- Help Your Clients Make Better
run self and a short-run self, and these two Decisions
selves are at odds with one another.
2. The long-run self serves to plan future desir- Remove Tempting Options
able choices, while the short-run self serves
to execute them. By limiting the amount of other tempting op-
tions, you can help your clients combat the nat-
3. The long-run self uses the prefrontal cortex,
while the short-run self uses the amygdala.
ural tendency to exaggerate the temptation cost
of missing out on these tempting choices. When
4. The long-run self can exert control over you teach your clients to make undesirable
impulses, while the short-run self often falls
choices less available, you also make choosing
prey to impulses.
the desired option much easier, as there is less
5. The long-run self is aware of the emotions cognitive energy spent overriding impulses.
linked to making future desirable choices,
but is unaware of the unconscious motives
which often override these choices. Use Benefit Reminders During Activity
6. The short-run self is aware of the conscious Hyperbolic discounting means that the benefits
reasons for making choices, yet often re- of an activity—especially one that takes effort—
sponds to unconscious desires. decrease over time, starting from the time we

126 | Unit 5
plan the activity. While hyperbolic discounting Impulses, Assumptions, and

increases the chance that we will give up on Errors: Why Hot States Spell
an activity early (or perhaps not even start at Disaster
all), you can help your clients overcome this
Anecdotally, we have all been told not to go to
tendency by using benefit reminders (such as
the grocery store when we are hungry, drive
text messages, benefit lists, and social support)
when we are raging angry, or make major life
during the activity to boost motivation and to
changes when dealing with a heart break, yet
help encourage healthy choices.
for psychologists the idea of distinct emotional
states regulating our decisions is nothing new. In
Avoid Distractions
fact, what are known as “hot” and “cold” emo-
Decisions are easy to make when we are not dis- tional states have long been used to explain the
tracted and can allocate our cognitive resources way in which we make moral decisions (Greene
toward avoiding impulses and choosing better et al., 2001), employ emotion or logic to influ-
options. However, when we are distracted (such ence our thinking, operate out of conscious or
as when watching TV, surfing the internet, or unconscious processes, and even the parts of
multitasking) we can easily succumb to poor the brain we use when making decisions. Hot
decisions simply because we are not focused on states describe those states where are decisions
making better ones. You can help your clients are emotion based. Being charged with emo-
to avoid this situation by teaching them to tion activates the fear and anger centers of the
identify and avoid distractions that hinder their brain (known as the limbic system), much like
decision-making process. when we are threatened (McClure et al., 2004).
If you’ve ever had a fight with your spouse and
said things you wouldn’t want repeated, dropped
Section Three: When All is Calm,
your groceries and sprinted to save your child
Decisions Are Easy: Hot States from an oncoming car, or engaged in a heated
and How They Get In the Way argument with someone over a topic you are pas-
We should know at this point that when mak- sionate about all the while ignoring evidence that
ing decisions, especially those that are good for doesn’t support your argument, you’ve been in a
us, our thoughts don’t always work in our favor. hot state. Here, judgment is automatic, decisions
We discount the benefits over time, we exagger- are quick, reflexive, and impulse driven—and
ate the temptation costs of all the other—seem- not regulated by logic. In hot states, we are also
ingly better—choices we could make, and we prone to act upon previous assumptions and bi-
think in the short term, overlooking the long- ases (Kahneman, 2003), which doesn’t often lead
term benefits of making healthy choices. But to well-thought-out decisions.
perhaps a more concerning problem, as you will
Hot states do have a time and place; for in-
see in this section, is that we don’t always make
stance, acting with lightening reflexes is exactly
decisions when we are in the best mood.
what helps us save someone from a burning
building, avoid a car crash, and catch a child we convince ourselves to go on a diet because
before they plummets headfirst down the stairs. we know that maintaining a healthy weight is
The problem is, changing behavior is a game of important to our overall health and we believe
overcoming habitual patterns, ingrained be- it will make us feel better. By focusing on what
havior, and a whole lot of impulses. And when we eat, we have been able to follow our diet
it comes to teaching ourselves to stop doing x strictly, and after a few days, we begin to see
and start doing y, we need the cool logic of cold some results. But after a week of dieting, we
states. Because what cold states do is allow us are feeling the weight (no pun intended) of our
to use logic, planning, rational analysis, and restrictions, and then at the same time at work
conscious judgment to process information we are given a harsh reprimand by our boss.
more fully, to incorporate memory from previ- Feeling angry, hurt, and very nervous about our
ous experiences, and to use executive functions job, we also begin to feel very resentful about
to make decisions based on logic (Stanovich & our diet. The more we think about it, the more
West, 2000; Kahneman, 2003). It’s the differ- we realize we hate having to control what we eat
ence between reaching for that donut because and depriving ourselves of our favorite foods,
it’s there and stopping yourself because you and in a moment of hotheadedness, we throw
remember that the last time you ate the donut the proverbial finger up at our diet and head to
you felt bad about it later. our favorite restaurant. What we don’t do—and
which would require a high WMC——is to re-
But that is only part of the story. Hot and cold
member that the last time we blew our diet, we
states appear to be significantly linked to our
didn’t feel better; in fact we actually felt worse.
working memory capacity (WMC). People with
higher WMCs are more likely to make deci- WMC is also linked to cognitive capacity,
sions when in cold states, probably due to the which acts like a limited resource when making
fact that cold states tend to utilize memory and decisions, especially when we are emotionally
employ greater cognitive engagement than hot charged. Making decisions, as you know, means
states. On the other hand, those who are low in overriding temptations, but it also means over-
WMC make more decisions when in hot states, riding the emotions that can cause us to hit the
make more judgment errors (MacDonald, Just, drive through, yell at our kids, or criticize our
Carpenter, 1992) and are more prone to stereo- spouse. The role of the WMC is to remind us
type use (Schmader and Johns, 2003). For those that the last time we did these things, we regret-
low in WMC, making judgments in hot states ted it. When WMC works properly, we are able
is cognitively more efficient, as it uses less of a to use intentional processing to override emo-
limited resource (i.e., the WMC). The problem tions to make a logic-based decision, as opposed
is that hot states consistently lead to more errors to an emotion-based one (Moore et al., 2008).
in judgment because they rely on preformed as- But when our WMC is low, our emotions out-
sumptions (stereotypes) as opposed to weighing weigh the cognitive capacity we have to control
up these assumptions against objective infor- them, and we make errors—often those we wish
mation. The story might go something like this: we didn’t. However, as you will see in the next

128 | Unit 5
section, it’s not only that hot states cause us to parenting our children in the wrong way often
fall prey to our assumptions, but also that they causes us to feel more justified in the way we par-
cause us to fall into the sticky trap of our biases. ent, motivated reasoning causes us to fortify our
position more strongly in the face of opposition.
Biases, Bad Attitudes, and the
And everyone is susceptible to affective biases.
Proverbial Treadmill
One study found that when using implicit and
While we know hot states cause us to rely on explicit psychological tests, only seven percent of
assumptions, make impulse decisions, and forget people didn’t show any racial bias. Further, non-
the consequences, again, that’s only part of the biased individuals differed from biased individ-
story. Hot states also make us more prone to uals in a psychologically fundamental way: they
“affective bias.” Affective bias means that when were less likely to form negative affective associa-
making decisions, we are swayed in the directions in general (Livingston & Drwecki, 2007).
tion of our emotions, giving more consideration
Reducing those biases is a bit like trying to save
to information that supports the way we feel. If
money: we need more on the positive side to
you have ever found yourself in the middle of a
balance out the negative. Whether or not we
heated argument, passionately defending your
are at the mercy of our biases depends on our
cause, all the while ignoring any evidence to the
ability to resist negative affective condition-
contrary, you have been influenced by affective
ing. Overcoming those biases, then, isn’t just
bias. When we feel passionate about things, we
about resisting negative conditioning, it’s about
simply tend to pay more attention to information
reconditioning.
that confirms our beliefs, all the while filtering
out opposing arguments. Researchers studying And for people who are trying to lose weight,
the effect of affective states and cognition on our that reconditioning might need to start with
decision-making processes call the sort of cogni- their attitude toward exercise. In one study of
tive processing related to affective bias “motivat- 1,552 individuals, 989 of who were classified as
ed reasoning,” and suggest that it plays a strong overweight, researchers at the George Wash-
role in how we attend to information that does ington University Medical Center carried out a
not confirm our bias. In this model, motivated survey designed to test an individual’s attitude
reasoning is a joint process of affective bias and toward exercise, their perceived pressure to ex-
cognitive processing to arrive at conclusions that ercise, and the ease of difficulty with which they
confirm our bias (Redlawsk, 2008). Interestingly, found exercise was possible (perceived control).
when looking at the way motivated reasoning Not surprisingly, overweight individuals felt
affects our decisions about political candidates, more embarrassed and intimidated about ex-
one study found that “motivated reasoners may ercising, about exercising around young people
actually increase their support of a positively or fit people, and about health club salespeople
evaluated candidate upon learning new nega- than individuals of normal weight did. But
tively evaluated information” (Redlawsk, 2008). what was surprising was that the heavier the
Much in the same way that hearing that we are person was, the stronger the effect was (Miller
et al., 2009). In short, when we are overweight, found that among 2944 adults studied over a
whether or not we go to the gym has nothing to period of four years, those who experienced
do with what we know about the benefits about fat-shaming gained more weight than those
exercise, instead, it has everything to do with who did not. On average, weight discrimination
how we feel about exercise. led to a 0.95 Kg gain, while not experiencing
weight discrimination resulted in a 0.71 Kg
So how do we change how we feel about ex-
weight loss (Jackson et al., 2016). According to
ercise? Behavior theories hold that it comes
study lead, Dr. Sarah Jackson, “Stress responses
down to a simple equation: there must be more
to discrimination can increase appetite, partic-
positives than negatives. In order for us to start
ularly for energy dense food. Weight discrimi-
liking going the gym, we have to like the people
nation has also been shown to make people feel
there, feel comfortable around them, and maybe
less confident about taking part in physical ac-
even want to hang out with them.
tivity, so they tend to avoid it” (Jackson, 2016).
The problem is, at least for most people strug-
A second study showed that 10-year-old girls
gling with weight gain, warm fuzzies about ex-
who were called fat were more likely to be fat by
ercise and health are the last thing they receive.
age nineteen, even if they were not overweight
In what is now widely recognized as an anti-fat
to begin with. The study, which followed 2300
bias, heavy people are often subject to negative
girls from age ten to nineteen showed that being
assumptions about their self-discipline, sense
called fat by a family member resulted in being
of personal responsibility, cleanliness, and even
1.62 times more likely to be overweight by nine-
intelligence. And while these assumptions often
teen, and being called fat by a close non-family
appear at the personal level—for example, when
member made girls 1.42 times more likely to
told an individual was obese because of “over-
gain weight by nineteen (Hunger & Tomiyama,
eating” and “lack of exercise,” a higher implicit
2014). Also illuminated was the connection
bias was found among study participants than
between weight discrimination and stress that
those not provided with the context of why the
led to overeating.
individual was fat (Teachman et al., 2003)—
they also have widespread ramifications. Not Assistant professor of psychology at UCLA and
just are the overweight and obese highly under- study author Janet Tomiyama explains, “Simply
represented in the media, make 2.5% less than being labeled as too fat has a measurable effect
their thinner counterparts in the same profes- almost a decade later. We nearly fell off our
sions (Ford, et al., 2002), such as promotions chairs when we discovered this. Even after we
and raises, but they also even receive lower statistically removed the effects of their actu-
quality healthcare—even from professionals al weight, their income, their race, and when
specializing in the treatment of obesity (Teach- they reached puberty, the effect remained. That
man & Brownell, 2001). means it’s not just that heavier girls are called
too fat and are still heavy years later; being
Just what is the effect of all this fat-shaming?
One study at University College of London

130 | Unit 5
labeled as too fat is creating an additional likeli- surveyed 1,196 normal weight teenagers of
hood of being obese” (Tomiyama, 2014). both sexes using the Young-HUNT1 in a study
conducted from 1995–1997. Participants were
Study co-author Jeffrey Hunger, continues, “Be-
later followed up in the Young-HUNT3 study,
ing labeled as too fat may lead people to worry
from 2006 to 2008, when they had grown to be
about personally experiencing the stigma and
between 24 and 30 years of age.
discrimination faced by overweight individuals,
and recent research suggests that experiencing The question they were asking was: Does feeling
or anticipating weight stigma increases stress fat lead to actual weight gain? The answer was
and can lead to overeating” (Hunger, 2014). convincing. Seventy-eight percent of the girls
who had felt fat as a teen became overweight in
When tracking a nationally representative
adulthood, as indicated by their waist circum-
population of Americans between 2006 and
ference. In contrast, only fifty-five percent of the
2010, researchers at the Florida State Univer-
girls who did not consider themselves fat during
sity College of Medicine found similar results.
adolescence were found in the follow-up study to
Americans who were overweight in 2006—but
be overweight in their later years. In fact, rating
not obese—and stigmatized for it were two
oneself as fat amounted to a body mass index
and half times more likely to end up obese
(BMI) that was on average 0.88 higher and a
four years later than those who hadn’t been
waist circumference that was 3.46 cm larger than
fat-shamed. Even more compelling was that
those who did not rate themselves as fat. Perhaps
those who were obese at the beginning of the
what was most fascinating is that the connection
study were three times more likely to still be
between perceived weight and actual weight
obese in 2010 if they had faced weight discrim-
years later still existed, even when exercise was
ination (Sutin & Terracciano, 2013).
controlled for (Koenraad et al., 2012).
The problem is that when we feel bad— e.g., be-
“Perceiving themselves as fat even though they
cause we were overlooked for a promotion, giv-
are not may actually cause normal weight chil-
en shoddy healthcare, or called fat (regardless of
dren to become overweight as adults,” explains
whether or not we are)—going for a jog is often
Cuypers Koenraad, a researcher at the Nor-
the last thing we do. What’s a lot more likely is
wegian University of Science and Technology
that we will find a cozy spot on the couch and
(Koenraad et al., 2012).
open up that box of bonbons.
And while similar studies have also shown
Feeling Fat and Acting Fat an increase in weight over time in those who
perceived themselves as too fat, the explana-
What fat-shaming adds up to is a lot of neg- tion that is best supported is—you guessed
ative affective biases—biases that then cause it—stress. The perception related to having (or
us to feel fat, and not surprisingly, act fat. In a not having) an ideal body type, along with the
recent study, researchers from the Norwegian perception of oneself as overweight, leads to a
University of Science and Technology first massive amount of psychological stress.
Where all of this leads—and what this has to reactivity. In turn, their cortisol exposure may
do with weight—is cortisol, and a lot of it. Not have led them to accumulate greater abdominal
only is cortisol a hallmark of stress—indica- fat,” explains Elissa S. Epel, Ph.D., lead investi-
tive of being in a hot state—it is perhaps one gator on the study (Epel, 2011).
of the strongest predictors of weight gain. As
Similar research out of UC San Francisco
Tomiyama explains, “Making people feel bad
followed a group of 61 disease-free women,
about their weight could increase their levels of
of which 33 were chronically stressed women
the hormone cortisol, which generally leads to
caring for a spouse or parent with dementia,
weight gain” (Tomiyama, 2014).
and 28 were women with low stress over the
course of a year. The study looked at the wom-
Pissed Off and Weighed Down:
en’s consumption of high-sugar, high-fat foods,
Why Cortisol Matters
along with key biological markers, such as
We know too much stress is bad for us. We know participants’ waistlines, fat distribution, insulin
we are supposed to manage stress and keep corti- resistance, stress hormones, and oxidative dam-
sol—the primary stress hormone—low. But what age to lipids and cell RNA.
we may not know is that cortisol has a deceptive
The conclusion? More frequent high-fat,
way of collecting around the waist.
high-sugar consumption significantly predicted
One study looked at pre-menopausal, non-over- a larger waistline, more truncal fat, higher ox-
weight women, and overweight women who idative damage, and more insulin resistance—
stored fat either centrally (at the waist) or but only among the group of women exposed to
peripherally (at the hips) and examined their chronic stress (Aschbacher et al., 2014)
stress responses over three consecutive days.
Perhaps what was most fascinating, however,
After the first exposure to stress, the women
was that the chronically stressed women didn’t
with greater abdominal fat felt more threatened
report eating more high-sugar, high-fat foods
by the study’s stressful tasks, performed more
than the low stressed women and yet they still
poorly on them, and secreted more cortisol.
had higher levels of a stress-related biomarker:
They also reported more life stress. By the third
peripheral Neuropeptide Y (NPY).
exposure to stress, the lean women with ab-
dominal fat still consistently secreted more cor- What research like this should tell us is that a
tisol in response to stressful lab tasks, compared calorie is not just a calorie, fat cells grow faster
to women with peripheral fat (Epel et al., 2011). in response to our favorite delicacies when we
are chronically stressed, and cortisol just might
“We also found that women with greater ab-
be the new junk food.
dominal fat had more negative moods and
higher levels of life stress. Greater exposure The question we should be asking then, is: If
to life stress or psychological vulnerability high cortisol levels lead to weight gain, then
to stress may explain their enhanced cortisol does lowering cortisol levels lead to weight loss?

132 | Unit 5
Asking just this question, researchers from the the same emotional response as those with a
University of California at San Francisco ran- low WMC.
domly assigned chronically stressed overweight 6. When in hot states, we are prone to “affec-
and obese women to nine weekly sessions (last- tive bias,” which causes us to use “motivated
ing two and a half hours each) of mindfulness reasoning” to ignore evidence that doesn’t
training and practice, where they learned stress confirm our beliefs and to pay more atten-
tion to evidence that supports our bias.
reduction and awareness techniques. Addition-
ally, the women in the mindfulness group were 7. Perception of the self as fat lead to an
asked to meditate for thirty minutes a day. The increased risk of obesity, most likely due to
control group received no mindfulness train- higher levels of cortisol.
ing. Although no diets were prescribed, both 8. Cortisol appears to be uniquely linked to fat
groups did attend one session about the basics storage, such that high levels of cortisol lead
of healthy eating and exercise. to high levels of fat—even when sugar and
carbohydrate intake are consistent.
Then, the researchers measured the partici-
The takeaway is that the way we feel—whether
pants’ psychological stress, fat, deep abdominal
measured in our propensity to make impulse
fat, weight, and cortisol levels before and after
decisions, our tendency toward affective bias, our
the four-month study. The link they found was
attitude toward exercise, our perceptions of our-
clear: when women’s cortisol levels went down,
selves as fat, or our cortisol levels—matters when
so did their abdominal fat levels. Further, those
trying to change our behavior and lose weight.
with the greatest reductions in cortisol had the
Whether reacting on tired and damaging pat-
greatest reductions in abdominal fat (Dauben-
terns—like eating candy when we are stressed—
meir, et al., 2011).
or chronically elevating our cortisol, the conclu-
Here are the important points to take away: sion is the same: hot states and the stress they
cause are disastrous for weight loss. Yet, as you
1. Hot states are those that are emotionally
charged, use the limbic part of the brain,
will see in the next section, when it comes to
and cause us to make emotionally-based making the kinds of decisions that lead to weight
decisions. loss, it’s not just the states we are in that matter.
We are also highly influenced by the certainty of
2. Cold states use the prefrontal cortex, and
enable us to make logic-based decisions. that weight loss goal we are trying to reach.
3. In hot states, emotions override cognitive

reasoning.
Powerpoint: Three Steps to
Reduce Your Hot States
4. Those with a low working memory capacity
(WMC) appear more prone to hot states,
and are less able to inhibit their emotional
Identify Triggers
responses. Many people find themselves in hot states sim-
5. Those with a high WMC are better able to ply because they are unaware of the situations,
regulate emotions, even when exposed to people, and places that may trigger them. You
can learn to reduce hot states by first making discounting, exaggeration of temptation costs,
a list of the things that trigger you, and then and emotional states combined that affect our
learning to find ways to avoid these things. attempts to lose weight, admittedly, the picture
starts looking a little bleak. And yet perhaps this
Build an Awareness Continuum is the unspoken truth about weight loss: it’s about
as certain as finding an open lane on a busy Los
Hot states often come on very rapidly, and often Angeles freeway during rush hour.
we may not recognize either what triggered
them, or the signs that we are beginning to es-
Uncertain Futures and Pesky
calate. You can learn to recognize the signs that
Doubt
you are becoming upset by building an aware-
ness continuum. To do this, begin by making a It’s estimated that over the course of the day, an
list numbered 1–10, where 10 is extremely upset average person makes in the neighborhood of
and 1 is calm. Then write down all of the signs five thousand decisions. And when it comes to
that correspond to each number. For example, what to eat, amazingly, we make as many as 200
you can say that at level 7, you feel like your jaw decisions per day (Miller, 2010). The story might
is very tight, or that at level 6, your breathing go something like this: We wake up, decide to
speeds up. By teaching yourself to identify the skip breakfast and pack a salad for lunch. Then,
signs of a hot state coming on, you can learn to a coworker brings in a box of donuts and we
take action to avoid a hot state before it happens think about having one, because, after all, we
or before it escalates. skipped breakfast. But we decide not to, and pat
ourselves on the back for our brave display of
Teach Time Outs self-control. Then, thirty minutes later, we walk
into the kitchen for a cup of coffee and see that
Time outs are a very effective form of emotional just one donut remains and we reconsider our
management. By learning to step away from a decision, because, after all, no one should throw
situation that is escalating by removing our- away a perfectly good donut.
selves from it, we can often avoid the negative
fallout that would otherwise ensue. When you As you can see, it’s not hard to imagine how
make a practice of using time outs as a way to many times we think about what, when, and
avoid or minimize an emotionally charged situ- how much to eat—especially given our constant
ation, you give yourself a very powerful defense exposure to available food and food-related
against hot states. marketing. But that’s only part of the story. We
are not simply making decisions with one set of
priorities—or even one self. Every decision we
Section Four: Uncertain Futures,
make consists of two selves: a long-run self that
Performance Focus, and balances benefits with costs, overrides impul-
Declining Interest sive choices, and plans and organizes behavior
When you consider all of the thought errors, risk toward desirable choices, and a short-run self

134 | Unit 5
that undervalues benefits, overestimates the (Foster, 2015). The implication is sobering: the
cost of avoiding temptation, and is prone to act majority of people believe that they can lose
upon impulse. And the implicit assumption weight quickly, but keeping that weight off, on
is that in making our decisions, our goals are the other hand, is another matter.
certain. That is, they are things we can bet on.
The takeaway is that when it comes to success-
However, we can probably guess by now that
ful weight loss, for most people, the future is
this isn’t the case. All long-run goals by their
far from certain. And this is important infor-
very nature are uncertain. And the reason they
mation because what research in behavioral
are uncertain is because they are prone to the
economics tells us is that, when looking at long-
actions of the short-run self.
term and short-term consequences, uncertainty
It would be reassuring to think that because matters. When the future of long-term goals
we’d like to lose weight, and plan to take steps are uncertain, we engage in what is called “risk
to do so, fitting into that nice pair of jeans is, discounting,” which means that when we weigh
well, almost guaranteed. In fact, promises like up the risks of the short-term consequences,
this sell millions of diet products every year. we discount the impact they will have on our
Yet, when it comes to losing weight, nothing long-term goals. Yet what is perhaps even more
could be farther from the truth. A study as disconcerting is what recent studies in strategic
early as 1959 indicated that after two years of decision-making reveal: the more we depend on
treatment, only 2% of 100 obese individuals an uncertain long-term goal (especially when
maintained a weight loss of 9.1 kg (20 lb.) or it faces the short-term consequences of over-
more (Stunkard & McLaren-Hume, 1959). More riding impulses), the more we will exaggerate
recently, a New England Journal of Medicine the uncertainty of it (Laughton & Jacoby, 1993).
editorial titled Losing Weight: An Ill-Fated New In weight loss, it goes something like this: If
Year’s Resolution confirmed the same pessimis- we think we are not likely to reach our goal
tic message: most people do not believe they weight of 145 pounds, suddenly we don’t think
can successfully lose weight (Kassirer & Angell, that brownie after dinner will really add much
1998). I emphasize the word successful because to our waistline. But there is another twist.
the evidence is different when rates of weight Let’s say that although we really don’t think
loss that is not maintained—weight loss that we are going to lose the weight, we have a lot
doesn’t last for a period of three years or more riding on it—something like, say, planning for
is called “unsuccessful”—are analyzed. The a wedding—we will then tell ourselves that it
harsh reality is that more people can lose and is even more unlikely that we will succeed, and
then regain weight, than can lose and maintain then fitting in to that wedding dress will sud-
weight loss. According to Gary Foster Ph.D., denly look a whole lot less likely. The more our
clinical director of the Weight and Eating long-term goals appear uncertain, the more we
Disorders Program at the University of Penn- discount the impacts of our sneaky impulses
sylvania, nearly 65 percent of dieters return on these goals. And in a sort of cruel joke we
to their pre-dieting weight within three years play on ourselves, the more we depend heavily
on reaching those distant goals, the more we the average model weighs 23 percent less than
exaggerate the uncertainty of them. the average woman, compared to 8 percent
less twenty years ago—but also in the clothes
But there is yet another part of the equation.
women today are expected to wear. Although
Certainty in reaching our goals is highly linked
more than half of the women in the United
to self-esteem, which may not be entirely
States now wear a size 14 or larger, several of the
derived from our own values. In a worldwide
largest retailers, such as Urban Outfitters, An-
survey of more than 5,000 teenagers and young
thropologie, H&M, J. Crew, American Apparel,
adults, launched in 2008 and covering 19
Abercrombie & Fitch, do not carry sizes above
countries in Eastern and Western Europe, the
12 or 14, or only carry them online.
Middle East, South America, Africa, and Asia,
young respondents based their self-esteem not And what is considered plus-size has also
on their own personal values, but rather, on shrunk. Just ten years ago, plus-size began at
the values held by the culture they are exposed size 12 (and continued to size 18), now plus be-
to. Of the four factors that comprise self-es- gins at size 6, and stops just past where it used
teem—i.e., controlling one’s life, doing one’s to start—at size 14. Consider model Beverly
duty, benefiting others, and achieving social sta- Johnson who told ABC News that she was be-
tus—controlling one’s life emerged as the most tween a size 4 and 6 at the height of her career
influential. And the feeling of control was even two decades ago. Now, she would fall squarely
more indicative of self-esteem when comparing into the plus-size category—information that
Western cultures—that value individual free- didn’t surprise her.
dom and leading an exciting life—to cultures
And to all of this, the fashion industry turns a
that value conformity, tradition, and security
blind eye. A recent article in Elite Daily de-
(Becker et al., 2014).
scribed the experiences of Georgina Wilkin, a
model who spent five months in a hospital for
The Unreachable Thin Ideal
anorexia, just weeks after posing as a pregnant
Western cultures today tend to value taking model. Georgina recounts her experience:
one’s life by the reins, which in general, is not a
“I’d kept getting bookings although it must
bad trait. However, they also ascribe to fitting
have been obvious to everyone in the business
into a physical mold, which, for many people,
that I was anorexic. My lips and fingers were
may simply not be possible. According to an
blue because I was so thin that my heart was
editorial pictorial in the January, 2012, issue of
struggling to pump blood around my body.
PLUS Model magazine, most runway models
The make-up artists would have to disguise it
meet the body mass index criteria for anorex-
with concealer. It wasn’t just me—I know of at
ia, which is a BMI less than 17.5 or a weight
least six other models I still see photos of on a
less than 85 percent of ideal body weight. The
leading fashion website who are also anorex-
preference for a thinner ideal isn’t only reflect-
ic. They have the same telltale blue lips and
ed in the shrinking size of our models—today
hands” (Wilkin, 2013).

136 | Unit 5
Just how she ended up in a hospital fighting women who had no previous history of depres-
anorexia, Georgina explains, was due to the un- sion (Stice & Shaw, 1994).
relenting pressure by agents and stylists to lose
In a 2003 article that appeared in Psychology of
weight: “Too often I’d been told by agents and
Women Quarterly titled, “‘If Only I were Thin
stylists, ‘You could do much better if you were a
Like Her, Maybe I Could be Happy Like Her’: The
bit smaller’ or ‘You’ve got so much potential, but
Self-Implications of Associating a Thin Female
it would be a good idea for you to join a gym.’
Ideal with Life Success,” author Peggy Chin Ev-
This sort of language seeps deep into a young
ans, wrote, “Women often feel dissatisfied with
girl’s psyche” (Wilkin, 2013).
their appearance after comparing themselves to
While the Georgina Wilkins of the world other females who epitomize the thin-ideal stan-
may seem like rare exceptions, the underlying dard of beauty” (Chin Evans, 2003).
and penetrating message—you are not thin
enough—doesn’t just affect fashion models. The problem might not only be that we epito-
When you consider the ever thinner models in mize the thin-ideal standard of beauty, but that
context of our ever increasing waistlines—the we also equate it with an undue amount of hap-
obesity epidemic is not news to anyone—what piness. When comparing images of thin women
you get is a huge gap. A gap that for most wom- to average weight women, the ideally thin body is
en is simply unreasonable to cross. consistently linked to positive life outcomes, such
as happiness, confidence, and romantic success
This gap—between what we are expected to (Evans, 2003). For those who have over-inter-
look like, and what we actually look like— nalized the thin-ideal stereotype, achieving a
comes with some serious psychological rami- thin-ideal body may seem like the only way to be
fications. In one study, women who had been popular, loveable, successful, and happy.
shown images of ultrathin models, experienced
immediate psychological and behavioral fea- And while to some, this exposure to the thin
tures associated with eating disorders, such ideal may make thinness seem more attainable
as increased anger, a depressed mood, body and can act as a motivational factor in self-im-
dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem (Ahern et provement, the problem for most of us is that
al., 2011). And when these ultrathin images seep the thin ideal we are exposed to is impossible
in and become internalized, as longitudinal to achieve by any healthy means. For one thing,
studies have demonstrated, they don’t just lead not only is the standard media portrayal of
to weight-focused anxiety, an elevated drive the ideal woman 15 percent below the average
for thinness, and unnecessary dieting even in female body weight, but additional photo-ma-
women of healthy weight, they also make us nipulation, which e.g., elongates the legs and
feel bad about ourselves. One study found that narrows hips of already skinny models, makes
simply viewing thin-ideal body images in the that ideal not just difficult to attain, but bioge-
media produced a state of mild depression in netically impossible.
Comparing, Contrasting, and fall short. It’s simply hard to imagine being as
Coming Up Short thin as Kate Moss.
It is not just that we are exposed to unrealis- Lead study author, Dirk Smeesters explains,
tic—arguably impossible—standards, or that “Underweight women’s self-esteem always in-
these standards are presented as emblematic creases, regardless of the model they look at. On
of happiness, but it is also the way we compare the other hand, overweight women’s self-esteem
ourselves to them. Because models, movie stars, always decreases, regardless of the model they
and celebrities all portray enviable qualities look at” (Smeesters, 2010).
above and beyond their great looks and bod-
And looking at thin models doesn’t just make
ies— such as a great wardrobe, plenty of mon-
us feel bad about ourselves, it also affects what
ey, a high-status job, great relationships, posh
we do about it—and not in a good way. When
houses—when we compare ourselves to them,
overweight participants were exposed to thin
we engage in upward types of comparisons, not
models, they ate more cookies and had lower
the downward kind.
intentions to exercise than when exposed to
Upward and downward social comparisons thin models (Smeesters et al., 2010).
matter because when we measure ourselves
For most of us, this makes no sense. Because
against those less attractive than we think we
what we typically do when trying to lose
are (downward social comparisons) we feel
weight is use thin pictures—i.e., that we imag-
dramatically different than when we compare
ine we could look like—to motivate ourselves.
ourselves to our more attractive counterparts
The problem is, through doing this we are
(upward social comparisons).
actually increasing the chance that we will
In one study exploring the ways individu- sabotage our own efforts.
als with different body mass indexes (BMIs)
Smeesters cautions: “We recommend that over-
felt when they were exposed to thin or heavy
weight consumers attempt to avoid looking at
models in the media, researchers found that
ads with any models, thin or heavy (perhaps by
when normal body mass index females were
avoiding women’s magazines)” (Smeesters, 2010).
exposed to images of moderately thin or ex-
tremely heavy models, their self-esteem was Just why we should avoid all those pictures of
not affected, yet when they were exposed to thin models is not only because we will compare
extremely thin models, their self-esteem took ourselves to them and likely feel worse, it will
a nosedive (Smeesters, et al., 2010). And the make our weight loss goal seem uncertain and
reason for this is that while moderately thin be subject to the very impulsive actions that leave
models represent an equitable comparison and us with a loosening of our belts, but also because,
extremely heavy models represent a downward as you will see in the next section, the continued
social comparison, comparing ourselves to effort upon which weight loss depends demands
extremely thin models causes us to suddenly that there is something larger than even per-
forming well that compels us to action.

138 | Unit 5
Perform Now, Fizzle Later There is nothing wrong with performance

goals, and certainly, we do just fine with them
It’s common rhetoric among educators, coaches,
if all we are concerned with is performance. But
and fitness professionals that to get anywhere
changing behavior depends on developing an
we have to have goals. If we want a to run a 10K
interest in the behavior we are trying to change
race in six months, we should focus on run-
to. Research in social psychology has consis-
ning a mile continuously in the next month,
tently demonstrated that the interest we have in
and then the following month run two miles
something (as conveyed through our attitude
consistently, and so on. If we want to lose 50
toward it) is a predominant influencer of our
pounds and adopt a healthy lifestyle, we should
behavior (Myers, 1999; Smith & Mackie, 2007).
first focus on exercising every day, eating more
When we feel negative or just neutral toward
fruits and vegetables, and losing a few pounds
something, the chances are we are not going to
a week. Using short-term measurable goals,
keep doing it—even if we are performing well.
we are told, will help us reach our larger—and
seemingly overwhelming—goals. And all of this For Dan Pink, the author of Drive: The Sur-
sounds pretty good. Performance goals, like prising Truth About What Motivates Us, this
running a mile or walking every day, do tend to is nothing new. Drawing on four decades of
predict future behavior with some consistency, research from behavioral economists, social
e.g., those who achieve A grades in introductory psychologists, and successful businesses, Pink
classes are more likely to achieve A grades in found that motivation boiled down to three
intermediate classes, and those who can meet critical components: mastery, autonomy, and
their short-term running goals are more likely purpose. In speaking of mastery, Pink quotes
to reach their long-term running goal. Edward Deci, psychology professor, director of
University of Rochester’s Human Motivation
The problem is performance goals don’t pre-
program, and well-respected expert on motiva-
dict interest. In a 2000 study looking at the
tion, “Human beings have an inherent tendency
effects of short- and long-term achievement
to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend
goals on predicting interest and performance
and exercise their capacities, to explore and to
over time, researchers found that “perfor-
learn” (Pink, 2009).
mance goals had no effect on students interest
(in psychology)” (Harackiewicz et al., 2000). Just how we explore, learn, and extend ourselves
Yet when looking at mastery goals, i.e., those is through mastery. When we consistently seek
that favor learning a skill over achieving a out the types of challenges that draw upon and
preset performance goal, the results were the refine our strengths, not only do we boost mo-
opposite. Here, researchers concluded, “Only tivation, we also tap into a deeply human need,
mastery goals had significant positive effects which, not surprisingly, ignites our interest.
on enjoyment, interest in psychology, and con-
The takeaway is that just because we can do
tinued interest” (Harackiewicz et al., 2000).
something well (and meet our performance
goals), doesn’t mean we will continue to do it. If
we really want to change behavior—and ignite 4. Viewing images of ultrathin models leads to
the kind of motivation that changing behavior immediate psychological and behavioral fea-
tures associated with eating disorders, such
requires—we are going to need interest, and for
as increased anger, depressed mood, body
that we are going to need mastery goals.
dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem.
Changing behavior, we know by now, depends 5. Performance goals predict performance, not
on better connecting the aims of the long-run interest or continued behavior.
self with those of the short-run self. But we
6. Mastery goals predict interest and are highly
also know that what we aim at matters. When linked to continued involvement.
our goals carry the same certainty as just say,
not getting caught in traffic, we are in trouble. Our continued participation in an activity
And if we depend on our goals, like depending depends on our interest in the activity, as well
on arriving at our destination in time so we as our perception of the certainty that we will
don’t lose our job, we are in even bigger trouble. achieve our long-term goal. What this points to,
Because the more we doubt ourselves and the and the subject of part two below, is that if we
more unrealistic our goals seem—like trying to want to make better decisions (the type of de-
achieve that photo-manipulated thin ideal—the cisions that lead to behavior change and weight
more likely we are to sabotage our own efforts loss), we are going to need to a little (or maybe a
and find ourselves in exactly the same place we lot) or leverage.
started. And yet trying to attain a performance
ideal as a way to motivate ourselves to lose Powerpoint: Three Ways to Make
weight, also doesn’t work—we will simply end Long-Term Goals More Certain
up losing interest. Whether we are rationaliz-
ing those impulses and reaching for the box of Use the 7 Out Of 10 Rule
donuts or finding our interest waning, the con-
One way we can make our long-term goals very
clusion is the same: changing behavior depends
certain is to make sure they are within our
not just on having reachable goals, but also on
grasp. That is, if 10 is the number we assign to
having goals that are worth reaching for.
the most difficult goal we can imagine, then
Here are the important points to take away: the goals we choose to go after (at least in the
beginning) should be no harder than a 7. By
1. There is an inherent disconnect between
ranking goals this way, you keep them attain-
long-term consequences and short-term
consequences.
able by first considering your ability to reach
them—which makes them much more certain.
2. The more uncertain the long-term goals
appear, the more we discount the impact of
short-term choices. Identify Strengths
3. The more we depend on achieving a long- Goals become much more certain when we
term goal, the more we exaggerate the know that we have the strengths to reach
uncertainty of it. them. To help identify your strengths that can

140 | Unit 5
help you reach your goal, ask yourself: What connecting what you do now with the outcome
strengths have I used in the past to reach my it will have later an everyday practice.
goals? What is my greatest asset that can help
me reach this goal? What strength could I de- The Procrastination Problem
velop to help me with this goal? Questions such
as this draw your attention to your resources It might be obvious that when we make impul-
and represent a powerful way to boost your sive choices, we’re not thinking too much about
confidence in reaching a goal. the long term. Instead, we rationalize that the
latte and pastry we stop for on the way to work
Challenge Doubts won’t really affect us that much, the run we
were supposed to do isn’t really worth getting
Doubts have a unique way of your deterring con- out of bed early for, and the burger and fries we
fidence and making reaching your goals seem all order at dinner is really worth it. What might
the less certain. You can become more certain of not be so obvious is just how all of these deci-
reaching your goals by challenging your doubts. sions leave us standing on one side of a seem-
To do this, make a list of your doubts and then ingly immense divide—between where we want
counter each one with three reasons why the to be and where we are.
doubt might not be true. For example, if your
doubt is that you have too little willpower, come Yet when it comes to closing this gap (between
up with three pieces of evidence that dispute that what we do now and what we get later) one of
belief (such as the times you did exhibit willpow- the biggest problems is something we are all
er). By identifying and challenging doubts this familiar with: procrastination. Our tendency
way, not only do you make yourself much more to put off until tomorrow what we probably
aware of them, but more importantly, the ways should do today, doesn’t just cause us to lose
you can overcome them. sleep and pull our hair out, it makes what we
have to do harder. In a recent study of 212
Part Two: To Win the students, researchers first assessed students for
procrastination, and then on the nine clinical
Game, You Have to Know subscales of executive functioning: impulsivity,
the Rules self-monitoring, planning and organization,
activity shifting, task initiation, task monitor-
We know the default: we are prone to discount
ing, emotional control, working memory, and
the benefits of good choices, exaggerate the
general orderliness. While they expected to
temptation costs of missing out on the alter-
find a link between procrastination and a few
natives, and underestimate the risks of acting
of the subscales (namely, the first four in the list
on impulses. But how do we change the de-
above), what they actually found was associa-
fault? Packed with tips, exercises, and prompts,
tions with all nine. (Rabin et al., 2011).
this section offers powerful ways to make
A separate study rated college students on And as any procrastinator knows, when you are
an established scale of procrastination, then already having a bad day (remember those hot
tracked their academic performance, stress, and states), choosing between going to the gym (the
general health throughout a semester. While in unpleasant choice) and watching sitcoms while
early measures, it appeared that procrastination eating nachos (the pleasant choice) is about
had an adaptive advantage, in that procrastina- as simple as choosing between having a root
tors reported lower levels of stress, as the study canal or going on vacation. On the other hand,
continued the situation reversed, and the costs procrastination can also be linked with a fear
of procrastination then far outweighed the tem- of failure. For a procrastinator, it is better to be
porary benefits. Procrastinators earned lower seen as lacking effort than lacking ability.
grades than other students and reported higher
cumulative amounts of stress and illness (Tice But arguably the biggest problem with procras-
& Baumeister, 1997). tination is its sticky nature. Recent research has
found that procrastinators carry feelings of guilt,
And procrastination doesn’t just dampen our shame, or anxiety linked to their decision to
moods and take a toll on executive functions— delay. In one study, researchers gave 45 students
it makes us more likely to procrastinate again in a pager and tracked them for five days leading
the future. Over time, the act of procrastinating up to a school deadline. Eight times a day, when
weakens executive function and makes overrid- beeped, the test participants had to report their
ing more tempting short-term options increas- level of procrastination as well as their emotion-
ingly difficult. For example, let’s say that you al state. As the preparatory tasks became more
have an important project to complete for work, difficult and stressful, the students put them off
but upon arriving home, instead of working more and more for more pleasant activities, yet
on it, you watch a sitcom. You figure that you they also reported high levels of guilt—a sign
can do the project tomorrow instead. But when that beneath the veneer of relief there was a lin-
tomorrow comes, you are more likely to watch gering dread about the work set aside (Pychyl et
the sitcom again, and then with each succes- al., 2000). Lead study author Timothy A. Pychyl
sive day that you put the project off, starting concluded, “Emotional regulation, to me, is the
it becomes that much more difficult. You may real story around procrastination, because to the
justify delaying by convincing yourself that it extent that I can deal with my emotions, I can
is adaptive: that is, the work I do later will be of stay on task” (Pychyl, 2000).
better quality. Also, some procrastinators truly
believe they work best under pressure. For many of us it’s a familiar story: the more we
put something off, the harder it becomes to do,
Yet we can also procrastinate because we exag- and the worse we feel about it. In a downward
gerate those temptation costs (remember from spiral, the act of procrastinating weakens our
section one), and to us the chocolate cake really executive function defenses for future-orient-
does taste better, especially if we eat it now. ed decisions. And as we know from section

142 | Unit 5
one, self-control is a limited resource, and one ages of 9 and 18 who were obese and who had at
that steadily declines as we move from one least one other chronic metabolic disorder, such
self-control task to another (Muraven, Tice, & as hypertension, high triglyceride levels, or a
Baumeister, 1998). In what is known as the “ego biochemical marker of fatty liver. First, baseline
depletion theory,” the more we expend effort levels of fasting blood glucose, blood pressure,
making rational, intelligent decisions, the more and glucose tolerance were assessed, and then
we deplete the wellspring needed for future participants were fed a diet that restricted sugar
self-control (Vohs et al., 2006). While spending but substituted starch to maintain the same
our workdays overriding our urge to check our fat, protein, carbohydrate, and calorie levels as
Facebook profile at every moment, at the end of their previously reported home diets. While
the day, we are more likely to go home and skip sugar was restricted, other carbohydrates were
the gym—our willpower is just worn out. And substituted so that the same number of total
if you also recall from section one, if we already calories and the calories from carbohydrates
trying to curb calories, the picture gets even were maintained, but total dietary sugar was
more bleak as keeping blood sugar low cuts reduced from 28 percent to 10 percent, and
willpower off at its knees. fructose from 12 percent to 4 percent of total
calories, respectively. And in order to eliminate
And yet it’s hard to imagine a diet that doesn’t any effects related to weight loss, participants
regulate blood sugar. High-blood-sugar levels were given a scale and told to weigh themselves
have not only been linked to almost every dis- every day. When weight loss did occur (classi-
ease going, from diabetes to cancer, but are now fied as a decrease of an average of 1 percent over
recognized as the most predominant piece in the 10-day period but without a change in body
the obesity puzzle. fat), more low-sugar food was added to the diet
until weight stability was attained.
A Calorie is Not a Calorie: The After just 9 days on the sugar-restricted diet,
Hidden Harmful Effects of Sugar virtually every aspect of the participants’
We’ve all heard it countless times: weight loss metabolic health improved, without a change
is a simple equation of calories in vs. calories in weight. On average, diastolic blood pres-
out. The less we eat and the more energy we sure was decreased by 5 mm, triglycerides by
expend, the more weight we will lose. And yet 33 points, LDL-cholesterol (known as “bad”
the results of a recent study at Touro Univer- cholesterol) by 10 points, and liver function
sity California had researchers reconsidering tests improved. Fasting blood glucose went
the weight loss equation. Recruiting Latinos down by 5 points, and insulin levels were cut
and African–American youth because of their by one-third (Lustig et al., 2015). In the words
higher risk for diabetes and high blood pres- of the study’s lead author, Robert Lustig, MD,
sure—both outcomes of metabolic syndrome— MSL, pediatric endocrinologist at UCSF Benioff
researchers followed 43 children between the Children’s Hospital San Francisco, “This study
definitively shows that sugar is metabolically
harmful not because of its calories or its effects 29 Massachusetts schools, comparing results
on weight; rather sugar is metabolically harm- based on the Tools of the Mind program—a
ful because it’s sugar” (Lustig, 2015). research-based educational program that
uses child-directed activities and structured
Jean-Marc Schwarz, Ph.D., from the College
make-believe play to increase self-regulation (a
of Osteopathic Medicine at Touro University
core component of executive functioning)—to
California reported, “I have never seen results
other kindergarten children not participating in
as striking or significant in our human studies;
the program.
after only nine days of fructose restriction, the
results are dramatic and consistent from subject When compared with their peers in the control
to subject” (Schwartz, 2015). classrooms, the kindergartner kids in the Tools
of the Mind classrooms were better at paying
The takeaway? A calorie is not just a calorie.
attention in the face of distractions, controlling
More than any other calorie, sugar wreaks havoc
their impulses, had better working memories,
on our metabolic system, causing insulin levels
and processed information more efficiently.
to go through the roof, blood pressure to rise, fat
Even more compelling, the gains were the high-
to collect around the liver, and bad cholesterol to
est in children who had been given a provision-
surge. Yet without changing total caloric intake,
al diagnosis of ADHD (Blair & Raver, 2014).
exercise, weight, or even the consumption of pro-
cessed food, when we lower sugar levels, every A second study found similar results. Using a
measure of metabolic health gets better. self-regulation intervention that consisted of
20–30 minute sessions every week, research-
Taking Control of Self-Control ers followed 276 children from ages three to
five enrolled in a federally funded Head Start
So if in order to be successful at weight loss program for at-risk youths for eight weeks.
(and arguably at improving our health) we have The children were randomly assigned to either
to control sugar, yet having self-control depends a control group or the intervention program,
on having enough blood glucose in our system which used movement and music-based games
to support our willpower, the question is: Just that increased in complexity over time and that
how do we gain self-control when we are diet- encouraged the children to practice self-regula-
ing (and keeping blood sugar levels low)? tion skills. The game required children to listen
and remember instructions, to pay attention to
One study was carried out with arguably one the adult leading the game, and to resist their
of the most self-control-deprived groups of natural inclinations to stop or go, and was
people, namely kids with ADHD, and research- designed to be naturally progressive, with each
ers were able to demonstrate that the answer successive game task becoming harder.
may lie in strengthening our executive func-
tions. In a two-year randomized controlled Researchers then compared the children’s
trial, the researchers studied 759 children in self-regulation and academic achievement be-
fore and after the intervention, and found that

144 | Unit 5
the children who had received the intervention scans, self-reporting questionnaires, and an
scored significantly higher on two direct mea- objective measure of carbon monoxide on
sures of self-regulation. And again, it was found their smoking amounts and habits before and
that the intervention was most effective with after the intervention. The researchers found
the children considered to be at the highest risk that the students who had received self-control
of struggling in school— due to their self-con- training reduced their smoking by a whopping
trol problems (Schmidt et al., 2014). 60 percent (as measured by the carbon dioxide
percentage in their lungs). Even more fascinat-
But perhaps the question we should be asking
ing was that when the researchers compared the
is: Does strengthening executive functioning
students self-reported intention to stop smoking
work for adults? Here again, to answer this
to their actual reduction in usage, they found
question, the best place to look is a group of
no correlation (Tang et al., 2015).
adults commonly considered as having low
self-control, i.e., those with addiction problems. What this study, and other studies that have
replicated the results, seem to tell us is that
While many studies have explored techniques
when we want to change a behavior, what
such as assigning a quit date, using cognitive
matters most is not our intention to change, but
behavioral therapy, and warning smokers of the
the amount of self-control we have to actually
risks of continued smoking, one recent study
execute the change.
using neuroimaging to compare the brains of
non-smokers to those of smokers. In the re- And no place could this be more relevant than
gion of the brain associated with self-control when trying to lose weight. In the first study
(and executive functioning) i.e., the prefrontal ever to examine whether practicing acts of
cortex, the smokers showed dramatically less self-control during weight loss is linked to an
activity, suggesting than when it comes to the increase in self-control and better weight loss
addictive behavior of smoking, self-control is outcomes, experts from the Miriam research
decidedly absent. Questioning if self-control team found that individuals with more will-
training could improve smokers success at power—or self-control—lost more weight, were
quitting, researchers from Texas Tech Univer- more physically active, consumed fewer calories
sity and the University of Oregon recruited from fat, and had better attendance at weight
60 undergraduate students (27 smokers and loss group meetings. And when participants
33 non-smokers) to participate in an integra- experienced an increase in self-control during
tive mind–body program designed to improve a six-month behavioral weight loss treatment
self-control. The students were then split into program, the effect was even more pronounced
two groups: one receiving self-control training (Leahey et al., 2013).
and the other receiving relaxation training.
Testing self-control through the use of an exer-
After receiving 5 hours comprising ten 30 cise where participants had to override aversive
minute sessions over the course of two weeks, stimuli, such as cramping, pain, and discom-
researchers then compared the students’ brain fort, study lead author Tricia Leahey explained
that developing self-control, or willpower, is like cookie, they were significantly more likely to eat
building a muscle, “The more you ‘exercise’ it a cookie themselves. And when they saw anoth-
by eating a low-fat diet, working out even when er person making a healthy choice, they were
you don’t feel like it, and going to group meet- nine times more likely to make that healthy
ings when you’d rather stay home, the more choice themselves. The effect was so powerful,
you’ll increase and strengthen your self-control in fact, that seeing the name of someone with
‘muscle’ and quite possibly, lose more weight good or bad self-control flashing on a screen
and improve your health” (Leahey, 2013). for just 10 milliseconds changed their behavior
(VanDellan & Hoyle, 2015).
One way to exercise the self-control muscle,
like the self-control test demonstrated, is by The takeaway from these studies is that
inhibiting impulses, especially those that self-control doesn’t just have to practiced, it
threaten to derail our weight loss goals. But we has to be protected. That little trip to Starbucks
may also have to inhibit who we hang around that we mindlessly take with our friend who
with too. Self-control, it turns out, just might is well known for her proclivity for venti size
be contagious. Frappuccinos (which weigh in at a whopping
six hundred calories and fifty grams of sugar!)
Examining five separate studies conducted over
might go by unnoticed, but the next time we
two years, researchers Michelle VanDellan from
find ourselves at Starbucks, it might just be us
the University of Georgia and Rick Hoyle at
with the venti Frappuccino in our hands—and
Duke University found that watching or even
maybe one of those tasty lemon bars as well!
thinking about someone with good self-control
makes us more likely to exert self-control. The truth is that both procrastination and
self-control have a sticky nature. The more we
VanDellan and Hoyle asked participants to
procrastinate, the more we deplete the very
either watch someone exerting self-control (by
executive functions that help overcome that
eating a carrot and not a cookie), or to think
impulse of putting things off, and the harder
about, list, or write about a person who has either
it becomes to not procrastinate. On the other
good or bad self-control, and then tested partic-
hand, the more we exercise our self-control
ipants self-control using various measures, such
muscle— e.g., by practicing, witnessing, and
as a handgrip task commonly used to measure
surrounding ourselves with acts of self-control,
self-control, the ability to choose healthier foods
such as overriding our impulses—the better we
(and override the unhealthy alternatives), and the
will get at our own self-control.
speed at which they could identify words associ-
ated with self-control on a screen. Here are the important points to take away:
And in every single measure, they found that 1. The act of procrastinating weakens our exec-
participants’ self-control was influenced by utive function defenses for future-oriented
decisions.
their association with self-control. When
participants watched another person eating a 2. Without changing our total caloric intake,

146 | Unit 5
exercise, weight, or even consumption of pro- a marathon or having a close friend or family
cessed food, when we lower sugar levels, ev- member send us some virtual cheers might just
ery measure of metabolic health gets better.
help us run a few more miles.
3. Self-control is like a muscle and can be
strengthened by consistent performance Reduce exposure to tempting options. It’s in
of acts of self-control, through exposing our very nature to exaggerate the temptation
ourselves to other people’s acts of self-con- costs of avoiding alluring options. If for no oth-
trol, and even through thinking and writing
er reason than this, we should make every effort
about self-control.
to avoid exposure to them. Having someone
The problem for most people, however, is that else order for us at a restaurant while we avoid
overriding impulses is a lot harder to do than it looking at the menu or avoiding the grocery
sounds. As we should know by now, our deci- store and instead using a preset online shopping
sions—especially those that serve to benefit us in order can go a long way toward making sure
the long term—are plagued by a host of thought that those tasty muffins don’t end up or on our
errors that don’t just make us more likely to plate or in our shopping cart.
choose the cookies over the carrot, but that even
Ensure that the long-term goals are as certain
discount the impact it will have on our waistline,
as possible. As we know, the more uncertain
and exaggerate the pleasure of eating it. But we
our long-term goals are, the more likely we will
should also know that our self-control—like any
be to discount the risk of giving in to our im-
other muscle—can be strengthened. Let’s look at
pulses. And this effect is exaggerated when we
a few ways we can do this.
depend highly on that long-term goal. For this
Use strategies that increase attention to the reason, whatever long-term goals we choose, we
benefit of an activity throughout the duration should be certain we can get achieve them.
of the activity. Running always looks better
Incorporate mastery. We know that in order
to us before we do it than it does when we are
to continue doing something, we have to have
actually doing it. In order to be successful then
an interest in it. And interest is highly linked
at running, we need to find ways to remind
to mastery. To incorporate mastery then, we
ourselves of the benefits of running while we are
should focus on learning goals, such as being
running. For example, we can use text remind-
able to shoot a free throw shot in proper form,
ers about the specific health benefits designed
learning the correct biomechanics of running,
to be delivered during our run. We can also
or learning how to ride a horse.
do this with statistics, reminding ourselves of
other desirable outcomes linked to running,
Avoid performance goals. Performance goals,
such as increased intelligence, emotional reg-
as we know, are linked to higher performance,
ulation, creativity, and optimism. Or we could
but not to continued involvement. If we want
use in-run reminders delivered to us by our
to change behavior and cultivate continuous
supporters. Being cheered along the course of
involvement, we should make every effort to do whatever we’d like, such as calling a friend,
avoid performance goals. going on a walk, or taking a nap, we’d then be
much more likely to make it to the gym.
Minimize hot states. We know that when in a
hot state we are more prone to making an error Minimize contact with self-control drains.
in judgment and impulsive decisions. Minimiz- Self-control is influenced by several factors, but
ing hot states, or at the very least separating them one of the most insidious ways self-control can
from the self-control decisions we need to make, be derailed is through hanging out with the
might not just help us steer clear of some nasty wrong people. When we see those around us
fights with our spouse, but might also ensure giving in to impulses, suddenly we find a host
that our waistlines don’t pay the price for them. of reasons why we should also. Not only do we
not want to miss out on what we see someone
Develop strategies to combat procrastina- else getting (it’s never fun to watch someone
tion. Because chronic procrastination weakens enjoy a delicious brownie right in front of you),
executive function and lowers mood, we should but those justifications become that much
make every effort to minimize it. We can do easier (it’s always much easier to find reasons
this through having preset commitments. For to do something that someone else is already
instance, giving $1000 to our neighbor to keep doing). So one of the best things we can do for
unless we follow through on our required tasks our self-control is to protect it from things (and
(thereby avoiding procrastination) will quite people) that drain it. When you notice who
likely spur our motivation that bit more—and around you doesn’t exhibit the level of self-con-
keep that $1,000 dollars in our pocket! On the trol you desire and then you minimize your
other hand, we can also limit our exposure to contact with them, you will find that suddenly
more pleasurable (and deceptively distracting) the power to control your impulses becomes
options. Disconnecting, moving, or giving away that much easier.
the television, not surprisingly, might just help
us get our work done, instead of watching the
PowerPoint: Three Exercises to
latest sitcoms.
Connect Your Present Actions
Find ways to replenish self-control. Self-con- with Future Outcomes
trol, as we know, is a limited resource, and the
more we use it without replenishing it, the less Do a Behavior Ranking List
of it we will have. In order to replenish self-con-
People have a variety of behaviors they may
trol then, we have to allow ourselves areas of
perform throughout the day, some automatical-
our lives where we can make free choices. For
ly, and some more planned, and yet, seldom do
example, if we have spent all day restricting our
we think about the ways in which these behav-
impulse to go on Facebook, yet we’d like to be
iors affect our desired goals. One way to become
able to convince ourselves to go to the gym after
more aware of the effect your behaviors have on
work, by first giving ourselves one-half hour to

148 | Unit 5
your long-term goals is to do a behavior rank- booster. First, identify one small change that
ing list. To do this, list all of the behaviors you would involve exerting some self-control on
have during the day (to the best of your abili- a daily basis. For example, you may choose
ty), and then rank each behavior from 1–10 in to walk every day for ten minutes, or to only
terms of relative impact on your long-term goal, drink two cups of coffee per day. Whatever
with 1 being the lowest impact and 10 being you choose is up to you, but the action should
the highest. For example, you might list eating be fairly small so as to ensure you can achieve
breakfast with an impact number of 5, going to it. Next, make a commitment to uphold this
work with an impact number of 7, and watching choice for one week, each day rating the effort
television after work with an impact number of it took (from 1–10) to uphold the choice. At the
2. By drawing your awareness to each behavior, end of the week, you should have a full week’s
and the impact it has on your long-term goals, of ratings, and most likely will be able to see
you give yourself an effective way to connect that the more self-control is practiced, the easier
your present actions with future outcomes. it becomes.
Make a List of Outcomes Section One: That Sneaky

Like doing a behavior ranking list, making a Implicit Bias and How To Fix It
list of outcomes draws our awareness to the
When William J. Bratton became head of the
impact our behaviors can have on future out-
New York City Transit Police in 1990, one ques-
comes. By first listing all of the things you do
tion he might have asking himself is one that
during the day, and then connecting a long-
we all have probably asked ourselves on many
term outcome with each one, you can become
occasions: How do I change behavior? The prob-
much more aware of your daily choices. For
lem in New York City, they said, was it was “too
example, you might list watching television as a
big, too diverse, too unruly, and too broken to
daily behavior, for which the long-term out-
fix.” Bratton, however, had a different idea.
come is inactivity, and perhaps low mood (due
to isolation). Conversely, you might list walking Bratton had been inspired by a man named
every morning, which has a long-term outcome Phillip Zimbardo, a Stanford psychologist, who
of increased longevity. Thinking about your began his early work studying just how much
behavior in this way is a very powerful way people were affected by their environments. Cu-
to increase your awareness and connection to rious as to how the culture of a community could
future outcomes. relate to crime levels, Zimbardo arranged for an
automobile with no license plates and an open
Do a Self-Control Booster hood to be parked idle in a Bronx neighborhood.
Self-control is like a muscle, and it’s a muscle Then, he arranged for a second car in exactly
that gets stronger with exercise and use. To the same condition to be set up in Palo Alto,
help build your self-control, do a self-control California. Within minutes of leaving the car in
the Bronx, it had been vandalized. And within neighborhood and one that is much less likely
twenty-four hours, everything of value had been to send respectable people heading for the hills.
taken off the car. In the days that followed, the
Zimbardo further argued that the landscape
windows were smashed in, the upholstery was
of an environment “communicates” to people.
torn, and children started using the car as a play-
A broken window transmits to criminals the
ground. The car abandoned in Palo Alto, on the
message that the community displays a lack of
other hand, sat untouched for more than a week.
informal social control, and therefore is unable
It wasn’t until Zimbardo himself smashed in the
or unwilling to defend itself against criminal
vehicle with a sledgehammer that others joined
invasion. At its core, a broken window is a sym-
in. However in Palo Alto, the “vandals” were
bol that a community doesn’t care about how
not the thugs, gang members, and criminals
it is portrayed. And, not surprisingly, broken
seen in the Bronx: in Palo Alto, the vandals were
windows lead to citizens who don’t care either.
well dressed, clean-cut, suit-wearing, seemingly
Demonstrating just how powerful this effect
respectable individuals.
is, Zimbardo went on to conduct what is now
The phenomenon that Zimbardo uncovered is widely recognized as one of the most prolific
now known as the “broken windows” theory. studies on human behavior: the famous 1971
The theory explains that in a neighborhood Stanford Prison Experiment.
like the Bronx, where there is a more prevalent What we can learn from Zimbardo’s work is
history of abandoned property and theft, and that the environment that surrounds us highly
where the community itself adopts an apathetic influences our behavior—often in ways that are
attitude toward crime, events like vandalism both unforeseen and beyond our control. Bro-
happen much more quickly. Zimbardo went on ken windows change the way people see their
to say that in any civilized community where community, and over time, a sense of regard for
apathy takes over—and where the sense of ci- community, others, and civility erodes. Crim-
vility and concern for others is absent—similar inal behavior escalates as more people turn a
events can occur. blind eye, and eventually vandalism simply
becomes the norm. And like broken windows,
To prevent vandalism, and to change behavior,
the small actions we take—often that occur
the argument goes, we have to address prob-
without our conscious awareness—change the
lems when they are small. We must fix broken
way we see ourselves. When we begin to accept
windows immediately, before we have a neigh-
that we eat ice cream after dinner, don’t go to
borhood full of them. We must clean up the
the gym as regularly as we’d like, and don’t ex-
litter on the sidewalk before it lines the entire
ert self-control in the face of that delicious plate
street. Catching problems before they esca-
of cookies—all behaviors that derail us from
late in this way creates a culture of respectable
reaching our goals—we also don’t see ourselves
behavior, and leads to a much more appealing
as the type of people who stroll on the beach
sporting sleek, tanned bodies.

150 | Unit 5
Broken windows, abandoned cars, and dirty with inhibiting impulses (Fleming, 2010). As
streets do to a community what our biases do the study report first author Stephen Fleming of
to us: they act under our cognitive radar. The the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging
reason we don’t act to overcome them, how- at UCL explained, “When faced with a complex
ever, might have something to do with how decision, people tend to accept the status quo,
difficult the decision is. hence the old saying ‘When in doubt, do noth-
ing’” (Fleming, 2010).
Complex Decisions, Clinging to the
For Dan Ariely, who we met in section one, this
Status Quo, and Doing Nothing
makes perfect sense. In studying the tendency
We already know that the more uncertain our for people to become organ donors (arguably a
goals are, the more we are likely to discount complex decision), Ariely found that in coun-
the risks of giving in to the impulses that may tries where becoming an organ donor was the
derail them. But when the decision to take default option, people were as much as six times
action toward our goals is a difficult one, we more likely to donate. In fact, choosing not to
might not make it at all. donate dropped to less than ten percent, from a
previous seventy-five percent in countries where
A recent study used functional MRI (fMRI) the default was changed from not being a donor
to examine the brains of study participants to being a donor (Ariely, 2009).
while they acted as tennis referees, deciding
whether or not the ball was “in” or “out.” In What studies like this tell us is that the more
the experiment, participants were asked to complex our decisions are, the more we would
look at a cross between two tramlines while rather not make them. Whether the decision is to
holding down a “default” key. With each trial, stop smoking, lose weight, get a divorce, or start
the computer signaled what was the current exercising (all arguably complex decisions) our
default option: in or out. As the ball landed in tendency is to stick to the status quo, and to opt
the court, participants had to continue to hold for the default of doing nothing. For anyone who
down the default key to accept the current has ever tried to lose weight, this probably sounds
default option, or release the key to change the like a familiar story: the more you look into the
decision and to reject the default. best way to lose weight, the more alternatives you
can find (at this writing, a web search for ‘how to
Whether or not the default was “in” or “out”, lose weight’ resulted in 679 results) until you reach
participants showed a consistent bias toward information overload, and then you simply put off
the default, which, not surprisingly, led to a that resolution for another year.
host of errors. And as the task became more
difficult, the participants choose the default But the problem is, when it comes to weight
option with even greater frequency. Further, the loss, the decision to lose weight doesn’t just
more difficult the task, the greater the activity happen once, it happens every time we see the
in the prefrontal cortex, which is associated plateful of piping hot cookies, someone offers
us M&Ms, and when we are deciding what to
eat for dinner. And these daily decisions are When the M&Ms were offered, participants
not immune from our biases either—especially took only one spoon—regardless of the size of
about just how big those portions should be. spoon. If presented with a small spoon, people
would take a single scoop, even though the sign
The Right Size is the One We Offer: encouraged them to take more. When given a
What Our Biases Can Tell Us About much larger spoon, the subjects would still take
How Much We Are Going to Eat just a single scoop, even though that one scoop
contained much more candy. In all cases, what
Whether we are cutting carbs, eliminating sug-
determined how much people ate was not how
ar, or lowering fat, when we try to lose weight,
large they thought that portion should be (or
for most of us, the focus is on calories, and the
the apparent caloric content) but rather, simply
content of those calories. But what we often fail
how much was offered (Geier & Rozin, 2005).
to consider is that when making those choices
about just what and how much to eat, we are In a similar study, researchers offered two
also affected by our thinking about just how big groups of participants a bowl of soup; however,
that portion should be. for one group, the bowl was connected to a tube
under the table that caused the bowl to continue
In one study, researchers from the University of
to refill, regardless of how much people ate. The
Pennsylvania Psychology department designed
other group was given the same type of soup,
a series of experiments to observe how people
only in a bowl that didn’t refill. Amazingly, the
choose to act in the presence of unlimited free
group with the refillable bowl ate a whopping
food in public or private settings. Unsuspect-
seventy-three percent more soup than the group
ing participants were presented with differing
whose bowl didn’t refill. This effect was also in-
portions of M&Ms candies, Tootsie Rolls, and
dependent of the participants’ BMI. What was
Philadelphia-style soft pretzels. For example,
even more shocking, however, was that they
in one part of the study, people were offered a
failed to notice. In fact, the participants eating
whole pretzel, and in another part of the study,
more soup did not believe they had consumed
only a half a pretzel. On another day, a large
more, nor did they perceive themselves as being
mixing bowl of M&Ms was placed at the front
more sated than those eating from normal
desk of the concierge of an apartment building
bowls (Wansink et al, 2005).
with a sign that read “Eat Your Fill,” and “Please
use the spoon to serve yourself.” And while it may be no surprise to most of us
that the portion sizes in America have grown
Even though participants were unaware that
astronomically (what was considered a large bag
they were being observed, in every situation
of fries a mere ten years ago is now considered
participants took just one serving. In the pretzel
medium), we may not notice just how affected
experiment, for example, people would take and
we are by these escalating sizes. Are we truly
eat an entire pretzel, yet when only half a pret-
blind to how much we consume? For Andrew B.
zel was offered, they would happily eat just half.
Geier, who led the University of Pennsylvania

152 | Unit 5
studies, the answer is that we have a “culturally that irresistible impulse, researchers recruited
enforced consumption norm” that promotes the participants to play a custom-designed comput-
idea that the amount we are served is the proper er game while wearing EEG scalp monitors.
amount to eat (Geier, 2005).
In the game, there were four scenarios: the
Geier goes on to say that we all have “unit bias- instinctual scenarios of clicking for a monetary
es” that affect every type of consumption—from reward and not clicking to avoid a penalty, and
how much food we eat, to how many times we the trickier scenarios of clicking to avoid a pen-
should ride a rollercoaster. Just how we over- alty and not clicking to gain a reward. Partic-
come these biases, as you will see in the next ipants had to then learn how to respond when
section, might have something to do with how presented with one of four distinct symbols,
our brains are wired. each corresponding to a different scenario.
Not surprisingly, participants easily learned

It’s Us vs. Our Biases
which symbol to click for a reward and which
What broken windows, complex decisions, and not to click to avoid a penalty, but when trying
refillable soup bowls can tell us is that, when it to learn to restrain themselves to gain a reward,
comes to changing behavior, the pull of our bi- it was a different story. Very few people man-
ases is stronger than we imagine. And whether aged to learn to restrain themselves to gain a
engaging in criminal behavior, avoiding mak- reward, and the ones who did had dramatically
ing a decision, or mindlessly consuming what different brain activity. What predicted partic-
is served to us, we are primed to maintain the ipants’ ability to repress their Pavlovian biases
status quo. Like a gravitational pull, our ho- was the presence of theta brain waves when the
meostatic desires often keep us doing the same symbol that corresponded to restraint flashed
thing—even when the results are not desirable. across the screen—and this effect held up not
only when comparing individual subjects, but
However, that of course depends on how you also when comparing the subjects to themselves
define desirable. Many things—like eating at different times (e.g., some subjects’ abilities
chocolate cake, driving fast, and impulse buy- wavered from task to task and the theta waves
ing—are enjoyable in the short term. And they varied right along with this) (Frank et al., 2013).
come with rewards, which means they raise do-
pamine levels, and as you will remember, they What are theta brain waves you might probably
thus become all the more addictive, especially ask? Theta brain waves are those brain waves
for those already low in dopamine. most frequently associated with meditation,
relaxation, spiritual connection, and creativi-
So as you can see we are hardwired to act to ty. Many have also suggested that theta brain
gain rewards. The problem is, sometimes we waves occur when we come into contact with
must restrain ourselves to gain a reward. In try- our subconscious mind. And if we consider that
ing to uncover just what helps us recognize the biases often act under our conscious radar, and
conflict between a rational course of action and without detection, this makes perfect sense.
Overcoming them then, requires slowing our study, explains, “Seemingly diverse choices—
brains down and becoming conscious about drug taking, eating quickly despite weight gain,
what we are doing. And as it turns out, acting and compulsive cleaning or checking—have
against our habituated behaviors, might come an underlying common thread: rather than a
with another benefit for our brain. person making a choice based on what they
think will happen, their choice is automatic or
Looking to understand just what happens when
habitual” (Voon, 2014).
our decision-making processes malfunction, a
team of researchers led by the Department of The takeaway from this is that overcoming
Psychiatry at the University of Cambridge com- our ingrained behaviors—especially those that
pared about 150 individuals with various disor- come with temporary rewards—is a function
ders, including methamphetamine dependence, not only of slowing down and becoming more
obesity with binge eating, and obsessive com- conscious of our choices (thereby activating
pulsive disorder, to healthy volunteers of the theta brain waves), but also making those
same age and gender. Participants were asked to choices on a consistent basis (thereby building
make choices that either reflected their habitu- our prefrontal cortex).
ated compulsive behaviors or choices aimed at
receiving a reward. Then, the researchers com-
pared the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 1. The more complex our decisions, the more
brain scans of the healthy individuals with MRI we cling to the status quo and opt for the
scans from a subset of obese individuals with or default of doing nothing.
without binge eating disorder (which is defined 2. We have a bias toward what we are served,
as a subtype of obesity in which the person such that we tend to eat the portions that are
binge eats large amounts of food rapidly). served, regardless of their size.
3. Overcoming automatic habituated behav-

The results they found shouldn’t surprise us. All
ior—also known as biases—requires slowing
of the disorders were connected by a shift away our brains down and becoming conscious
from goal-directed behaviors toward automatic about what we are doing.
habitual choices. But what was most surprising
was that the MRI scans of the obese subjects Just as NYC police chief Bratton used a “ze-
with binge eating disorder had lower gray mat- ro-tolerance” policy to target the behavior of
ter volumes in the orbitofrontal cortex and stri- criminals while they were still “green”, chang-
atum of the brain—two areas associated with ing our behavior starts at the ground level, i.e.,
keeping track of goals and rewards—compared by changing small behaviors and creating a
to those who do not binge eat. Even in healthy landscape of small effective changes. And like
volunteers, the lower gray matter volumes were Bratton’s zero-tolerance policy, we too, must
associated with a shift toward more habitual attach consequences to our actions.
choices (Voon et al., 2014). Let’s look at a few ways we can do this:
Dr. Valerie Voon, principal investigator of the

154 | Unit 5
Use preset commitments. Preset commitment it’s not simply ourselves we are rationalizing
are those we make before we attempt to make our behavior to.
a decision. For example, if we want to not eat
Attach consequences to actions. Attaching
ice cream after dinner, we can make a com-
consequences to actions makes the cognitive
mitment—attaching whatever consequential
processing of those actions before, and in the
outcome we like—before we arrive home. Preset
moment, much more central. From the mo-
commitments help us organize and devote
ment we set consequences, we begin thinking
cognitive control to help us avoid impulses and
about them, and about ways to avoid them. For
unconscious motivations because, instead of
example, let’s say that we want to run the entire
thinking about how much we’d like to eat ice
ten mile training run we have scheduled and
cream, skip the gym, or indulge in a steak din-
not walk any portion of it, so we give our friend
ner, we think about our commitment, and how
$1000 to keep in hand for us in case we walk
bad we will feel if we don’t keep our word. And
any part of the run. From the time we give our
thinking about how to keep our commitments
friend the $1000, we will naturally begin think-
(and why we should) before we make them, not
ing about ways to run the whole distance to
surprisingly dramatically improves our chances
avoid losing our $1000. Stiff consequences like
of actually keeping them.
this powerfully allocate our cognitive resourc-
Use behavior contracts. Behavior contracts, es toward decisions that benefit us in the long
like preset commitments, are things we can de- run—and in the process serve to override the
sign to improve future behaviors. These can be sneaky impulses that might derail us.
made with ourselves—where we carry out the
Use self-monitoring and self-appraisal.
consequences—or with another person chosen
Self-monitoring and self-appraisal are very
to implement the consequences. And like any
effective ways to raise our conscious awareness
other contract, behavior contracts specify the
of our actions. As we know from the discus-
actions to be taken, a time limit, and the con-
sion on unconscious actions, we don’t have to
sequences of failure to complete the specified
understand them in order to override them. By
requirements. Like preset commitments, be-
creating an assessment device, such as a short
havior contracts improve our conscious control,
questionnaire assessing our progress or pre-
especially when they are made with someone
designed questions used to detect slips in our
else. Much like the act of signing a contract
progress, we can become much more aware of
makes us much more likely to follow through
what we are doing as well as the outcome of our
on the terms of the contract, writing down
actions. Not only does this reduces our tenden-
our intended behavior and the consequences
cy to fall prey to unconscious impulses, but it
of not keeping our word, makes us a whole lot
will make us a lot more likely to catch ourselves
less likely to find ourselves rationalizing our
headed for the slippery slope of rationalizing
way around that chocolate cake that we’ve been
those impulses.
craving. And this effect is even stronger when
Use short-term achievement goals. As we become more conscious of your choices, and the
already know, mastery goals increase interest in ways they affect you.
a desired behavior. Unconscious drives, on the
other hand, often derail progress. But by using Ask What Is Desired
short-term—as often as daily if needed—achieve-
ment goals, we can direct our cognitive attention Biases, like unconscious behaviors, always serve
toward our desired behaviors. Achievement goals a need, although the need (or desire) usually lies
also tend to be progressive in nature, meaning under the surface of conscious awareness. You
that once we achieve one goal, we will be more can become more aware of the needs that may
motivated to achieve the next one. Much in the be creating your biases by identifying what you
same way that losing a few pounds makes us may actually desire through your actions. To do
much more motivated to continue eating healthy this, first make a list of the things you desire,
and exercising, achieving a goal, such as elim- listing all those actions that are most important
inating sodas (or reducing them), will make us to you to those that have less importance. Next,
a whole lot more motivated to order that salad write down all of the behaviors that correspond
at dinner that we intended to order and thus to to each desired outcome. For example, you may
follow through with our intention. list losing weight as a primary goal, with the
corresponding behaviors of walking every day
and eating vegetables every night. Similarly,
PowerPoint: Three Ways to Make
you may list getting a promotion at work as a
Your Choices More Conscious
primary goal, with the corresponding behaviors
of getting in to the office early every day and
Begin With Why
working on the weekends. Connecting your
Because our biases are typically below the level of desires to your behavior in this way not only
our awareness, they act upon us automatically. In helps you identify any disconnect between your
order to make your choices more conscious then, desires and behavior, but also allows you to be-
the first step is to draw your attention to the come much more conscious of your behavior.
reasons you are doing the things you do. To do
this, make a list of all of the habits and behaviors Use Pros and Cons Lists
you show during a day. Next, list a predominant
Making impulsive decisions often involves very
reason for each behavior. For example, you may
little conscious effort (as you know, those with
say that you go to Starbucks every day because it
a low WMC will often act impulsively, precise-
gives you something to look forward to, or that
ly for this reason); however, the quality of the
you get up early because you feels more produc-
decision usually suffers. You can help avoid
tive. By teaching yourself to become more aware
impulsive tendencies and make better informed
of the underlying reasons behind your behaviors
decisions, by using a list of the pros and cons
(and perhaps begin to question why you do the
to guide your decisions. Just like they sound,
things you do), you will help yourself begin to
pros and cons lists involve writing down all the

156 | Unit 5
benefits and drawbacks associated with an intended decision and

then weighing them up carefully before making the decision. Using
pros and cons lists is not only a way to slow down the decision-mak-
ing process, but also to becoming much more mindful of it.
Section Two: The Ten Percent Rule: Making

Incentives Work for You
Crossing the street to avoid a dangerous looking man, hiring a
better looking employee, voting for a political candidate that is
similar to you, and eating the serving size we are offered are all
examples of the way our biases can strongly, and often inconspic-
uously, influence our behavior. Yet biases aren’t the only thing that
act upon us.
Why the Loss Hurts More Than the Gain: What

Loss Aversion Can Tell Us About Incentives
It’s hard to imagine a world—or even a person—without incentives.
Incentives, in their most literal form, represent our desires. If we
have a desire to be financially wealthy, for example, anything that
promises a monetary payout is going to motivate us. Or we may
have a personal desire to be significant, and then will go through life
looking for ways to garner the admiration of those around us. Or,
we may have moral desires, such as the desire to always treat others
fairly, act with kindness, and uphold certain values, and when we
do these things, we receive the attention and praise of others, as well
as a good feeling about ourselves. Incentives come in many forms
and act like small nudges, pushing us in the direction of our desires.
And while we typically consider incentives in their most positive
form—think of offering someone a pay raise for carrying out excep-
tional work, or perhaps the more familiar steak dinner you might
treat yourself to after you’ve lost a few pounds—they are actually
much more powerful when we are afraid to lose them.
Not wanting to lose what we already have—what economists call loss

Loss Aversion: fear of losing aversion—it turns out, is a much more powerful motivator than being
what you already have. offered something we don’t have. The theory of loss aversion explains
that, on a psychological level, losses are twice as comparing individual students with similar
powerful as gains (Kahneman & Tversky, 1992). backgrounds and achievements to see what
impact a teacher had on their learning.
For anyone who has ever gone shopping, bought
something new, or sunk their teeth into a juicy Selecting a local community comprised of nine
burger after a hard day, this makes no sense, kindergarten to eighth-grade schools with a
because what most of us do after losses is use re- total enrollment of 3,200 students and achieve-
wards to mitigate them. The problem is the high ment rates below state average, researchers
we get from our indulgences is short lived and first introduced teachers to the experiment
doesn’t really take away the sting of our losses. at the beginning of the school year, and then
offered them an opportunity to participate.
Yet to economists this makes perfect sense. The
A large number of the teachers (a total of 150
idea is that once we already own something, we
out of the 160 available) agreed to join in the
incorporate it into our perception of the status
study, and were then randomly assigned to one
quo, and its value increases. And this value—
of four groups: a control group, a group given
what is known as the endowment effect—sig-
a bonus at the beginning of the school year, a
nificantly affects the way we feel about the
group that could receive the bonus at the end
things we consider ours (Kahneman, Knetch &
of the school year, and a group made up of
Thaler, 1990). For anyone who has ever taken a
teachers who worked in teams.
major economic fall this should sound familiar:
If you hadn’t experienced living in a mansion Among the groups receiving a bonus, one was
with around-the-clock maid and a garage full given a $4,000 bonus at the beginning of the
of classic cars, you wouldn’t know what you school year and told it would be reduced by an
are missing, but once these things become part amount reflecting their students’ performance,
of who you are—and what you are endowed whereby the more the students’ standardized
with—then living without them becomes more scores increased, the more of the bonus the
painful than if you had never experienced own- teacher could keep. The other group was told
ing them in the first place. they would receive a $4,000 bonus if their stu-
dents improved their scores during the year.
And not only is the loss of what we already have
more powerful than the gain of what we could So just how much did the students’ scores
have, loss aversion, it turns out, strongly influ- improve? Well proponents of merit pay will
ences our behavior. be shaking their heads on hearing the results,
because when the bonus for improved student
In trying to see just how strong this effect is
standardized test scores was offered at the end
Derek Neal, a professor of economics at the
of the school year, the student performance
University of Chicago, and Gadi Barlevy, an
gains were, well, absolutely nothing. But what
economist with the Federal Reserve Bank
happened when that same bonus was given to
of Chicago, devised the “pay for percentile”
teachers up front, but told it could be lost if the
method of measuring teacher performance by
student scores didn’t improve? Now, shockingly,

158 | Unit 5
those same students’ (keep in mind that all of had lost the most amount of weight was the
the students in this study came from the same group, not surprisingly, with the most to lose
underperforming community) scores rose by 10 (monetarily speaking). That is to say, the par-
percent (Friar et al., 2012). The only difference ticipants who were asked to invest their own
was the way the bonus was structured, i.e., as money, also seemed to invest a whole lot more
something that could be gained vs. something effort in their weight loss and walked away an
that was already given but could be taken away. average of 14 pounds lighter. The control group,
on the other hand, only lost an average of 3.9
“The results,” according to Steven Levitt, the
pounds (Volpp et al., 2008).
Homer J. Livingston Professor in Economics at
the University of Chicago, “are consistent with In discussing the results, the study authors
over 30 years of psychological and economic suggested that obesity could be viewed through
research on the power of loss aversion to moti- a different lens, namely one that takes into
vate behavior” (Levitt, 2012). What these results account the many ways we fuel our own self-de-
should tell us is that when motivation is framed structive behavior. To combat our tendencies to
as a gain (or reward), it pales in comparison to overvalue instant gratification, and undervalue
the motivation that comes from the desire to delayed gratification, they say, we need “new
avoid painful losses. strategies” to combat obesity. And these new
strategies might just mean tweaking the way we
So if loss aversion is such a powerful motivator,
use incentives; whereby, instead of focusing on
perhaps the question we should be asking is:
that shopping spree, trip to the movies, or fudge
Does it work for weight loss?
Sunday that we reward ourselves with after los-
An interesting study asked just this question. ing a few pounds, perhaps we should be put our
Recruiting 57 participants, researchers from own money on the line, and allow the power of
the University of Pennsylvania School of loss aversion to motivate us.
Medicine randomly assigned them to one of
If losses and gains are not considered equally
three groups: a lottery-based group, in which
weighted motivators—where the fear of loss
the participants played a lottery and received
is more powerful than the joy of gain—then
the earnings if they achieved or lost more than
perhaps we shouldn’t be surprised if what we
the target weight; a deposit contract condi-
focus on when trying to change our behavior,
tion, in which the participants invested their
such as thinking about walking in the morning
own money, which they lost if they failed to
or saying no to that delicious glazed donut, also
achieve their weight goals; and a group on a
doesn’t carry the same motivational value.
weight-monitoring program involving month-
ly weigh-ins and no incentive plan. All the
Don’t Start, Stop: Why Inhibiting
participants were then given the same weight
Impulses Matters
loss target: 16 pounds in 16 weeks.
Remember from earlier in this section that
It was found that after 16 weeks, the group that
we discussed how focusing on taking action is And the reason has to do with how we interpret
counterproductive to motivating healthy behav- the incentives. Encouraging someone to take
ior, and that using action words actually make action—such as to eat the jelly beans—is gener-
us more likely to select immediate rewards, all ally perceived as a positive message. On the other
the while weakening our impulse control? Well, hand, encouraging someone to stop taking ac-
it turns out that the incentives we attach to tion (or to avoid doing something)—like to avoid
those actions—whether we are focusing on tak- eating the jelly beans—is perceived as a negative
ing action or inhibiting action—also matters. message. And when comparing the two, it’s the
negative messages that tend to have a lasting val-
In 35 experimental sessions performed at the
ue, that is, they sink in more and last longer.
London School of Economics, (LSE), research-
ers tested 353 people in a variety of situations In the words of Matteo M Galizzi, an ESRC
to determine just which incentives have a Future Research Leader Fellow and assistant
lasting effect on promoting healthy behavior. professor of Behavioural Science at LSE, and one
In one experiment, for example, participants of the authors of the study: “Our findings are
were invited to watch a series of videos while consistent with the idea that people find nega-
eating as many jelly beans as they liked. Half- tive messages easier to retain than positive ones.
way through the videos, however, researchers Even though we only paid participants not to eat
introduced two forms of paid incentives: one the jelly beans for five minutes, we seem to have
that encouraged participants to eat the sweets primed them with the notion that not eating
and one that encouraged them not to eat the sweets is something good and this effect was still
sweets. In keeping with the comparison, a third in play several days later” (Galizzi, 2015).
group watched the videos without any incentive
The problem, however, is that when it comes
at all. The researchers then repeated the exper-
to weight loss, incentivizing ourselves toward
iment two days later, only this time none of the
taking action is exactly what most of us do. In
participants received incentives.
fact, most gym programs encourage “getting a
The question they were asking is which paid in- fresh start,” “springing into action,” and “getting
centive—that to eat the jelly beans or not to eat a jump on summer”: all phrases that may allure
them—would have a lasting effect? The answer us in the short term, but are not likely to lead to
was something that, at this point, we can prob- lasting results. But that is only part of the prob-
ably guess. Although both groups were offered lem. Most people also make commitments to
the same monetary incentive—the equivalent of weight loss: we tell ourselves we will lose twenty
just over $4—the group that was encouraged to pounds before that summer vacation, we plan to
not take action ate significantly less jelly beans start walking every morning, we join a gym, and
in the trial two days later where no monetary we tell our friend that we will meet them there.
incentive was offered (Dolan et al., 2015). But as it turns out, the type of commitment we
make makes all the difference in the world.

160 | Unit 5
Soft Commitments, Fuzzy Goals, and Poor

Outcomes
So if the fear of losses is a more powerful motivator than the excite-
ment of gains and if motivating ourselves toward action is less effec-
tive than encouraging ourselves to stop doing something, then, at
this point, you wouldn’t be alone if you were wondering just which
strategy works best when we want to lose weight. Well, that’s not
so easy to say. Weight loss experts, health practitioners, life coach-
es, and even motivational gurus are still trying to crack the weight
loss code. And what they most frequently tell us is that in order to
lose weight, we have to become accountable. We should make our
goals clear, measurable, timely, and public—with an emphasis on
the public part. Because when we put ourselves on the line, exposing
our intentions in the public eye, the shame of failing can further fan
the flame of weight loss and help overcome any resistance we have.
Some experts even suggest taking public accountability a step fur-
ther and joining a weight loss group where we choose a sponsor, i.e.,
someone who will personally hold us accountable.
And while the social incentive of not wanting to look bad in front
of our friends and family—or of letting ourselves down—is gener-
ally a pretty good motivator, it is also what economists call a “soft
Soft commitments: commitment.” Soft commitments are those that do not have direct
commitments that rely penalties, but instead use social, psychological, and financial incen-
on social, moral, and
psychological influence. tives to shape behavior. If you have ever bribed your kids to do their
homework with a trip to McDonalds, you have used a soft commit-
ment. Similarly, if you have ever told a friend you are going to run
a marathon, or made a promise to your spouse that this time you
won’t be late, or told your boss that you would finish that report on
time, you have made a soft commitment. In market consumption,
we see soft commitments every day: think discounts for purchasing
an item early, sales with time deadlines, buy one get one free cou-
pons, club discounts, and that friendly brochure about the benefits
of retirement savings the bank teller hands you when open your
account. And if you have ever made an agreement with a friend to
meet at the gym twice a week, you have used a soft commitment
on yourself. The thing about soft commitments is that, in general,
they do nudge our behavior in the direction we would like it to go.
Wanting to avoid keeping your friend from sweating for hours on

the treadmill while waiting for you at the gym will probably make
you more likely to show up. Or, the embarrassment of having to
tell our friends that even though we did say we were going to run a
marathon, we, just, well, failed, might just get our butts out the door
those early mornings when we really would rather be sleeping.
Yet soft commitments are not the only commitments we can make.
We could, for example, give our friend—the one waiting at the
gym—$1000 to keep if we don’t show up. Or, we could tell our
spouse that if we are late we will take up the glamorous job of mow-
ing the lawn for the rest of the year. These sorts of arrangements are
what economists call “hard commitments.” Unlike soft commit- Hard commitments:
ments that rely of psychological, social, and perhaps moral influence commitments that impose
penalties for failure to
to motivate us, hard commitments simply impose penalties when complete a specific behavior,
we don’t do what we said we would do. Hard commitments are the such as exercising every day.
reason we don’t speed, steal from the store, or cheat on our tax-
es—because we’d rather not pay the fine. And hard commitments
do shape behavior. Smokers smoke less when hit with a hefty tax on
cigarettes. People do drive slower in school zones when the price of
a speeding ticket is doubled. And if you have to blow into a breatha-
lyzer to start your car—a very common DUI penalty—you are a lot
less likely to drive drunk.
So the question is: Which commitment works better? Asking just this
question, RAND corporation tested both hard and soft commitments
on participants’ savings behavior, and came to this conclusion:
“Hard commitment accounts may not appeal to impatient individ-

uals, those who do not anticipate their own self-control problems,
or to the poor for whom restrictions on scarce funds can be partic-
ularly painful. We test a new ‘soft’ commitment account that asks
borrowers to think about their savings goals, how it would feel to
achieve them, and make a pledge to work toward these goals (po-
tentially increasing one’s intrinsic motivation), yet has no external
restrictions on savings behavior. In a six-month randomized savings
experiment, we find that such soft commitments can significantly
increase amounts saved on day one relative to either a hard com-
mitment account (with external restrictions on withdrawals) or a
traditional savings account. Additionally, the soft commitments

162 | Unit 5
significantly increased final savings balances which it was offered, those who did participate
relative to no form of commitment and were had significantly better smoking cessation rates
particularly effective for impatient individuals. than the control group, and the results held up
However, despite the inherent illiquidity, the in a twelve-month follow-up (six months after
hard commitment account proved most effec- participants were allowed to withdraw their
tive in building savings balances among our money) (Gine et al.). In a 2010 annual review of
participants at the end of six months” (Burke et commitment devices, which included examina-
al., 2014). tion of hard and soft commitments, researchers
concluded, “We suggest that a hard commitment
Hard commitments may not appeal to those
would decrease enrollment, but increase reten-
who don’t anticipate their own self-control
tion” (Bryan, Karlan, & Nelson, 2010).
problems. If there is anything we should
know about weight loss, it is that it is precise- The takeaway is that what looks easy in weight
ly a problem that catches our self-control off loss is not. The easy option is to not to put your
guard. We simply don’t anticipate that the money—or anything else—on the line. And yet
juicy burger will be that much harder to resist what studies like the one above underscore is
when it is right in front of us, or that going for that when it comes to weight loss, we need all
a run will not feel as good when we are doing the leverage on ourselves that we can get.
it as when we are thinking about it before-
hand, or that the minute we start to doubt our
ability to reach our weight loss goal, we’ll con- 1. Loss aversion, or the fear of losing what you
vince ourselves that a bowl of ice cream after already have, is a stronger motivator than
dinner won’t really matter much. And because rewards, and has shown a strong promise for
weight loss.
we don’t anticipate the way our self-control
will be affected, we probably also don’t antic- 2. Focusing on not taking action, such as inhib-
ipate just how much self-control we need—or iting impulses that negatively affect us, has a
the type of commitment that motivates it. stronger effect of our behavior than focusing
on taking action.
An article titled “Put Your Money Where Your 3. Hard commitments are those that impose
Butt Is” found similar conclusions. Smokers were penalties for failing to complete a specific
offered the incentive to open a savings account behavior, such as exercising every day, are
with the express purpose of giving themselves much more effective at changing behavior
an incentive to quit smoking. Six months after than soft commitments, which rely on social,
opening the account, smokers were required to moral, and psychological influence.
take a urine test for tobacco. If the test showed So just how do we get this leverage? Let’s look at
positive for tobacco—indicating that they had a few ways:
been unable to quit—smokers lost the balance
in their savings account. While the contract was Start with Clear (and Unchangeable Goals).
taken up by only 11 percent of the participants to If the goal keeps changing—e.g., walking
every day, then five days a week, then twice a or significant other $20 to keep if we don’t get
week—not only is it impossible to measure, it’s up and exercise in the morning. We can also
impossible to manage. Like trying to impose place $100 in a safe and give our friend the key
a penalty for a speeding limit that is different with the instruction to only return it to us if we
every day, when we change our goal—because make it to the gym every scheduled time for the
it’s well, hard—it’s the same thing as pretending entire month. When we use hard commitments
we didn’t see the speed limit sign and hoping such as these, suddenly, motivation takes on a
we can get out of a ticket. If we really want to different—and much more powerful—form.
change our behavior, we need clear goals—and
Impose Direct Penalties. While the idea of im-
the penalties we impose for not achieving them.
posing penalties on ourselves for weight loss may
Choose a Set Time Frame. Like a changing seem strange, we only have to look at the host of
goal, a flimsy time frame doesn’t encourage penalties that already regulate our behavior to be
any sort of accountability: in fact, in many convinced. Unlike trying to convince ourselves
ways, it discourages it. Why? Because when we to pass on the steaming plate of cookies, we
know that we can procrastinate on those goals, seldom negotiate with paying our taxes, speed-
suddenly procrastination looks all the more ing, and stealing from the grocery store. And the
attractive. And, as we already know, the more reason we don’t is because there are stiff penal-
we procrastinate, the more likely we are to keep ties for doing so and these are a very powerful
procrastinating. Yet, when we have to get some- motivator. So how do we use direct penalties to
thing done by a set time or risk being hit with a motivate weight loss? The trick is to impose the
nasty penalty, finding the motivation for it isn’t stiffest penalty we can afford. Why? Because
so hard. And when we use set time frames to weight loss requires all the self-control and mo-
achieve our goals—such as walking ten miles tivation we can muster. And stiff penalties shift
before the end of the month, going to the gym our cognitive resources from why we should do
three times every week, or eating no more than the things we know are good for us to how we
1500 calories a day for six days of the week— are going to get them done, because, like a hefty
suddenly we harness the same motivation that speeding ticket, we don’t want to pay the fine.
keeps us getting those taxes paid on time, pick-
ing our kid up before the daycare closes, and PowerPoint: Three Ways to Use
making it to the airport before the plane leaves. Commitments to Motivate Change
Use Hard Commitments. Hard commitments
may not be as appealing as simply telling your
Use Something Physically Aversive
friend that you will meet them at the gym. But Physically aversive states (such as feeling nau-
hard commitments, as we know, are a whole seas, cold, hot, too full, or hungry) have a very
lot more effective in the long run. And actually, robust effect on behavior. By connecting a phys-
there are several ways we can use hard com- ically aversive state to an undesirable choice, we
mitments every day. We can give our spouse make the desirable one much more likely. Here

164 | Unit 5
are some examples: drinking a lot of water after persuasive force toward making desirable
dinner to avoid eating more, using Antabuse to choices.
avoid drinking alcohol, avoiding using the air
conditioner to encourage using the gym (where Section Three: Commitments,
there is air conditioning). When you use physi-
Penalties, and Tying Yourself to
cally aversive states—particularly when it comes
to changing eating behavior—you harness a the Mast
powerful tool to change behavior. When most people hear the story of Ulysses
tying himself to the mast so that he wouldn’t be
Attach a Financial Cost tempted to come down when he heard the song
of the sirens, or of the legendary Chinese gen-
Like physically aversive states, financial eral Han Xin positioning his troops with their
costs are a very strong motivator of behavior backs to the river so that they would have to
change. When the undesirable option comes face the oncoming enemy, it doesn’t just catch
with a weighty financial cost, we are much less their attention, it smacks of something oddly
likely to choose it. Here are some examples: familiar. The fact is, most of us have probably
giving your friend $1000 to keep if you don’t done something similar. We have bought a
go to the gym every day for one week, having serving size bag of candy precisely so that we
to pay an expensive speeding ticket for driving would only eat one serving. We have bought a
too fast, giving your significant other $100 to non-refundable gym membership just so that
keep, and them returning $10 to you every day we would feel incentivized to use it. And we
you don’t eat ice cream. Financial costs, not have probably cleared the house of all the junk
surprisingly, are one of the most powerful, and food and bought all the healthy groceries we
yet underused motivators we have: when you could stomach so that we would have nothing
put your money on the line, you will be sur- but healthy food to eat.
prised what happens.
What Ulysses and Han Xin knew—and what
Use Social Motivation many of us instinctively guess—is that when
we really need to get something done, the best
When we make our goals known to those way to ensure success is to bind ourselves to the
around us, there is an inherent pressure to outcome. This is also what journalist Stephen
uphold social expectations. Naturally, we don’t J. Dubner and economist Steven Levitt, both
want to have to admit that we didn’t reach our considered experts on the subject, call commit-
goals. Here are some examples: telling your ment devices. As they define it, a commitment
friends that you are going to run a marathon, device is “a means with which to lock your-
informing your family of your decision to lose self into a course of action that you might not
weight, making your long-term fitness goals otherwise choose but that produces a desired
known to those around you. By using social result” (Dubner & Levitt, 2007). What commit-
motivation in this way, you create a built-in ment devices give us is a way to set the terms,
change our own incentives, and ultimately cream sundae we will eat, we figure won’t really
make ourselves a whole lot more likely to stick hurt us in the long run.
to our word. Instead of promising that this time
But let’s for the moment also assume that most
we will leave the plate of brownies on the table,
of us don’t want to have our stomach stapled,
or that we will get up and go running in the
banded, bypassed, or anything else for that
morning, commitment devices give us a little
matter. And yet, some of us have had that
different leverage. Let’s assume for the moment
dreaded trip to the doctor where he tells us that
that your job depended on you exercising in
we really need to lose weight. Or maybe he even
the morning, and that if you failed to report
hinted at—or outright said—those dreaded
to work every morning proudly displaying
words “heart attack.” The question is: If we are
your Polar Heart Rate Monitor’s accounting of
aware of the penalties, why haven’t we changed
that morning’s calories burned you would lose
our behavior? The answer, as you will see in the
your job immediately—no questions asked.
next section, might have something do to with
The chances are you would get up and exercise.
how immediate those consequences are.
In fact, you might not even think twice about
it. Or, let’s say that you had placed $1000 in a
savings account that was linked to your alarm Everything is Great in the Future
clock, and every time you hit the snooze button, If there is anything we have learned from
you lost $100. I, for one, would be willing to bet studies of addicts, it is that when it comes to
that you wouldn’t hit that snooze button. rewards, the one word we should all remember
In many ways, if you want to find the most exis immediacy. What we can have now—whether
treme examples of commitment strategies and it be cigarettes, alcohol, chocolate, or mon-
the penalties that bind them, there is no better ey—we want now. And often, we will pay much
place to look than weight loss. While the idea of more for it (in both monetary value, and the
stapling your stomach, bypassing it surgically, long-term negative outcomes). But does imme-
or having an adjustable lap band installed may diacy matter when applied to penalties? That is,
seem extreme, it is almost as commonplace just like immediate rewards seem to have more
today as a root canal. The reason, of course, is power over us, are immediate penalties also
because we live in a world of temptations—just much stronger than delayed ones?
as Ulysses knew he would hear the siren song, Perhaps the best way to answer this question
Han Xin knew his soldiers would be tempted to is to look at an offense for which we already
flee, and, at this point, we should know that the have stiff penalties: drunk driving. However,
run we say we will take sounds a lot better now although there are always stiff penalties, not
than it will in the morning, or the burger on all states agree on just when those penalties
the menu will look much more tempting than should occur. For example, some states use what
we think it will, making the salad we intended is called immediate license suspension, where
to order that much less desirable, and that ice an offender’s license is immediately suspended

166 | Unit 5
after being caught, while other states use what quarter pound a day. So, in many ways, we are
is called post-conviction license suspension, right in figuring that the slice (or slices) of pizza
where an offender is allowed to drive until the we want to eat won’t really affect us much—that
time of trial, and the license is only removed is, unless we make a habit out of it. But unfortu-
when a conviction is achieved. When examin- nately, most of us do.
ing monthly fatal car crashes from January 1976
Let’s just for a moment consider that the pen-
through December 2002 across all 46 states
alties associated with speeding tickets worked
with administrative license suspension (ALS)
the way the penalties associated with overeating
laws, researchers found that fatalities decreased
do—that is, they were billed in the year after
by as much as 150 lives per year in the states
they were accrued. For example, if you had five
with immediate conviction laws. And this effect
speeding tickets in 2016, you wouldn’t have to
held even when considering for differences
pay any of those until the same date a year later,
across time and among states, such as, the num-
in 2017. Now, do you think you might look at
ber of drivers, traffic levels, changing vehicle
those tickets a bit differently, perhaps speed a
mix, auto safety standards, safety belt laws, and
little more and think a little less about shelling
speed limit changes (Wagenaar, 2007). Even
out a couple hundred dollars every time you
more convincing was that the study only mea-
don’t want to be late? My guess is you would.
sured the effect on drivers over the age of 21.
But let’s say that every time you speed, you
For anyone who has ever tried to potty train a immediately get a flat tire. This time you might
new puppy, this shouldn’t be surprising. If you think twice about speeding (especially if it’s
punish your cute little bundle of fur hours af- raining). And the reason you would is because
ter finding that wet spot on your carpet, while penalties are a lot more potent when they hap-
he cowers in the corner, he will have no idea pen immediately.
what you are talking about. And if you punish
In the same way that the run we are going to
him days later—when you now have a stain
take always looks better when it is scheduled
on your carpet—you might as well be, well,
for next week, the further out the penalties of
talking to the wall.
our actions are—such as, the more we can put
And while your puppy may continue to wet the off paying that speeding ticket—the more we
carpet because he has no idea that the middle of discount the impact they will have on us. When
the room is not where you want him to go, and it comes to both benefits and risks, it seems that
a DUI offender may continue to drive drunk the future is deceptively glamorous.
thinking that there is little chance he will be
caught, we may continue to overeat because it Rationalization Machines,
doesn’t immediately add to our waistline (even Slippery Slopes, and Maintaining
though we often feel like it does). Instead, at Our Image
3500 calories to add a pound of fat, most of
Maintaining augmented perceptions about the
us would be lucky (or unlucky) to add even a
future might not be so bad if that were the only a sort of downward cycle, the larger the gap
thing we did. But when it comes to the image between where (or who) we are and where (or
we hold of ourselves, especially when we are who) we want to be, the more sophisticated our
trying to make desirable changes, we employ rationalizations must be.
a decidedly deceptive move: we invoke our
But our own disparities aren’t the only thing
rationalizations. Remember the two selves from
that influence our ability to rationalize, skirt
section two? Well the future self—the one who
the truth, and end up in the land of lost prom-
makes goals, reaches them and gleefully rejoic-
ises, forgotten goals, and failed resolutions.
es—is, for all of us, the one we want to see in
Remember that self-control is contagious and
the mirror. As Dan Ariely explains in his 2013
when we hang out with people who don’t exhib-
video “The Honest Truth About Dishonesty”
it much self-control, suddenly our own self-con-
(recorded for the James Rand Foundation), “We
trol becomes a bit suspect? Well self-control
want to see ourselves as good, honest, moral
isn’t the only thing that is affected by the people
people” (Ariely, 2013). What we don’t want to
around us. Self-deception, it turns out, is also
see is the devious face of the short-term self—
highly contagious.
you know the one who might skip the workout
at the gym, sneak a bowl of ice cream after din- In an elegant experiment, Dan Ariely recruited
ner, and tell a little white lie about just which Carnegie Mellon students to complete as many
reports are done at work. math problems as they could in an allotted
amount of time while being told that they
The truth is, we are both. But in order to be
would be paid $1 for every correct problem
both and still look ourselves in the mirror, we
they solved. In the first part of the experiment,
have to use a good deal of rationalization. The
Ariely arranged to have an actor wearing a
workout we missed wasn’t so bad because, after
Carnegie Mellon sweatshirt cheat by raising
all, we walked a lot at the office today. The bowl
his hand less than one minute into the test and
of ice cream was small, and oh yeah, it was low
state that he had completed all of the problems.
fat. And the lie? It wasn’t really a lie. After all,
The researcher then told the student to collect
the report we did get done was due too. Ratio-
his money and go home. The second part of the
nalizations like this, according to Dan Ariely,
experiment was exactly the same as the first,
are exactly how we get ourselves stuck. Because,
only this time the actor was wearing a Uni-
as Ariely explains, our bubble of rationaliza-
versity of Pittsburg (a known Carnegie Mellon
tion grows, and eventually a host of excuses,
competitor) sweatshirt.
justifications, altered explanations, maybe even
some false promises fit in there. Where we find So what happened? When participants witnessed
ourselves is not just with a healthy and well-ex- their competitor cheating, it had no effect on
ercised rationalization machine, but with a them. However, when they witnessed a fellow
growing gap between our future self—where student from their same school cheating, sud-
we’d like to be—and our short-term self—the denly cheating increased (Ariely, 2013). What
one who is busy derailing our progress. In this should tell us is that when we see someone

168 | Unit 5
who is like us cheating, not only does our ability does all this priming have on us? For the most
to rationalize our own cheating increase, but part, it’s not the effect we are after. After all,
now we have what Ariely calls, “social proof” being told to suck it up, stick to our goals, and
that cheating is acceptable (Ariely, 2013). Our sit on our hands doesn’t sell many ice creams
friends, after all, are good people, and surely sundaes, Happy Meals, or gym memberships
they would not cheat, so it must not really be for that matter.
cheating—or so we tell ourselves. In an elaborate
But why we may not stick to those goals—even
scheme, it seems, we don’t just go to great lengths
when they are what we want—might not just
to maintain our own image, but that image is
be because we are rationalizing our way out of
highly influenced by what it is exposed to.
them, using our friends’ estimable examples as
Several studies have demonstrated the effect evidence, or that we are primed to act against
of what now, itself, has almost a trade name. them, but because, for most of us, that future
Behavioral priming is a technique that exposes self is like a distant cousin—we don’t think too
people to stimuli designed to activate mean- much about them, can’t remember the last time
ing (schema, stereotypes, attitudes, etc.) and we called, and probably don’t even have their
influence their performance on a subsequent address anymore.
task (Tulving, Schacter, & Stark, 1982). For
example, one study primed consumers with It’s Me, Calling from the Future
words representing either “prestige” US retail
brands (Tiffany, Neiman Marcus, and Nord- Daniel Goldstein, a noted cognitive psychol-
strom) or “thrift” brands (Wal-Mart, Kmart, ogist, honorary research fellow at the London
and Dollar Store). In an ostensibly unrelated Business School, and recognized expert on
task, participants primed with prestige names judgment and decision-making, describes the
then gave higher preference ratings to prestige relationship between the future self and the
as opposed to thrift product options (Char- present self as an “unequal battle” (Goldstein,
trand, Huber, Shiv, & Tanner, 2008). In anoth- 2011). And just why that battle is unequal, as
er study, priming a potential donor to think Goldstein explains, is because when making
about their moral identity made them more decisions, it’s simply hard to imagine what
charitable than they would have otherwise our future self might think—or even how they
been (Winterich et al., 2008). might be affected. While smoking right now
might curb some feelings of hunger, soothe our
In reality we are primed all of the time. In fact, nerves, and leave us with a little more than a
it’s hard to think of any media advertisement slight cough, twenty years from now—the part
that doesn’t promise something—a new car we might have a hard time picturing—our lungs
that will make us feel more prestigious, a new (the ones that are getting blacker by the minute)
phone that will make us feel smarter, a burg- might be replaced with a hole in our neck and a
er that will bring a smile to our face (or the flashy new breathing machine. Similarly, when
all-important Happy Meal). And what effect we enjoy a tasty meal, cocktail after dinner, or
roll over in bed to hit the snooze button one participants over 100 different outcomes
more time knowing that we, once again, won’t linked to their spending habits—everything
quite make it to the gym, the picture we have in from living on the beach and driving a BMW
our heads is probably not of us loosening our roadster, to living in a small, unassuming
belts, pulling out the loosest fitting clothing we house in the suburbs, and, in the worst case
have, and being warned by our doctors that our scenario, living under a bridge while holding
blood pressure is well, too high. out a cardboard sign and hoping somebody
throws you a quarter. Goldstein then went
Trying to picture just how our future self will
even further and used a simulation program to
be affected by our actions today, for many of
show the facial expression of both the present
us, is sort of like trying to picture just how that
self and the future self on the same computer
$50 we sent to our favorite charity will be spent.
screen. When participants moved a slider on
And when we can’t (or choose not to) picture
the screen toward saving more, the future self
just how our actions today will affect us tomor-
was shown to smile, while a noticeable gri-
row, we act with, well, the present in mind. And
mace came across the face of the present self.
this affect, as you will remember from section
On the other hand, when the slider was moved
three, is especially pronounced when that pres-
toward spending more and saving less, the
ent self is in a hot state.
present self did the smiling, while the future
But if a charity that sends us a progress report self looked pained.
on the shoes, clothing, books, and school lunch-
The results of witnessing the worst case sce-
es our money bought for our favorite foreign
nario and the pain it may cause? Not surpris-
child can cause us to donate more money, the
ingly, when participants were shown the future
question we might be asking is: Will being
outcome of their actions, they saved as much
shown a picture of just what our future self
as three times more money (Goldstein, 2011).
might look like, or feel like, make us change
By simulating outcome after outcome, people
how we act today?
began to understand just how what they do
Inspired by this question, Daniel Goldstein today—with their wealth—affects how they will
came up with a brilliant design. In what he live tomorrow.
calls “behavioral time machines,” Goldstein
Self-control, Goldstein tells us, is like a muscle,
used a computer program to simulate the
and that muscle gets stronger when we combine
effect of peoples’ actions today several years
the forces of the present self with the future self.
down the road. While people could see what
Just like we are more likely to model our behav-
they would look like if they continued to, for
ior after those who are like us—either justifying
example, overeat, exercise or not exercise,
our cheating, or finding it unacceptable—when
smoke, or drink, the area that Goldstein was
our future self is much less a distant cousin, and
most interested in—and something we can all
much more like us—and hopefully the us that
relate to—was our spending habits. Using his
behavioral time machines, Goldstein showed

170 | Unit 5
we want to be—we are a whole lot more likely to motivators of behavior; for instance, the risk
think with their concerns and feelings in mind. of imprisonment is a very good way to keep
us from breaking the law. But, these larger
penalties, we also know, don’t encourage much
1. Penalties imposed immediately are much participation. For example, a savings account
stronger than those imposed with a time that carries an early termination fee of $10,000
delay. would be a very effective way to reduce early
2. The larger the gap between our ideal self withdrawals, but most people wouldn’t sign
and real self, the more we employ rational- up for it. On the other hand, an early termina-
ization to justify our behavior—and the more tion fee of $500 might be enough to get us to
we are exposed to others who also do this, sign up, and enough to also effectively deter us
the stronger the effect becomes.
from withdrawing money early.
3. Being exposed to the future consequences of
our actions—in particular, the effect they will The thing about penalties is that there has to
have on the future selves—improves self-con- be a balance, e.g., between choosing something
trol and the ability to act with our best future that is aversive enough to change our behavior,
interests in mind. while not being so opposing that we won’t sign
So if we know that closing the gap between what up. So how do we design effective penalties?
we do today and the outcome it has tomorrow Let’s look at a few ways.
helps us overcome our tendency to distort the
future—and our perceptions of ourselves—just Penalties should be aversive enough to
how do we find the means with which to lock provide a strong incentive to perform
ourselves into a course of action that we might desirable behavior.
not otherwise choose but that produces the de- One way to assess the how aversive a penalty
sired result? As you will see in the next section, might be is to rate the proposed penalty in the
we might just have to tie ourselves to the mast. following way:
Don’t Look Down: Why Penalties How would you rate… (list the penalty here)?
Matter 1. Neutral
You can probably guess at this point that pen- 2. Dislike

alties come in all shapes and sizes. You have 3. Strongly dislike
probably also had some personal experience
4. Very strongly dislike
with penalties, and are familiar with large
ones, such as stiff fines, imprisonment, and As we all differ in what may be aversive to us,
loss of privileges, as well as small ones, such the goal of this question is to assess how aver-
as parking tickets, late fees, and early termi- sive the penalty feels to us. As we know, pen-
nation fees. It is also not much of a stretch to alties that are too aversive, i.e., that we might
conclude that larger penalties are very effective rate as “very strongly dislike,” will likely scare
us off. On the other hand, penalties we rate as training sessions this week. Unlike huge loom-
“neutral” would have very little to no effect. But ing goals, if we don’t reach these small frequent
the penalties that we rate as either “dislike” or goals, we can regroup, recover, and start again
“strongly dislike” might get us signing up—and (hopefully having learned something in the
makes us keep our word. process). Success at small goals also builds our
confidence—and the experience can then be
Penalties should not so aversive that used as valuable information with which to de-
they cannot be recovered from. sign future goals. Over time, these small goals
add up, propelling our larger goals, like stroll-
We have probably all, at some point, felt the ing down the aisle in that wedding outfit.
pressure of some external event on our desire to
lose weight— like thinking, “I just have to lose
PowerPoint: Three Effective
this weight, I am getting married (or something
Penalty Designs
else equally important) in six months.” When
we feel like this, not only is losing weight very
The $1,000 Bet
important to us, we have a lot riding on it. As
we know, the more we depend on a long-term When most of us wager, we play the odds with
goal, the more likely we are to exaggerate the the understanding that there is not much we
uncertainty of it. And when a long-term goal have control over. And while the losses may
is uncertain, we discount the risks associated hurt, they hurt significantly less when we feel
with giving in to impulses. What this has to there is nothing we can do to prevent them. (As
do with penalties is that when penalties are so a side note, many addictive gamblers do recount
severe—like telling ourselves that we have to feeling as if they have a system to winning—
lose weight—our dependence on reaching those which is often recognized as a sign of addic-
goals increases, which throws our certainty tion.) But when we bet on something that we
into a downward spiral, and makes giving in inherently know we can change, we are essen-
to impulses all the more likely. The takeaway is tially betting on ourselves—which is something
that when we hinge everything on weight loss— very much in our control. And because these
like trying to fit into that wedding dress in six sorts of bets are in our control—e.g., we can
weeks—uncertainty increases and our chances stop smoking, stop eating ice cream, and stop
of success decrease. Things get even more com- avoiding the gym—we work much harder to
plicated when we have a history of failed weight prevent the losses, especially when they come
loss attempts, because our confidence will out of our own pocket. So to use the $1,000
already be low and the uncertainty will already bet idea from before, simply take on one thing
be high. In order to increase our chances of suc- you’d like to change, such as eating after 7 PM,
cess then, what we need are more frequent, less getting up after 9 AM, or exercising daily, and
severe penalties, such as, instead of focusing on give $1,000 of your money to someone who
fitting into your wedding outfit in six months, you trust with the instructions to only release
focus on completing three half hour strength

172 | Unit 5
the money back to you if you keep your end of your friend gets to enjoy that delicious rib-eye
the bargain. And because small, more frequent steak you’ve been craving.
goals work best, this bet is best designed in
small increments of time, such as managing Linking
to get up before 9 AM every day for three days
straight, or walking every day for three days in One of the reasons an undesirable behavior
a row. After reaching each small goal, simply can be so difficult to change is because we may
restart the bet. With each goal you reach, your not feel the negative effects in the moment. For
confidence will grow, and soon your bets, and example, most of us probably don’t think much
your achievements, will grow too. about our pants fitting tightly when we roll
over and hit the snooze button, well aware that
the run we said we would take is not going to
Missing Out
happen. And because these unwanted behaviors
While not reaching our goals is painful, it be- slip by without much consequence, before we
comes much more palpable when not reaching know it we are on the slippery slope of rational-
our goals is linked to someone else gaining a izing our way to a comfortable slumber—all the
reward. Just imagine if every time you failed to while forgetting just where we put our running
make it to the gym, your best friend got to treat shoes. Yet one powerful way we can make that
themselves to a new pair of shoes. Or, let’s say undesirable behavior all the less attractive is
that every time you smoke a cigarette, eat ice when we link it to something immediate and
cream or a piece of pizza, your spouse gets to go unwanted. For example, imagine that your
to the beach—without you. When we see some- alarm clock was linked to your bank account
one else getting what we wished we had, not and every time you hit the snooze button, you
only do we feel the painful sting of those losses donated $100 to your least favorite political par-
(especially because they could have been ours), ty. While this is an actual strategy (and brilliant
but to see another person enjoying what felt alarm clock design), you can set up your own
like our new pair of shoes is a powerful aversive linking strategy much in the same way. Simply
device that keeps us focused on doing every- start with an undesirable behavior you want to
thing we can to ensure our success—and for us change, such as sleeping in, drinking alcohol, or
to keep the rewards. So to set up a missing out skipping the gym, and then choose something
strategy, choose one thing you’d like to change, aversive to you, such as having to mow the
such as hitting the gym every day, juicing every lawn, giving money to your least favorite chari-
morning, or walking during your lunch hour, ty, or having to take out the trash. Next, choose
and then choose a reward—anything from a a trusted family member or friend to play the
gift card at your favorite store to lunch at your role of referee, ensuring that the rules of your
favorite restaurant—and place the reward in a agreement are kept and that should you fail to
trusted friend’s hands. If you keep your word reach your goal, it will be you mowing the lawn.
and reach your goal, the reward is yours. If not,
Section Four: What are the Rules makes decisions so difficult is that our short-
run self—which is responsible for doing the
Again? Why We Need Referees
action of the commitment—doesn’t accurately
When we talk about commitment strategies, weigh up the impact of our short-term decisions
as Daniel Goldstein reminds us, we are both on the long-term picture. Yet referees, being im-
Ulysses and the first mate. While we can have partial and objective, unlike ourselves, are not
all the best commitments, agreements and subject to the deceptive workings of our short-
aversive stimuli as armor, it is still us against term self, and thus are less likely to inaccurately
our own best devices—which as you know come weigh up the cost of that ice cream we’d like
in the form of discounting the benefits of an to be enjoying right now as we might. Instead,
activity, exaggerating the cost of temptations, what a good referee does is call upon our better
discounting the risk of giving in to impulses, nature, i.e., the one who’d like to keep those
deferring to biases, and being blindsided by our commitments.
short-term interests. What we so often forget is
that when we ask the same self that is lacking Commit, Cooperate, and Keeping
self-control to enforce strategies upon them- Those Promises
selves, we should only expect that the same
errors that complicate making decisions will It’s hard to think of a way to make a commit-
also complicate enforcing them. ment to another person that doesn’t also benefit
them. Our marriage partners’ lives are im-
What we really need then are referees. Referees proved when we are not unfaithful. Our family
are people we assign to enforce the rules of the members’ lives are made more stable when we
commitment agreements that we make. Much contribute to their welfare. Our employers and
in the same way that a referee in a football game employees benefit when we show up at the office
is responsible for enforcing the rules of the on time and do our job. The lives of our me-
game, ensuring that play is fair and the rules chanics, gardeners, handymen, and even the kid
are adhered to, referees in commitment agree- next door we pay to wash the car, all improve
ments are responsible for enforcing the rules of when we keep our word. And because our com-
the commitments we make, and ensuring that mitments benefit others, they also invoke our
either we are successful in keeping our commit- desire for cooperation and synergy, particularly
ments (achieving the desired change), or that if the commitment is reputation or emotionally
we suffer the consequences of not keeping them based (Frank, 1988; Neese, 2001), after all, no-
(and hopefully will then reconsider our deci- body wants to be known as the guy who stiffed
sions for the future). someone—especially when done underhand-
And when we can find a referee that is able to edly. This is also why pledge campaigns are
be impartial and willing to enforce the rules very effective: they call upon our desire to help
of the commitment agreement, it’s like having and make a commitment to another person (or
a second long-run self. One of the things that cause) (Chen & Komorita, 1994).

174 | Unit 5
For most us of, as long as the arrangement and services. In a sort of “I’ll scratch your back
seems fair, we are more than willing to coop- if you scratch mine,” trade-off, who we choose
erate—and keep our word (Goodenough, 2001; as friends follows the theory of reciprocal altru-
Frank, 1988; Neese, 2001; Chen & Komorita, ism—that is, we help those who help us.
1994). And not surprisingly, the effect is much
But the problem with believing that friend-
stronger when that commitment takes place
ships exist only to satiate our desire for material
in person. In one study, people who made a
goods and services is that it ignores the fact
written commitment recycled 252 percent
that we often choose friends who are similar to
more than those who simply had information
us, seem to care about us, and who don’t give
dropped off at their door (Arbuthnot et al.,
only to get something back in return. The fact
1976, 1977). In another study, recycling infor-
is most people do not keep regular tabs on the
mation alongside personal contact and a request
benefits given and received in close relation-
for commitment to recycle increased self-re-
ships, and further, they seem to help friends
ported drop-off recycling by 88 percent com-
even when they are unlikely to be capable of
pared to less than 10 percent for those receiving
repayment (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2009).
written information alone (Arbuthnot et al.,
1976, 1977). Instead, the alliances we form often act as pro-
tective devices—particularly in times of distress
Making a commitment to another person—es-
or conflict. When fighting with our spouse,
pecially in the service of helping others, and
facing a potential job loss (or suffering from one
by extension, ourselves—doesn’t just motivate
that has already occurred), or in a host of trivial
us to keep our word, but also to contribute
arguments, it is our friends that we call upon.
toward a greater goal, i.e., to get along with
And just who those friends are has a lot to do
others. And as you will see in the next section,
with who would be most helpful to us in times
getting along with others also means main-
of conflict—that is, who has our back (DeScioli
taining those alliances.
& Kurzban, 2009).
Pat My Back and I’ll Scratch Yours: And if maintaining those alliances creates a
Why Alliances Matter In Keeping ready-made support group that makes our
Commitments world more secure, it might also be a strong
motivation to help us to keep those commit-
While including another person in our promise
ments. If skipping the gym, bingeing on ice
that we will make it to the gym three times this
cream, or failing to make it out the door for
week will make us more likely to actually get
our morning run means severing an important
there, just who we make that promise to might
social ally—and losing a key supporter that we
have more influence on our commitments than
might need down the road—we are probably a
we think. Historically friendships–and who we
whole lot less likely to do it.
might choose to help us keep our commitments–
were believed to exist for the exchange of goods But that is only part of the story. Helping, and
being helped by others, also leaves us with a affect their reputation in the future. Because
warm physiological afterglow. In a study de- betraying a partner offers a greater reward
signed to explore the social brain while people than cooperating with them, all purely ratio-
are engaged in authentic social interaction, nal self-interested prisoners would betray the
researchers used fMRI to scan the brains of other, and so the only possible outcome for two
36 women while they played the “Prisoner’s purely rational prisoners is for them to betray
Dilemma.” The Prisoner’s Dilemma is a game each other (Milovsky, 2009). However, if both
often used in game theory that was originally players pursue their own interests and betray
framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher each other, the punishment is worse than if they
while working at RAND in 1950. The game is both cooperate and remain silent.
presented as follows:
For the study, researchers used money, as
Two members (denoted A and B) of a crimi- opposed to prison sentences, where each play-
nal gang are arrested and imprisoned. Each er was awarded a sum of money similar to the
prisoner is in solitary confinement with no terms of the Prisoner’s Dilemma: a player would
means of communicating with the other. The earn the most when they betrayed the other,
prosecutors lack sufficient evidence to convict but were not betrayed; earn the least when
the pair on the principal charge, so hope to get they both betrayed each other; and earned an
both sentenced to a year in prison on a lesser amount in between these two amounts when
charge. Simultaneously, the prosecutors offer they both cooperated.
each prisoner a bargain. Each prisoner is given
While researchers might have expected players
the opportunity either to: betray the other by
to try to defect while hoping the other cooper-
testifying that the other committed the crime,
ated—as this led to the largest payoff—mutual
or to cooperate with the other by remaining
cooperation was the most common outcome
silent. The offer is:
(Rilling et al., 2009). And the reason for this
1. If A and B each betray the other, each of might just be that cooperating is rewarding
them will serve 2 years in prison. in itself—during mutually cooperative social
2. If A betrays B but B remains silent, A will be interactions, activation was noted in those
set free and B will serve 3 years in prison areas of the brain that are linked to reward
(and vice versa). processing: the nucleus accumbens, the caudate
3. If A and B both remain silent, both of them nucleus, the ventromedial frontal/orbitofrontal
will only serve 1 year in prison (on the lesser cortex, and the rostral anterior cingulate cortex
charge). (Rilling et al., 2009).
It is implied that the prisoners will have no Gregory S. Berns, M.D., Ph.D., co-investigator
opportunity to reward or punish their co-con- and associate professor of psychiatry at the Em-
spirator or partner other than the prison sen- ory University School of Medicine Department
tences they get, and that their decision will not of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences explains,
“The altruistic drive to cooperate is biologically

176 | Unit 5
embedded—either genetically programmed or Just how tempting an attractive mate can be

acquired through socialization during child- when trying to honor a commitment was the
hood and adolescence” (Berns, 2009). question researchers were asking when they
gathered 120 heterosexual undergraduates in
But even more important is that activating
committed relationships to pore over photo-
a reward circuit helps us overcome tempta-
graphs of attractive members of the opposite sex.
tions—in this case to take the money and run.
Instead, the physiological benefits come with After being asked to identify the member of the
mutual and sustained cooperation. While the opposite sex to whom they felt most physically
players that achieved the maximal reward attracted, the undergrads were then asked to
by successfully cheating their fellow players compose an essay on one of three subjects: the
walked away with more money, that was the time they felt the most love for their current
only payoff they got—the reward circuits in romantic partner, the time they felt the most
their brains did not light up. sexual desire for their current romantic partner,
or anything they wanted to write about. While
The takeaway is that who we choose to help
writing their answers, the participants were in-
us keep our commitments matters, such that
structed to put the attractive other out of their
when we are guided by our alliances, not only
mind, and if they did happen to think of them,
do we create a strong reward circuit armor
to put a check in the margin of their essays
in the face of temptations, but also a built-in
every time they did so.
motivation to keep our commitments and to
preserve our alliances. So what effect did thinking about commitment
have on temptations? Undergraduates who
Commitment and the Power to reflected on the love they felt for their romantic
Resist Temptations partner thought about the attractive temptation
of another as much as six times less than those
If keeping our word to others makes us more who didn’t think about the love they felt for
likely to resist temptations, the effect might also their partner—or instead thought only about
have something to do with just how much we sexual desire. Even more convincing, under-
think about those commitments. While we can grads in the love group were not only less likely
make commitments to people in a variety of to think about attractive others, but also had a
ways—such as to show up at work on time, take much tougher time recalling what they looked
the dog out, take the kid to school, and pay the like, or just what their appeal was (Gonzaga &
bills—perhaps the most salient commitment is Haselton, 2008).
the one we make when saying our vows. And
yet, to have and to hold until death do us part Lead study author, Gian Gonzaga explains,
doesn’t make all of us think about commitment “These people could remember the color of a
in the same proportions. For one thing, there are shirt or whether the photo was taken in New
always attractive members of the opposite sex. York, but they didn’t remember anything
tempting about the person. It’s not like their
overall memory was impaired; it’s as if they had when it is going well. Instead, those who com-
selectively screened out things that would make mit deeply understand that they may have to
them think about the how attractive the alter- make sacrifices, will hit some roadblocks, and
native was” (Gonzaga, 2008). ultimately must have some resolve in order to
keep those commitments. To measure just how
So thinking more about commitment makes us
strongly a deeper level of commitment predict-
selectively screen out those temptations? Perhaps
ed marriage success, researchers presented new-
the result shouldn’t surprise us. Past research has
lyweds with statements that gauged their level
shown that people in romantic relationships do
of commitment, such as, “I want my marriage
consistently rate potential others as less attrac-
to stay strong no matter what rough times we
tive—and spend less time looking at them—than
may encounter,” “My marriage is more import-
those who are not in committed relationships.
ant to me than almost anything else in my life,”
But what defines just how hard we are will- “Giving up something for my partner is fre-
ing to work at that commitment—especially quently not worth the trouble,” and “It makes
in the face of temptations—is how we define me feel good to sacrifice for my partner.” The
commitment. Commitment for most of us newlyweds were then asked to rate how strongly
doesn’t always mean the same thing. We can be they agreed with each statement. The research-
committed to tennis, for example, because we ers then conducted follow-ups every six months
like playing and we feel we are getting better. for four years. In the follow-ups, couples were
We can be committed to our job as long as we asked questions about their relationship histo-
feel we are compensated fairly. And we can be ry, their feelings toward each other, the stress
committed to our relationships, that is, as long in their lives, their level of social support, and
as they are going well. their childhood and family.
But the problem is—and where most of us hit The result? The couples in which both people
a roadblock with our commitment—is when were willing to make sacrifices for the sake of
things take a turn for the worse, e.g., sudden- the marriage were significantly more likely to
ly our golf swing takes a nosedive and we are have lasting and happy marriages (Schoebi,
hitting the green while staring at a shining white et al., 2011). Explains Benjamin Karney, who
ball perched innocently on the tee. Our coworker co-authored the study, “It (commitment) means
gets a raise while we feel we were overlooked. do what it takes to make the relationship suc-
And our relationship—the one we committed to cessful” (Karney, 2011).
until death do us part—now seems to be teeter-
But perhaps even more important is under-
ing dangerously between divorce and separation.
standing that keeping our commitments isn’t
This is also the difference between what psy- supposed to be easy. Instead, those who have the
chologists call a commitment and a deeper level most commitment success do not harbor any
of commitment. A deeper level of commitment false beliefs that commitments don’t include
goes beyond committing to something only

178 | Unit 5
hard work, sacrifices, and probably some were going to do with two (as reported in the
white-knuckling through temptations. follow-up interviews).
It is our attitude toward commitments—and Whether we are revisiting why we made a com-
adopting the “I will do whatever it takes atti- mitment, or reminding ourselves that commit-
tude”—that separates those who commit when ment is not easy, thinking about commitment
it is easy (and things are going well) yet jump matters. Much like making a commitment to
ship the minute the waters gets rough, from someone we have an alliance with, being con-
those who are willing to ride out the bumps sciously aware of our commitments, and just
and bruises of sitting through temptations, the how much hard work it will take to keep them,
overwhelming desire to quit, and those sneaky makes us a lot more likely to keep our word (and
rationalizations—all for the promise of ulti- a lot less likely to find ourselves trying to explain
mately arriving at their goals. just why we didn’t do what we said we would).
And not surprisingly, self-control is like a mus-
If you are wondering if this model applies to
cle, that is, the more we make a habit of keeping
keeping those weight loss commitments and
our commitments (in every area of our life), the
resisting the urge to reach for the donuts, pizza,
easier it is to keep them when it really matters.
cookies, and marshmallows, it does. When
studying children in the classic marshmallow Here are the important points to take away:
test—a well-known test of self-control that
1. Making a commitment to another person—
assesses whether a child can override the urge especially when that commitment is in the
to eat a marshmallow for fifteen minutes in service of helping others—is a very powerful
order to be rewarded with two marshmallows motivational factor.
later—researchers found that the ability to
2. Making comsmitments to our alliances is a
override impulses can be generalized across much stronger motivator—one that offers
the board. In follow-up studies, the children sustained psychological benefit—than those
who successfully resisted the impulse to eat the we make to strangers or acquaintances.
marshmallow (and held out for two) had better 3. Both thinking about our commitments and
life outcomes, as measured by their SAT scores understanding that they are not supposed
(Mischel et al., 1989), educational attainment to be easy, improves our ability to resist the
(Ayduk et al., 2000), body mass index (BMI) temptations that often derail us.
(Schlam et al., 2013), and other life measures
So just how do we make commitments that will
(Schoda et al., 1990).
last (and choose the right people to make them
And what did those children do to delay grat- to)? Here are three ways:
ification? Not surprisingly, they didn’t look at
Make commitments with your alliances. In
the marshmallow. Further, instead of thinking
many ways, whatever commitment we make is
about how much they wanted to eat the one in
only as strong as who we make it to. When the
front of them, they thought about what they
recipient of our commitment is at our disposal,
like someone we don’t know that well or don’t to override impulses, look past temptations, and
have a history or alliance with, that commit- enjoy the reward of keeping our word.
ment suddenly loses its value. Because we haven’t
Understand that keeping commitments will
risked much (in the sense of a valued alliance), if
require sacrifice. Making a commitment—espe-
we don’t keep our word, we don’t lose much. On
cially if we don’t think much about it—is always
the other hand, when we make a commitment to
easier than keeping it. And making that commit-
an alliance, we risk not only our reputation with
ment is even easier when things are going well.
them, but also our relationship with them. No
But making commitments only when things are
one wants to let a friend down—especially when
going well is like only showing up at work on
that friend has been there for you, and you need
payday. The rewards we want—fitting into that
them. And when you make a commitment to a
pair of jeans, running that three miles, losing
friend who has also kept their word with you,
that last stubborn twenty (or fifty) pounds, and
you strengthen your commitment even more—
collecting our paycheck—all require some heavy
because if you don’t keep your word, you not
lifting. If we acknowledge that fact before making
only fail to live up to your own standards, but
a commitment, then when faced with things not
your friend’s as well.
going well, we will remember that hard work,
Think about those commitments. Commit- grit, sacrifice, and, yes, blood, sweat, and tears,
ments, for many of us, are taken much too are all part of commitments. Further, we will un-
lightly. We make them without really think- derstand that commitments exist not simply as a
ing about how (and why) we are going to keep dispensary for our many desires (although they
them. Then, not surprisingly, when faced with may be noble), but rather to test and build our
the hard work of keeping our word, we find resources. When we put in that blood, sweat, and
ourselves grasping for excuses. Further, the tears, the reward will taste that much sweeter.
less we think about commitments, the more
those attractive temptations seem to beckon PowerPoint: The Three Qualities
us. Yet when we consciously think about our of a Good Referee
commitments—asking and answering why we
made them, what they mean to us, and what the Objective
benefit of keeping them is—not only are we less
aware of the temptations around us, but they Good referees must not be persuaded by sub-
are less likely to look like temptations. As you jective opinion, negotiation, or even threats.
know, focusing on commitments dampens our Instead, to be effective, a referee must only pay
memory of temptations. Just like the kids in the attention to the objective information at hand,
marshmallow test, when we avoid staring at the that is, the rules of the commitment agreement.
marshmallow and think instead about the value
of keeping our commitments (in the kids case, Good Emotional Control
receiving two marshmallows later is always bet-
A good referee must be able to operate in
ter than one now), we find the resources needed

180 | Unit 5
situations that have the potential to be emotion- does no good if that’s all we do. In fact, as many
ally charged. They should have high emotional rebound dieters would attest, starting and stop-
tolerance (they can deal with stressful situa- ping is often worse than not starting at all.
tions) and a high degree of emotional control
So just how do we keep that change going over
(they do not become upset easily).
the long term and avoid the diet rebound cycle
for good? Let’s take a look at a few ways.
Honest
Referees are only effective when they are hon- Use Goals That Encourage
est—even if it means there will be negative con- Cooperation.
sequences. A good referee should have a high
As you will recall from section nine, goals that
tolerance for discomfort and a very strong sense
encourage cooperation with others have better
of authority (to follow the rules of the commit-
outcomes. We all want to cooperate, help oth-
ment agreement).
ers, and be seen as helpful, and goals that call
upon our innate desire for synergy and cooper-
Section Five: Maintenance ation utilize desirable pro-social characteristics,
Strategies one of which is keeping our word.
Weight loss, like any game, isn’t won overnight.
It’s a game that’s played every day. In this section, Connect Our Goals With Those of
you will learn the maintenance strategies, tools, Others.
tips, and exercises that can keep you winning the Shared goals—those that are connected with
game of weight loss for years to come. the goals of others—can be very effective, not
Starting change is never as difficult as main- just in harnessing our desire for cooperation,
taining it. For one thing, change often feels but also in increasing our interest in these goals.
novel. We get excited about our new possibili- In general, we tend to work much harder on
ties and like to imagine ourselves wearing the goals that affect others. In short, when others
jeans we wished we could fit into, sporting a depend on us, we don’t want to let them down.
sleek new body, and enjoying the praise and Further, goals that affect others also transcend
admiration of our friends. Over time, howev- our self-interest, and call upon a greater pur-
er, the novelty wears off, we lose interest, the pose. Often when we see that what we are doing
challenge sets in, and before we know it, we find has meaning beyond ourselves, our interest and
ourselves sitting in front of the television with a continued involvement soars.
box of pizza and a bag of chips. What we often
forget is that at its core, weight loss is neither Look for ways to use commitment
glamourous, nor easy. But this is also why the strategies in other areas of life.
goal of changing behavior always needs to be
In order to maintain the skills of change, we
to maintain the good behavior. Starting simply
have to continue practicing them. And because
we learn in a variety of contexts, the skills of our commitment agreements, even if we suffer
change do not always have to involve weight loss. the penalties for it. They must be firm enough
For example, if we want to get better at going to to not bend the rules should we fail to keep our
bed earlier, we can create commitment strate- end of the bargain, as learning to accept the
gies that will help us accomplish this, while also consequences of our actions is just as important
strengthening our willpower. Remember while as learning how to allocate the cognitive re-
willpower is a limited resource, it is also one that sources needed to achieve our goals. When we
can be built up. And the more success we have at use effective referees not only do we learn that
changing behavior in small ways, the more confi- our actions matter, but that the outcomes of our
dent we will become at maintaining behavior in actions are in our control.
larger, more challenging ways.
Commitment Strategy Skills for
Use Small Quantitative Change to Personal Trainers
Create Larger Qualitative Changes.
Now that we have a clear understanding of the
Small changes, as you know, build confidence, many ways in which making desirable choices
but they also build momentum. Because they and changing behavior can be difficult, and we
incorporate a sense of mastery—which tends to have some general understanding as to how to
be progressive in nature—once we accomplish better improve the connection between short-
one goal, we generally want to turn our desire for term and long-term consequences, how to gain
mastery toward another goal. And while we may control over unconscious drives, and how to use
begin as someone who doesn’t see ourselves as soft and hard commitments and employ refer-
capable of change—much less capable of main- ees, we will look at specific commitment strat-
taining it—as these small goals add up, and we egy skills that you can use with your clients to
begin to shift our perspective of ourselves. We improve behavior change. We will explore how
are no longer the person wanting change to hap- to familiarize the client with the commitment
pen, we are the person making change happen. strategy model, how to choose the most effective
This is not just a very powerful shift, it’s also a strategy, and for the client, how to choose the
very effective way to maintain change. best penalty and identify a referee. Lastly, we
look at commitment maintenance strategies, and
Use Effective Referees. present some examples of effective commitment
strategies that have been used with clients.
Much of achieving our goals depends upon the
rules that govern them. When the penalties for
Familiarizing the Client
not reaching our goals become strong enough
incentives, we will move in the direction of Whenever you use any new methodology—
the desired behavior. But what all good rules whether it be a new exercise, or a commitment
depend on are effective enforcers. Referees have strategy—it is first important to familiarize
to be able to consistently enforce the rules of your client with the technique (or exercise) that

182 | Unit 5
you will be using. What this essentially means self-control problems, and it is not a difficulty
is you should educate your client as to what exclusive to your client or exclusive to the goal
the technique is, how it works, what will be of weight loss. To do this, it is helpful to give the
expected of them, what will be expected of you, following examples of commitment devices:
any precautions they need to be aware of, and
• Cutting up your credit cards to lower your
the outcomes they might expect. In the case of spending.
commitment strategies, it is best to start with
• Drinking extra water after dinner to reduce
the following general definition provided by
nighttime eating.
economist Stephen Levitt and journalist Ste-
phen J. Dubner, who are credited with the term • Taking Antabuse to avoid drinking alcohol.
commitment device: • Telling your friends that you are going to run
ten miles to increase the chance of you com-
“A commitment device is a means with which pleting your goal.
to lock yourself into a course of action that you
• Paying a non-refundable marathon race entry
might not otherwise choose but that produces a
to encourage yourself to run the race.
desired result” (Levitt & Dubner, 2007).
• Using automatic deposits into a savings ac-
Going further, you should also explain to count to encourage savings.
your client that commitment devices are
• Opening a savings account with an early
used across a variety of situations—not just
withdrawal fee to discourage taking money
for health and fitness or weight loss. It is also out of your savings.
helpful to give your client the basic model of
• Selling your car to increase your use of public
commitment devices:
transport.
“Commitment devices are incentives or pen- • Removing ice cream from your house to avoid
alties imposed upon yourself, or through the eating it.
use of a referee, to decrease the likelihood of an
• Prepaying a non-refundable fee for a package
unwanted behavior, or increase the likelihood of classes at the gym.
of a desired behavior.”
• Giving your spouse $100 to keep if you eat ice
In providing this definition and model, you cream—or asking them to return $10 for every
should also emphasize that the use of commit- week you do not eat ice cream.
ment devices arose out of the general recogni- After providing these examples, it is then help-
tion of a deficit of self-control that is universal ful to clarify the difference between hard and
to all people—particularly when changing soft commitments with the following definition:
behavior—and that commitment devices act
to enhance self-control and improve decisions, “Soft commitments use social, psychological
therefore making behavioral change more like- and financial incentives to encourage behavior
ly. It is especially important in your explanation toward desired outcomes, while hard com-
to highlight the point that all people experience mitments use penalties—usually financial in
nature—to encourage behavior toward desired assign to enforce the rules of your commitment
outcomes.” agreement.”
It is also useful to provide the following Some examples of referees that you could sug-
examples: gest to your client are:
• A trusted friend that you can give $100 to
Soft Commitments: with the explanation that they are to keep the
money if you fail to keep your commitment to
• Avoiding bringing ice cream into the house to
work out three times per week.
reduce the likelihood of eating it.
• A family member that will enforce the com-
• Scheduling to meet a friend at the gym twice
mitment agreement that, for every time you
a week to increase your physical activity.
spend more money than is in your budget,
• Using automatic deposits into your savings you will have to wash the car and clean the
account to increase your savings. house.
• Avoiding driving by your favorite bar to re- • A bank from which you open a savings ac-
duce the likelihood of stopping in for a drink. count with an early withdrawal fee.
• A race director to whom you pay a non-re-

Hard Commitments: fundable race entry.
• Opening a savings account with an early • A personal trainer to whom you pay a non-re-
withdrawal fee to discourage taking money fundable fee for a package of sessions.
out of your savings.
• A personal trainer to whom you ask to hold
• Imposing an additional tax on cigarettes to $100 and then to return $10 to you every
decrease consumption. week when you run a total of ten miles on
• Opening a savings account that is only your own.
accessible to you when you reach your goal It is also important that you explain to your cli-
weight.
ent that the use of referees is a very effective way
• Giving your spouse or friend $100 to hold, to increase their self-control, and that having
from which they will release $10 for every a referee will enhance the likelihood of them
week you don’t eat after 6 PM.
achieving their desired behavior.
Once your client has a clear idea of what com-
Once your client has a general idea of what
mitment devices are and the difference between
commitment devices are, why they are used,
soft and hard commitments, you should in-
how they are implemented, what the difference
troduce them to the idea of a referee with the
between soft and hard commitments are, and
following definition:
what referees are, it is important to explain
“A referee is a person who is impartial and who to your client what they can expect by using
has no direct involvement in your goal that you a commitment device. Here it is important to
tell your client that commitment devices are

184 | Unit 5
powerful methods for changing behavior, and 6. Inform your client that the use of referees
that through the use of them, they are much increases their self-control and the likelihood
of them achieving their desired behavior.
more likely to reach their goals. You should
also inform your client of the difference in 7. Provide the expected outcomes of both soft
outcomes between soft and hard commitments: and hard commitments: that soft com-
that soft commitment have greater participation mitments enjoy greater participation but
hard commitments have better long-term
rates, but hard commitments have better long-
outcomes.
term outcomes. While it is always your client’s
decision as to which type of commitment to 8. Refer your client to the section of their work-
use, it is first important that they understand book that discusses commitment devices
and some examples of the ways they can use
the difference in implementation and outcome
them to change behavior, and then answer
of soft and hard commitments. Further, you any additional questions they may have.
should inform your client that the decision as to
whether or not to use a commitment device at Now that your client is familiar with the gen-
all is completely up to them. Lastly, it is helpful eral model of commitment devices, we discuss
to refer your client to the section of their work- how to choose the commitment strategy that
book that addresses commitment devices for they will be most comfortable with.
further reading and for some examples of the
ways in which they can incorporate commit- Choosing the Strategy
ment devices into their life, and then ask if they
From the discussion above, we know that dif-
have any questions that you can answer.
ferent commitment strategies lead to different
To summarize, let’s take a look at the steps outcomes. On the one hand, those that use in-
involved in familiarizing your client with com- centives—as opposed to penalties—have high-
mitment devices: er participation rates, yet, on the other hand,
those that use penalties have better long-term
1. Provide your client with the definition and
outcomes. Further, we also know that incentive
model of commitment devices.
programs designed around cooperation and
2. Emphasize that all people experience synergy with others—such as giving someone
self-control problems and that commitment
your word on an action that is mutually bene-
devices are a powerful way to enhance be-
ficial—can be quite effective, both in participa-
havior change.
tion and outcome. For the purpose of this dis-
3. Give your client several examples of commit- cussion, we look at ways in which you can work
ment devices.
with your client to develop the commitment
4. Explain the difference between hard and soft strategy that works best for them. With that in
commitments, providing examples of each. mind, it is important to always keep in mind
5. Explain what referees are and how they are that the overall goal is behavioral change, and
used, offering some examples of referees. the actual commitment strategy to be used is
ultimately the decision of your client. However,
when designing commitment strategies with of protein every morning, drinking coffee as
your client, it is helpful to keep the following opposed to cappuccinos or mochas, or eating
points in mind: only one brownie every other day instead of
three. In assessing your client’s confidence at
Use Small Goals That Carry High reaching these goals, their answer should reflect
Confidence Levels. a confidence level of 8 or above. The reason for
this is that you want to introduce your client to
Before considering which commitment strate- the use of commitment strategies in a way that
gy to use with your client, you should keep in will make them feel successful, build their con-
mind that before your client ever considered fidence, and encourage their interest in future
asking for your help on behavior change, they commitment strategies, which, as you will see,
may have probably tried multiple times un- will lead to a larger qualitative change.
successfully. This is the case with almost any
helping profession—from counselors, to doc-
Use Frequent Hard Commitments to
tors, physical therapists, and personal train-
Build Confidence.
ers—that most people wait until their situation
is very severe before ever seeking help. In the As you know already, soft commitments im-
case of personal training, this means that your prove participation, but hard commitments
client has probably tried several different weight have better long-term outcomes. Because your
loss methods, and the fact that they have asked focus is on building your client’s confidence
for your help at this point is testament to the through measurable outcomes, it is best to
fact that these have been unsuccessful so far. accomplish this with the use of frequent, hard
And for most clients, a history of unsuccessful commitments. The other reason for this is that,
weight loss attempts means that their confi- because most clients have a history of unsuc-
dence (at weight loss) will be very low. It is for cessful weight loss attempts, they will have
this reason that you should always start with probably also unknowingly tried soft commit-
small goals that your client is very confident ment strategies by themselves. It is not un-
about achieving. To do this, begin by asking common to hear clients say things like, “I have
your client a few questions: What is one small tried buying smaller quantities of cookies and
change that you could make that you would sweets,” “In the past, I tried joining a walking
consider a success toward weight loss? On a group,” “My sister and I were supposed to start
scale of 1–10, how confident are you that you working out together.” These are all examples
could make that change? What you are looking of soft commitments. So instead of using soft
for in your clients answers is for them to set a commitments that your client may have al-
goal that is relatively minor in the overarching ready tried without success, it is best to start
construct of their overall weight loss, but that with hard commitments—not only because
will give them a tangible result as a step along they usually have better outcomes, but because
the way. Some examples are walking for twenty they have no “negative” history with your
minutes every other day, eating twenty grams client. What this means is using commitment

186 | Unit 5
strategies that focus on small goals and that in- 8, the next progression would be to attempt a
corporate penalties that are imposed frequently goal at which they had a confidence level of 7.
to build your client’s confidence. For example, Progression should be no more than one num-
let’s say your client would like to exercise more. ber (in confidence rating) per week, and if your
You can start with the small goal of walking ten client is not successful at that goal, you should
minutes per day, ensuring that your client has a move them to a smaller goal, one in which their
confidence level of 8 or higher, and then impose confidence is higher. For example, let’s say that
a penalty of $70 per week should your client not your client chose a goal at which they rated
reach their goal. But to increase the frequency their confidence at 8, yet they were not success-
with which you implement the penalty, you will ful at reaching this goal, then you should move
give your client (or have your client assign a to a goal at which they rate their confidence
referee to do this) $10 every day that she walks at 9. The reason for this is twofold: people do
for ten minutes. You can work with your client not always estimate their confidence accurate-
to choose whatever specific goal they would ly (sometimes we are more confident than we
like—from exercising more, to getting up earli- think, or conversely sometimes we underesti-
er, to eating less sweets—as long as you design mate the difficulty of the task) and you always
a commitment strategy that uses small goals want your client to feel successful.
and frequent, preferably at least every other day,
penalties to build confidence. Connect Goals to Long-term Outcomes.
While any goal attainment carries a positive
Move from Smaller Goals to Larger
connotation for clients, it is best to always
Goals.
connect whatever goals are met to long-term
Starting with small goals is a great way to build outcomes. The reason for this is, as we know
confidence, and once your client has some from the previous section, that people always
success at achieving a desired goal, she will work harder on goals that they have an interest
be ready to move to a larger one. For examin. Your client, is much more likely to allocate
ple, let’s say that you started with a small goal effort toward achieving a small goal, when they
to walk ten minutes every day for one week, see it in the much larger perspective of their life
and your client successfully reached this goal; and when it represents something that is very
you can then move to fifteen minutes every important to them. For example, let’s say that
day for another week. You could also choose a your client tells you that one of the primary
different goal entirely, such as eating only one reasons for losing weight is to “be able to keep
small yogurt for desert every day for the next up with my kids.” You might begin by helping
week. However, one thing to keep in mind is to them choose a commitment strategy with a
make the shift from small goals to larger ones small goal, e.g., of walking ten minutes per day,
incremental in nature. What this means is that and a penalty of $10 a day should your client
if your client was successful at reaching a goal not complete the walk. Your client is successful
at which they expressed a confidence level of at this goal, so you move on to another goal
to eat only half a candy bar for desert for one early. Choosing a penalty with your client works
week, and again your client is successful. While much in the same way: it is a balance between
these goals are a great start, you must keep choosing something that is aversive enough to
in mind that your client’s primary reason for deter behavior, while not being so aversive as to
weight loss is to keep up with their kids. There- detract from participation. While you already
fore, goals that directly reflect this will increase know that one way to increase participation
their interest and participation. For example, is to choose small goals with high confidence
you could work with your client to choose a levels, when choosing penalties, it is helpful to
goal to play ten minutes of soccer with their keep the following two principles in mind:
kids every day—which is a goal in direct rela-
tionship to her overall long-term goal. When Penalties should be aversive enough in
small goals such as this connect with long-term nature to provide a strong incentive to
outcomes, clients experience them as much perform a desirable behavior.
more purposeful, and demonstrate much great-
One way to assess the how aversive a penalty
er interest in them because they reflect their
might be to your client is to ask them to rate the
own motivations.
proposed penalty in the following way:
Choosing the Penalty How would you rate (list the penalty here)?
What you can probably guess at this point is 1. Neutral
that penalties come in all shapes and sizes. You 2. Dislike
have probably also had some personal experi-
3. Strongly dislike
ence with penalties, and may be familiar with
large ones, such as stiff fines, imprisonment, 4. Very strongly dislike
and loss of privileges, as well as small ones, such
As clients differ in what may be aversive to
as parking tickets, late fees, and early termina-
them, the goal of this question is to assess how
tion fees. You can probably also conclude that
aversive the penalty feels to your client. As you
larger penalties are very effective motivators of
know, penalties that are too aversive, i.e., those
behavior—e.g., the chance of imprisonment is
that the client may rate as “very strongly dis-
a very good way to keep us from breaking the
like,” will likely deter their participation. On
law—but might not invite healthy participation.
the other hand, penalties rated as “neutral”
For example, while you may know that a sav-
would have an effect similar to a control group,
ings account that carries an early termination
i.e., none, or very little effect. For this reason,
fee of $10,000 would be a very effective way to
penalties that your client rates as either “dis-
reduce early withdrawals, most people would
like” or “strongly dislike” will have the greatest
not sign up for it. On the other hand, an early
effect, without discouraging participation.
termination fee of $500 might be just enough
to get us to sign up for the account, but also to
effectively deter us from withdrawing money

188 | Unit 5
Penalties should not be so aversive that three half hour strength training sessions this
they cannot be recovered from. week—that if not accomplished, can be recov-
ered from. In this way, should your client not be
You have probably had the experience of meeting
successful at one small goal, the experience can
a client who says to you, “I just have to lose this
be used as valuable information with which to
weight, I am getting married (or something else
design future goals. By focusing on smaller goals
equally important) in six months.” There are
with less severe—although still aversive—penal-
two things a statement like this tells you: losing
ties, your client will also learn to use small goal
weight is very important to your client, and your
achievements to propel them toward their larger,
client has a lot riding on them losing weight.
longer term outcomes.
As you will recall from the discussion on short-
term and long-term consequences, the more we
Identifying a Referee
have riding on a long-term goal, the more likely
we are to exaggerate the uncertainty of it. And While you already know that a referee is some-
when a long-term goal is uncertain, we discount one assigned to enforce the rules of the com-
the risks associated with the short-term conse- mitment agreement and that the use of one will
quences of giving in to impulses. What this has increase your client’s sense of self-control and the
to do with penalties is that when penalties are so overall likelihood of their success, let’s revisit the
severe—like a client telling you that they have to two important points of choosing a referee:
lose weight—their dependence on the long-term
goal increases, which throws the certainty into a Ensure That the Referee Is Impartial.
downward spiral, and actually makes them giv-
ing in to impulses all the more likely. The take- While the referee should be impartial, this
away for you, as a personal trainer, is that when should not be taken to mean that they cannot
clients have everything riding on weight loss— have the client’s best interest in mind. A spouse,
either through self-imposed penalties (I have to for example, is not necessarily impartial in that
fit into my wedding outfit) or through those that they will want their partner to succeed, and
you and your client collectively imposes, the un- probably more than a stranger would. However,
certainty increases and their chances of success what is most important in terms of impartial-
decrease. This situation is even more complicated ity is that the referee has no direct stake in the
when you have a client that has a history of failed outcome. A husband will be happy that his
weight loss attempts, because their confidence wife achieves her walking goal, but he will not
will already be low and uncertainty is already suffer any direct penalty if she doesn’t. On the
high. In order to increase your client’s chances of other hand, imagine the case that your client
success then, you should work with your client to signs up for a running race with a friend where
choose more frequent, less severe penalties—in- both your client and their friend have to raise
stead of focusing on not fitting into your wed- $1,000 combined for a charity to gain entry into
ding outfit in six months, focus on completing the race. Here, your client is effectively making
a commitment to their friend, and thereby this, while your client may be comfortable with
assigning them the role of referee, but here your their best friend, this person would not be an
client’s friend will be directly impacted if your effective referee. The way to ensure that a ref-
client doesn’t achieve their goal to raise their eree is able to enforce the rules of your client’s
share of the $1,000 and will also lose her entry commitment then, is to ask to meet with them
and so is not really impartial and has a vested to first ensure that they understand the com-
interest in the goal being achieved. In this case, mitment agreement and the role of the referee.
should your client fail, their friend is likely to You should ask them the following questions:
take up the slack to ensure that the full $1,000
• Is there any reason you would not be able to
is raised and both your client and their friend enforce the rules of this agreement?
are assured of a race entry. The problem with
• Can you foresee any negative consequences
this sort of referee is that because they will be
in enforcing the rules of this agreement?
directly affected—through the enforcement of a
penalty—they are not able to be impartial with • Is there any reason you do not want to be the
your client. Here, it is helpful to remember that referee for my client?
a referee should always be the one enforcing the The aim of asking these questions is to assess if
rules of the commitment agreement, and there- the referee is both capable of enforcing the rules
fore should not be affected by the rules. i.e., that they fully understand them, and see no
negative consequences, and actually wants to be
Ensure that the referee is able to in the role of the referee. As you know, referees
enforce the rules of the commitment are crucial components of commitment agree-
agreement. ments, and it is for this reason that they must
be both impartial and fully able to enforce the
When thinking about making commitment
rules of the commitment agreement.
agreements, people often choose referees that
they are familiar and comfortable with. While
there is no real problem with this, it is import- Maintenance Strategies
ant that the referee is able to enforce the rules As you can imagine, achieving behavioral
of the commitment agreement. For example, change is not as difficult as maintaining it. For
let’s say that your client makes a commitment one thing, when working on changing behavior,
agreement to run ten miles per week and choos- most clients have support. Once the desired be-
es their best friend as their referee. However, havior is achieved, on the other hand, support
you later learn that your client’s best friend did systems often fade away. Additionally, when
not really want to be the referee because, in the changing behavior, the change itself may feel
past, your client hasn’t taken criticism well, and novel to your client, and for this reason, hold
their best friend was worried that enforcing high interest. Over time, however, the novelty
the rules of the commitment agreement might wears off, and the interest in the change itself,
result in a fight with your client. In a case like or the desired goal, may not be as strong, and

190 | Unit 5
your client can relapse into previous behaviors. Look for ways to use commitment
For these reasons, what must be kept in mind strategies in other areas of life.
is that the overall goal of behavior change is for
In order to maintain the skills of change, we
your client to become able to maintain their be-
have to continue practicing them. And be-
havior. Much like we raise a child to eventually
cause we learn in a variety of contexts, the
be independent, your client must be encouraged
skills of change do not always have to involve
to take independent steps toward managing and
weight loss. For example, if we want to get
directing their own behavior toward their de-
better at going to bed earlier, we can create
sired goals. Let’s take a look at some of the ways
commitment strategies that will help us ac-
in which you can accomplish this.
complish this task, while also strengthening
our willpower—remember, while it is a limited
Use Goals That Encourage Cooperation.
resource, it is also one that can be built—and
As you know from the section on familiarizing building our confidence. The idea is that the
your client with commitment strategies, goals more success your client has at changing their
that encourage cooperation with others have behavior in small ways, the more confident
better outcomes. Because goals such as these they will become at maintaining behavior in
call upon our innate desire for synergy and larger, more challenging ways.
cooperation, they utilize desirable pro-social
characteristics. That is, we all want to cooper- Use Small Quantitative Change to
ate, help others, and be seen as helpful. For this Create Larger Qualitative Changes.
reason, it is very helpful to develop goals with
Small changes, as you know, build confidence,
your client that encourage cooperation.
but they also build momentum. Because they
incorporate a sense of mastery—which tends
Connect Goals With Those of Others.
to be progressive in nature—once we accom-
Shared goals—those that are connected with plish one goal, we generally want to turn our
the goals of others—can be very effective not desire for mastery toward another one. And
just in harnessing our desire for cooperation, while we may begin as someone who doesn’t
but also in increasing our interest in these goals. see ourselves as capable of change—much less
In general, people tend to work much harder on maintaining it—these small goals soon add up,
goals that affect others. Much of the reason for and we begin to shift our perspectives of our-
this is that when others depend on us, we don’t selves. We are no longer the person wanting
want to let them down. Further, goals that affect change to happen, we are the person making
others also transcend our self-interest. That is, change happen. For your client, this can be a
they call upon a greater purpose. When your very powerful shift, and a very effective way to
client sees that what they are doing has mean- maintain change.
ing beyond just themselves, their interest and
continued involvement in it will soar.
Use Effective Referees. of “being heavy.” At the time Jan came to see
me, it had been six years since she had been at
Much of achieving our goals depends upon
her goal weight (135 pounds). In reviewing Jan’s
the rules that govern them. When the penal-
history, it became clear that from the time her
ties for not achieving our goals become strong
dad had died (six years prior), she had felt little
enough incentives, we move in the direction of
connection in her life, as evidenced by her fre-
the desired behavior. But what all good rules
quent moves, as shown by the fact that she had
depend on are effective enforcers. For this rea-
lived in eight different states, and job changes,
son, referees have to able to consistently enforce
where she had held eighteen different jobs in six
the rules of our commitment agreements, even
years. What was even more clear, however, was
if we suffer the penalties for it. They must be
that the less connection Jan felt, the more her
willing to not bend the rules should we fail to
weight became a problem. To achieve Jan’s goal
keep our commitment, as learning to accept the
of returning to her “running weight,” we de-
consequences of our actions is just as important
signed a commitment agreement targeting the
as learning to allocate the cognitive resources
connection between her isolation and overeat-
needed to achieve our goals. When your client
ing. Jan was to join a running group as a pacer
uses effective referees not only will they learn
(she was very confident in her ability to run)
that their actions matter—and they matter
for new runners that would be participating in
enough to the referee to uphold the rules of the
a marathon eight months away. Jan and I did
commitment agreement—but that the outcomes
not have to assign a referee for her commitment
of their actions are in their control.
agreement as Jan would report to the director
of the running group three times a week at
Commitment Strategy Examples the group’s training runs. However, the terms
Now that you have an understanding of com- of Jan’s agreement with the director were as
mitment strategies and how to use them to follows: she would have to commit to be avail-
create effective behavior change in your clients, able to train her group of twenty runners three
let’s take a look at a few case study examples. times a week, be available for questions during
the week (delivered via email) they may have
about training, hold the commitment for eight
Jan
months, and eventually run the marathon with
Jan was a 47-year-old woman with a history of her group. If Jan defaulted on any part of the
overeating and isolating. Jan had lived alone for agreement, she would never again be considered
many years, had few close relationships, and as a pacer for the running group—or would she
only one remaining family member (her moth- be allowed to run with them again. Because Jan
er). In her youth, Jan had been very active, and felt confident in her ability as a runner, and as
even run a few marathons, yet now found her- she naturally loved to help people, this agree-
self struggling with motivation, and the feeling ment achieved two things: it forced Jan to run at

192 | Unit 5
least three times per week and it connected her on everything he had restricted from his diet to
with other people in a very powerful way. The lose the weight. In order to achieve his goal of
combination of the connection with others (Jan long-term weight loss, Andrew and I designed
didn’t want to let her runners down) and the a commitment agreement that targeted his
running provided an effective antidote to Jan’s tendency to “backslide”, i.e., letting one slip-
overeating, and the very strong penalty of never up lead to a chain of them. The agreement was
again being allowed into the group should she as follows: Andrew was to maintain his usual
default on her agreement also worked as a pow- weight loss diet, with the exception of adding in
erful motivator toward her behavior change. Jan three “slipups” (where he ate one item he con-
was able to complete the commitment agree- sidered unhealthy) per week. After each slip-
ment, uphold her responsibilities as a pacer, and up, Andrew was to immediately return to his
returned to her running weight. After complet- diet, without any further binges on his favorite
ing the marathon, Jan enjoyed the experience unhealthy foods. Andrew assigned his father as
so much—and for the first time in several years the referee and set the terms of the agreement
felt connected to something—that she signed on as such: Andrew was to give his father $1,000,
as a permanent running coach for the group. for which his father was to return $50 after each
“bounce back” (this is the term we assigned to
Andrew recovering from an unhealthy food ingestion
with no further fallout). When Andrew re-
Andrew was a 39-year-old man with a lifelong gained all of his money, we restarted the agree-
history of weight problems. Beginning just after ment. After three successful cycles of the agree-
college, and after a difficult breakup, his weight ment, Andrew felt he no longer needed to have
began to escalate. At first, he was not bothered the agreement in place to maintain his healthy
by the weight gain, but when his weight bal- eating, and decided then to target his exercise
looned to over three hundred pounds, he knew routine using a similar agreement, again first
he had to take action. Going on a juice diet, he assigning his father to the role of referee again.
lost eighty pounds, and returned to his pre-col- No longer dieting and backsliding, Andrew was
lege weight. However, almost as soon as he lost finally confident in his ability to not only create
the weight, he regained it all—plus ten pounds. a habit of healthy eating, but to regulate his
By the time Andrew came to see me, he had re- behavior, and maintain his weight.
peated this cycle a total of five times. What was
clear to me was that for Andrew, losing weight
Jenny
wasn’t hard, it was keeping weight off that was
the problem. Much of this was due to the fact Jenny was a 25-year-old woman who had been
that in the past in order to lose the weight each heavy for most of her life. Although she played
time, Andrew had gone on an extremely strict softball throughout high school, and identified
diet, and by the time he reached his goal, his herself as an athletic person, she had never
willpower had been exhausted, and he binged been able to “lose the last thirty pounds.” An
investigation into Jenny’s background, howev- to work, we didn’t change the terms, and the
er, revealed a history of hiding food and binge second week, when Jenny’s best friend arrived,
eating. Any time she was alone, Jenny would Jenny informed her that she had not binged, but
binge eat, and many times turned down friends’ that she also would like her friend to keep the
invitations for social events so she could stay car keys for another week as she wanted to con-
home and eat. What was clear to me was not tinue riding her bike to work. After two weeks
so much that Jenny had a problem with con- of riding her bike to work, Jenny’s weight began
trolling herself around food, but that she had a to change, and for the first time in her life, she
much larger problem of being alone. Jenny, her- began to feel successful. But she also realized
self, admitted that she didn’t remember the last something else: what had begun as a commit-
time she was alone and didn’t binge. To target ment strategy to avoid binge eating turned
this problem, Jenny and I designed a commit- into a commitment strategy to ride her bike to
ment agreement where she was to spend one work. Perhaps even more importantly, what
night per week alone and not binge. Jenny chose became clear to Jenny was that being successful
her best friend—who was aware of her binge at riding her bike to work gave her the confi-
eating—as the referee, and we set the terms as dence to not binge. Jenny’s friend kept her car
follows: Jenny was to give her best friend the keys for eight weeks and Jenny not only rode
keys to her car for the one night she is alone; in her bike to work, but to the grocery store, and
the morning, if Jenny had not binged, her friend to run errands as well. By the time Jenny finally
would return her car keys. The first week, Jenny asked for her car keys back, she had reached her
lost access to her car keys and had to ride her goal weight, and chose to enter a marathon as
bike to work (about five miles away). However, another commitment agreement which would
the first week revealed something perhaps even encourage her to learn to run—something she
more important—Jenny enjoyed riding her bike had always wanted to do—but also to continue
to work. In order to give the agreement time building her confidence.

194 | Unit 5
Summary
Attempts at weight loss, however, have histor- penalties, firm rules and active referees—make
ically been fraught with problems. As clients commitments to alliances, focus on inhibiting
consistently overlook the role of emotions, deny (negative) action, as opposed to taking (positive)
themselves desirable foods (making them even action, use immediate penalties, and expose
more desirable), fail to recognize self-control as themselves to the future consequences of their
a limited resource or account for the decreasing actions, they employ the most powerful strate-
benefits of a desirable behavior over time or gies of behavior change available today.
the temptation costs of overriding other more
When personal trainers first familiarize their
desirable options, what becomes clear is the
clients with the commitment strategy design
need for more effective strategies to achieve
and help them choose a strategy that uses
their goals. One such strategy, called a com-
small goals with high confidence levels, fre-
mitment device, offers a way for clients to gain
quent penalties, and connects goals to their
leverage on themselves when it is most needed.
long-term outcomes, and then assign a fair and
Through connecting long-term consequences
capable referee for them to see through their
with actions taken in the present, making goals
commitment, they become an invaluable asset
less uncertain, limiting exposure to unreachable
in helping their clients use small achievable
thin ideals, and using mastery goals instead of
goals to propel larger qualitative change, and
performance goals, clients can strengthen their
ultimately help clients to apply the strategy to
self-control, much like they would strength-
overcome the many barriers to weight loss and
en their physical muscles. Further, when cli-
to help them realize the healthy lifestyle they
ents use hard commitments—those with stiff
have been striving for.
UNIT 6
Flow and Experience Sampling

196 | Unit 6
Unit Outline
1. Flow and Why it Matters e. Section Five: Turning Trials into Triumphs:
a. Section One: Going Fast in Every Different How Flow Helps Us Face Setbacks
Direction f. Section Six: A New Normal: How Optimal
b. Section Two: The Spotlight Effect: How Experience Transforms Our Lives
Flow Harnesses Attention and Heightens g. Section Seven: The Experience Sampling
Awareness Method
c. Section Three: The Gift of Stress: How Flow h. Experience Sampling for Personal Trainers
Can Help Us Identify Our Strengths
2. Summary
d. Section Four: Wired to Transcend: How
Flow Transforms Us
Flow and Why It Matters

Today we are more distracted than ever. Statis- more clearly might be a lengthy process—and
tics from 2013 reported in the Huffington Post one in which the answers do not come imme-
showed that Americans spent an average of diately—information about the world around
11.52 hours per day on some sort of digital de- us is now traveling faster than ever before. But
vice. If you stop and think about that, the num- that might also be part of the problem: it is not
ber is quite startling. Indeed, for most people, so much that we don’t want to look inward, it
that is more than double the amount of time is that we don’t have the patience for it. Indeed,
they might spend productively working. And as we have come to expect instantaneous results,
Sherry Turkle, the author of Alone Together, ex- whether images, video, texts, and snippets of
plains, it is not simply that we spend more time information. It is attention condensed, summa-
than ever on our devices, it is that, “We expect rized, and bullet-pointed—all in service of our
more from technology and less from others.” truncated attention spans.
On the other hand, there might be a larger issue
And if we are used to seeing a panoply of
at hand, because it is not simply other people we
exciting images, videos, and dramatic head-
are distracted from. On a fundamental level, we
lines, when we look inward, we are likely to
are distracted from ourselves.
be bored. And not simply bored, also likely
Yet the numbers should also tell us that when it unable to focus. Because the questions we ask
comes to expectations, we prefer looking out- of ourselves, such as What makes me happy?
ward rather than inward and instead of asking What gives me meaning? What is most import-
ourselves questions, we are asking them of our ant to me?, are not going to jump off the page.
devices. And while understanding ourselves Instead, the qualitative questions that drive a
Flow and Experience Sampling | 197
fulfilled life are going to require some search- ourselves we become, and the more the answers
ing and will take some time. evade us. And what the numbers show here, is
that while the time we spend with our devices
Yet, we may have simply become accustomed to
has steadily increased, our reported levels of
allocating as little energy as possible to un-
happiness have consistently decreased. So spend
derstanding things—even ourselves. Finding
time we might, but we are not finding the life
meaning, purpose, fulfillment, after all, are
satisfaction we are looking for.
not small problems, and they don’t have im-
mediate solutions. On a very basic level, they But, also we might just not recognize it. Life sat-
are questions that require not only complete isfaction, after all, unlike our smartphones, is not
attention, but also sustained attention. They at the mercy of our fingertips. It is not a smooth,
involve exploring ourselves, asking questions, immediate, or even predictable process. But there
receiving feedback, adjusting our approach, and is one commonality that has been well recog-
asking again—all in the service of finding our nized for some time: life satisfaction is rooted
strengths and directing our resources toward in knowing—and activating—our strengths. If
something larger and often more meaningful there is anything studies on subjective well-being
than ourselves. And they may come with undue have taught us, it is that we are happier when our
hardship, especially if we are used to the kind of strengths are put to use.
injected stimulation that digital devices pro-
And yet, if we have become accustomed to dis-
vide. We cannot simply change our newsfeed,
traction, finding answers outside of ourselves,
switch our Facebook friends, or scroll down
and many would argue operating at sub-opti-
the page of our internal experience, because we
mal levels, then activating our strengths will
would be likely to hit some dead space.
feel foreign and unfamiliar to us. Perhaps what
And we might also simply be used to finding distraction does is not just make us expect less
the answers outside ourselves. And not just from those around us, but maybe on a certain
answers, but feelings too. All of the screens level, it makes us expect less from ourselves.
we look at, after all, are designed to make us
The optimal level—where presumably most
feel something, and while we might have been
of us would like to be—requires not just that
moved on some emotional level when we began
we pay attention, but that we don’t mind the
looking at them, over time, we might start
challenge. In fact, the challenge energizes us
looking to them to be moved. That is, to fill an
not only because it is the pursuit of something
emotional space.
much larger and more profound than what we
And filling emotional spaces—especially those are used to, but because we recognize its famil-
that result from not knowing the answers to iarity. Whether it be somatic, like a felt sense, or
our own fundamental questions—from the a conscious awareness, we all are driven toward
outside in is like running on a hamster’s wheel. realizing our potential.
The more we look, the more disconnected from

198 | Unit 6
Flow: state characterized And this is what flow (the recognized term for operating at optimal
by intense and focused
concentration on the present
levels, first coined by the Hungarian psychologist Mihaly Csiksz-
moment, what many call entmihalyi) offers: the heightening of our attention, the sharpening
“hyperfocus”; a merging of our strengths, and the self-transcendent experience that deep-
of action and awareness; a
feeling of oneness; a loss of ly elevates our existence. At some point, we have all been there,
reflective self-consciousness, so absorbed in something that we lost track of time. Flow is what
described as having a “quiet
mind”; a sense of personal
happens when what we are doing so captivates us, even almost en-
control or agency over the thralls us, that for a moment (and sometimes hours) our awareness
situation or activity, feeling and actions merge, and our movements flow effortlessly, without
as if the task is challenging,
but one in which you are conscious thought, direction, or intervention. Our skills almost
capable; a distortion of perfectly match the demands of the task, and we experience the
temporal experience, where
one’s subjective experience challenge in front of us with the delighted exaltation that perfecting
of time is altered through our strengths provides. As we do, our self-consciousness quietens
complete immersion in the and we feel what can only be described as a “passive mind and active
activity so that no attention
is paid to time; and an body.” In this self-transcendent state, many people describe expe-
experience of the activity riencing feelings of euphoria, ecstasy, and elation. And while flow
as intrinsically rewarding,
also referred to as autotelic is often attributed to extreme athletes or the most creative minds,
experience, where the or indeed to exceptional performances, the experience is universal
experience of the activity is to us all as we are all wired toward self-actualization. Because in
its own reward.
flow we get to know our greatest potential, we can come to see just
what we are capable of, and we emerge uniquely positioned not just
to face challenges, but to transform them into opportunities. And
consistently, those who report higher levels of flow also report better
adaptation to difficult life experiences. While Csikszentmihalyi says
that in flow we are made more complex, I would argue that in flow
we are made more capable.
Flow is a universal condition with unexpected benefits. Here, we

not only explore how flow makes us more capable, but how it can
dramatically improve our lives: teaching us not just to expect more
from ourselves, but also how to cultivate the very conditions that
make expecting more possible. We begin with an exploration of
Psychic entropy: opposite psychic entropy, which is, in many ways, the opposite of flow, and
of peak experience.
then look to the research on thermodynamics, energy, addictions,
and neurophysiology to help us understand just what flow is and
why it matters. Then, we turn our attention to awareness and draw
upon research on attention, conscious regulation, and even attention
deficit disorder to see how flow uniquely harnesses one of our most
powerful resources: our attention. Research on extreme athletes,
outliers, and exceptional performers can inform reservations at their favorite restaurant—and
our understanding of how flow can help us real- the life he had thought they would have to-
ize our true potential—in the form of strengths gether. Of course, his girlfriend, Cindy, knew
we might not have recognized. Then, we draw nothing of his plans, but for the first time in his
on the most current research on elevated states life, Tom had felt sure. And now it all seemed to
and transcendence, to see how flow can create be crashing to a halt. Making matters worse, at
a self-transcendent experience that not only the end of his shift, Tom’s boss took him aside
helps us move past our weakness, but past and told him that he didn’t seem like himself.
ourselves—in the service of something much
For many of us, the feeling of distraction is
larger. You will also find interspersed in each
easy to recognize—especially if we spend any
section a series of “Flow Power Ups” designed
amount of time there. We have trouble remem-
to help you take the essential components of
bering things, easily miss important details,
flow and put them to use to turn your life—and
and find completing tasks challenging. Distrac-
your clients’ lives—into optimal experiences.
tion also effects those around us. Our relation-
ships suffer when people feel we don’t invest
Section One: Going Fast in enough energy in them, and distraction can
Every Different Direction: Why even make us seem selfish.
Psychic Entropy Matters But distraction might not accurately describe
More than anything else, men and women seek what is happening when we find our minds
happiness. ~Aristotle wandering. For most of us, the problem is not
so much that we have too many demands, it is
Tom was distracted by the note his girlfriend
that we have competing demands. Presumably,
had left on the kitchen table from the time he
if the importance of any of the demands on us
clocked in for his shift at the restaurant. Tom,
significantly outweighed the others, we could
a waiter, was a model employee, yet today he
easily cease paying attention to the others.
found himself forgetting orders, overlooking
However, what many of us call distraction is
specials, and even having to take several or-
really better understood as psychic entropy.
ders back—for errors he had made. As much
Entropy was first defined in Rudolf Clausius’s
as he tried to bring his attention back to his
classic description of the Carnot cycle in the
work—carefully reciting the specials of the day,
field of thermodynamics. In a Carnot cycle,
detailing specific orders, and making use of his
heat is absorbed from a hot reservoir (an iso-
characteristic charm—all he could see was the
thermal process), and given up as heat to a cold
image of the note that read, “We have to talk.”
reservoir (an isothermal process). According to
He replayed the events of the last few days and
the Carnot principle, work can only be pro-
imagined his girlfriend sitting across from him
duced by a system when there is a temperature
and telling him that after six years, she was
difference, and the work should be some func-
through. Then he thought about the ring, his
tion of the difference in temperature and the
plans to propose—he had already made the

200 | Unit 6
heat absorbed. In other words, the heat energy devoted inward (to restore internal chaos) than
that leaves the system is greater than the heat is devoted outward (toward our desired goals).
energy that entered the system, preventing the
Psychic entropy can occur for many reasons. As
cycle from outputting the maximum amount of
you saw in the example above, competing forc-
work as predicted by the Carnot equation.
es—like an upsetting argument with a loved one
But entropy doesn’t only sap energy from or work demands—can create a state of entropy.
thermodynamic systems, psychic entropy saps But entropy is also highly linked to feedback. If
energy from us. While studying the subjective feedback levels are too low, we have what Carl
experiences of exceptional people, such as gifted Jung called a “closed system”, which doesn’t al-
writers, talented athletes, and coveted painters, low for the natural calibration that feedback usu-
noted psychologist and author of Flow: The Psy- ally supplies. The examples Jung gave involved
chology of Optimal Experience, Mihaly Csiksz- mental disturbances characteristic of intense
entmihalyi found not only the constituents of seclusion from the environment, such as the
peak experience, but also its opposite: the state dulling affect in dementia praecox or schizophre-
of psychic entropy. Like with thermodynamic nia. For these people, their overdependence on
entropy, psychic entropy results in a net loss internal stimuli without external feedback is like
of energy because it disrupts our attention, a system without checks and balances—there is
causes a reduction in psychic output, and leads little insight. On the other hand, feedback levels
to a sub-maximal psychic effort. According to that are too high make focusing almost impos-
Csikszentmihalyi, “Emotions refer to the inter- sible, which is why most of us turn the radio
nal states of consciousness. Negative emotions off when trying to navigate our way around a
like sadness, fear, anxiety, or boredom produce crowded city. And, as you will see in the next
psychic entropy in the mind, that is, a state in section, society plays a huge role in whether or
which we cannot use attention effectively to not we experience psychic entropy.
deal with external tasks, because we need it to
restore an inner subjective order.” Like Tom, the Powerpoint: Flow Power Up One:
waiter in our previous story, we could be pre- Be Willing To Take a Risk
occupied and worried about our relationships
while trying to perform our jobs. We might also Because flow depends on a balance between
be angry about an argument we have had with skills and challenges—with the challenge being
a loved one and be distracted and find ourselves slighter greater than the skills—it comes with
running a red light on the way home, simply inherent risk. There is a chance that we might
because we didn’t see it or react quickly enough. overestimate our skills, underestimate the chal-
Even further, we can feel as if our goals, ambi- lenge, not perform as we expect ourselves to, or
tions, and dreams don’t fit the life we are living. make mistakes. Ultimately, we could fail. Yet
At some level, all psychic entropy is the result of if we avoid risk, we also avoid to opportunity
an energy imbalance, whereby more energy is not just to find flow, but also to grow. In speak-
ing about the relationship between risk and
mastery, Kotler quoted England neuropsycholo- with a growth mindset, you believe you can
gist Barbara Sahakian from Cambridge Univer- develop yourself, then you’re open to accurate
sity, “If you are interested in mastery, you have information about your current abilities even if
to learn this lesson. To really achieve anything, it’s unflattering. What’s more, if you’re oriented
you have to be able to tolerate and enjoy risk. It toward learning, you need accurate information
has to become a challenge to look forward to. about your current abilities in order to learn
In all fields, to make exceptional discoveries effectively. However, if everything is either good
you need risk—you’re just never going to have news or bad news—as it is with fixed mindset
a breakthrough without it.” Risk is simply part people—distortion almost inevitably enters the
of the process of learning. Avoiding it keeps us picture. Some outcomes are magnified, others
attached to the outcome of avoiding failure, as are explained away, and before you know it, you
opposed to seeing risk and failure as essential don’t know yourself at all.”
pieces of information that are crucial to the
While a growth mindset might be advanta-
process of learning. This is also why there is an
geous to knowing yourself—and accurately
inverse relationship between perfectionism and
gauging your abilities—it is critical to finding
learning; whereby those who need to maintain a
flow. Those who have a growth mindset not
visage of perfection are often unwilling to take
only see their abilities as malleable, but because
the risks needed to truly learn.
they do, they tend to constantly assess them,
So how do you become more tolerant of risk? meaning that they always have their finger on
The best way is to adopt a growth mindset. A the scope of their skills. And because flow is
growth mindset, originally identified by Carol not a static state—but rather, tends to exist in
Dweck, and described in her book Mindset: The an upward helical cycle as our skills advance—
New Psychology of Success, means seeing your knowing just where your skills lie is crucial.
ability as a malleable entity. Those who have And facing the risk necessary for the upward
a growth mindset see outcomes as dependent helical growth that flow offers is what a growth
on effort. That is, what you get out is represen- mindset is all about. Because if you overshoot
tative of what you put in. If you want a better your skills, or underestimate the challenge of
result, you simply need to apply more effort. the task and experience failure, it is the growth
For people with a growth mindset, failure is an mindset that will get you back on your feet.
impetus to try harder. On the other hand, peo-
ple with a fixed mindset often see outcome as Overprotected and
dependent upon external factors—often out of Underprepared: An Entropic State
their control. Fixed mindsets also see ability as of Mind
a static state, and not one that can be improved.
Evelynn M. Hammonds, the former dean of
For that reason, fixed mindsets also avoid risk,
Harvard College is credited with first using the
and when failure happens, tend to also avoid
term “overprotected and underprepared” when
trying again. As Dweck explains, “When you
describing her class of incoming freshmen.
think about it. This makes sense. If, like those

202 | Unit 6
Hammonds went on to say that today’s students risk by managing it. The problem is, this is
“are less prepared than ever” to face the de- exactly the role society can find itself in, i.e., that
mands not just of college education, but of life of a neurotic overprotective parent who creates
itself. Hammond’s assertion was seconded by more harm than good. And what we end up with
David McCullough Jr, in 2012, when delivering though this is a state of disconnection—focused
the commencement speech at Wellesley High on future risk while doing tasks in the present—
School. Support for McCullough’s speech is not and a recipe for becoming bogged down by a set
hard to find as his speech went viral, and he of competing demands that ultimately lead us to
soon found himself writing a book titled, You psychic entropy.
Are Not Special and Other Encouragements. The
But let’s examine the equation another way.
point both Hammonds and McCullough were
Let’s say that we employed a strategy of risk
making—and it is one that has been well rec-
management that didn’t focus on avoiding risk.
ognized—is that today, we focus much more on
Instead, it invited risk, uncertainty, opacity, and
avoiding risk, than we do on actually learning
even external entropy (entropy in the environ-
how to deal with it. And we certainly don’t see
ment). And as opposed to trying to find ways to
the benefit of risk.
better identify and minimize risk, it searched
Consider the notion of risk management. The for ways to use risk to improve the system as
idea is to reduce the exposure to risk. We might a whole. We might call this “risk utilization.”
start by writing down all of the possible things The result of this, according to Nassim Nich-
that can go wrong, and then create plans for how olas Talleb, author of Antifragile: Things That
to deal with them. The problem is, we simply Gain From Disorder, would be that we would
cannot categorize, catalog, or write manuals for become less fragile and less susceptible to risk.
the totality of risks that could occur. But we can Through allowing “small errors” that typically
identify more conceivable risk, write longer lists, lead to improved knowledge, skills, and abili-
and imagine more complex scenarios. And over ties, we become not just more robust, but even
time, what we get better at is imagining more antifragile. While Talleb’s claim may seem a bit
potential setbacks. Risk, after all, happens in the far-fetched, we only have to look to the psy-
future, and the more we focus on future events chological world to find support for it. Richard
that do not have any sort of predictable nature, Tedeschi and Lawrence Calhoun, two psychol-
the more we identify them. This is exactly why a ogists who studied people who had undergone
psychologist would not use a hierarchy of fears extremely traumatic events that usually lead to
with a patient who suffers from generalized anx- post-traumatic stress disorder, uncovered a con-
iety disorder (GAD), but would with a patient cept called “Post-Traumatic Growth”. Identified
who has a specific phobia. Generalized anxiety as a response to trauma that exceeds pre-trau-
works on a system of anticipation, whereas spe- ma levels of functioning, Tedeschi and Calhoun
cific phobias relate to fear of a predictable event. found that more than half of people who under-
And trying to manage anticipated fear by cata- go extremely challenging life events experience
loging it is about as useful as trying to minimize post-traumatic growth as a response. Even more
convincing, was that the more fundamentally nor gained, but merely transferred—Thomson
the traumatic event challenged a person, and noticed that when energy was directed toward
the longer the trauma continued, the greater the material things, it did not observe the law of
level of growth that resulted. conservation. Thomson’s theory of energy dissi-
pation has three important parts:
You might be asking why very traumatic events
and the kind of environmental entropy that most 1. There is at present in the material world a
of us try to avoid actually leads to growth, but universal tendency toward the dissipation of
mechanical energy.
the answer is relatively simple. When external
entropy is faced head on—either because it is 2. Any restoration of mechanical energy, with-
invited, as in Talleb’s example, or when it occurs out more than an equivalent dissipation, is
without warning, as in the case of trauma sur- impossible in inanimate material processes,
and is probably never effected by means of
vivors—the psychic entropy that it causes leads
organized matter, either endowed with vege-
to growth. It is actually the case that when we table life or subject to the will of an animated
try to avoid the unavoidable—in the form of risk creature.
or trauma—that we run into problems. Talleb
3. Within a finite period of time past, the earth
identified this through systems that overprotect
must have been, and within a finite period
and underprepare, while Tedeschi and Calhoun of time to come the earth must again be,
identified it through studying trauma survivors unfit for the habitation of man as at present
who employed cognitive avoidance strategies, or constituted, unless operations have been, or
used illusive notions of growth, but in both cases are to be performed, which are impossible
it is clear that denying entropy, whether it occurs under the laws to which the known oper-
ations going on at present in the material
in the environment or the psyche, is a recipe for
world are subject.
fragility—and unhappiness.
The takeaway from Thomson’s work—and what
One Is Too Many and Ten Is Never this has to do with addictions—is that when we
Enough: What Addictions Can place energy in material things, there is no re-
Teach Us About Losing Control turn. However, every addiction has, at its core,
a dependence on external (and non-animate
There is perhaps no better place we can look to objects), that is, things that don’t return energy.
understand how denying psychic entropy leads
to distress than to studying addictions. But first, So let’s imagine a system like this: an undesirable
let’s employ a little physics. Identified in 1852 by state is detected, and a more desirable state is
William Thomson, an Irish physicist, the law found (the “high” that characterizes addiction).
of dissipation of energy states that in the ma- Because the desirable state provides relief from
terial world, there exists a universal tendency the undesirable one, over time, it is employed
to the dissipation of mechanical energy. While with greater frequency. However, this more de-
originally studying energy conservation—the sirable state doesn’t return any energy back. Like
idea that energy within a system is nether lost a free-loading friend, the more we give (here, in

204 | Unit 6
time spent being high), the more we lose (here, Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Two:
in psychic energy). And the more we lose, the Learn to Understand Adversity
worse we feel, so the greater the attraction to the
While flow is arguably the most enjoyable expe-
desired state becomes. Over time, as we spend
rience available to us, in the moment, it is often
more time in the desired state (high), the un-
not reported as pleasant. Finding flow, after all,
desirable state—and the one that is causing the
involves facing challenges, which usually come
entropy—becomes less and less appealing. Also,
with adversity. And this makes sense, as our
the less time we spend facing psychic entropy,
strengths are best exposed when we are most
the less able we are to fix it. But because we also
called to rise. Further, recognizing our greatest
spend most of our time feeling high (desirable)
potential is not supposed to be easy. However,
we would most probably also deny that we have a
what makes flow so appealing is the oppor-
problem. Thus, in effect we deny psychic entro-
tunity that adversity offers: a chance to gauge
py. Much like those in risk management employ
our strengths, draw upon our skills, refine our
strategies to reduce the impact of risks by trying
abilities, and perhaps discover new strengths
to better anticipate them (when they are unpre-
we didn’t know existed. And while being in the
dictable by nature), an addict attempts to reduce
midst of struggle is not enjoyable, flow comes
the impact of psychic entropy by avoiding the
with a considerable afterglow. For instance, not
very negative feelings that characterize it.
only is there a hearty neurochemical boost—
As those who work in addictions say, “It’s not dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins surge—
the drugs that create the drug addict, it is the but when we reflect upon the experience, it is
need to escape reality.” Indeed, current research usually with extraordinary fondness. And the
on addictions now recognizes it is a “dual feelings are enduring—peak experiences when
diagnosis” disorder, where the presence of an reflected upon years later, can generate the same
underlying psychological condition (such as neurochemical response as the original experi-
depression, trauma, or anxiety) precedes the ad- ence. But in order to get to flow, we have to be
diction. According to the dual-diagnosis theory, willing to face some adversity.
unless we treat the underlying psychological
More importantly, we have to understand
disturbance, the addiction will continue.
adversity. The struggle in facing challenges
Whether we are trying to escape reality by exists to draw out our strengths, to test us, and
using drugs, or by minimizing risks that are ultimately to expose the best we can possibly
unpredictable by nature, the conclusion is the be. However, struggling is not necessarily sup-
same: escaping psychic entropy makes us more posed to be enjoyable in the moment. It is when
dependent on the very mechanisms of escape. we look back on the experience that we find
Yet, as you will see in the next section, there is flow’s greatest gifts: knowing that we overcame
one condition that does escape psychic entropy, our limits and recognized new strengths and
namely, the state of flow. skills. Ultimately, we became a better version of
ourselves. As Csikszentmihalyi explains, flow is an experience that

is expansive, making the self more complex. Through facing our
biggest challenges, we develop a more enhanced sense of ourselves,
one that recognizes that our potential is as yet untapped. And fur-
ther, one that sees flow—and the adversity inherent within—as the
wellspring of this potential.
Asymmetry for Symmetry’s Sake: What We Can

Learn from Flow?
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who coined the term “flow”, originally
set out to study exemplary people because he wanted to understand
what constitutes those “peak experiences” often described by cham-
pion athletes and recognized artists. However, what he discovered
was a state not just where psychic entropy is absent (he called this
state “negentrophy”) but where optimal experiences happen.
What Csikszentmihaly uncovered was that the state of flow differs

greatly from all other states of consciousness, such as psychic entropy,
where information conflicts with our existing intentions or prevents
us from carrying them out. In the state of flow, the entirety of our
attention is devoted to the task at hand. The example that Csikszent-
mihalyi gave was the difference between being distracted at work by
the flat tire you will have to deal with on your way home, and being
completely immersed in what you are doing. Csikszentmihalyi de-
scribed this type of experience as “the order of consciousness”, where
all of the information that comes into our awareness is congruent
with our goals. In this state, psychic energy flows in the direction of
our intentions. That is to say, we operate without distraction, worry,
self-doubt, or questioning ourselves (Csiksentmihalyi, 2005).
According to Csikszentmihalyi, flow experiences result when the

challenge in front of us perfectly matches our skills. He described
a “flow channel”; whereby, when our skills exceed the task we face, Flow channel: when
the result is boredom, while on the other hand, when the task is challenges fall into the
“channel,” where they are
too challenging, we experience anxiety. To have flow, then, chal- just enough to challenge
lenges must fall into the “channel” just enough to challenge us, but us, but not too much to
overwhelm us.
not too much to overwhelm us. When in the flow state, we become

206 | Unit 6
so completely engrossed in the task at hand 4. A sense of personal control or agency over
that—without consciously choosing to—we the situation or activity, i.e., feeling as if the
task is challenging, but is one that you are
lose awareness of all other things: time, people,
capable of achieving.
distractions, and even basic bodily needs. The
reason for this, Csiksentmihalyi explains, is 5. A distortion of temporal experience, where
because all of our attention in the flow state is one’s subjective experience of time is altered,
i.e., complete immersion in the activity so
on the task at hand; there is no more attention
that no attention is paid to time.
to be allocated (Csiksentmihalyi, 2008). Csiksz-
entmihalyi further describes flow as the “opti- 6. Experience of the activity as being intrinsical-
mal experience” and one that brings a high level ly rewarding, also referred to as an autotelic
experience, i.e., where the experience of the
of gratification.
activity is its own reward (Nakamura, Csik-
In describing what leads to flow, Csiksentmihalyi sentmihalyi, 2014).
explained that three conditions must be met: The trick to experiencing flow then is to find
1. One must be involved in an activity with a just the right environmental conditions that
clear set of goals and progress. This adds lead to the right level of arousal. Also, because
direction and structure to the task at hand. the arousal level is also influenced by a set of
2. The task at hand must have clear and imme-
internal factors, such as temperament, work-
diate feedback. This helps the person negoti- ing memory capacity, cognitive appraisal and
ate any changing demands and allows them processing, and previous experiences, just how
to adjust their performance to maintain the stimulated a person needs to be to find flow can
flow state. take some tinkering.
3. One must have a good balance between the
Yet when we look at the results of some neuro-
perceived challenges of the task at hand and
their own perceived skills. One must have
physiological studies that used EMG imaging
confidence in one’s ability to complete the of the brain in flow we get a different picture.
task at hand (Csiksentmihalyi, 2005). When comparing the brains of two people
in identical circumstances, the brain in flow
When all three conditions are met, the theory
looks dramatically different from the brain at
holds that flow will be characterized by the
resting, but not in the way you might expect.
following six factors:
While in flow, there is a high arousal level,
1. Intense and focused concentration on but actually this involves no more stimulation
the present moment, what many call than the baseline levels. However, the brain
“hyperfocus.” in flow shows activation on both sides of the
2. A merging of action and awareness, i.e., a brain, while under normal conditions, there
feeling of oneness. is a dominance of left-brain activity. And this
3. A loss of reflective self-consciousness, de- makes sense. When we are completely absorbed
scribed as having a “quiet mind.” in an experience that we enjoy, we are employ-
ing imagery, visualization, and felt sense—all
of which are brain processes on the right side is implicit in every situation we find ourselves in,
of the brain. Outside of flow—often to meet i.e., as an assessment of the benefits and losses
daily demands—we rely on logical, analyti- (or pros and cons). It’s only natural to weigh up
cal, left-brain processes. And the results are what we stand to lose alongside what we stand to
dramatically different too. While in flow, we gain. For example, if we could gain five thousand
experience challenges as enthralling, absorbing, dollars, but might lose only five hundred in the
and even euphoric—in fact, they often excite process, the risk might be worth it. On the other
us. However, these same challenges in our daily hand, if we could lose five thousand, while only
lives often leave us feeling overwhelmed, unable potentially gaining five hundred, the answer
to focus, and highly anxious. In flow though, is less obvious. However, to really determine
we are transformed: obstacles become exciting asymmetry, we need to weigh up the potential
tests of our skills, activating and directing our gains against the equivalent potential losses. For
strengths toward the challenge. And when in instance, if the pain of losing five thousand out-
flow, we experience ourselves differently. No weighs the benefit of gaining five thousand, we
longer are we bound by our imposed limits, would have a case of asymmetry.
but rather, we are capable, indeed more capable
The important thing to understand about flow is
than we have ever been. And the reason for this
that it is a game of symmetry. And where there
might have something to do with symmetry.
is symmetry, there is paradox. While we should
While Talleb describes antifragility in asym- have a degree of confidence in our ultimate
metrical terms—defining antifragility as the success, we might also recognize our complete
presence of more positive than negative out- lack of control over the external circumstances
comes after exposure to uncertainty or stress- that we face. But if our confidence outweighs the
ors—flow can be understood as both symmet- invariability that surrounds us, we are not chal-
rical and asymmetrical. It is a state that creates lenged. We are bored. On the other hand, if we
a unified interaction of right- and left-brain feel as though the uncertainty that we face (and
process in an upward trajectory that expands the perceived chance of failure) is too great, we
the sense of self. Not only do we become more have anxiety. And this is the paradox of control:
at one with the self through flow, but the self in flow one feels both in control, and at the mer-
at which we become one with becomes more cy of the task—in equal proportions.
advanced, better able to take on stressors and
And because symmetry in flow can also been
harnessing our best resources to meet the chal-
seen through the combination of two central
lenge. And the result is not just an improved
characteristics of flow: the merging of action and
sense of self, it is an expanded sense of self—
awareness and the loss of self-consciousness, the
one that incorporates the experience of risk,
loss of self-consciousness may provide a gateway
difficulty, and stress in a process that seeks not
through which the feeling of control is facilitated.
to manage them, but rather to use them.
So here is the second paradox in flow: it is only
Yet the evaluation of symmetry and asymmetry

208 | Unit 6
when we let go of control (through decreased 3. Trying to avoid or distract ourselves from
self-consciousness), that we truly gain control. a feeling of discontentment leads to de-
pendence on external factors, and a lack of
The energy states in flow also observe a sym- growth.
metrical nature; whereby, what we put out we 4. Flow is a state which creates a unified inter-
gain back. Rather than relying on mechanical action of right- and left-brain processes in an
energy (or the use an external energy supply), upward trajectory that expands the sense of
flow is powered by the feedback we receive— self.
often, the more immediate the feedback, the 5. The result (of flow) is not just an improved
greater the opportunity for flow. Those in flow sense of self, it is an expanded sense of self:
consistently report significantly elevated states one that incorporates the experience of risk,
of energy, which are often combined with difficulty, and stress in a process that seeks
the accomplishment of otherwise physically not to manage them, but rather to use them.
impossible tasks. And these states cannot be
attributed only to physical causes, because flow Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Three:
states, while they require a physical condition Clear Goals
that provides immediate feedback and clear and As you already know from above, clear goals
consistent goals, depend rather on a physiolog- are one of the three requirements of flow, as
ical readiness, marked by one’s arousal states. described by Csiksentmihalyi. But clear goals
Arousal states are psychic states. So here is the also promote flow. When we know exactly
third paradox of flow: the more we devote our what is expected of us, not only can we mea-
energy to reaching our threshold for being chal- sure progress, we can also assess our level of
lenged (remember the “flow channel”), the more mastery. If, for example, the goal is to shoot a
energy we gain in return. free throw shot, with each shot we throw we
And this might be the biggest argument we can will know whether or not we have met our goal.
make for flow: that flow directs our energy into Further, we will know where we are in relation
a system that pays dividends. Unlike synchro- to meeting our goal. A ball that flies past the
nization with the material world, flow involves backboard is clearly nowhere near the target,
synchronization with ourselves, and offers clear while a ball that hits the rim, on the other hand,
psychic rewards. is very close to becoming a ball that goes in the
basket. It is this kind of knowledge that makes
Here are the important points to take away: clear goals the foundation of mastery. And
1. Psychic entropy, which means to be distract- as mastery is an integral part of motivation,
ed and not focused, doesn’t just sap our knowing we are close to reaching our target sets
mental and psychological energy, it saps our in motion the drive to keep practicing until we
physical energy too. reach it. So how do we make our goals more
2. Avoiding risk is not just a recipe for fragility, clear? First, they should be measurable. While
it also disables growth. it’s fine to say that you would like to be a nicer
person, and it’s clearly a worthy goal, there is enough that we will give it a try. As you will re-
no real way to measure it. Niceness is simply member from section one, one of the conditions
too subjective. What one person considers nice, of flow is that we experience a balance between
another may consider to be neutral, or even our perception of our skills and our perception
self-serving. However, if we wanted to be nicer, of the challenge in front of us. Feeling that the
we could set ourselves goals like: to say thank goal is possible (albeit with some hard work)
you ten times in one day; to open a door for means that we got the balance right.
at least three people in a day; to do five acts of
Now here is the fun part. And you can choose
service for others; or to schedule fifteen minutes
any area of your life that you like: perhaps you
a day to tell one person how much you appre-
want to get out of bed earlier, exercise every day,
ciate them. With goals like this, it is not hard
eat healthier, improve your mood, or finish a
to determine whether or not we have reached
long forgotten project. All you have to do is cre-
them, as well as just how close we are to hitting
ate a goal that is measurable, time oriented, and
the target. But goals should also be time ori-
attainable. Let’s take a look at a few examples:
ented. Much like the example above, a goal to
thank ten people at some point in the future is Area to
Goals
impossible to measure. But adding a time limit Improve
to goals makes them measurable. You can very List three things you are grateful for
every day.
easily determine if you have thanked ten people
in a day, opened the door for three people in Help one person every day for one
Mood
week
one week, etc. Time limits not only keep goals
Forgive three people who have
clear, they create a boundary between where harmed you in one week.
we are and where we would like to be (goal Do fifty push-ups every day for one
attainment). It is this recognition—that we are week.
not where we want to be—that inspires the
Health Walk ten miles in one week.
challenge that goals offer, namely to enable us
to become a better version of ourselves. Lastly, Drink a green smoothie every day for
one week.
goals should be attainable. For example, a goal
Complete one new project every day
to run a marathon in two weeks is certainly
for one week.
measurable and time oriented, but for a person
Get up fifteen minutes earlier every
who has not been training, it is probably not Productivity
day for one week.
very attainable (without some serious pain). Spend twenty minutes every day pre-
On the other hand, this might be a perfect goal paring for the next day’s tasks.
for someone who regularly clocks twenty mile Choose one task to master in one
runs. The reason attainability matters is be- week.
cause when goals are attainable they provide a Performance

Select three new challenges for your-
self every day for one week.
glimmer of possibility. While we may have to
Train with someone better than your-
struggle to reach them, they appear just possible self two times in the next week.

210 | Unit 6
Clear goals not only give us direction, but pro- multitasking—which is a form of psychic en-
vide a window of opportunity—a glimpse into tropy—is really a silent killer. While we may be
just what we are capable of—that when acted aware that we are more tired after a day of jug-
upon, come with some pretty hefty rewards. gling several different tasks, and that competing
Not only does our sense of mastery flourish demands make us focus on the wrong things,
when we set goals with which we can measure we seldom realize just what multitasking does
progress, but there is a very powerful neuro- to our awareness.
chemical reward to reaching goals. Accom-
plishing challenging tasks sends dopamine, Looking Everywhere and
norepinephrine, and serotonin levels surging. Noticing Nothing: The Problem of
And this potent neurochemical cocktail not Multitasking
only skyrockets our mood—we are likely to feel
Toggling between emails, upcoming meet-
euphoric, energized, alive, and hyperfocused—
ings, text messages, and Facebook updates for
but turns on the drivers of motivation and flow,
instance is not as simple as it sounds. Every
making us want to take on more challenges and
time we transfer our attention from one task
accomplish even more goals.
to another, there is a cost, much like changing
cell phone carriers. For a typical office worker,
Section Two: The Spotlight the result is a net loss: interruptions happen on
Effect: How Flow Harnesses average every 11 minutes, while it takes 25 min-
Attention and Heightens utes to return to the original task (Mark, 2013).
Awareness In one study, subjects were asked to sit in a lab
and perform a standard cognitive skill test;
The tragedy of life is in what dies inside a man
two-thirds were told they might be contacted
while he lives—the death of genuine feeling, the
for further instructions, while the remaining
death of inspired response, the awareness that
one-third was simply asked to complete the test.
makes it possible to feel the pain or the glory of
In the first part of the experiment, the second
other men in yourself. ~Norman Cousins
and third groups were interrupted twice. Then a
In a 2009 Stanford University study investi- second test was administered, but this time only
gating the effects of multitasking, study au- the second group was interrupted, while the
thor Clifford Nass concluded, “The research is third group awaited an interruption that never
almost unanimous, which is very rare in social came. The three groups were labeled Control,
science, and it says that people who chronically Interrupted, and High Alert. The results were
multitask show an enormous range of deficits. eye opening: during the first test, both the in-
They are basically terrible at all sorts of cogni- terrupted groups answered correctly 20 percent
tive tasks, including multitasking.” less often than members of the control group.
In other words, both the distraction of an
While research like this shouldn’t shock
interruption, and the brain drain of preparing
us, the problem for many of us is that
for an interruption, made test takers 20 percent
dumber. In relative terms, that’s enough to turn predicted children’s inability to accurately iden-
a B-minus student (80 percent) into a failure (62 tify emotions at 58 months of age, where the
percent) (Acquisti & Peer, 2014). higher exposure to physical aggression between
parents was associated with children’s lower
But the real problem is not just that we all performance on a simple emotions labeling task
multitask, it’s that when we do—just like the (Ravel et al., 2014). These findings were later
study subjects—we learn to expect to be in- duplicated by a four-year study examining the
terrupted. If we are used to a daily onslaught effect of hypervigilance across twelve differ-
of ringing phones, disgruntled employees ent cultures. The result in every one of the 12
and customers, and unexpected demands, cultures was that when children believed an
the effect is the same as driving on a crowded act was the result of hostile intent, not only did
freeway in the rain: we are constantly on high they misread emotions, but they were more
alert, even when we don’t need to be. In what likely to react aggressively. In fact, on aver-
Nass calls “suckers for irrelevancy”, our ability age, they were five times more likely to do so
to decipher the importance of interruptions compared to children who accepted the act as
becomes muted and we find ourselves re- non-hostile. And in an even more concerning
sponding to everything with high importance. finding, children who had acquired a hostile
attributional bias were more likely than other
But this is also what those who study trauma children to experience a growth in the rate and
know as an “exaggerated startle response.” The severity of their aggressive behavior across the
idea is that, after we have faced an event that four years of the study (Dodge, et al., 2015).
overwhelms us emotionally, we become much Kenneth A. Dodge, a director of the Center for
more aware of our surroundings—known as Child and Family Policy at Duke University
“hypervigilance”—and remain on high alert, and the study’s lead author, concluded, “Our
ready to detect any future catastrophes. Thus, study identifies a major psychological process
after a traumatic event, we can often find that leads a child to commit violence.”
ourselves jumpy, edgy, and nervous, and in a
constant state of overreacting. This major psychological process—, i.e., an
exaggerated startle response—has even been
Hypervigilance is a mindset that overestimates identified with stimuli as mild as a phone
the potential for danger at any given moment, ringing, a door opening, or a clock alarm. Not
meaning that we have trouble differentiating surprisingly, the more stressed or anxious we
harmlessness with dangerousness. In one recent are, the more likely we are to develop a pat-
study, exposure to conflict and violence in tern of overreacting. And because overreacting
the home correlated positively with children’s involves the parasympathetic nervous system,
trouble regulating their emotions in less risky restoring a state of calm can take some time—
situations, such as in the classroom. Verbal and probably longer than the typical 11 minutes
physical aggression between parents from in- between interruptions—leaving us in a constant
fancy through early childhood also significantly

212 | Unit 6
state of worry. The more familiar this pattern of alcohol leads to muted effects—which we also
is, the harder it can be for the body to let go of know as tolerance—chronic overreacting leads
it afterwards. For some people, this is habitual, to chronic underreacting.
with them living in hypervigilance, with their
tense muscles echoing their previous responses Constantly being on high alert not only makes
to an alarming situation (Jones, 1988). us expect the worst, misread emotions, and
have trouble differentiating between harmless
Interestingly, the long-term result of over-ex- and harmful stimuli, but, as you will see in the
aggerating the potential for danger—what next section, distraction comes with more than
psychologists call “attentional bias”—may have a few hidden costs.
another unexpected downside. In a 2010 study,
psychologists at the Tel-Aviv University found
Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Four:
that many subjects who had been exposed to
Immediate Feedback
the acute stress of daily bombings had devel-
oped symptoms of post-trauma that was man- Like clear goals, feedback is a barometer upon
ifested as a dissociative state rather than one of which we can measure our progress. It is how we
hypervigilance (Bar-Heim et al., 2010). This dis- determine if we are approaching our target, or if
sociative state—induced by fearful conditions— we are simply shooting into the bleachers. Feed-
was found in a separate study to not only affect back is also how we orient ourselves toward our
the responses to fearful stimuli, but also how goal. For example, if the goal is to master the task
well we remember unrelated events when we are of writing the perfect chapter for a book, sending
in a fearful state. The study measured the elec- our material to an accomplished editor is likely
trodermal activity of 86 individuals in a fearful to let us know if we are on our way. Similarly, if
context generated in the laboratory and in a our goal is to walk one mile every day and we
neutral context in which they had to learn a list find that we are more likely to do it if we walk
of words. One week and two weeks after the ex- with a friend, this knowledge lets us know that
periment, the subjects were tested to see which to be successful we may have to have a standing
words they remembered. While a “forgetting appointment with a friend. Feedback—in the
curve” was identified in both groups (and is form of knowledge that we are getting closer to
considered normal), in the fearful context, the our goal—is also a fundamental part of mastery.
rate of forgetting was much higher (Packard, When we can see just what the results of our
et al., 2014). It may be that this is the paradox efforts are, we can adjust our approach, try new
of constantly being on high alert: we are more techniques and skills, and test them against the
reactive to stimuli (even the non-threatening feedback we receive. And when it’s immediate,
kind), and yet less able to deal effectively with feedback sends mastery into overdrive. As Kotler
it. Our ability to react is a finite resource, and notes, “When feedback is immediate, the infor-
the more we expend on irrelevant interruptions, mation we require is always close at hand. Atten-
the less there is available to deal with genuine tion doesn’t have to wander.” And because our
threats. Much like consuming large quantities attention doesn’t have to wander, we don’t have
to guess at how we are doing and our focus tight- didn’t expect to find such a clear association.
ens, and absorption (a fundamental component And while Becker cautioned, “We don’t know
of flow) then begins to take place. And the more whether media multitasking is causing symp-
immediate the feedback, the more we cut down toms of depression and social anxiety, or if it’s
on the very distraction that interrupts the flow. that people who are depressed and anxious
So how do we make feedback more immediate? are turning to media multitasking as a form of
Take a look at the list of goals in the section distraction from their problems,” what is clear
above. The first one—to be nicer—is one that is that national rates of anxiety and overall
most of us probably don’t stop to think about media use—as well as the amount of time spent
too frequently, if at all. Instead then, we could multitasking between media—have increased
use a daily reminder to ask ourselves how we are concurrently, indeed 45 percent and 120 per-
doing. Or better yet, we could use three. On the cent, respectively (Becker, 2012).
other hand, we can ask for feedback from some
Interestingly, the emergence of anxiety seems to
else, like a daily report on how we are doing. If
peak between the ages of 18 and 25 years old—
our goal is to learn a new skill, we can video tape
the same time media multitasking also reaches
our practice and ask for feedback on each prac-
a peak. While it is presumptuous to draw a cau-
tice session. If we want to be more productive at
sality between multitasking and anxiety, we can
work, we can ask for a daily progress report.
look at the effect another way. In examining the
What immediate feedback does is pull us into question of whether increasing the focus—and
the experience. When we become absorbed in reducing distraction—leads to a reduction in
what we are doing, and that absorption brings anxiety, one study asked anxious college stu-
us closer to our goal attainment, our motiva- dents (with both high and low anxiety scores)
tion soars. And there is also a very powerful to complete a video game exercise designed to
neurochemical response that comes along with increase attention and reduce distraction. Par-
getting closer to our goal: the closer we get, the ticipants identified a specific shape in a series
more we visualize ourselves reaching our goal, of shapes (e.g., a red circle amid red squares,
and these visualized images of success create diamonds, and triangles), followed by a sepa-
the exact same neurochemical response in the rate task where the shapes were interspersed
brain as actual ones. The result puts the reward with different shapes and colors. Being asked
circuitry of the brain on high alert—letting it to focus improved concentration and lessened
know we are nearing our goal—and sends us anxiety for the anxious participants in particu-
powerfully into flow. lar, even after performing the exercise designed
to distract them. The results of this study were
The Hidden Costs of Distraction further supported by the work of Professor Mi-
chael Eysenck and Dr. Nazanin Derkshan, who
When Michigan State University’s Mark Beck- designed several experiments to explore the ef-
er set out to study the association between fects of anxiety on our ability to perform tasks,
media multitasking and mental health, he such as avoiding distractions on a computer

214 | Unit 6
screen, when reading a story, or when solving a little bit about neurophysiology—that is, how
a series of simple mathematics problems. What actions, decisions, and impulses are stimulated.
Eysenck and Derkshan found was that anxiety Neuorphysiology tells us that in order to gener-
had a greater effect on how much effort it took ate an action—known as a nerve action poten-
to perform a task than on how well the task was tial—three things are required: depolarization,
actually performed. Put another way, anxiety afterhyperpolarization, and refractory periods.
comes with a lot of “hidden costs” that are not Beginning at a resting state, an organism is
often apparent in performance. According to stimulated—or depolarized—until reaching a
Professor Eysenck, these findings have clear threshold potential, or the critical level of depo-
practical implications in the classroom: larization required to initiate an action poten-
tial. After the action occurs, there is a period
“A lot of the negative effects of anxiety appear
of “afterpolarization,” followed by a refractory
to be caused by difficulties with controlling
period, during which an organism returns to
attention. This suggests that training techniques
the resting state and it is impossible to evoke
designed to enhance attentional control, such as
another action. Originally discovered by Alan
the ability to ignore distractions and to switch
Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley—and later
attention from one task to another, could help
dubbed the “Hodgkin–Huxley Model”— the
anxious students to achieve their academic
threshold potential basically says that, in order
potential,” he explains.
to respond to a stimulus, an organism must be
Results like this might fly in the face of what appropriately rested or depolarized. The model
many of us think about multitasking, i.e., that it states that when organisms are “hyperpolar-
makes us more efficient. The problem, however, ized” or over-stimulated, the threshold poten-
is that while we may think we are saving time by tial cannot be reached (Burke et al., 2001).
sending emails, answering the phone, and or-
Going further, the model explains that when
dering lunch all at the same time, time efficiency
an organism is chronically hyperpolarized—
is not a cognitive efficiency. The effort it takes
which is like being constantly distracted—the
to harness attention toward avoiding common
result is several failed attempts at action. Like
attentional mistakes, such as sending the wrong
trying to find your way in a crowded city with
email, ordering a salad instead of a sandwich,
the radio blasting, hyperpolarization puts
and forgetting to pick up the dry cleaning, may
us in a state of paralysis. While in the Hod-
outweigh the time we think we save. And, it may
gkin–Huxley model the result may be failed
also cause us to make impulse decisions.
attempts at action, in our brains it may involve
missing the turn, yelling at our fellow passen-
Distraction Leads to Impulse ger, or rear-ending the car in front of us—all
Decisions failed attempts at finding our way.
To understand just how distraction leads to The reason why depolarization, after hyperpo-
impulse decisions, we first have to understand larization, and refractory periods matter is that
they explain how stimuli—and especially com- challenges in the service of perfecting our skills
peting stimuli—affect our decisions. Because calls upon something most of us recognize on
action potentials are known as “all-or-none” a very primal level: the desire to recognize our
signals, increasing the amount, or strength, of potential. The problem with mindfulness is not
stimuli won’t increase the amplitude of the ac- so much that challenges are often unclear (if
tion generated. In other words, a child scream- identifiable at all) and hard to recognize, but that
ing, a phone ringing, and the car in front of us the skills of mindfulness are often just as ob-
slamming on the brakes don’t just distract us, scure—and perhaps more importantly, may not
they compete for our attention, and the result of play to our strengths. Unlike throwing a javelin,
our incomplete attention is we are more prone hitting the perfect running stride, or becoming
to making impulse decisions. immersed in creating a work of art, learning to
stay present in the moment is hard to quantify.
Like the quote by Cousin’s at the beginning of
As evidenced by the fact that many people also
this section references, a loss of awareness is not
report feeling bored when trying to meditate, it
just the loss of genuine feeling and the ability
seems that facing challenges and harnessing our
to feel pain and glory, but most profoundly, the
strengths is part of our very nature. But more
loss of what is possible. Particularly with hy-
importantly, it may be that challenges are a fun-
pervigilance, without first being able to iden-
damental component of awareness.
tify that you are anxious—and perhaps more
importantly, being able to register a difference
Awareness: From a Bicameral
between a feeling of calm and a feeling of anx-
Perspective
iety—overcoming it becomes impossible. Yet
herein lies the tragedy of the distracted lives we There is perhaps no better place to understand
live: not only do we not recognize the hidden just how challenges develop awareness than in
costs of our failing awareness, but we also don’t the world of sports. By examining the effects
recognize that anything different is possible. of performing athletics on cognitive ability,
We now spend considerable amounts of time researchers from the University of Montreal
and money on mindfulness-based programs worked with 102 professional English Premier
designed to improve our awareness and ability League soccer players, NHL hockey players,
to “live in the moment”, yet at the same time, France’s top 14 club rugby players, and 173 elite
six out of ten people report searching for more amateur athletes recruited from the NCAA
meaning and greater fulfillment in life. American university sports program and a Eu-
ropean Olympic training center, and 33 non-ath-
It might be that mindfulness, for many peo-
lete university students. The participants under-
ple, misses the mark. Remember from section
took a “3D-MOT” task fifteen times to evaluate
one, optimal experience occurs when we are in
several skills that are critical to visual perceptual
a “flow channel,” where the challenges of the
and cognitive abilities when viewing complex
task almost perfectly align with our skills and
scenes, including the distribution of attention
we are neither overwhelmed nor bored. Facing
between a number of moving targets among

216 | Unit 6
distractions, a large field of vision, the maximum It is also in facing challenges that awareness
speed of objects that one is able to follow, and the takes on a bicameral nature, that is, it compris-
ability to perceive depth. The scene that was used es both physical (in the form of some physical
was “neutral”, so that there was no sport-specific task) and cognitive (in the form of shifting and
familiarity to any of the participants, such as directing attention) components. As Csikszent-
play knowledge or experience, that could influ- mihalyi explains, “Optimal experience, where
ence the score as the movements and interactions we feel a sense of exhilaration and a deep sense
were totally random. It was found that, not only of enjoyment that is long cherished does not
did the athletes outperform their non-athletic come through passive, receptive, relaxing times.
counterparts, but they showed increased cortical The best moments usually occur when a per-
thickness in areas related to attention and focus. son’s body and mind are stretched to its limits
Over the course of the study—which involved 15 in a voluntary effort to accomplish something
training sessions—all three groups (profession- difficult and worthwhile. Such experiences are
al athletes, amateur athletes, and non-athletes) not necessarily pleasant at the time they oc-
improved their scores; however, the professional cur. Yet in the long run, optimal experiences
athletes were able to learn how to track fast mov- add up to a sense of mastery, or better a sense
ing objects at a much superior rate compared of participation in determining the content of
to the other groups. Lead researcher Jocelyn life.” Heightening awareness—and being fully
Faubert explains, “It would appear that athletes immersed cognitively—it seems, depends on
are able to hyperfocus their attention to enhance being fully immersed physically. Moreover, the
learning, which is key to their abilities.” pursuit of a goal, as Cskiszentmihalyi explains,
“brings order in awareness” because we must
Hyperfocusing, which is the ability to direct and
concentrate everything on the task at hand and
shift attention between scenes, while also tuning
momentarily forget everything else. By tran-
out irrelevant stimuli, is a critical component of
scending mindfulness, heightening awareness
all sports, but as evidenced by the higher learn-
through optimal experience is both a physical
ing rate demonstrated by the athletes, it might
and cognitive pursuit—and one where we must
also be how we heighten awareness. In flow, we
become an active participant. Indeed, being
learn to hyperfocus because the environment de-
challenged and persevering despite setbacks
mands our attention. While it’s easy to imagine
and obstacles is not just an admirable trait, it is
letting your mind wander while cooking din-
a key to enjoying life. Often, these very memo-
ner, it’s not so easy to imagine drifting off when
ries of overcoming challenges are what people
playing a fast-paced game of racquetball. Because
reflect upon as the most enjoyable times in their
optimal experience captures our attention in
lives. To be sure, it is impossible to separate
this way, not just do we become immersed in the
optimal experience—and the hyperfocus it cul-
experience, but as Csikszentmihalyi says, “We
tivates—from the physical exaltation of taking
are not able to think of anything else.” It is this
on and mastering challenges. And while the
crucial element of challenge that defines the state
practice of developing our skills and realizing
of flow, and determines the conditions under
our potential is also the practice of heightening
which our awareness thrives.
awareness, becoming fully engaged in an expe- an experience free from self-doubt. Reports from
rience is also exactly what frees us from what so people after achieving an optimal experience
frequently derails awareness: self-doubt. consistently reveal the same thing: an absence
of conscious thought, and more importantly,
Autonomy from Self-doubt absence of self-consciousness. For many, it is
this very loss of self-consciousness that leads to
When coaches describe the skills behind mental self-transcendence. As the concept of who we
toughness one of the most common is the abili- are—and the boundaries, limits, and constraints
ty to focus—and more specifically, the ability to that typically confine us—are temporarily for-
tune out self-doubt. Studying the psychological gotten, we expand upon our sense of self, and
qualities that marked athletes for greatness, quite often, overcome previously held limits.
sports scientists from the University of Lincoln, The ability to do what was not thought possi-
UK, and Liverpool John Moores University ble before is a common occurrence of optimal
(LJMU), UK, interviewed academy coaches at experience that happens when we suspend what
an unnamed English Football Premiership club. is typically encased in our self-doubt, namely
While academy recruits were typically subject- our fears, worries, anxieties, and self-criticisms.
ed to tough physical drills, high expectations, In particular, letting go of our worries of losing
and harsh criticism, one of the factors that control, is not just tremendously enjoyable, but
strongly separated the tough players from the also increases our feeling of being able to exer-
less tough ones, was a greater sense of indepen- cise control. Instead of worrying about dropping
dence. This independence was witnessed in the the wine glass, we are able to concentrate on
ability to recover from criticism, as well as from just how to balance it. Further, instead of seeing
setbacks. While their more high maintenance ourselves as a clumsy person who typically drops
counterparts required more attention, support, wine glasses, we experience our ability to shift
and supervision to overcome play errors, the seamlessly under its weight, as our actions seem
mentally tough players were able to tune out to occur without conscious prompting, and more
criticism (or to use it to improve their perfor- importantly, without self-doubt.
mance) and appeared to take greater personal
responsibility over their development. While diminished awareness impairs our ability
to differentiate between harmful and innocuous
Tuning out self-doubt is not just a critical el- stimuli, demands greater cognitive effort, and
ement of any sports performance, but is a re- leads to us making impulse decisions, perhaps
quirement of heightening awareness. Because the greatest handicap is that it holds us hostage.
self-doubt acts in direct opposition to perfor- When we are blind to our faults, we are also
mance, there is no greater threat to interrupting blind to the possibility that exists in overcoming
attention to a task than doubting your ability to them—and consequently in realizing our great-
perform it, which not only interrupts engage- est potential. And this is the door that optimal
ment, but also awareness. And this is one of the experience opens: through heightening aware-
most appealing components of flow, i.e., that it is ness, we become the best versions of ourselves.

218 | Unit 6
Here are the important points to take away: opponent—although those things are nice—we
do them simply because we love doing them,
1. Constantly being on high alert not only
makes us expect the worst, it also leads to us
win or fail. The reason it is so important that
misreading emotions and having trouble dif- an activity be intrinsically rewarding to lead
ferentiating between harmless and harmful to flow is that flow is a state that is dependent
stimuli. on a sense of control and autonomy. If we are
2. Time efficiency is not cognitive efficiency, doing something because we are dependent on
while multitasking comes with several “hid- the outcome it brings, or we are forced to—or
den costs,” including increased anxiety. even forcing ourselves to—we will have lost a
3. Environmental stimuli compete for our at-
sense of autonomy, and a sense of control. In
tention, and often cause us to make impulse order to find flow, we must feel free to choose
decisions. what we do, where we do it, and when we do
it. We must feel intrinsically pulled toward it
4. Being fully engaged in an experience not
only heightens our awareness, it also frees us for our own reasons, not pushed toward it for
from self-doubt. reasons that are external to us. In the end, we
must love to do it because it ignites a passion
Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Five: deep inside us and makes us feel alive.
Enjoyment of the Activity
For most people, autotelic activities have their
While we know from section one that in roots in childhood play, e.g., inventors likely
order to send us into flow an activity has to took things apart as kids, skateboarders built
be rewarding, it is more important that it is ramps in their backyards, and writers most
rewarding for the right reasons. Flow activ- likely read. And the reason for this is, for kids,
ities are autotelic in nature—meaning they the goal is to have fun. The outcome—winning
are intrinsically rewarding. While there is or losing—is often secondary, and not con-
nothing wrong with earning several awards sciously considered. So how we find autotelic
and medals for running marathons, it is not activities as adults then often involves going
likely to lead us to flow. Instead, we must put back to the things we enjoyed as kids. If you
in and enjoy the long hours on the road, the recall playing for hours outside, try an activity
early mornings, sore muscles, and the feel- that takes you back into nature. If you enjoyed
ing of fatigue at the end of a long run. This spending time with animals, find something
is the difference between outcome and pro- you can do now that involves animals. If you
cess. The outcome is the accolades we get by spent hours dressing up dolls, try designing
doing something; while the process is what clothes. Mental detours back to childhood,
we do to earn those accolades. Activities that such as these, often come with numerous
lead to flow, therefore, are those where we are positive memories, and also remind us of the
not attached to any specific outcome—other importance of doing something purely for the
than enjoyment. We don’t do them because joy of it; after all, it was there that we found
we need to win, earn respect, or beat an ourselves lost in what we were doing.
Enjoyment is highly linked to absorption. with risk, it shouldn’t surprise us that we take
When we do something because the reward the same route when handling stress. And
is an intense sense of pleasure, the process of when we do—just like when distraction leads
self-evaluation shuts off. We stop thinking to impulse decisions and keeps us blind to our
about why we are doing it, if we are perform- faults—there are costs involved.
ing well, or what the outcome will be. And not
According to the American Psychological As-
surprisingly, the more absorbed in an activity
sociation (APA), stress is a top health concern,
we become, the more likely we are to find flow.
and many psychologists say that if we don’t learn
healthy ways to manage that stress now, it could
Section Three: The Gift of Stress: have serious long-term health implications. The
How Flow Can Help Us Identify United Nations International Labor Organiza-
Our Strengths tion seconds the APA, which now defines stress
as a “global epidemic.” Indeed, we now spend
Stress does not come from doing too much; it
more time than ever before trying to manage
comes from doing too little of what makes us
what for many appears seemed unmanageable.
come alive. ~Alexander Den Heijer
The problem is that stress, like risk, does not
The interesting thing about flow is that it plac-
follow any predictable pattern. Just as we can-
es stress on our system. As Csikszentmihalyi
not pinpoint exactly which factors will devalue
explains, flow occurs when “we are pushed to the
a stock, we can’t know when we will lose our
limits of our physical and emotional strength.”
jobs, our spouses, or our health—all sizable
Stretching our capacities in this way, it seems, is
stresses. And while we may think that prepar-
a tremendously enriching experience. It is here
ing for stress, or attempting to find ways to bet-
that we come to uncover previously undiscov-
ter manage it, will lower our stress, our efforts
ered skills, build psychological resources, and ex-
themselves may be part of the problem.
ercise our greatest strengths. In particular, facing
stress—whether it results from flow experience A recent study asked participants to list tasks
or from life adversity—positions us to better face that took a certain amount of time, and then
future adversities. However, as you will see in the to envision themselves completing those tasks.
next section, attempting to overmanage stress Participants were then asked to imagine tasks
keeps us from using it to our advantage. that were in conflict with one another, with
some of the tasks actually competing for time
The Problem of Stress against each other, such as scheduling two
Management things in the same time slot, while others
were in competition for emotional or financial
While we saw in section one that overprotect-
reasons, such as saving for retirement or buy-
ing ourselves from risk—in the form of risk
ing a nicer house now. It was found that when
management—often leads to psychic entropy
the participants perceived activities as being in
and ultimately undermines our ability to deal
conflict with them achieving their competitive

220 | Unit 6
goals, they experienced an increase in anxiety clients. Just as you saw in Section Two, shifting
and felt even more stressed (Etkin, et al., 2015). our focus from one task to another comes at a
cost—one that often drains our energy.
These findings are supported by a survey com-
pleted for the U.S. Department of Labor, which But let’s consider the problem another way.
found that conflicts between the demands of the Just as we saw how a strategy of “risk utili-
workplace and of home life are an increasingly zation” could lead to antifragility, what if we
common source of stress; whereby 10 percent of shifted our focus from stress management to
people who are married or living with children stress utilization?
under 18 experience severe work–family conflict,
In one recent study, researchers interviewed
and an additional 25 percent report moderate
2,000 adults about their lifetime experiences
levels of conflict. Also, these competing demands
with 37 specified different negative events, cov-
are not exclusive to the work–life balance. As
ering everything from natural disasters, serious
Robert Ostermann, professor of psychology at
illness, divorce, death of a family member, and
FDU’s Teaneck-Hackensack Campus, observes,
abuse. Participants were then asked about their
“There is less stress in developing countries than
current level of stress, functioning at work and
in developed countries.” In developing coun-
in relationships, any negative symptoms related
tries, Ostermann explains, “the value of family
to stress, and overall life satisfaction. Partici-
and nation is much stronger than it is here in
pants were then followed for two years. What the
the U.S.” Developed nations, on the other hand,
researchers uncovered was something unexpect-
place greater emphasis on what is earned or how
ed: that patterns of stress are not linear. In other
much money is possessed, which is often fueled
words, the amount of stress a person experi-
by increased consumerism and the growing
enced in early life did not produce an equitable
influence of advertisers who “try to convince the
amount of negative symptoms—such as troubled
consuming public that a want is a need.”
relationships, work distress, and symptoms of
And that is the problem that stress management post-traumatic stress—in later years. Even more
presents: We are trying to anticipate things that interesting was that lower levels of stress in early
cannot be anticipated, and in doing so, we are life—such as fewer deaths, divorces, and losses—
wrestling with competing demands. Consider produced worse outcomes than those who had
the following: John is worried about losing his reported some prior adversity; while those with
job and imagines trying to find another, but too much stress and not enough recovery also
because John has not yet been laid off, he must had more trouble in later years. What research
still focus on the daily demands on his position. like this indicates is that, in many ways, too little
While wondering how long his savings will last, stress is just as bad as too much.
whether or not he will be able to file for unem-
The results of this study were later replicated
ployment, and if he could possibly ask his broth-
when researchers examined people with chronic
er for a loan, he is trying to finish his report, plan
back pain. Here again, those who had no previ-
for tomorrow’s meeting, and schedule incoming
ous adversity faired just as poorly as those who
reported very high levels—and both groups did stress might be just the same as detecting too
worse than those who had experienced some life little flow—what we end up with is boredom.
stress. Having dealt with some previous adversity
or trauma thus appears to be a form of psycho- The Diagnosis of Too Little Stress
logical strength building, and when adversity is (or the Wrong Kind of Stress)
absent, so is psychological strength.
To really understand just how too little stress
But it might also be the case that not facing affects us, we need to look no further than
adversity causes us to make it worse when it does something universal to us all: boredom. Psy-
happen. In another study, researchers asked par- chological scientist John Eastwood of York
ticipants to submerge one hand in a bucket of ice University and colleagues at the University of
water, and then asked them to report how much Guelph and the University of Waterloo (all On-
pain they felt. Those who had previous exposure tario, Canada) define boredom as “an aversive
to moderate levels of adverse experiences report- state of wanting, but being unable, to engage in
ed more accurate levels of pain, while those with satisfying activity,” which arises from failures
either no history of adversity or very high levels in one of the brain’s attention networks.
of it tended to “catastrophize” the pain, report-
ing it as unbearable and overwhelming—and Eastwood expanded on the definition of bore-
associated it with more negative emotion. Here dom to include three specific factors:
it seems that thinking that pain would be worse 1. Difficulty paying attention to the internal
than it actually was—in other words, catastroph- information (e.g., thoughts or feelings) or
izing—made it feel more unbearable. external information (e.g., environmental
stimuli) required for participating in a satisfy-
What studies like this seem to tell us is that ing activity.
stress is an asset, and too little of it can actu- 2. Awareness of the fact that we’re having diffi-
ally be a problem. Without experiencing some culty paying attention.
stress—e.g., in the form of prior adversity—we
3. Belief that the environment is responsible for
seem wholly unprepared to handle it in the pres-
our aversive state (e.g., “this task is boring,”
ent. And if the conclusion that there is a sweet “there is nothing to do”).
spot to the amount of stress a person needs to
experience sounds familiar, it should. Remember While we may consider boredom an unpleasant
in section one, we explored how experiencing state, and whether we attribute it to the envi-
flow also depends on finding the flow channel— ronment or not, what we often fail to consid-
where just the right amount of arousal is present. er is just why it happens. On a fundamental
Experiencing some stress, like experiencing flow level, “not having anything to do” is the same
on a regular basis, appears to pay psychologi- as “not needing to do anything.” It is being
cal dividends—in the form of a psychological challenged—a pivotal aspect of flow—you will
strengths that we can draw upon in times of remember, that captivates our attention. Having
need. On the other hand, detecting too little to pay attention, it seems, happens because we

222 | Unit 6
have to—that is, because the stress of not paying attention is greater
than keeping our focus on the task at hand. To be sure, the result
of losing focus in a fast-paced game of racquetball might be a ball
to the head, while not paying attention to what you are cooking for
dinner might only lead to some burned meatloaf—considerably less
aversive.
But looking at boredom can teach us something else: that failure

to experience engagement can lead to serious long-term problems.
On a behavioral level, boredom has been linked to problems with
impulse control, leading to overeating and binge eating, drug and
alcohol abuse, and problem gambling. Boredom has even been asso-
ciated with higher rates of mortality (Roberts, et al., 2015).
Even animals appear to be affected by boredom. One study separat-

ed captive mink into two groups: one in to small, bare cages, and the
others in to large “enriched” cages enhanced with water for wading,
passageways for running, objects to chew, and towers to climb. The
researchers then presented both groups with stimuli ranging from
appealing treats to neutral objects to undesirable things, such as
the leather gloves used to catch the animals. The results replicated
something we know intuitively: the mink in the confined, empty
spaces ate more treats, even when given as much food as the mink in
the enriched environments.
And while we may consider boredom relatively common—and there-

fore somewhat innocuous—research by Thomas Goetz and Anne
Frenzel, two researchers who specialize in boredom, uncovered a par-
ticularly pernicious type of boredom: apathetic boredom. Apathetic
boredom, unlike the four other subtypes of boredom (i.e., indifferent,
calibrating, searching, and reactant), resembles learned helplessness
or depression. Learned helplessness is a depression-like state that
occurs when people or animals fail to take opportunities to improve
their condition, even when they are readily available. Interestingly,
like not being in flow, it is associated with low levels of arousal, that
is, not being challenged. In attempting to understand just how apa-
thetic boredom affects a person, Goetz, Frenzel, and a team of fellow
researchers followed 63 German university students and 80 German
Real-time data: data
collected at the present time, high school learners for two weeks. In a real-time data collection
often on a daily basis. study, whereby participants had to complete digital questionnaires
through the course of a day detailing their activ- An increased sense of strength isn’t only an
ities and experiences. While apathetic depression outcome of flow, it is a crucial element of coping
was experienced at an alarming rate—36 percent with life’s setbacks. When life’s circumstances
of the high school students sampled—it was also change suddenly and without warning (as they
found to be highly linked to the real-life situation often do with setbacks) we are left with a for-
in which it was experienced. midable amount of uncertainty and self-doubt.
We may second guess ourselves, those around
Feeling apathetic, it seems, is not just about the
us, and even the future. And yet, how we face
intensity of our feelings, but rather, also about
this uncertainty and self-doubt is exactly the
the intensity of our surroundings. Environ-
same way we find flow: through activating our
ments that don’t challenge us enough don’t just
strengths. And if we have spent some time in
leave us bored, they leave us feeling disinterest-
flow, we should already know not just the recipe
ed—and less likely to do something to change
for finding and fine-tuning our strengths, but
them. But perhaps even more importantly, they
that when we activate our strengths both self-
don’t lead to innovation—especially when it
doubt and uncertainty will begin to fade away.
comes to our strengths.
Further, we also know when we feel the most
strong, where we don’t second guess ourselves,
Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Six: and what gives us the most confidence. And
Activate Your Strengths when faced with setbacks, we can draw upon
Flow is a state that is characterized by intrinsic these experiences, not just as symbols of our
reward: we do it because it is enjoyable to us. strengths, but as resources as those things that
Much of the reason that flow is so rewarding is return strength to us. We may find that when
that people generally feel their best when activat- coping with unexpected and painful life chang-
ing their strengths. Even further, when activating es, we return to our strengths—and to flow—as
our strengths in the service of something larger a way to recharge, regain our footing, and put
than ourselves, flow becomes euphoric. Yet flow our life back into perspective. The takeaway—
doesn’t just help us activate our strengths, it and the lesson that flow offers—is that in acti-
reveals strengths we never knew we had. Because vating our strengths, we regain our strength.
flow exists in the absence of self-doubt—a state And in no time is this more important than
people rarely visit—it removes the very inter- when facing setbacks.
ference that undermines most peoples’ ability.
Without self-doubt we simply perform better— The Age of Underutilization
and often in ways we never expected. Suddenly,
While being bored decreases our engagement
we can throw with incredible accuracy, paint
and the likelihood that we will interact with
with unrivaled artistry, and sing notes we nev-
our environment, it might also lead to chronic
er could before. When it comes to finding and
underutilization of our skills. Chronic un-
activating your strengths, here is the recipe flow
derutilization—which manifests itself in feel-
offers: face challenges and do not doubt yourself.
ings of boredom, disconnection, anger, and

224 | Unit 6
sadness—is like the Carnot cycle we explored in According to Taleb, maladaptations can come
section one, whereby the energy that escapes us in many forms—such as obesity if we try to
prevents us from reaching our maximal out- avoid the stressor of hunger, anxiety if we try to
put. Instead of directing our strengths toward a avoid our fears, and acting irritably when we are
clear goal, with immediate feedback, we expend bored—yet they all arise from the same general
energy trying to overcome our negative feelings. condition: underutilization of our strengths.
Or we might be spending energy spreading our The problem is underutilization—like trying to

negative energy toward others. One study asked overmanage stress—is exactly where most of us
a sample of 160 hospital employees to rate their find ourselves. And while there are examples
reactions—positive or negative—to a series of of underutilization everywhere—just consider
statements regarding envy, affinity with col- the six out of ten people that now report feeling
leagues, and comfort with subversive acts. Eight little to no sense of purpose in their lives—per-
months later, participants were surveyed again, haps the best example is obesity. Obesity is the
this time about their actual undermining ac- physical manifestation of underutilization. Put-
tivities. When comparing the results of the two ting aside the argument that the majority of the
surveys, researchers found that people who re- global population now depends on one or more
ported feelings of envy were significantly more drugs to maintain health (which is a separate
likely to report committing sabotage, especially discussion altogether), let’s just consider for a
when feeling disengaged from their coworkers. moment what the physical body is for: physical
On the other hand, feelings of connection to function. Carrying the groceries, running after
others seemed to be a buffer, such that when small children, moving the couch to search for
workers reported feeling more engaged with spare change, and perhaps defending oneself
others they were less likely to sabotage them. from a potential attacker are all forms of phys-
In a second study, these same researchers asked ical function. But interestingly, how most of us
247 business students to rate their level of envy, go about improving physical function bears no
connections with their group members, and resemblance to how we will actually use it. Lift-
incidents of sabotage committed by themselves ing weights, going for a walk, and spending a
and others. Here again, students who reported few hours climbing endless stairs on a machine
feelings of envy and low levels of identification are all admirable, but not likely to help us much
with their workgroups were significantly more in the event that we do get mugged. Sparring,
likely to act against them, especially when they on the other hand, might.
reported high rates of sabotage as a whole.
But the other argument we can make for spar-
Sabotaging others when we feel bored might be ring—or any environment that demands the
one of the many “maladaptations” that Nich- use of our strengths—is that we might discover
olas Nassim Taleb—whom we met in section not just that we are better prepared, but we
one—attributes to the condition of fragility: a might even discover skills we didn’t know we
condition that arises when we avoid stressors. had. Exposing ourselves to a challenge that is
unpredictable in nature, such as anticipating Honnold had grabbed it, his solo attempt would
the movements of a sparring partner, which is have been lost. On the other hand, if he didn’t,
about as easy as anticipating those of an attack- he could lose his grip and fall 2,000 feet to his
er, is the recipe for discovering and developing death. In that moment, Honnold remembers
strengths. While we may develop a nice set of that downclimbing never occurred to him, he
biceps in the gym, we are not likely to unveil was going up, or he was going to die trying.
any unexpected strengths.
It is just this kind of pressure—when we are up
And this is perhaps the best argument we can against our biggest challenges—that not only
make for flow: that its challenges are not pre- embodies flow, but also elevates our strengths to
dictable. Being in flow, like being prepared for their greatest capacities. Flow, as Kottler writes,
life, depends on a constant refinement of skills. is “advanced technology”, meaning that putting
In many ways, the upward helical growth that ourselves in flow is like adding fuel injectors
characterizes flow is exactly what life demands to a racecar. The result is the best version of
of us: more, better, and faster. And utilization ourselves. And as Kottler puts it, “paddling fast
of our strengths against the dynamic interface enough to catch a possibility of wave-like abun-
of life isn’t just a powerful antidote to maladap- dance (he is referencing the book he co-authored
tation, it is how we discover new skills. As you called Abundance) means we’ll need the most
will see in the next section, a large part of this capable version of ourselves doing the paddling.”
discovery comes in the form of those events
Interestingly, challenges that threaten our very
that most fundamentally challenge us.
survival, while they bring out our greatest
strengths, demonstrate something else very
Give Me Challenges or Give Me
fascinating: an inverse relationship with self-
Death
doubt. That is, there is something about needing
In his fascinating book, The Rise of Superman: our strengths for survival quiets the self-con-
Decoding the Science of Ultimate Human Per- scious. And this might just have something to
formance, Stephen Kottler, recounts the first do with how our brains are wired. In a fascinat-
ever solo climb of Yosemite’s Half Dome by a ing series of experiments, first using a primate
man named Alex Honnold: “I just came apart. I model at Washington University in St. Louis,
froze. What the hell am I doing here, thoughts. and later with human subjects at Columbia
A full scale panic attack. It was really scary University Medical Center (CUMC), research-
and really surreal. The move is barely 200 feet ers used functional magnetic resonance imag-
from the summit. There’s always a crowd on ing (fMRI) to map brain activity. Subjects were
top of Half Dome (you can hike up the other asked to first memorize a specific target object,
side). I could hear people and laughing. I was and then had to push a button when the target
really glad they could see me.” Kotler further object appeared on the screen while a distract-
relates a conflict Honnold found himself in: an ing stream of images appeared on various parts
enormous oval carabineer hung inches away, if of the screen. The fMRI technology allowed

226 | Unit 6
the researchers to see when various parts of the feeling as if their actions (and their ability to
subjects’ brains were ‘switched on’ while the focus attention) are absent of effort.
subjects performed the task, and allowed the
Csikszentmihalyi recounted a climber de-
researchers to uncover something surprising. In
scribing his experience: “It’s a Zen feeling, like
the human brain there are two main attention
meditation or concentration. One thing you’re
networks: the dorsal attention network (DAN),
after is the one-pointedness of mind. You can
which directs attention to specific things, and
get your ego mixed up with climbing in all sorts
the ventral attention network (VAN), which
of ways and it isn’t necessarily enlightening.
is active when perceiving something new or
But when things become automatic, it’s like an
unique, and activation of one appears to switch
egoless thing in a way. Somehow the right thing
off the other creating an effective give-and-take,
is done without you ever thinking about it or
yet the VAN had no equivalent in the primate
doing anything at all… it just happens. And yet
brain. In other words, the human brain has a
you are more concentrated.”
lot more crosstalk—and competition for atten-
tion—than the primate brain. And the reason that flow is so effortless may
be that when events are experienced at a high
As the study author Dr. Patel explains, “These
emotional level—like in high risk situations—
findings suggest that at some point in our
the memories associated with them are encoded
evolutionary history, we evolved an additional
in the brain differently. Not only do we process
attention network—perhaps in order to better
these memories with greater relevance, but
process the world around us.”
we also elaborate them much more, meaning
It seems that the additional attention network that flow offers a powerful cognitive cocktail
that makes our brain unique may help us bet- that puts learning on overdrive. Kotler quoted
ter process the world around us, but we may noted high-performance sports psychologist
have to work a lot harder to do it. Having two Michael Gervais: “As a result, athletes in flow
networks means that we have one primed for in death-facing situations likely gather more
focusing on the task at hand, and one uniquely relevant data and code it more efficiently.
suited for noticing everything that interrupts Having these experiences could significantly
us. And this might explain just why for so many shorten the learning curve toward expertise.”
people self-doubt is such a problem: we seem to Kotler further went on to cite the United States
have an entire attention network devoted to it! Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
Self-doubt, as we explored in Section Two, acts (DARPA), who found that military snipers
in direct contradiction to the task at hand, and trained in flow decreased the time it took to
in doing so, it represents a novel interference acquire their targets by a factor of 2.3.
that often robs our attention. And while the
While learning is both enhanced and effortless
result is a lot of effort being expended to stay fo-
while in flow, Csikszentmihalyi attributed this
cused, interestingly, in recounting their experi-
to people’s greatest strength: that they are in
ences, people in the state of flow often describe
control of their lives. It is through facing their
greatest challenges and realizing that they can Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Seven:
and do rise to the challenge, that people also The Right Amount of Challenge
realize that life events do not define them. What
Flow activities, by their very nature, must be
does, is how they respond to such challenges.
challenging. In order to exercise our skills,
And when this response bears the autotelic re-
expand our capacities, and surpass our limits,
wards of realizing and exercising out strengths
we must face some degree of challenge. How-
at their greatest capacity, it’s very powerful
ever, in order for flow to occur, the challenge
medicine. Not only do we feel more in control
barometer must be set just right. (You will
of our lives, but more in control of the best
remember from section one that they must fall
parts of our lives.
into the “Flow Channel.”) Things that are too
Trying to overmanage stress, being bored, challenging will overwhelm us. On the other
and chronic underutilization of our strengths hand, when the challenge is too low, we will be-
all lead to the same thing: a host of maladap- come bored. Instead, the challenge must ever so
tations. Not only are we less prepared to face slightly exceed our skills. It must call upon our
stressors when we try to overprotect ourselves highest skills, peak our interest, and spark our
from them, and fall prey to many of the im- motivation, but it must also be within the realm
pulsive behaviors that come with boredom, but of possible. According to most high-perfor-
perhaps most distressingly, we are less prepared mance experts, the challenge should be about
for life. It is only when we face life head on, 4 percent greater than our skills (Kotler, 2015).
directing our strengths toward the unpre- Here, 4 percent might not seem like a lot, and
dictable—what optimal experience demands so most people overshoot this number and set
of us—do we come to realize our greatest the challenge too high. And the reason for this
potential. is that most of us don’t spend much time as-
sessing our skills. Getting the percentage right,
then, means first spending a significant amount
1. Too little stress is as much of a problem as of time in an activity, and testing our capacities.
too much stress—leaving us wholly unpre- For instance, if we want to see if we can shoot
pared to handle it in the present. ten free throws in a row, we should make sure
2. Environments that don’t challenge us leave we know we can shoot at least eight. Similarly,
us bored and distracted. we shouldn’t challenge ourselves to write 5000
3. Chronic underutilization of our words per day, if we are not already writing
strengths leads to negative feelings and several pages on a daily basis.
maladaptations.
When we get the challenge right, however, we
4. Flow elevates our cognitive and physical should feel invigorated, excited, and eager to get
strengths to their highest levels, and the
started. While we should be fairly sure we can
results are those peak moments where we
achieve the challenge we have set for ourselves,
recognize our greatest potential.
it is still a journey into uncharted waters, being

228 | Unit 6
both novel and untested. Further, it represents narcissism questionnaire, where they had to
an essential component of flow—that is, to con- choose between statements that best described
quer the tasks we face, we must become the best them, such as, “I like to be the center of atten-
version of ourselves. tion” or “I prefer to blend in with the crowd.”
What Alloway and her team found was some-

Section Four: Wired to thing we know intuitively about narcissism:
Transcend: How Flow it makes us want to be admired. In Alloway’s
Transforms Us study, the more narcissistic a person was, the
more frequently they updated their profile pic-
Life and sport cannot be separated; they are one.
ture. While males focused more on the ratings
If we believe in our own self-transcendence task,
of their profile picture, females tended to focus
then there can be no unreachable goal.
on both their profile picture ratings and their
~Unknown
status updates to gain admiration.
While we saw in section three how adding a lit-
As Alloway explained, “Every narcissist needs a
tle stress (in some cases, more than a little) can
reflecting pool. Just as Narcissus gazed into the
draw out and enhance our strengths, and how
pool to admire his beauty, social networking
avoiding stress actually makes us weaker, what
sites, like Facebook, have become our mod-
we explore here is just how optimal experience
ern-day pool.”
can help us transcend our weaknesses. But first,
let’s take a look at the opposite of self-transcen- The problem is that this reflecting pool is now
dence: self-absorption. getting much larger—and much more accessible.
Facebook itself says the average American now
We Are All Becoming More spends 40 minutes a day checking a Facebook
Narcissistic feed, which is more time than most people spend
with their pets (39 minutes on average). While
Tracy Alloway and her research team recently
we used to seek companionship in the form of
asked more than 400 individuals a question
a furry friend, we are now seeking admiration
many of us probably ask ourselves every time
in the form of Facebook friends. And unlike the
we check our Facebook profile: Does this make
good feelings that can come from the company
me more narcissistic? Using a survey of ques-
of a furry companion, an abundance of likes on
tions ranging from how many hours per day
Facebook isn’t likely to make us feel much better.
they spent on Facebook, the number of times
they updated their status, and the look of their Focusing on ourselves, after all, is a zero sum
profile picture, such as physically attractive, game. When the idea is to gain admiration,
cool, glamorous, and fashionable, research- there is not a lot of interaction going on. Instead
ers assessed just how participants acted on of focusing on others’ interests, we are updating
Facebook. And then to assess how narcissistic our profiles, and then wondering why they don’t
they were, participants were given a standard measure up. One study showed that Facebook
use often leads to envy, particularly when we (insert watch, shirt, antique, furniture…—the list
tend to be self-focused. Assessing the link is endless) that you don’t really need, then you
between Facebook use and depression among have fallen victim to this effect. But a new study
college students, researcher Margaret Duffy done by a collaboration team of researchers from
concluded, “We found that if Facebook users Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford Univer-
experience envy of the activities and lifestyles of sity, Harvard University, and the University of
their friends on Facebook, they are much more Pittsburg uncovered just what drives the impact
likely to report feelings of depression.” of emotions on consumer behavior. Dividing
participants into two groups: those high in
While Facebook can be a very positive re-
self-focus and those low in self-focus, researchers
source for many people—as Duffy and her
then asked participants to view either a sad video
team expressed as well—in many ways it is the
clip or a neutral one (which was devoid of hu-
perfect vehicle for self-absorption. Facebook not
man emotion). Next, the participants were given
only allows us to craft the perfect image to be
the option to purchase an ordinary commodity,
admired—filtering out any undesirable imag-
such as a water bottle, at different prices. Among
es—but also allows us to compare that image to
the participants primed to feel bad, those high
those of our friends.
in self-focus paid more than those low in self-fo-
And this may be the slippery slope of self-ab- cus—by as much as 300%.
sorption: spending more time thinking about
In an interesting side effect, those in the sad-
how we feel (and updating our profiles to make
ness condition, when asked what influenced
ourselves feel better), actually makes us feel
their willingness to pay more, denied that the
worse.
emotional content of the film affected their
While it may be easy to point the finger at spending.
Facebook for what psychology professor and
Yet sadness and self-focus go hand in hand.
narcissism expert Jean Twenge calls the “Nar-
Feeling bad often makes us focus on feeling
cissism Epidemic” (which is also the title of her
bad, and when we do, we devalue our sense of
book), the data cannot be ignored: the rates of
self, and our possessions. Under these condi-
self-absorption have risen in accordance with
tions, it’s not hard to imagine that we would
Facebook’s popularity.
pay more for the same bottle of water that we
And self-absorption doesn’t just show up in our would otherwise demand a fair price for—even
Facebook habits, it also affects how we spend if we deny that our emotional state leads to our
money. Several studies have already indicated irrational spending.
that when we feel bad, we are prone to spend
Interestingly, self-absorbed people also view
more, presumably as a way to make ourselves feel
price increases as “less fair” than their non-
better. If you have ever found yourself browsing
self-absorbed counterparts, especially when the
online late at night only to realize in the morn-
brand is seen as non-humanized (Kwan, 2015).
ing that you just bought that new pair of shoes
Seeing things as “non-humanized” is a facet

230 | Unit 6
of self-absorption. When you spend most of just a matter of time before they get frustrated
your time thinking about yourself—even if in and lash out and verbally assault somebody,
the service of making yourself feel better—you maybe even an innocent party, because of some
don’t consider the perspectives of others much. provocation that they felt.”
And failing to think about how others feel is a
Krizan further pointed to the Columbine High
recipe not just for making them seem less hu-
School shooting in 1999 as an example of just
man, but for a host of other negative behaviors.
how the combination of self-absorption and
In his brilliant book, The Honest Truth about envy can lead to violence: “If you look at the
Dishonesty, Dan Ariely explains just how feeling evidence that is often left over, in Columbine for
less connected to those around us—and failing example you had those videos, these shooting
to understand their perspectives—makes it escapades seem to be a kind of power grab by
easier for us to lie (or cheat). Because we don’t these individuals. The tapes are also narratives,
feel as if our behavior impacts others much, in which they are the person taking control,
we convince ourselves that what we are doing they’re the one in charge, and they will deter-
doesn’t really hurt them. The evidence, Ariely mine how things will go.”
points to, namely the mortgage banking crisis,
While Columbine is a drastic example of nar-
underscores something that we all recognize:
cissism gone awry, it makes a powerful point—
while we wouldn’t steal from our grandparents,
that the more we focus on ourselves, and the
we might steal from the supermarket.
less we consider the perspectives of others—the
And if you add envy to the mix, we might also more prone we are to act against them. But
lash out in anger. One study surveyed nearly perhaps the more important point is just what
200 undergraduate students and more than 150 self-absorption does to our feelings of happi-
adults to identify how often and how strongly ness. As Victor Frankl, author of Man’s Search
they felt envy, and found that those with high- for Meaning, and recognized as the father of
er envy scores were not only more depressed, “logotherapy” (literally translated as “meaning
anxious, and distraught, but also more prone therapy”), explains, “Human existence—at least
to unexpected outbursts of aggression. As lead as long as it has not been neurotically distort-
researcher Zlatan Krizan explained, “These in- ed—is always directed to something, or some-
dividuals still think they’re special, entitled, and one, other than itself, be it a meaning to fulfill
that they want to be great, but they just can’t do or another human being to encounter loving-
it. As a result, they’re vulnerable, their self-es- ly.” The point that Frankl makes is that when
teem fluctuates a lot, they tend to be self-con- our meaning comes only from satisfying our
scious and not very proactive, and at the same own needs (and achieving no greater purpose),
time passive, shy, and introverted. It’s these we are prone to neurotic distortions, such as
vulnerable individuals who are in some sense anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive
more worrisome because they are quiet, sort of disorder. Further, when we derive our sense of
festering in anger out there in a corner. And it’s self from the admiration of others, not only do
we invariably compare ourselves to them, but sense of faith—is the result of facing the seem-
we also feel significant amounts of envy should ingly impossible odds that exist in flow, or the
we not measure up. And while depression and insurmountable odds that come with the kind
narcissism seem like opposites, they share the of trauma that activates post-traumatic growth.
same root cause of too much looking in and not This is what Steven Kottler describes as “listen-
enough looking out. Whether we are spending to the voice”, and what those who report
ing time trying to prove to others that we are post-traumatic growth recognize as “some-
better, or focusing on the ways our life is worse thing larger than me (often described as Him,
than those around us, the result is the same: we Mother, or God) that got me through.” It is this
are focused on our weaknesses. To transcend connection to something beyond ourselves—
them—as you will see in the next section—we whether we call it the voice, Him, or simply
must transcend ourselves. faith—that provides the activation energy
needed to overcome self-doubt, surpass our old
Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Eight: notions of self, and become something that we
Learn to Transcend previously didn’t think was possible.
Flow involves a qualitative shift in the way we And connection with something larger than
see ourselves, what Csikszentmihalyi describes ourselves also happens not just when we recog-
as “becoming more complex”. If we look more nize that there is a power greater than ourselves
closely at just what is behind this qualitative that enables us to overcome our limitations,
shift, we also see what propels self-transcen- but when we contribute to this power to create
dence. Self-transcendence is about moving something larger than ourselves. In flow, this
beyond our previous definitions, boundaries, is described as a shared mutual experience that
and limitations, and in doing so, recognizing becomes more than the sum of its parts, such as
new possibilities that exist within ourselves. In building a house together, flying in formation,
flow, not do we just become what Csikszent- riding motorcycles in a group together, and
mihalyi describes as “boundaryless” but when running or cycling in a group. In post-traumat-
we achieve feats that we previously thought not ic growth, this contribution to something larger
possible, we can see ourselves in a new light. than the self is often witnessed in the accounts
Similarly, those who report post-traumatic of those who, after having survived a trauma,
growth recount “getting through” life trage- turn toward helping others who have endured
dies that they would have never thought they similar life experiences. Whether we are de-
could, and coming out with an increased sense scribing flow or post-traumatic growth, it is
of personal strength. In each case, self-tran- the connection to something larger than our-
scendence involves recognizing new strengths, selves that expands our boundaries, and tran-
capacities, and possibilities within oneself, but scends our previous definitions of ourselves.
also connecting to something larger than the And self-transcendence is not only profoundly
self to get there. This connection to something rewarding—accounting for the euphoric qual-
larger than the self—what we can call having a ity of flow—but is also a tremendous asset in

232 | Unit 6
overcoming setbacks. Indeed, numerous ac- day-to-day, self-transcendence means that we

counts of post-traumatic growth report connec- experience ourselves in a way that is also beyond
tion to something beyond themselves—whether ordinary—often surpassing our own limits. Just
described as faith, God, or spirituality—as the as boundlessness has to do with experiences that
one factor that enabled them to get through are perceived as beyond the limit of ordinary
what seemed impossible at the time. time and space, overcoming our own bound-
aries and perceived limitations allows us to see
So how does flow help us learn to transcend
ourselves in ways that exceed previously held
ourselves? For one thing, the very nature of the
notions of ourselves. And transcending ourselves
challenges that flow requires—those that seem
in this way harnesses a powerful energy source:
just out of reach—require a bit of faith. When we
the feelings of deep mutual understanding and
habitually take on these sorts of challenges (in
caring that come with interconnection. The
an effort to activate flow) we develop and build
emotions that typically accompany self-transcen-
our faith and connection to something beyond
dence are uplift, awe, humility, mystery, grati-
ourselves. And faith is a tremendous asset when
tude, joy, peace, and serenity.
coping with life’s setbacks: it is often the differ-
ence between being held hostage by doubt, and According to Csikszentmihalyi, it is the
moving forward despite doubt. But perhaps more self-transcendent feature of optimal experience
importantly, facing and overcoming challeng- that creates a more complex sense of self. When
es that cause us to question ourselves puts our we surpass previously held boundaries and
own lives in perspective. We recognize that we limitations not only do we see ourselves as more
are simply one part of a much larger whole and expansive—more capable of change—but we also
suddenly what seemed like large worries are no feel more connected to the world around us.
longer so important, and things that seemed
And this effect shows up in many forms. One
difficult now pale in comparison to what we have
study explored how “sacred moments” in ther-
accomplished. This is especially important when
apy are transformational not just in how people
it comes to facing setbacks, as a characteristic
take on challenges, but as vital ingredients for
quality of setbacks is that they feel overwhelm-
those grappling with adversity and distress.
ing. And this is perhaps one of the most import-
Professor of psychology and lead study re-
ant lessons flow teaches us about setbacks: when
searcher Dr. Ken Pargament explained, “Clients
we connect to something larger than ourselves,
may find that they have been fundamentally
suddenly our own challenges become much
transformed by the sacred moments they have
more manageable.
experienced in treatment.”
From Me to We: Why Self- Interestingly, sacred moments also appear to

Transcendence Matters be generative to therapists as well, providing
further evidence that self-transcendence is an
While the term transcendence describes experi-
interdependent process. As Pargament explains,
ences that are perceived to be set apart from the
“Moreover, these moments may be a resilience
resource that supports and sustains mental It is not surprising that, when we consider
health providers through the significant chal- the perspectives of others and reduce focus
lenges of mental health care.” on ourselves— i.e., feeling more “at one” with
those around us— we also feel less friction
The results of this study are supported by
toward them. What might be surprising, how-
research on the neuroscience behind self-tran-
ever, is that this effect shows up even in political
scendence. One recent study involving people
orientations.
with traumatic brain injury showed that par-
ticipants with more significant injury in their In three studies, researchers examined par-
right parietal lobe—the area most associated ticipants’ political views in relation to their
with self-orientation—showed an increased religiousness and spirituality. In the first study,
feeling of closeness to a higher power. Ac- they asked 590 American participants whether
cording to Brick Johnstone, who led the study, they identified as a Democrat or Republican.
“Neuropsychology researchers consistently In the second study, they measured 703 partici-
have shown that impairment on the right side pants’ political orientations and support for the
of the brain decreases one’s focus on the self. major American and Canadian political parties.
Since our research shows that people with this To confirm that religiousness was associated
impairment are more spiritual, this suggests with political conservatism, while spirituality
spiritual experiences are associated with a de- was associated with political liberalism, re-
creased focus on the self. This is consistent with searchers then recruited 317 participants from
many religious texts that suggest people should the U.S. and asked half to complete a spiritual
concentrate on the well-being of others rather exercise consisting of a guided meditation vid-
than on themselves.” eo. The researchers found that while meditating
led to increased feelings of spirituality, it also
These findings are consistent with research
led to more liberal political attitudes, including
done by Dr. Andrew Newberg, recognized as
reduced support for “tough on crime” policies
an authority on neuroimaging research, who
and a preference for liberal political candidates.
found that mystical experiences are associated
with alterations in the brain areas related to According to Jacob Hirsh, the study’s lead
spatial boundaries. Studying the reports of 777 author, “Spiritual experiences seem to make
individuals who had had mystical experiences, people feel more of a connection with others.
and using computational linguistic analysis, The boundaries we normally maintain between
Newberg and his team found that individuals ourselves and the world tend to dissolve during
who had had mystical experiences, as defined spiritual experiences. These feelings of self-tran-
by the Death Transcendence Scale, used more scendence make it easier to recognize that we
inclusive language, like “everything,” “with,” are all part of the same system, thus promoting
and “one-ness.” The same group also used less an inclusive and egalitarian mindset.”
religious language, like “Christ,” “religious,”
And this blurring of the boundaries doesn’t
“holy,” and “hell.”
just enhance connection, it also improves

234 | Unit 6
performance. One study revealed that simply and author of Bone Games, describing a flow
changing “I” to “we” in self-talk motivation- state while mountaineering: “The person I be-
al statements had a significant impact on an came…was the best possible version of myself,
individual’s—and thus a group’s—performance. the person I should have been throughout my
Eighty subjects were first randomly assigned to life. No regrets, no hesitation, there were no false
three different groups and then asked to com- moves left in me. I really believe I could have hit
plete a team-based dart-throwing activity. One a mosquito in the eye with a pine needle at thirty
group used self-talk statements focusing upon paces; I couldn’t miss because there was no such
one’s personal capabilities; another used state- thing as a miss. It didn’t matter whether I fell or
ments emphasizing the group’s capabilities; and not, because I couldn’t fall, any more than two
the third was a control group, where neutral plus two can equal three.”
statements were implemented. While previous
The transformational quality—moving from
research on motivation and optimal perfor-
the ordinary version to the extraordinary (or
mance has emphasized self-motivational state-
best) version of ourselves—that Schultheis
ments—we have all been told to rehearse the
describes can also be found in this account of a
words, “I can do it” at some point—the results
trauma survivor describing their post-traumatic
of this study showed something different: the
growth: “I can handle things better. Things that
individuals who performed the best were the
used to be big deals to me aren’t big deals any-
ones who focused on the group’s capabilities. By
more. Like big crisis problems, they will either
putting the group as a whole before themselves,
work out or they won’t. Whichever way it goes,
these people outperformed their self-motivated
you have to deal with it.”
counterparts. In the words of Deborah Feltz,
chairperson of Michigan State University’s As Tedeschi and Calhoun explain, post-trau-
Department of Kinesiology, “By focusing on the matic growth is characterized by a feeling of “if
team, you include yourself without putting the I can handle this, then I can handle anything,”
focus or extra pressure on yourself.” but also a clear shift in the way we see ourselves.
Having faced tremendous challenge—and
And while this study was focused on a sports
endured them—it is impossible to remain the
context, the results underscore something we
same. The challenge of major life trauma, like
know intuitively: by working as a team, we get
the challenge of scaling a ninety foot sheer rock
more from ourselves. It shouldn’t surprise us
wall, transforms us.
that connecting our own interests to those of
others would motivate us to work harder and But there is another element that ties optimal
perform better, but perhaps what should sur- experience and post-traumatic growth togeth-
prise us is that self-transcendence shows up er: the element of possibility. Where facing our
not just in optimal performance, but also in biggest challenges—whether in the state of flow
post-traumatic growth. or through post-traumatic growth—represents
the art of possibility, because making it through
Steven Kotler, quotes Rob Schultheis, adventurer
always involves an outcome we previously did
not think possible. In order to achieve our speaking about self-transcendence, the appro-
greatest accomplishments, we must recognize priate saying would be, “If you keep being the
our greatest strengths—strengths we perhaps same self, you will get the same results.”
did not realize we had, or did not think possi-
ble. But we must also see transformation, itself,
as a possibility. 1. Narcissism—as defined by too much self-fo-
cus—is associated with an increased risk of
In my first book, Leverage: The Science of Turn- anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compul-
ing Setbacks into Springboards, I cited the work sive disorder, as well as an exaggerated focus
of Carol Dweck, author of Mindset: The New on one’s weaknesses.
Psychology of Success, on the growth mindset 2. Self-transcendence—as defined by experi-
as it evidenced the need to see intelligence and encing ourselves in a way that is also beyond
ability as traits that are incremental in nature ordinary—doesn’t just help us surpass our
(not fixed), and therefore can be improved (or own limits, but allows us to see challenges
transformed) with effort in order to overcome in a new light as essential components of
growth.
failures and setbacks. I believe Dweck’s work
applies here as well. In order to develop the 3. Through self-transcendence, we can also
growth mindset that allows us to use challenges come to see our abilities as malleable, and
as opportunities for growth, we also have to see not fixed, and therefore they are able to be
improved through hard work and practice—
learning as an “active process,” and one where
what is known as a growth mindset.
we our abilities are not fixed—and neither is
our self-concept. While Dweck explains that a
Powerpoint: Flow Power Up Nine:
big part of our success stems from our beliefs
Immersion in the Activity
about what leads to success, the transformation-
al experience described in flow and post-trau- One of the defining characteristics of flow is the
matic growth stems from our beliefs about feeling of absolute absorption. Becoming lost in
ourselves. When we see ourselves as able to be what we are doing, a sense of time dilation, and
transformed by what challenges us the most, we complete and total focus are all common in the
open ourselves to our greatest possibility: the descriptions of people after optimal experience.
best possible version of ourselves. And flow is also an experience that captivates
our senses: many people report feeling, hear-
While Tedeschi and Calhoun might call it
ing, seeing, and experiencing proprioception
an increased sense of personal strength, and
(the sense of body parts in space) with greater
Csikszentmihalyi might call it self-transcen-
intensity. For that same reason, flow is often
dence, the result is the same: a change in the
compared to intense forms of meditation where
way we see ourselves. We often recount the
awareness and what Peter Levine, author of
well-known maxim, “If you keep doing the
Waking the Tiger: Healing Trauma, calls “felt
same thing, you will get the same results,”
sense” are heightened. This awareness of just
when referring to what we do, or perhaps when
how things feel—the motion of our arm as

236 | Unit 6
it swings the tennis racket, the feeling of our “At the time it happened, I thought it was the
fingers as they fly across the keyboard and the worst thing. I mean everything was gone in a
words spill out effortlessly, and the smell of the matter of minutes. My house was destroyed,
paint as it sets on the canvas in front of us—is my business was lost, and I lost the one thing
what attracts and holds our interest, making that mattered more than anything else, my
immersion (and flow) more likely. When we fiancé. I didn’t think there was any way I could
experience things in this way—with the entirety get through something like that, and even now
of our senses—we are also much less likely to when I look back, I still don’t know how I did
become distracted, and to interrupt the state it. But I do know that it made me stronger. In
of flow. Further, the experience itself becomes many ways, it made me realize how strong I
richer the more fully we experience it, and in a really was. But it also made me realize what
sort of upward cycle, the richer the experience, really mattered. The house, my business, all
the more likely we are to do it again. that material stuff didn’t really mean anything
to me. What really mattered was the people
So how do we become more fully immersed in
around me. And I’m grateful for that, because
something? The easiest way is to adopt a state
now I live my life differently.”
of mindfulness. Pay attention to the way you
experience things on a sensory level. Feel your The quote above is from a man who, in a matter
hands as they tighten on the reins of the horse. of hours had lost his fiancé, house, and busi-
Take in the feel of the water against your skin ness in a natural disaster. And while we would
as you dive into the ocean. Pay attention to the normally think such a constellation of tragedies
way your feet feel as they hit the ground and would leave us worse off after, he is describing
propel you across the ground. Visualize the being “made stronger” by them. His response
picture you are trying to create with your words is characteristic of something we now know as
as you write. Activating your senses in this way post-traumatic growth. As you will remember
not only deepens your experience, it pulls you from section one, post-traumatic growth is “the
more fully into it. And the deeper we go into an experience of positive change that occurs as a
experience, the greater the possibility we will result of the struggle with a highly challenging
find flow. life crisis,” (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004, p. 1).
And while we may be surprised to hear such an
Section Five: Turning Trials into account, perhaps we shouldn’t be. The idea that
adversity can lead to growth, after all, has deep
Triumphs: How Flow Helps Us
historical roots. As Neitzsche famously reminded
Face Setbacks us, “What doesn’t kill you, makes you stronger.”
The ultimate measure of a man is not where he
Tedeschi and Calhoun, who first described
stands in moments of comfort and convenience,
post-traumatic growth in 2004 in their seminal
but where he stands at times of challenge and
paper, Post-Traumatic Growth Conceptual Foun-
controversy. ~Martin Luther King Jr.
dations and Clinical Implications, however, go
much further than just to say that adversity leads feel more vulnerable than ever before, or that
to growth. They describe post-traumatic growth while they appreciate life more now, they also
as characterized by five separate domains: realize now, more than ever, how fragile it is.
This paradoxical quality causes the very shift in
1. A greater sense of appreciation for life in
general and the smaller aspects of it, along
thinking—the ability to see things from mul-
with a changed sense of what is important tiple perspectives—that leads to growth. It is
(often described as appreciating the “small when we can see that nothing is ever black and
moments” in life much more). This domain white that somehow we can find the good in
also manifests as a major change in our sense what seems like a total loss. But Tedeschi and
of priorities and how we conduct our daily Calhoun also report something very interesting
lives.
about post-traumatic growth, and it’s some-
2. Closer, more intimate, and meaningful rela- thing that, if we consider what we know about
tionships as embodied through an increased flow we might guess: the hardest challenges lead
sense of connection and compassion—espe-
to the greatest gains in growth. It is when our
cially for others’ who have faced similar fates.
physical and emotional capacities are stretched
3. An increased sense of personal strength to the maximum that our greatest strengths are
or recognition of previously undiscovered realized. Like pulling back the draw on a bow, if
strengths, along with the feelings that “if I
we want the arrow to go as far as it can, we have
can handle this, then I can handle anything.”
to draw the bow back as far as possible.
4. An openness to new possibilities and the
awareness that new and different life paths Just as we saw in section four that it is when we
are possible. are up against our biggest challenges that our
5. A greater connection and engagement with greatest strengths are realized, it is also through
spiritual and existential matters, as described flow that we fortify the strengths that catalyze
as feeling more connected to “something the very growth Tedeschi and Calhoun de-
larger” than the self. scribe: growth through adversity.
And post-traumatic growth does not mean
simply putting on rose-colored glasses—Tedes- Powerpoint: Flow Power Up
chi and Calhoun call this “illusory growth”—as Ten: Be Willing to Adapt Your
those who report it often also relate having Approach
distress symptoms along with feeling stronger. Flow is a state that depends on immediacy, both
Well aware of the downside of the struggles, in feedback and responses. When we receive
such as the losses endured and the pain life split-second information about how we are
can inject, these people embody the paradoxi- doing, we know instantly just how we need to
cal nature that Tedeschi and Calhoun explain adjust our approach. The closer we are to suc-
characterizes each domain of post-traumatic cess—e.g., in hitting the ball over the net ten
growth. While a person may say that they feel times in a row, writing the perfect essay, or cre-
stronger, they may also say that, at times, they ating our finest artistic masterpiece—the more

238 | Unit 6
flow fans the flames of mastery. And mastery is powerful link between adapting and happiness.
the lifeblood of motivation. When we feel that And because setbacks are characterized by their
we are getting better, surpassing limitations that unpredictable nature and bring with them tre-
previously held us back, the urge to continue mendous uncertainty, here is the lesson we can
becomes almost compulsive. And if we want to learn: When we adapt, as opposed to trying to
learn how to master things, there is no better control that which is unpredictable in nature, we
place to look than flow. In many ways, flow is are much happier.
the roadmap to mastery. In flow, we have all of
the crucial elements of mastery: a challenge that Advanced Technology: What Flow
is just above our skill level, immediate feedback, Offers
and the ability to adapt our approach. If we
remove any of these—the challenge is too high To better understand just how flow positions us
or too low, feedback is delayed, or we refuse to to face adversity, and as Nietzsche says, “be made
adapt our approach—mastery and flow will both stronger,” we first have to understand a little
take a nosedive. But perhaps one of the most about what is called epigenetics. Epigenetics is
compelling things about flow—and what this has the study of cellular and physiologic phenotypic
to do with facing setbacks—is that the feedback trait variations in the way genes are expressed.
we receive is not just immediate, it is unpredict- While the DNA structure of genes doesn’t
able. We don’t know exactly which serve will change, environmental factors—hence the prefix
go over the net, where our writing will take us, “epi”, which means outside of—can cause genes
or what movement of the brush will create the to either by switched on or switched off. These
painting we want, yet how we deal with this lack environmental factors affect how cells read
of predictability is key to finding flow and deal- genes, and thus the transcriptional potential of
ing with setbacks. Flow is an interactive and fluid a cell. If DNA is the hardware of the cell, epi-
state, and part of what makes flow so attractive genetics is the software. And this software—like
is its novelty—we are kept on our toes when we in any computer—affects what appears on the
don’t know what to expect. And because we don’t screen. For example, in one study, researchers
know what to expect, we must learn to adapt our found that by feeding mice a cocktail of vita-
approach to whatever feedback we receive. The mins they could change the color of their coats.
ball may fly high into the air, the novel may take Further evidence for epigenetics can be found
on a life of its own, and the wind may blow the through the Singleton twin studies. Through
sails wildly and send us off course—all things comparing monozygotic twins from different
we just have to adapt to. Exposure to unpredict- environmental conditions, researchers have been
ability like this is how we get better at adapting. able to separate out the effects of environmen-
As opposed to trying to foresee and avoid uncer- tal factors. While identical twins with different
tainty, we learn to adjust our approach, but more environmental exposures were epigenetically
importantly, because adjusting our approach is indistinguishable during their early years, in
what keeps us in flow, we learn that there is a later years, they showed remarkable differences
in the overall content and genomic distribution to grow up to be well-adjusted, well-educated,

of 5-methylcytosine DNA and histone acetyl- and productive individuals.”
ation—two of the most common markers of
epigenetic change (Moore, 2015). On the other The optimal conditions Dr. Bernstein describes
hand, twin pairs who had spent less of their aren’t confined to the environment we find
lifetime together and/or who had greater differ- ourselves in either. Instead, optimal conditions
ences in their medical histories were those who are highly related to the actions we take. For
showed the largest differences in their levels of example, in one study, participants were asked
5-methylcytosine DNA and in the acetylation to perform a one-legged cycling exercise for
of histones H3 and H (Fraga et al., 2005). While 45 minutes four times per week. After a three
these twins might have shared exactly the same month period, researchers then measured
DNA, the phenotypic expression of their genes methylation (the marker of epigenetic change)
was dramatically different. And these differences in 480,000 sites in the genome, along with
in phenotypic expression can have far reaching markers for skeletal muscle metabolism, and
implications. In one of the largest multidisci- the activity of over 20,000 genes. The results
plinary studies of brain and brain function, showed an epigenetic change in genes associat-
the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research ed with metabolism, skeletal muscle adaptation,
(CIFAR) collected 25 papers from areas such as carbohydrate metabolism, and even inflam-
molecular genetics, evolutionary biology, and mation (which showed a decreased amount of
neuroscience to social and behavioral science, methylation). It’s not surprising that exercising
epidemiology, and social policy, to better under- will make us stronger, improve our metabolism,
stand the interaction between experience and and decrease inflammation, but what is surpris-
environment. What emerged from this study ing is that this happens at the gene level. Far
was not just clear evidence that factors such as from the temporary changes we associate with
socioeconomic status affect the development activities that improve our well-being, epigene-
and function of brain regions that are critical for tic changes have long-lasting effects. And while
attention, learning, and memory, but that paren- physical exercise may be one way to combat a
tal influences affect the chemical, or ‘epigenetic’, diagnosis of underutilization—and avoid many
signals that control the activity of genes related of the “maladaptations” that Talleb describes—
to factors like learning and memory. For exam- the effects are far beyond just physical.
ple, adult animals that were licked more fre-
quently by their mothers had epigenetic signals One of the earliest and most recognized de-
that enhanced the activity of genes associated pictions of optimal experience is what we all
with learning and memory. According to CIFAR know as the “runner’s high.” While for many
President Dr. Alan Bernstein, “This research is years the term had little scientific backing–the
providing the scientific basis for public policy most popular theory was the “Endorphin Hy-
concerning the critical window to provide the pothesis”—recently scientists from the fields of
optimal conditions that will enable our children nuclear medicine, neurology, and anesthesia at

240 | Unit 6
the Technische Universität München (TUM) research group called Functional Imaging of
and the University of Bonn, both in Germany, Pain at TU Munich, adds: “Our evaluations show
looked more closely at just what happens in our that the more intensively the high is experienced,
brains during optimal experience. A group of the lower the binding of 18F FDPN was in the
athletes first had their brain scanned using an PET scan. And this means that the ratings of
imaging technique called positron emission euphoria and happiness correlated directly with
tomography (PET), and were then asked to run the release of the endorphins.” Also, the power-
for two hours, and then afterward they had their ful endorphin high we feel when running isn’t
brains rescanned. To detect endorphin response, simply a short-term response. Several studies
scientists used a radioactive substance called 18F have now validated the connection between
FDPN that binds to opiate receptors and com- long-term aerobic exercise and persistent benefi-
petes with endorphins. The idea is that the more cial epigenetic changes, such as improved stress
endorphins a person produces, the less binding coping, cognitive function, and neuronal activity
to opiate receptors will occur because the opiate (Denham et al., 2014; Ehlert et al., 2013). Spe-
receptors compete with endorphins. A high level cifically changes in the dentate gyrus, the brain
of endorphin released in the brain means there region associated with learning and coping with
will be less opiate receptors available, and thus stressful and traumatic events, has shown that
less binding occurs. By comparing the brain exercise doesn’t just give us a high, it gives us an
images before and after the two hours of run- incredible adaptive advantage—especially when
ning, the scientists were able to demonstrate a it comes to handling adversity.
significant increase in endorphins (as measured
through decreased opiate binding) after running. Perhaps the most fascinating thing about epi-
In the words of Professor Henning Boecker, who genetic changes is that they don’t just affect the
coordinated the research at TUM and who is way our genes express themselves, they affect
now in charge of the Functional Neuroimaging what we do. Acting as a form of feedback loop,
Group at the Dept. of Radiology, University Hos- the epigenetic changes that come as a result of
pital Bonn, “We could validate for the first time challenges lead us to subsequently choose more
an endorphin-driven runner’s high and identify challenging environments. Several studies have
the affected brain areas. It’s interesting to see noted that people with higher levels of cogni-
that the affected brain areas were preferentially tive functioning tend to choose environments
located in the prefrontal and limbic brain regions that also increase brain size. Similarly, people
which are known to play a key role in emotional who feel an endorphin response from running
processing. Moreover, we observed a significant are more likely to choose to go running again,
increase in the euphoria and happiness ratings thereby further increasing the epigenetic chang-
compared to the ratings before the running es. Another interesting finding showed that
exercise.” And these happiness and euphoria healthier women have an increased chance of
ratings were witnessed with lower levels of opiate delivering twins—considerably more challeng-
binding. Professor Thomas Tölle, who heads a ing than raising a single child—and when they
do, they live longer than their equally healthy multiple perspectives. Dialectical thinking
counterparts (Robson et al., 2011). counters rigid thinking and allows us to see that
nothing is ever black and white, but rather, every
Just as we saw in section three that experiencing situation can be examined from multiple angles.
adversity leads to psychological resources with This sort of dimensional thinking also gives way
which to deal with future adversity, such as to the very process orientation that learning—
reducing the tendency to catastrophize negative and the state of flow—demand. It is the ability to
events, the effect of flow on our brains is like interpret setbacks, mistakes, and missteps not as
an “epigenetic upgrade” that improves the very endpoints, but rather as part of the larger pro-
mechanisms we need to respond to adversity. cess of skill acquisition and refinement. Instead
When we enter the flow state, operating at the of construing setbacks as demarcations of our
peak of our physical and emotional limits, we character—that result in self-criticism, frustra-
develop the most powerful skill we have: the tion, and self-doubt—dialectical thinking helps
ability to face challenges. As we rise to the chal- us recraft them in less negative and more neutral
lenge, sharpen our focus, cultivate and refine ways. We are no longer held hostage by setbacks,
our strengths, and transcend our weaknesses, rather, we are informed and motivated by them,
we come to see challenges just as they are: an as they represent vital information about where
opportunity for growth. But even more impor- our skills lie and where practice is needed. Dia-
tantly, facing and mastering challenges acts like lectical thinking also helps us develop the very
a motivational magnet, attracting us to future cognitive flexibility needed in novel situations.
challenges, where we might again test ourselves Releasing us from trying tired approaches, seeing
and realize our strengths. Testing and expand- things from multiple perspectives helps us adapt
ing our capacities in this way creates a clear and to changing circumstances that require differ-
formidable neurochemical response that isn’t ent thinking, and different action (perhaps even
just rewarding—it’s adaptive. opposite of what we were doing).
And yet when challenges come in the version The reason dialectical thinking matters when
that we don’t choose—the unexpected and trau- trying to find flow is that it improves our ability
matic kind—flow offers a potent resource there to approach situations that might lead to flow.
as well. As you will see in the next section, the These situations—ripe with challenges—often
state of flow can move us from helplessness to cast a glow of self-doubt upon us. We may make
empowerment. a mistake, we may embarrass ourselves, and
ultimately we may not succeed. Yet it is through
Powerpoint: Flow Power dialectical thinking that we are able to put any
Up Eleven: Use Dialectical potential setbacks—and any resulting self-doubt
(Paradoxical) Thinking that occurs—into perspective and to try anyway.
Not surprisingly, then, it is also dialectical think-
Dialectical thinking, also known as paradox- ing that keeps us trying. It is through finding the
ical thinking, is the ability to see things from small successes that represent the incremental

242 | Unit 6
nature of learning that we are motivated to experimenting, he was hoping to uncover the
continue trying. And it is also through dialec- then elusive etiology of depression. By placing
tical thinking that we come to understand that dogs in a condition similar to what a depressed
improving our skills—just like growth—consists person might feel—to replicate this, they were
of both positives and negatives. While we may placed in harnesses and then delivered an ines-
be improving one skill, another may be suffer- capable shock—and then placing the same dogs
ing. However, it is through perseverance in the in a situation where escape was possible, Selig-
process that we not only improve our skills, but man hoped to be able to better understand why
we move closer to the state of flow. some depressed people seemed to resist efforts
to get better—even when the solution is right in
So how do we develop dialectical thinking? The
front of them. As a control, Seligman put some
best way is to practice seeing things from mul-
dogs in the harnesses, and then delivered no
tiple perspectives. Take a look at every situation
shock, these comprised Group One. Group Two
in your life that you would consider negative
dogs were placed in the harnesses and delivered
for you and find something positive about it.
a shock which they could escape by placing a
Ask yourself: What can I learn from this situ-
lever. Group Three dogs, however, were yoked
ation? What strength or skill could I improve
to Group Two dogs, and when a Group Two dog
that would help me here? What can I learn to
got a shock, so did a Group Three dog. The only
appreciate as a result of this? You can also prac-
difference was that Group Three dogs’ lever
tice seeing people as both positive and negative.
didn’t stop the shock. For these dogs, the shocks
With very few exceptions, every person has
seemed to both occur at random and cease at
both good and bad qualities. For each person
random, and nothing they did had any bearing
that gets under your skin, ask yourself: What is
on control over the situation. For Group Three
a positive about this person? What is one qual-
dogs, the shock was thus “inescapable.”
ity I can find about them? When you can learn
to see things from multiple perspectives, not The second part of Seligman’s experiment
only does your thinking become much more revealed something that continues to shape our
flexible (which is crucial for adapting to chang- understanding of psychology today. After plac-
ing circumstances and setbacks), but you can ing all three groups of dogs in the harnesses,
learn to persevere through any setbacks long Seligman then placed them in what is known as
enough to find one particular gem that flow a shuttle box—a cage separated by a barrier that
offers: that you might just overcome what you the dogs could jump over. While the floor of the
didn’t realize you could. cage delivered a powerful shock to the dogs, they
could quickly jump over the barrier to escape it
From Helplessness to should they choose to do so. However, what Se-
Empowerment ligman found was that not all of the dogs chose
the escape. The dogs in Group Three—who had
When Martin Seligman, now recognized as experienced the inescapable shock condition—
the father of positive psychology, first began urinated, whined, and lay down. Immobilized
in the face of the shock, these dogs choose not to While feeling in control, people in flow also rec-
even attempt to escape it. ognize their complete lack of control over every-
thing around them. Interestingly, gains in flow
Seligman went on to develop the theory fur-
come just like gains in post-traumatic growth:
ther, ultimately calling it “learned helplessness,”
they are paradoxical in nature. By letting go of
which he described as a psychological condi-
the attempt to control the environment, we can
tion in which a human being or an animal has
gain greater control over our own actions, by
learned to act or behave helplessly in a par-
facing our greatest risks, we realize our greatest
ticular situation—usually after experiencing
strengths, and time seems to both expand (going
some inability to avoid an adverse situation,
on forever) and contract (standing still).
even when it actually has the power to change
its unpleasant or even harmful circumstance. By realizing the paradoxical nature of growth,
Seligman’s experiments were later replicated we also come to realize something that is a
in several studies—with different animals, and tremendous asset in the face of setbacks: di-
with similar results. And in every single case, the alectical thinking. Described as the ability to
strongest predictor of a depressive response was a see things from multiple perspectives, dialec-
lack of control over the aversive stimulus. tical thinking is how we find opportunities
for growth amidst what seems like a hopeless
If this sounds familiar, it should. As you will
situation. It is how we see the possibility dis-
remember from section three—it is through
guised in every adversity, and it is how we find
flow that we learn to feel in control of our lives.
the creativity necessary for the novel solutions
People describing flow consistently report the
that adversity demands. But perhaps most im-
feeling of complete control over their actions.
portantly, dialectical thinking is how we resolve
They describe their actions as effortless and
the many contradictions that setbacks face
seeming to occur in perfect harmony. And yet
us with. Especially when setbacks shatter our
they are facing tremendous challenge at the
very reality, we are confronted with one very
time—in fact, their strengths and skills are
powerful contradiction: they aren’t supposed to
stretched to their capacities. But their strengths
happen. We don’t ever plan on discovering our
also perfectly align with the challenge in front
spouse has been having an affair, or on losing
of them—you will remember that this is called
loved ones, or having a horrible car accident,
the “flow channel”—and as they meet the chal-
but when these things happen, we must face
lenge, what they learn is that their actions affect
them, and more importantly, we must face the
the outcome. And connecting effort to outcome,
reality, that what we believed—that people are
you will remember from section four, is the
supposed to be honest, that loved ones should
cornerstone of developing a “growth mindset”:
not perish before their time, and that driving
one that tries harder after setbacks.
on the freeway is safe—is no longer true.
And yet, people in flow also report something
And how we resolve these contradictions
that smacks of the paradoxical nature seen in
is through seeing things from multiple
each of the domains of post-traumatic growth.

244 | Unit 6
perspectives. The world is safe and unsafe, life that allows us to escape learned helplessness
is precious and fleeting, and all people have in the face of what seems like insurmountable
good and bad qualities. But what we also come odds, but we also come to realize that growth
to see is that, when what we believed no longer depends on one sole factor: our ability to try
applies, or when what we were doing no longer harder, even when success seems impossible.
works, the only thing to do is to adapt our
response. Tim Harford, the author of Adapt:
Why Success Always Starts With Failure, draws 1. Flow and post-traumatic growth share a
on historical data from successful businesses common domain: growth through adversity.
to make the point that success in business is 2. Flow is associated with positive epigenetic
like success in evolution: it follows no pattern. changes: persistent changes in the way our
What does determine success though is the genes express themselves, such as such as
ability to adapt to a changing and unpredict- improved stress coping, cognitive function,
able environment. As Harford points out, and neuronal activity.
some of the greatest innovations come from 3. Epigenetic changes exist in a positive feed-
what Taleb calls “positive black swans.” While back loop, meaning that the more we
these innovation projects, Harford argues, do overcome challenges, the more we seek out
those environments that offer us challenge.
not have a known payoff or a fixed probabil-
ity—in fact, no one ever really knows what 4. While people in flow report increased feel-
ideas will work or even why—they cannot be ings of control over their lives, growth is also
predicted or planned. For this reason, their experienced as paradoxical—that is, through
letting go of the attempt to control the en-
very existence depends upon our ability to
vironment, we gain greater control over our
vary our approach, even trying the opposite of own actions, and by facing our greatest risks,
what we might think will work, in the service we realize our greatest strengths, and time
of research and development. By being able seems to both expand (going on forever)
to see things from multiple perspectives, we and contract (standing still).
become open to trying new approaches, which
is a fundamental component of post-traumat- Powerpoint: Flow Power Up
ic growth. In fact the trait of openness along Twelve: A Sense of Control
with extraversion are the two traits most close-
A sense of control is not just one of the six
ly associated with post-traumatic growth.
factors that define flow, but is also a crucial part
In flow and in adversity, we face our greatest of coping with setbacks. When control levels
challenges. Challenges that come with all of the are high, we feel a sense of personal agency—a
possibility of high risk and complete failure. But belief in our ability to impact the world around
it is these challenges that require our absolute us—and we no longer feel at the mercy of the
all that also pay dividends unlike any other. events around us, but instead, we experience
Not just do we come to realize the very control outcome as directly dependent on our actions.
Empowerment—as opposed to helplessness— Section Six: A New Normal:

and flow are both characterized by a sense of
How Optimal Experience
control. And this is important information
because flow comes with challenge. If we feel
Transforms Our Lives
helpless in the face of challenges, we will never Don’t ask what the world needs. Ask what makes
set the meter high enough to find flow, and more you come alive. Because what the world needs
importantly, to experience its benefits. As you most is people who have come alive. ~Howard
will remember from section three, one outcome Thurman
of flow is an increased sense of control, but to get
Flow transforms ordinary into optimal in
there, we must first have enough sense of control
ways that many have never before imagined.
to take on the challenges that flow requires.
As awareness becomes finely tuned to avoid
So how do we increase our sense of control? external distractions and internal criticisms,
The answer is to focus on what you have strengths are refined and mastered, and weak-
control over: your actions, your effort, your nesses are transcended, and performance soars
responses, and to let go of what you have no to epic levels. Setbacks become challenges
control over: the environment, other people, uniquely presented to invite growth and to fur-
and external factors. Pay attention to what you ther refine skills. No longer is life something to
do in response to the things around you, and be endured, rather, it is something to be experi-
what happens to you. Ask yourself: What skills enced—at the highest levels.
do I have and how am I applying them? What
are my strengths and how are they being used? Flow is the Basis of Extraordinary
Am I trying as hard as I can or can I try hard- Feats
er? Am I focusing 100 percent on what is in
In his book Flow, Csikszentmihalyi writes,
my control and truly letting go of any attempt
“However unimportant an athletic goal may
to control anything but myself? Tuning in to
appear to the outsider, it becomes a serious
yourself and how you respond not only makes
affair when performed with the intent of
you more aware of what you are doing, but
demonstrating perfection of a skill.” Flow asks
helps you better gauge your skills and estimate
us to rise to the challenge of recognizing our
the types of challenges you should be taking
greatest capacities, be they athletic, artistic, or
on. Getting the flow equation right, after all, is
scholarly in nature. And the true joy of flow lies
all about getting the challenge ratio right, i.e.,
in surpassing our limits. We don’t have to be
just slightly over your skill level. To get there,
imbued with Olympian talents or skills either.
you not only have to know your skills, but you
We simply have to set a goal where our percep-
also have to know just what you have control
tion of our abilities meets our perception of the
over, and what you don’t. And this is the par-
challenge, find ways to measure our progress,
adox of flow: by letting go of what you don’t
then immerse ourselves in the task, and raise
control, you gain control of what you do.
the stakes if we become bored. An activity as

246 | Unit 6
simple as cleaning the garage can be turned who began her research on visual perception
into an extraordinary feat if we are so inclined. and cortical activation patterns, demonstrated
support for this. Dr. Hamilton asked subjects
Because unlike other tasks that require our
who did and did not report high levels of flow
skills, flow is a precipice state: one where the
experiences to pay attention to flashes of lights
tenuous balance depends on the refinement of
or tones, while she measured their cortical
our skills. If we fall below the level of challenge
activation in response to the stimuli. Whereas
required, we become bored, and if we set the
cortical activation of the subjects who reported
challenge meter too high, we are overwhelmed.
lower levels of flow increased when responding
It is the relationship to challenge that creates
to the stimuli as expected, cortical activation of
the extraordinary.
the subjects who reported higher levels of flow
In the state of flow, we don’t just recognize and decreased when concentrating on the stimuli.
meet challenges, we develop a fascination with While concentrating usually demands more of
them. People in flow consistently report being so our energy, when in flow, the opposite is true: it
enthralled in the challenge that it leads to a state takes less effort to pay attention.
of euphoria, much like religious ecstasy. Kotler
This effortless, euphoric state is consistent-
recounts the experience of Danny Way, consid-
ly reported when two very important factors
ered by many to be the greatest skateboarder
coalesce: when we recognize our limits and
of all time, and the first man to jump the Great
when we face challenges that demand that we
Wall of China on a skateboard: “Skateboarding is
surpass them. This state, according to Csiksz-
a game of failure. That’s what makes this sport so
entmihalyi, is so intoxicating because it is the
different. Skaters are willing to take a great deal
highest form of mastery, namely, mastery over
of physical punishment. We’ll try something
the self. This is also what philosophers Heideg-
endlessly, weeks on end, painful failure after
ger, Satre, and Merleau-Ponty called the project,
painful failure. But for me, when it finally snaps
which is the term for goal-directed actions that
together, when I’m really pushing the edge and
provide shape and meaning to our lives. We
skating beyond my abilities, there’s a zone I get
are, in many ways, our own project, and gain-
into. Everything goes silent. Time slows down.
ing control of our inner experience in this way
My peripheral vision fades away. It’s the most
means that we are no longer a bystander to our
peaceful state of mind I’ve ever known. I’ll take
experience but are an active participant, deter-
all the failures. As long as I know that feeling is
mining the content of our own lives. And it is
coming, that’s enough to keep going.”
here that we become mesmerized not just with
It is only by pushing through our failures that the challenges we face, but the possibility they
we also push through our limits. And in the offer, i.e., the chance to achieve something we
state of flow—when we are enthralled with the never before thought possible.
expectation that we can reach levels of per-
Realizing you can jump the Great Wall on
formance not achieved before—then pushing
a skateboard is quite likely to get your heart
oneself becomes automatic. Dr. Jean Hamilton,
beating, yet there is a very compelling neuro- the first area of the brain to become activated.
physiological explanation for just why the state However, activation of the PAG also depends
of flow makes us feel so good. In a randomized, on the number of dopamine neurons the PAG
controlled study of 6,807 subjects, researchers has—the less dopamine neurons are available
from the University of Georgia demonstrated to detect pain, the less pain we feel. And when
that, after performing an exercise program that we run, the number of dopamine neurons in
challenged them, marked increases in the levels the periaqueductal gray (PAG) decreases, which
of energy-promoting and mood-enhancing might explain why running makes us feel so
neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, norepi- good, namely because we feel less pain.
nephrine, and serotonin, were found in the
If this sounds like an epigenetic effect, it should.
brains of the test subjects. And this is a very
(Remember from section five that epigenetic
consistent effect—as one researcher noted, “It
changes lead to phenotypic changes in the way
has been demonstrated in more than ninety
genes are expressed.) The difference between a
percent of similar studies”—with a very power-
drug-induced euphoria and the one we feel when
ful outcome: reduced fatigue. The act of devel-
in the state of flow is that a drug high is tempo-
oping and cultivating our skills to overcome
rary, and often with a nasty comedown. Flow, on
challenges, in fact, was demonstrated to be a
the other hand, causes long-lasting neurological
stronger deterrent of fatigue than the narcolep-
changes that lead to enduring changes in our
sy drug modafinil (O’Connor, et al., 2006).
mood, perception of pain, concentration, focus,
While many have compared the euphoric state and mastery. It is this upward spiral (which is
we feel when in flow with a drug high, it may also known as helical growth) that flow enables
be even more powerful. Multiple studies have to put our mastery into overdrive. And the
shown that both running and drug use acti- potent euphoric cocktail that flow offers is the
vate the brain’s reward system, yet a 2013 study recipe for realizing our greatest potential.
demonstrated that rats given access to running
It has been said many times that it is better to
wheels showed a reduction in drug-seeking
teach a man how to fish than to give him a fish.
behavior, meaning that they were less likely
Flow teaches us how to fish. And when it comes
to press a lever to request a dose of metham-
to extraordinary feats, flow teaches us that we
phetamine after the drug had been withdrawn
just might catch some pretty big fish.
(Boeker et al., 2008). Looking further into
just why running—which results in muscle
fatigue (and arguably pain induced by muscle Powerpoint: Flow Power Up
fatigue)—would be preferable to a drug that Thirteen: Focus On the Process
could produce just the opposite—a pain-free
Not the Outcome
state—researchers found their answer in the While many things in our society are fo-
neurons of the brain. The periaqueductal gray cused on the outcome—salaries, promotions,
(PAG) is a small area of the brain associated competitions, sales figures to name just a few
with pain sensing, and when we feel pain, it is

248 | Unit 6
examples—flow is not one of them. Flow is a for example, pay close attention to how the
state that depends on immersion in the pro- ball flies when you hit it, how you are holding
cess of taking on challenges, testing our skills the racket and the effect it has on your swing,
against them, and ultimately discovering new your footwork as you run across court. Then,
capacities and unlocking new talents. If we pay attention to how your opponent uses their
become too focused on the outcome of win- racket, the types of balls they are likely to hit,
ning or losing, not only do we suffocate the and the small nuances in their play that help
process of immersion—and flow—but we also you decipher their game. Studying what we are
open the door for self-criticism. Instead, it is doing also draws us into the process, making
better to focus on the process, which means immersion more likely. Further, as we let go
doing something with the purpose of learn- of any attachment to an outcome, we are free
ing. As we read the plays, we can test our skills to play without fear of making errors, taking
against them, adapting where necessary and a risk, or making mistakes. Our play becomes
using the results—whether they come as smalls more automatic and less cognitive, which you
wins or failures—as information that helps us might remember from section one is a hallmark
better understand the process. For those with of flow, where the cognitive mind (prefrontal
a process orientation, winning or losing is cortex) is surprisingly quiet.
secondary to learning. On the other hand, for
those with an outcome orientation, the focus Flow is a Neurochemical Vitamin
is on the outcome of winning (or getting the
promotion, raise, etc.), and instead of using any You don’t have to jump a skateboard over the
setbacks as information, they become fodder for Great Wall of China, surf a wave the size of a
self-criticism, doubt, and anxiety. As you will three story house, or climb Half Dome without
remember from section one, flow is a state that a rope to realize flow’s benefits. While flow is
utilizes a balance of right- and left-brain activi- the gateway to extraordinary feats such as these
ty to take in information, create visual pictures, (Kotler describes many more), we can all ex-
and process responses. Conversely, an outcome perience flow by challenging ourselves to push
orientation is highly left-brain dominant, ripe our limits—in whatever form they arise. And
with anticipation, performance anxiety, and when we do, the neurochemical dividends are
self-criticism. And as flow is a state where the bountiful.
self-conscious is quiet, too much left-brain
dominance—and the resulting self-criticism— Flow Boosts Immunity
immediately pulls us out of flow. Further, it When Martin Seligman first discovered learned
interrupts our progress. helplessness, he unveiled something that lies at
So how do we adopt a process orientation? The the core of well-being: a sense of control over
best way I have found is to begin with a goal of your fate. When we are exposed to stress, it is
learning and in doing so, to study what we are not the type or even the intensity of the stress
doing. If you are learning how to play tennis, that matters, it is our ability (or perception
of our ability) to do something about it that produced in the immune cells, it appears to act
determines how we respond. What Seligman on its own receptors in those same cells. Thus,
didn’t expect to find was that a sense of con- not only do immune cells produce dopamine
trol—which is a characterological feature of when it is needed to fight off infection, but the
the state of flow—has powerful immune bene- dopamine then acts to preserve the cells them-
fits. When many of the animals in his original selves. Istvan Berczi and Toshihiko Katafuchi,
learned helplessness study that had been in the Editors-in-Chief of Advances in Neuroimmune
“inescapable” condition developed mysteri- Biology, suggest that the reason why a central
ous illnesses, with some even refusing to eat, nervous system mediator, such as dopamine,
Seligman became curious as to why. Later, he would be produced locally (i.e., by the immune
designed an experiment to see just how power- cells themselves) is to maintain tissue viability in
ful the connection between mastery and phys- emergency situations. Dopamine, according to
ical health is, whereby he implanted a tumor Berczi and Katafuchi, is “the key to healing and
with a fifty percent lethality rate into mice and recovery.” And surprisingly, dopamine might
then divided them into one of three groups. also be the key to resurrection. The science of
The first group were exposed to shock, but cryobiology, which deals with the medical appli-
were able to escape the shock (escapable), the cation of hypothermia and freezing as a ways of
second group was yoked to the first, meaning preserving cells, owe its existence to dopamine’s
they experienced the same shocks as the first ability to preserve tissue viability and reactivity
group but escape came at random (inescapable), beyond clinical death or under proper culture
and the third group had no shock (control). conditions (Berczi & Katafuchi, 2012).
Then, Seligman waited to see which groups of
Having a sense of control matters, not just
mice survived. As expected, fifty percent of the
because it is a central feature of optimal expe-
control group mice died. But for the mice in the
rience, but because it is laden with powerful
inescapable and escapable groups, the numbers
immune benefits. Dopamine produced in the
were dramatically different: three-quarters of
state of flow is more than just psychologically
the mice in the inescapable group died, but only
rewarding, it is the cornerstone of physical heal-
twenty-five percent of the mice in the escapable
ing and recovery.
group died. Clearly, having a sense of control
matters, and comes with dramatic immune
benefits. And the reason it does might have Optimal Experience Reduces
something to do with dopamine. Addictions
A recent study performed at the Hungarian If we want to understand just how the brain’s
Academy of Science demonstrated that dopa- reward system works—and how dopamine
mine can be synthesized not only in neurons, affects us—there is no better place to look than
but also in immune cells that respond to infec- to addictions. All addictions are driven by a
tion or malignancy. Even more fascinating was neurochemical reward. Eating chocolate cake,
that researchers found that when dopamine is working out, having sex, and winning money are

250 | Unit 6
all ways we can stimulate our reward circuitry in consumed alcohol for almost a year had lower
the brain. And the reason these things (among levels of dopamine in their brain reward system
many others) can become addictive is that when than rats that had never consumed alcohol. But
the pleasurable effects of a reward are associated the problem is, when dopamine levels are low,
with an activity, we want to do it more. we get the opposite of euphoria, i.e., malaise
and depression. And as many alcoholics would
The problem with drug-induced rewards is that
attest, feeling blue is a great reason to pick up
they don’t just link a reward to a behavior, they
the bottle. The problem is, once we start picking
change the way our brain processes the reward.
up the bottle, more alcohol is needed each time
While previous research has shown that dopa-
to get the same reward, and eventually, to attain
mine cells in the reward system send signals in
a state of physical and emotional normality,
cooperation with glutamate—called co-signal-
addiction sets in.
ing—researchers at Uppsala University in Swe-
den recently demonstrated that mice who had But lower levels of dopamine also affect some-
become addicted to sugar and cocaine not only thing else that many believe lies at the heart of
showed lower levels of co-signaling, but also addiction: the ability to control impulses. And
lower levels of dopamine. And these changes in yet the process can be turned around in exactly
genetic expressions in the reward system came the same way it starts: by producing more dopa-
with detrimental effects: when dopamine levels mine. Researchers from the Karolinska Institute
dropped, the mice consumed more cocaine, and separated alcohol-addicted participants into two
they also showed dramatic improvements in the groups and then gave one group OSU6162 (a
memory of environments associated with their chemical suspected to raise dopamine levels) and
ingestion of drugs. In a sort of downward spi- the other group a placebo for one week. Then,
ral, when we try to induce the feel good rewards both groups were exposed to situations associat-
associated with dopamine artificially, not only ed with a craving for alcohol. They fund that not
do we shut off the body’s natural production only did the OSU6162 group report less craving
(and signaling) of it, but the less dopamine we for alcohol after drinking one glass of an alcohol-
produce, and the more we depend on drugs to ic beverage, but also reported enjoying the first
create the same euphoric high. sip of alcohol less. The most interesting finding,
however, was that those with the poorest im-
This is another example of epigenetic changes—
pulse control were those with the most dramatic
only this time with a negative outcome. While
response to OSU6162. Pia Steensland, Ph.D.,
the short-term effect of alcohol is an increase in
associate professor at the Department of Clini-
dopamine, creating a pleasant euphoric sen-
cal Neuroscience, who led the study concluded,
sation, the more alcohol we drink, the more
“We think that OSU6162 can reduce the alcohol
the reward system becomes desensitized, and
craving in dependent people by returning the
the less dopamine is released. One study of
downregulated levels of dopamine in their brain
rats published in the scientific journal Addic-
reward system to normal.”
tion Biology showed that rats that voluntarily
The results of this study were supported by the Obesity has been demonstrated to act on the
work of researchers from Baylor College of Medi- same brain reward system as drugs, and some
cine in Texas who studied mice that were admin- studies have shown that sugar is just as addic-
istered nicotine for several weeks. The research- tive as cocaine. And while previous research
ers then withheld the nicotine and measured the has focused on the metabolic impact of certain
subsequent alterations in dopamine signaling foods—exploring the difference between eat-
during the withdrawal period. What they found ing fats, proteins, or carbohydrates—looking
was that withdrawal from nicotine produced at obesity as an addictive problem means not
a deficit in the baseline levels of dopamine— just that the foods we eat may have a different
known as the tonic dopamine concentration— metabolic impact, but that they have a different
which was disproportionately lower than dopa- reward value. Just as we don’t associate mop-
mine levels after exposure to nicotine—known as ping the kitchen floor with a reward, we don’t
the phasic release of dopamine. While nicotine consider eating broccoli particularly reward-
ingestion heightened dopamine concentration ing. The problem is that the dopamine reward
in the moment, the long-term effect was a lower system is a very powerful motivator of behavior,
baseline level of dopamine. Dr. John Krystal, ed- especially when it comes to what we eat.
itor of Biological Psychiatry, commented on the
One study conducted by the Department of
study, “This study is an elegant example of yet
Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
another way that addiction ‘hijacks’ the reward
at Tufts University School of Medicine and the
system. This disturbance of dopamine function
Tufts Center for Neuroscience Research (CNR)
would, conceivably, make it that much harder to
measured electrically evoked dopamine syn-
avoid seeking drugs of abuse.”
thesis and release obesity-prone— i.e., those
What studies like this should tell us is that that consumed more food and were 20 percent
there is no way to hack flow. We cannot replace heavier than normal—and obesity-resistant
the euphoric high that we get by calling upon rats. What the researchers found was that the
our strengths in the service of realizing our heavier rats had dopamine levels a whopping 50
potential and arriving at our best version of percent lower than their normal weight coun-
ourselves. And when we try to, what we get is terparts, and these effects were immediately
the opposite of the epigenetic changes we see evident after birth.
in flow, namely a downward spiral fueled by a
Studies like this give us a window into just what
downregulated dopamine system.
happens with obesity: If some people suffer
from chronic low levels of dopamine, eating,
Optimal Experience Staves Off
which raises dopamine levels, may simply be a
Obesity
compensatory attempt to raise the baseline do-
If optimal experience can help avert drug ad- pamine levels to normal. But the problem might
dictions, it shouldn’t be surprising that it can be even more complicated. Decreased food
also have a very powerful effect against obesity. intake, even when we are at normal weight,

252 | Unit 6
leads to decreased dopamine levels. And when way. It may not be just that obese people start
dopamine levels get really low, food cravings go with lower levels of dopamine, but their eating a
through the roof. For the person who already high fat diet may artificially lower them. By ex-
has a low baseline level of dopamine, trying to amining the “real-time” changes in dopamine
go on a diet may only make that chocolate cake levels after rats consumed a high fat diet for
all the more appealing. either 2 or 6 weeks, researchers from the Uni-
versity of Illinois found that, compared to rats
But the problem gets even worse. Obese people
consuming a standard low-fat diet, high-fat-diet
may not just have less dopamine, but also less
rats exhibited reduced dopamine release and
receptors for dopamine, meaning they get less
also a reduced reuptake by dopamine trans-
bang for their buck. So even when they do eat
porters within the brain.
that chocolate cake, the reward may not be as
great as for someone with a normal level of do- Whether we start with lower levels of dopa-
pamine receptors, and further they may not feel mine, or we cause dopamine levels to drop
the same level of satiation. And the reason they by eating high-fat food, the conclusion is the
have less dopamine receptors may have some- same: low levels of dopamine are a major risk
thing to do with epigenetics. As Brenda Geiger, factor for obesity. And it is here that flow may
author and graduate student in the Pharmacol- hold the most promise. Because, unlike eating
ogy and Experimental Therapeutics department a chocolate bar which makes us feel good in the
at TUSM, explained “Our molecular analysis moment, flow raises the baseline levels of dopa-
suggests that the central dopamine deficits are mine, which is one of the most powerful ways
most likely caused by a reduced expression of to stop cravings. When life experiences bring
the genes encoding two proteins, one that is us rewards we desire in the form of optimal
involved in dopamine synthesis, and another experiences, we no longer look for them in the
that is a transporter responsible for packaging foods we eat.
dopamine into vesicles from which it is later
released upon stimulation.” Powerpoint: Flow Power Up
Fourteen: Be Willing to Adapt
Just as drinking more causes a temporary rise
Your Approach
in dopamine but lower baseline levels, eating
to obesity may make us feel better in the mo- Flow is a state that depends on immediacy, both
ment, but the effect has diminishing rewards, in feedback and responses. When we receive
and long-lasting detrimental effects. When we split-second information about how we are
are obese, we have to eat more to get the same doing, we know instantly just how we need to
pleasurable reward from food, and obesity itself adjust our approach. The closer we are to suc-
changes the way our brain processes dopa- cess—in hitting the ball over the net ten times
mine—putting us in a state of chronic dopa- in a row, writing the perfect essay, or creating
mine deficiency. our finest artistic masterpiece—the more flow
fans the flames of mastery. And mastery, as
But we can also look at the problem another
we know, is the lifeblood of motivation. When we learn that there is a powerful link between
we feel that we are getting better, surpassing adapting and happiness. And because setbacks
limitations that previously held us back, the are characterized by their unpredictable nature
urge to continue becomes almost compulsive. and bring with them tremendous uncertainty,
And if we want to learn how to master things, here is the lesson we can learn: When we adapt,
there is no better place to look than flow. In as opposed to trying to control that which is
many ways, flow is the roadmap to mastery. unpredictable in nature, we are much happier.
In flow, we have all of the crucial elements of
mastery: a challenge that is just above our skill Flow Offsets ADHD
level, immediate feedback, and the ability to
adapt our approach. If we remove any of these, While we know flow harnesses our attention,
or the challenge is too high or too low, feedback it shouldn’t be surprising that when we don’t
is delayed, or we refuse to adapt our approach, spend enough time there, we are prone to
mastery and flow will both take a nosedive. attentional disorders, like ADHD. ADHD is
But perhaps one of the most compelling things commonly understood as a difficulty sustaining
about flow—and what it has to do with facing attention, disregarding irrelevant stimuli, orga-
setbacks—is that the feedback we receive is not nizing information toward goal-directed be-
just immediate, it is unpredictable. We don’t havior, and in many cases, reduced motivation.
know exactly which serve will go over the net, Looking to understand just how dopamine af-
where our writing muse will lie, or what move- fects ADHD, Nora Volkow, Director of the Na-
ment of the brush will create the painting we tional Institute on Drug Abuse and Gene-Jack
want, yet how we deal with this lack of predict- Wang, Brookhaven’s medical department chair,
ability is a key to finding flow and dealing with used positron emission tomography (PET) to
setbacks. Flow is an interactive and fluid state, measure two markers of the dopamine system:
and part of what makes flow so attractive is its dopamine receptors, to which the chemical
novelty: we are kept on our toes when we don’t messenger binds to propagate the “reward”
know what to expect. And because we don’t signal, and dopamine transporters, which take
know what to expect, we must learn to adapt up and recycle excess dopamine after the signal
our approach to whatever feedback we receive. is sent, in 53 adult ADHD patients who had
The ball may fly high into the air, the novel never received treatment and 44 healthy control
may take on a life of its own, and the wind may subjects who had been carefully screened to
blow the sails wildly and send us off course: all eliminate potentially confounding variables.
things we will have to adapt to. Exposure to The results showed something interesting: it
unpredictability like this is how we get better wasn’t just that ADHD patients had lower levels
at adapting. As opposed to trying to foresee of dopamine receptors and transporters, it was
and avoid uncertainty, we learn to adjust our that they showed up in the accumbens and
approach, but more importantly, because ad- midbrain: two key regions of the brain directly
justing our approach is what keeps us in flow, involved in processing motivation and reward.

254 | Unit 6
And when these deficits showed up, participants medication for ADHD. As adults, these same
exhibited all of the classic symptoms of ADHD. children reported higher levels of life satisfac-
According to Nora Volkow, “These deficits in tion, enjoyed their work more, and had better
the brain’s reward system may help explain relationships. At this point, the reason should
the clinical symptoms of ADHD, including be obvious: optimal experience is not only a
inattention and reduced motivation, as well as gateway to a better life, but is the most powerful
the propensity for complications, such as drug protection we have against the many factors
abuse and obesity among ADHD patients. Our that hinder it.
findings imply that deficits in the dopamine
reward pathway play a role in the symptoms of Flow Enhances Motivation
inattention in ADHD and could underlie these
patients’ abnormal responses to reward.” Whether we are looking to hike Mt. Everest,
surf a twenty foot wave, hit a Megaramp on a
“Abnormal responses to reward” here rep- skateboard—all admirable feats—or simply to
resents a clinical term for poor attention, im- avoid addiction, what we need is motivation.
pulse control problems, addictions, and proba- And when it comes to action, dopamine is a
bly obesity. Or simply a form of compensation. premium fuel. Not only does dopamine fuel our
As Wang says: “Patients who abuse drugs or reward system, but it may also give us the edge
overeat may be unconsciously attempting to we need to overcome our fears.
compensate for a deficient reward system by
boosting their dopamine levels.” In a first-of-its-kind study on humans, research-
ers from the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuro-
This is also why stimulant medications, the imaging in London divided 39 healthy people
most common pharmacological treatment for into three groups: One group was given levodo-
ADHD, are effective as they elevate the brain’s pa, a drug that increases dopamine levels in the
levels of dopamine. Whether there was another brain, another took haloperidol, a dopamine
way to elevate dopamine may not have been a receptor blocker, and the third was given a pla-
question that Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi had in cebo. Then, the researchers showed each group
mind when he began his studies into optimal symbols associated with winning or losing dif-
experience, but in the outcomes he found his ferent amounts of money. To “win” more money,
answer: after studying the percentage of time participants had to learn through trial and error
that children spend in flow, he found a direct which symbols resulted in which outcomes.
correlation between how much flow a person
experiences and their life-long likelihood of The results showed something fascinating:
drug abuse, obesity, and ADHD. The kids who while the levodopa group were 95 percent more
reported more frequent optimal experience likely to choose symbols associated with higher
were as much as twenty percent less likely to monetary gains than those who took haloperi-
experience addiction to drugs or food, and as dol—therefore winning more money—they did
much as forty percent less likely to be put on not lose less money along the way. While their
dopamine-depleted counterparts shied away possibilities, the urge to explore those possi-
from trying again after a few losses, those with bilities becomes a feverish compulsion.” If flow
higher levels of dopamine seemed to try even really is the doorway not just to extraordinary
harder, even after losses. In the words of study feats, but to a life imbued with meaning fulfill-
author, Mathias Pessiglion, Ph.D., “The results ment and joy—and free from addictions, obe-
show dopamine drives us to get what we want, sity, and attentional disorders—it’s no wonder
but not to avoid what we fear.” that it also exists in a feedback loop: the more
we are in flow, the more we seek flow.
But the relationship between dopamine and
motivation doesn’t end there. Dopamine may Here are the important points to take away:
also provide the activation energy needed to get
1. People in flow consistently report being so
us moving. enthralled in the midst of a challenge that it
leads to a state of euphoria, much like reli-
In a review of data from several investigations,
gious ecstasy.
including those conducted over the past two
decades by the Castellón group in collaboration 2. Flow is so intoxicating because it is the high-
with John Salamone of the University of Con- est form of mastery: mastery over the self.
necticut (USA), on the role of dopamine in the 3. Dopamine produced in the state of flow is
motivated behavior of animals, Mercè Correa, more than just psychologically rewarding, it
who conducted the review, concluded, “It was is a fundamental part of physical healing and
recovery.
believed that dopamine regulated pleasure and
reward and that we release it when we obtain 4. Flow is associated with less risk of addiction,
something that satisfies us, but in fact the latest lower levels of obesity, improved attention
scientific evidence shows that this neurotrans- and lower levels of ADHD, and improved
motivation.
mitter acts before that, it actually encourages
us to act. In other words, dopamine is released Before we move on to the next section, where
in order to achieve something good or to avoid we explore the method used to find flow, mea-
something evil.” sure it, and expand upon it, let’s summarize
what we know so far about flow:
If this sounds like a paradigm shift, it should.
Because it may not be that dopamine is just • The state of flow is similar to a self-transcen-
an outcome of optimal experience—it may dent experience in that one feels completely
immersed in the activity and experiences a
be that it is actually a precursor to going after
feeling of oneness and a loss of awareness of
what we want. And yet perhaps we shouldn’t
time.
be surprised. What research like this tells us is
that flow isn’t just intrinsically motivating, it’s • The conditions of flow include a clear set of
goals, immediate feedback, and the percep-
biologically motivating. In the words of Steven
tion that there is a good balance between
Kotler, “When doing what we love transforms
one’s skills and the challenges of the task.
us into the best possible version of ourselves
and that version hints at even greater future • Flow is characterized by the following factors:

256 | Unit 6
intense and focused concentration, a merging attention to is more likely to immerse us and
of action and awareness, a loss of reflective ultimately lead to flow. But novel situations are
self-consciousness, a sense of personal control
flow inducing for another reason too. Anything
over the situation, a distortion of temporal
that is unfamiliar engages our automatic (and
awareness, and experiencing the activity as
autotelic. unconscious) tendency to try to better under-
stand it. When we don’t know why the ball flies
• The experience of flow correlates positively
off the tee in the direction that it does, why the
with life satisfaction, affective states, cre-
ativity, learning, sports performance, and
horse is spooked around us, or why the clay
self-esteem. molding forms in the way it does, our need to
understand drives our curiosity, and ultimately,
Powerpoint: Three Flow Tools our immersion in the experience. For this rea-
son, many people can recount past experiences
Flow can be a very elusive state, and for that of “spending hours trying to figure something
reason, it can be hard to tap into. Just how do out,” which were most likely states of flow. This
we become immersed in an experience? How is also why learning experiences are so con-
do we quiet the self-conscious? How do we quell ducive to flow. The act of trying to understand
distraction and allow time to dilate? Even if we something, and then aiming to better integrate
follow the conditions of flow, such as setting this understanding into our memory is natural-
clear goals, receiving immediate feedback, and ly immersive. Learning how to throw a fastball,
taking on a challenge that is just slightly higher scale a tough rock wall, ride a difficult horse,
than our ability level, flow may not occur. Flow sing on key, or dance to the rhythm are all
is a highly individual state and what works for things that take enormous amounts of practice.
one person may not work for another. However, And if we are to learn them, we must devote
there are certain elements that are known to the entirety of our attention to the task (just ask
assist the state of flow—what I call “flow tools.” anybody who has tried to learn to ride a horse
while not paying attention)—which thereby
Novelty almost automatically puts us into flow.
As novel situations tend to peak curiosity, they So how do we use novelty to drive flow? One
are also natural gateways into flow. The differ- obvious way is to try learning something new,
ent sights, sounds, smells, and movements—es- or by adding a new dimension to something
pecially when they are unexpected—that new you already know how to do. If you don’t know
situations offer demand our attention because how to surf, for example, you can try learning.
they are something that is unfamiliar to us. On the other hand, if you already know how to
As we try to categorize what we are exposed surf, trying surfing a new spot, new board, or
to—e.g., as we try to figure out just what that a different type of wave. Similarly, you can try
smell, place, or person reminds us of—we pay learning how to sing if you don’t already know
more attention to it. And what we devote more how. And if you do know how to sing, you can
try learning a different style. However, you But nature also offers an essential key to pro-
can also use novelty in less direct ways. Simply moting flow—that is, the self-transcendent
getting into a different environment, such as a experience. When we connect with things that
hike you’ve never attempted, walking in a park are larger and more powerful than we are—as
you haven’t visited, or even driving a new route nature tends to be—we also see our own ex-
to work, can all open a door to flow. As you perience in perspective. We are no longer a
become immersed in the experience and pursue sole survivor, but rather, an important part of
a clear goal—such as making it to the top of a vast system. And connection tends to have a
the hike, navigating the park, and then arriv- palliative effect on our own problems, making
ing at work—receive immediate feedback, and them pale in comparison to the larger goal of
when the challenge matches, and even slightly connecting with something beyond ourselves.
exceeds, your ability level, you have all of the Further, connecting with something larger than
three integral conditions of flow. ourselves also expands our sense of self—a core
characteristic of flow—as well as our possi-
The Outdoors bilities. Through the help of something more
sovereign than ourselves, we may accomplish
Most people can relate to feeling better when more than possible when relying on our own
spending time outside. Being in nature is power. And when self-transcendence hints at
naturally calming and tends to make us feel unrealized potential, it’s a pretty compelling
more connected, while also de-activating stress flow inducer.
responses. Much of the reason for this is the
same reason that the outdoors is also condu- So how do we utilize nature to induce flow? We
cive to flow: it activates out senses. As we take begin by interacting with the world around us
in the smells, sights, and sounds of our natural in any way that challenges us. Try taking a hike
environment, our experience broadens. When on a new and difficult trail. Go for a run on a
we become immersed in the world around us, trail that forces you to watch your step. Take a
we often leave our worries behind us and then bike ride on a twisty and technical trail. Swim
flow becomes much more likely. Runners, for in the ocean. Try surfing. Ski down a run that
example, often relate a much greater possibility challenges you. Go for a horseback ride. By uti-
of experiencing a “runners high” when running lizing the three conditions of flow: clear goals,
outside vs. running on a treadmill. Similarly, immediate feedbacks, and a challenge slightly
rock climbers often relate feeling “at one” with higher than your ability level, almost any expe-
the world around them when outside on the rience in nature can promote flow.
rock vs. when inside on a manufactured climb-
ing wall. Accounts such as these remind us of Animals
the importance of connecting with the world
The therapeutic value of animals has been well
around us—which becomes much easier to do
documented for a long time, yet, in many ways,
when we feel immersed in our experience.

258 | Unit 6
they are natural flow inducers. For one thing, a conversation while texting, driving, typing,
animals use a much broader sensory system or cooking dinner, these types of distracted
to communicate. While humans rely almost interactions will result in an immediate re-
predominantly on verbal messages to commu- sponse from an animal. As any animal owner
nicate, animals incorporate a sense of smell, will attest, the minute you fail to pay attention
sight, sound, and proprioception to read one to an animal, they will find a way to regain your
another and relay information. And when they attention. Keeping our attention is one very
interact with humans, animals utilize the same powerful way to induce flow, but animals also
system. While another person may not notice, eliminate another flow barrier: simply being in
or not comment on the color of a shirt you the vicinity of an animal lowers cortisol levels
wear, a horse will frequently spook immedi- and reduces anxiety, which both intercede flow.
ately at a bright or contrasting color. Similarly, Because we don’t feel judged, criticized, or the
a person is not likely to react if our posture or need to measure up or compare ourselves to
mannerisms appear aggressive; however, a dog animals, the experience is much less self-con-
will often cower immediately if we approach too scious than human–human interactions. Nu-
aggressively. It is responses such as these that merous studies have indicated that people feel
make the interactions we have with animals much more free when interacting with animals,
such a rich sensory experience. And incorporat- and their lower levels of self-conscious is the
ing multiple senses is one way to make things reason why. In this respect, interactions with
more immersive—which is a condition of flow. animals tend to mimic states of flow, where
self-consciousness is quietened.
The feedback we get from animals is also
instantaneous, which, you will remember, is Animals also offer endless challenges. Even
another condition of flow. Because animals rely better, challenges that typically involve multiple
on their present awareness for their survival—it senses. For example, try putting the halter on
is not helpful for their survival to have a delayed an anxious horse without first checking your
response to a charging predator, or conversely, own posture. If you move too fast, use jerky or
to be late to respond to an available prey in the rigid movements, or a harsh tone of voice, the
brush—there is no time delay in the responses horse is likely to shy away. Similarly, try teach-
they give to one another or to us. And when ing a puppy to sit while texting on the phone.
you combine immediate feedback with a vast Without effectively combining eye contact, pos-
sensory experience, you have one pretty immer- ture, and vocal inflection, the puppy is likely to
sive experience. stare off into space, or become distracted itself.
Responses such as these not only provide im-
Interactions with animals also remove many
mediate feedback, but open the door to further
of the factors that typically interrupt flow. For
challenges (e.g., once we halter the horse, we
one thing, animals do not tolerate the same
can try leading it; once we teach the puppy to
level of distraction that humans do. While most
sit, we can try teaching it to fetch). This ability
of us have become accustomed to carrying on
to challenge ourselves in a progressive way— than we are capable of—almost any activity
and with global feedback—is one of the most can promote flow. So to help engage your “flow
powerful flow inducers we have. muscles,” here are three flow exercises that can
be performed by anyone.
So how do you use interactions with animals to
induce flow? Well, almost any interaction will
Beat the Clock
do. Simply walking a dog could become a flow
experience if you pay attention to the interac- By capitalizing on the three conditions of
tion with the dog, incorporating as many senses flow—immediate feedback, clear goals, and a
as possible, and choose a goal, such as keeping challenge just above our capacity level—activ-
the dog at your shoulder. You could attempt ities can be made to become much more flow
to teach your pet a new trick, such as fetching, inducing. One exercise I call Beat the Clock
flying to your shoulder, or sitting on command. utilizes a form of feedback that is universal to
You could also choose less direct goals, such us all—the element of time—it can turn almost
as interacting with your animal in a way that anything we do into a flow conductor. To begin,
produces a desired response. For example, you choose any activity that you have to do, such
could try to calm a nervous horse by stroking as mopping the floor, folding laundry, writing
it softly. Similarly, you could try to use your reports for work, washing the car, shopping for
posture and mannerisms to teach your dog to groceries, or taking a shower. Then, take the
pay attention and avoid becoming distracted amount of time that it normally takes you to
by other dogs. When it comes to inducing flow do that activity, and then set a goal to shorten
through interactions with animals, the possi- the time by 10 percent. For example, let’s say
bilities are endless. What we must keep in mind that, on average, it takes you 20 minutes to mop
though are the three conditions of flow: imme- the floors in your house. Shortening the time
diate feedback, clear goals, and a challenge that by ten percent, try and see if you can mop the
is just slightly above our skill level. floors in 18 minutes. Or, let’s say that you can
typically write reports (or complete any other
PowerPoint: Three Flow Exercises job requirement) in 40 minutes. See if you can
get it done in 36 minutes. Once you have your
Many people associate the state of flow with ex-
goal, attempt the activity, paying close attention
treme athletic feats—we might think of Michael
to how you perform what you are doing and
Jordan dunking a basketball from the top of the
the time it takes you. Pay attention to how you
key, Laird Hamilton surfing a monstrous wave,
move your body as you mop the floor, fold the
or Evil Knievel flying across the Grand Canyon
laundry, or wash the car. Pay attention to the
on a motorcycle—and yet flow is something
way you navigate the grocery store as you assess
that is available to us all. By applying the three
if it is faster to start with the outside aisles and
conditions it requires—clear goals, immediate
work your way in, or the other way around. Pay
feedback, and a challenge just slightly more
attention to the style in which you write your

260 | Unit 6
reports for work, noticing any techniques that something, challenge yourself to learn a new
seem to speed things up or slow them down. component of that skill. For example, if you
Then, once you have your feedback, adjust your already play tennis, try learning a new serve,
approach, and then see if you can improve your return, or volley shot. Similarly, if you run
time. If you meet your goal, shorten the time every day, try learning a technique to improve
again by 10 percent and see if you can go even your running form. Then, make sure you incor-
faster. Be careful, however, not to sacrifice stan- porate the remaining two conditions of flow:
dards or the quality of your work as this would immediate feedback (either through a qualified
make the challenge less difficult and the results professional or self-monitoring device) and a
less satisfactory. You might also find that you challenge just above your capacity. Learning
discover new skills, techniques, or abilities that is not just a way to introduce ourselves to new
raise your ability level, and even hint at future activities that we didn’t realize we would enjoy,
potential. And as you already know, discovering but it also makes activities that we already do
new skills peaks our curiosity and draws us into much more rewarding. And doing something
the experience, both things that promote flow. for its own reward (such as the joy we feel in
achieving a long sought after goal) is a pivotal
Learn Something New characteristic of flow.
As we already know, learning something new,

Burn Those Calories
because it involves exposure to a novel situ-
ation, and immersion in that experience is a Exercise, for many people, is a dreaded activity.
natural flow enhancer. And using learning to Especially when the focus is on completing a
induce flow is as easy as just choosing what certain amount of miles in a set time, lifting
we want to learn. Most activities have built-in so many sets of heavy weights, or riding a bike
goals—such as learning to hit the tennis ball for a prescribed amount of time, exercise can
over the net, learning how to turn, stop, and feel like a dreaded chore. And yet, exercise is a
move the horse forward, or learning how to use natural flow enhancer. There is a challenge (we
a narrative description to create a scene—that can choose to try running faster or farther, lift
are natural learning goals. Further, because more weight, or ride the bike longer), instant
learning involves measuring progress, the goals feedback (we can use a treadmill to determine
are usually naturally clear. (It doesn’t help us our running speed, the amount of weight we lift
learn tennis if the goal is just to “hit better”.) to determine strength, and/or a GPS device to
Immediate feedback is also a fundamental determine the distance we pedal on a bike), and
part of learning as, in order to assimilate and clear goals (we can set any goals for ourselves
integrate the new learned information—, i.e., that we like). In the exercise I call Burn Those
arriving at new understandings—we must have Calories, we change the game of exercise to
feedback on our progress. To use learning to make if more flow inducing. Here are the rules:
promote flow, simply choose something new choose the amount of calories you would like to
to learn. Or, if you are already proficient at burn in a day: you can choose any number you
want, but typically a good starting point is be- clear goals and expectations—or find ways to
tween 2500 and 3500; use a heart rate monitor incorporate these into an existing task.
with a calorie function; wear the watch for 24
hours (even when you sleep); perform an activ- Find Activities That Provide Immediate
ity (or exercise) you like to burn the calories. Feedback
For example, let’s say your goal is to burn 2500
calories per day; beginning at 7 am (or any time In order for action and awareness to merge
you like), start your watch, and go about your (which characterizes flow), we must be able to
day, adding in as much activity, movement, identify the impact of our actions, adjust our
and exercise as possible. As you glance at your approach, and receive feedback on the results.
watch periodically, you will know where you It is through this immediate feedback that we
stand in relation to your goal. If you find you become absorbed in the challenge and fixated
are low in caloric expenditure (e.g., at 3 PM you on mastering the task. To help your clients find
have only burned 1000 calories), you can move flow draw their attention to activities that offer
or exercise more. You could also try different this immediate feedback, or look for ways to
forms of movement: gardening, housecleaning, build feedback into an existing activity that
chasing the dog, as well as different forms of ex- they enjoy.
ercise—you may find that lifting lighter weights
faster burns more calories, or the other way Ensure That Your Clients Perceptions of
around. As you pay attention to which activities Their Skills Matches Their Perceptions of
and exercises burn the most calories, and move the Demands of the Task
closer to your goal, the act of burning calories— One of the most critical elements of flow is that
which for many of us is a very large reason for a person’s perception of their skills is distinctly
exercise—becomes much less like a chore, and matched to their perception of the demands
much more like a gateway into flow. of the task. When the task is too demanding,
anxiety ensues, and when the challenge is not
Powerpoint: Three Steps to Help high enough, the result is boredom. You can
Your Client Find Flow help your clients find the right task for them,
by asking when they feels that their skills and
Find Activities That Have Clear Goals strengths are most uniquely aligned with the
task at hand, when they feel most confident
Flow depends on knowing just what is expect-
in their abilities, or when they feel that they
ed, and having clear goals that can be attained,
no longer question themselves. Drawing their
as complete absorption in a task depends on
attention to activities such as these will not only
hyperfocus on a set goal. While there are many
provide a window into your clients’ distinct
activities to choose from, you can help your
skills and strengths, but also the activities that
client find flow by focusing on those that have
will be useful to help them find more flow.

262 | Unit 6
Section Seven: The Experience Sampling

Method
Experience sampling The experience sampling method (ESM) is a research method
method (ESM): a research designed to gather real-time data of people of their natural environ-
method designed to gather
real-time data of people in ments. The method consists of wearing a device—such as a beep-
their natural environments. er, cell phone, or Apple watch—and being prompted throughout
the day to respond to some sort of assessment questionnaire. For
example, we could wear a beeper that is programmed to go off at
random intervals four times throughout the day. When signaled,
we must respond—say within thirty minutes—to a predesigned set
of questions. The assessment questions typically target mood, who
we are with, and a short description of the activities we are doing
at the time we are signaled. While early historical accounts of the
ESM, such as daily diary, thought recording, and daily mood studies
can be found going back to as early as 1925, the ESM is most com-
monly credited to the work of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, whom you
met in the section on positive psychology. While Csikszentmihalyi
originally used the ESM to study adolescents in their natural envi-
ronments, what distinguished Csikszentmihalyi’s methods—and
the reason they are so prolific—is that Csikszentmihalyi designed
an ESM approach that used random sampling. Instead of relying
on preprogrammed assessments that participants could quickly
become accustomed to, Csikszentmihalyi signaled his adolescents
at random times throughout the day, which allowed him to get a
much less contaminated picture of how their feelings correlated with
their daily experience. While studies like Csikszentmihalyi’s were
later replicated to investigate mood across a variety of situations as
well as intrapsychic phenomena (such as by Diener & Larson, 1984;
Brandstaetter, 1983), it was Csikszentmihalyi who first identified
the state of flow through the ESM method. While Csikszentmihalyi
applied the ESM to explore exceptional performers—such as gift-
ed athletes, dancers, and artists—during their daily lives, what he
eventually isolated, through the use of random sampling, was what
he called “optimal experience”—or what we now know as flow.
Today, the ESM has effectively been used in a variety of situations

to identify moods and how they correlate to activities, flow states,
and even to identify situations that may trigger addictive conditions,
such as drinking (Bos et al., 2015). Also, with under the term experience sampling method
the advance of wearable devices, such as smart- (ESM). 1. Sampling can be interval-contingent,
phones, watches, and palm pilots, the devel- where signals are received at preset intervals—
opment of different models of the ESM has such as 9 AM; 12 PM; 3 PM; and 6 PM—and
overcome many of the difficulties in the early participants then complete self-reports at each
research models— such as participants having interval. Examples of interval-contingent sam-
to write down the answers to the questions, pling include hourly reports and daily reports
carry notepads, and remember to respond at of mood, thoughts, and activities (Reis & Gable,
predetermined times, etc.—and have become 2000; Wheeler & Reis, 1991). 2. Event-con-
one of the most promising ways to study happi- tingent sampling, which links self-reports to
ness. In the words of ESM researcher Cristine a predetermined event, such as every time a
Scollon, “Clearly, the main strength of expe- person overeats, or every time a person has a
rience sampling lies in its ability to provide social interaction (Cote & Moskowitz, 1998). 3.
fine-grained, detailed pictures of human expe- Signal-contingent sampling, which is the most
rience” (Scollon, 2014). Because the ESM offers widely used form of ESM. Here, participants
this granular look at the daily lives of people, it complete self-reports only when prompted by a
is not subject to the typical problems associated signal that occurs at random intervals.
with studying subjective experience, which is
Among the broad categories of the ESM, there
that people don’t always remember accurately.
are also variations in what sort of informa-
And when combined with other methods of as-
tion the questions are designed to generate.
sessing well-being, the ESM is particularly use-
Thought-sampling, for example, focuses pri-
ful (Kahneman, 1999). For example, the ESM
marily on a person’s inner experience, and
could be used alongside an objective measure—
pays little attention to external events (Hulbert,
such as pounds lost—when assessing progress
1997). Another form of ESM assessment is the
in a weight loss program to provide not only a
descriptive-experience sampling method, which
subjective measure of how the person felt while
seeks to gather qualitative information about
doing the activities that led to weight loss, but
a person’s experience through their subjective
which specific activities were linked with the
description of it. Here, participants are asked
highest levels of happiness. It is in this way that
to describe their experience both internal-
the ESM bridges the gap between interventions
ly and externally, so that correlations can be
that work and a person’s attitude toward those
drawn between external events and subjective
interventions. (As you will recall from the sec-
feelings. Ecological momentary assessments,
tion on commitment strategy skills, a person’s
on the other hand, are interested in a person’s
interest in an activity is one of the strongest
momentary experiences as well as the ecolog-
predictors of continued involvement.)
ical environments in which they occur. Here,
While the applications of the ESM are extreme- instead of being asked to describe the environ-
ly wide-ranging, there are three main types ment through their perception of it—as is the
of experience sampling that can be classified case with descriptive-experience sampling—a

264 | Unit 6
person would be asked to simply state the time required for participants to complete the
objective external conditions along with their questions, and thus he could gather more data,
subjective feelings and thoughts in the moment and with less inconvenience for those involved.
(Stone et al., 1999). However, it is important to
note that most researchers do not distinguish Whether used to identify flow or to link moods
much between these variations. to external events, the ESM holds tremendous
promise for behavior change. Unlike other
In terms of identifying flow, the methods that methods of assessing change, the ESM links
Csikszentmihalyi used separated questions into our affective and cognitive experience to the
two dimensions: cognitive and affective. methods of change used. The use of the ESM
also takes the study of behavioral change out of
Students reported on the cognitive dimensions
the laboratory—where it is subject to a host of
of their subjective experience by rating (on a
presumptions that may not apply in practice to
4-point scale):
real life—and look at what methods are actually
1. the challenge of the activity they were en- effective in our daily experience. Information
gaged in; collection through the ESM also provides a
2. their skill in meeting these challenges; granular look at the subtle nuances of behavior
change, which may not be revealed through
3. the degree of control they felt;
other assessment methods. For example, while
4. the degree of choice they felt in how activi- we may forecast higher levels of enjoyment
ties were done; while exercising in the morning, the ESM may
5. their levels of concentration at the moment show that we are actually happier exercising in
they were signaled. the evening. Similarly, while we may predict an
ease in ordering healthy food at a restaurant,
Similarly, students also rated the affective di- the ESM may reveal our high levels of anxiety
mensions of their experience based on: and anger when eating out. As we know from
1. enjoyment of the activity; the section on commitment strategies, when
it comes to predicting how we will respond in
2. interest in the activity;
the future, we usually make several errors. It is
3. anxiety; in this way that the ESM is an invaluable tool
4. anger. to decipher the link between how we think we
will act and feel, and how we actually do. Much
Along with these two dimensions, Csikszent- in the same way that interventions designed for
mihalyi also asked participants to give a short the self in the long run may look good on paper
description of the activities they were doing in and fail in daily practice, any intervention with-
the moment (Hektnor, Schmidt, & Csikszentmi- out the use of real-time data will overlook the
halyi, 2007). By simplifying the dimensions to most influential part of behavior change—that
ratings, Csikszentmihalyi was able to shorten the is, our daily experience of the change itself.
Let’s take a look at an example of an ESM ap- asked directly about targeted affective states, to
proach in practice: increase reporting accuracy. Cognitive assess-
ments were centered around thoughts that were
Type: Signal-contingent (random intervals) suspected to influence these affective states, such
as thinking one doesn’t have enough control,
Information assessed: How daily mood is choice, or is bored. Lastly, the description of
linked to eating behavior. the experience did not ask directly about eating
behavior, but rather asked the participants to
Questions used: describe their experiences in their own words.
This achieved two things: first, the participants
Cognitive: (Rate 0–4)
were not subjected to becoming reactive by being
• Degree of control you feel asked directly about their eating (we will explore
• Degree of choice you feel about what you are the concept of reactivity more in the section on
doing ESM skills), and second, any activities that might
correspond to overeating could be identified
• Level of concentration
(such as overeating when watching TV, on the
Affective: (Rate 0–4) internet, or when lying in bed).
• Degree of connection you feel In the section on ESM skills, we discuss the
• Degree of loneliness you feel steps to design and use an ESM approach for
behavior change, including administering the
• Degree of calmness you feel
ESM and choosing the survey questions and
• Degree of anxiety you feel intervals as well as how to measure change and
• Degree of satisfaction you feel use information gathered to motivate a qualita-
tive shift in behavior.
• Degree of anger you feel
Description of experience: (In one statement Here are the important points to take away:
describe what you are doing) 1. The ESM is a research method that uses
prompts throughout the day where peo-
Rationale: Because the participant was suspect- ple respond to a set of questions to gather
ed to have greater levels of difficulty in man- real-time information about people’s daily
aging eating when experiencing one of three experiences.
moods: loneliness, anxiety, or anger, affective 2. The three types of ESM approaches are:
assessment questions were created to measure interval-contingent, event-contingent, and
these three moods in two ways: questions first signal-contingent.
asked about the presence of opposing affective 3. While there are variations in the types of
conditions (e.g., it is difficult to say one is feeling information gathered through the different
connected and lonely at the same time), and then ESM approaches, most questions assess a

266 | Unit 6
person’s subjective experience through their thoughts as well as mood and behavior, and in
thoughts, feelings, and a description of their this way they can provide further information
activities.
about the way thoughts affect mood. Through
4. The ESM is one of the most promising meth- asking your clients about their thoughts in a
ods for studying happiness and behavior signal-contingent interval, not only do you
change. increase their awareness of their thoughts, but
5. The ESM bridges the gap between inter- also the way their thoughts influence their
ventions that work and a person’s attitude mood—which can often acts as a very potent
toward those interventions. inspiration for change.
Changing behavior depends not only on finding

Identify Experiences That Bring
interventions that work (and an effective way to
Engagement
measure the results of those interventions), but
also our attitude toward the experience itself. It As the ESM was originally developed to identify
is in this way that the ESM can enable an inside peak experiences, it is a very effective way to help
look into just what behavior change is, and uncover the activities that bring us the greatest
how we experience it. In the next section, we level of engagement (and fulfillment). When you
explore the benefits and applications of using a can draw your clients’ attention to the things that
real-time ESM to motivate behavior change. bring them the greatest satisfaction, you provide
a very convincing motivation for change.
Powerpoint: Three Ways to Use
the ESM to Change Behavior The Benefits of Real-Time Data
Connect Mood States with Behavior As you know from the discussion above, the use
of the ESM avoids many of the typical problems
Because the ESM can be used to ask questions associated with measuring behavior change.
about both mood and experience (behavior), it Instead, the ESM can enable an exhaustive look
can be very helpful for drawing awareness to at our experience of behavior change, while also
the effect our actions have on the way we feel. isolating the nuances of the change, which allows
When you use the ESM in this way to connect for a much more adaptive and flexible approach
your clients’ mood to their resulting behavior, toward changing behavior. (Once a link between
you not only provide them with valuable data an external event and behavioral response is
on their experience, but also a very persuasive noted, interventions can be designed to reduce
motivator for change. this connection, while continuing to assess the
efficacy of the interventions.) However, beyond
Connect Thoughts to Mood the ways in which the ESM offers a clearer way
of assessing subjective levels of well-being and
ESM questions can be designed to assess behavior change, it offers significant benefits in
assisting the process of change itself. Let’s now
take a look at the ways in which the ESM can be That is to say, not just do we remember infor-
an effective tool in changing behavior. mation inaccurately, but also we remember it
in ways that support our self-beliefs.
Reduction in Memory Bias
What you should remember from the discussion
For those who work in behavior, as well as re- on commitment strategies about biases is that
searchers who seek to measure it, the problem not only do they misinterpret data, but they don’t
with asking participants to recall experiences assist in behavior change. Any measurement
(whether they pertain to thoughts or feelings) or intervention that doesn’t overcome biases
is that most people do not recall accurately. will struggle to be effective. It is in this way that
This is known as memory bias, whereby, when the ESM offers a unique opportunity. With the
we are asked to recall events, which can then ESM, no room for recall bias exists between the
be compared to actual experience, there is a signal and the response because of the short-
consistent disconnect. We either tend to re- ness of the time-lag between the signal and the
member events as we would like to remember response. Because of the accuracy of responses,
them (confirmation bias), in a way that sup- the ESM provides a much clearer picture of how
ports our affective state (affective bias), or in a we actually feel about events in our lives, which
way that supports the information available at is especially important with behavior change. As
the time (availability bias). (There are several you know, what determines the continued in-
other biases that most likely apply here.) For volvement in an activity is our attitude toward it,
example, when asking people to recall events which is uniquely captured through the real-time
in global self-reports, several biases emerge approach that the ESM uses.
in retrospective recall (Cutler et al., 1996;
Redelmeier & Kahneman, 1996; Ross, 1989), Behavioral and Emotional
autobiographical memory (Han et al., 1998; Contingencies Can Be Noted
Henry et al., 1994; Wang, 2001), and the use
Behavioral change approaches and behavioral
of heuristics in response patterns (Robinson &
research have historically suffered from prob-
Clore, in press; Schwarz 1994, 1999; Tversky &
lems of application. That is, what we say when
Kahneman, 1973). Additionally, discrepancies
being assessed or researched is not always
between online and global self-report mea-
what pans out in real life. Much of the reason
sures have been demonstrated in a variety of
for this is that the typical assessment methods
research areas, such as coping and emotion,
(whether a behavioral change questionnaire or
with correlation levels as low as 0.58 (Ptacek et
a research study) offer only a miniscule picture
al., 1994). In another study, cognitive coping
of the complexity of possibilities that can occur
was underreported, while behavioral coping
on a daily basis. It would simply be impossible
was overreported (Stone, 1998). One consisten-
to ask someone about all of the interactions
cy was that retrospective measures overlapped
(whether between people or events) that could
considerably with individuals’ self-beliefs, and
occur throughout a day or week. As one of
this was consistent across various cultures.

268 | Unit 6
the most crucial elements of behavior change interactions with a person’s gender (Larson
is linking events to behavior, this is a major et al., 1994) and culture (Oishi et al., 2002).
constriction. It is here that the ESM offers a Unlike the typical methods of understanding
profound advantage: because the ESM uses behavior—which often look to draw connec-
random sampling across a length of time, it is tions between known variables, such as gender
possible to capture a variety of situations that a and affect or personality and behavior—the use
person may find themselves in, and can allow of the ESM allows the emergence of unknown
beginning to decipher just which events lead to correlations to be identified. That is to say, that,
what feelings and behavioral responses. This while we may believe (and report) that a cli-
has been one of the strongest benefits of the ent’s overeating is due to a “lack of time in food
ESM: it allows for the investigation of complex preparation,” the ESM may reveal no connec-
questions about the contingencies of behaviors. tion between the amount of time they have and
For example, ESM studies can be designed to their eating behavior. Even further, the ESM
investigate contingencies such as isolation and might identify that, in fact, boredom (presum-
overeating, feelings of productivity and in- ably an abundance of time) preceded their over-
creased time spent exercising, and greater time eating. It is in this way that the use of the ESM
spent in social activities and enhanced levels provides an “unfiltered look” at our behavior
of happiness (Diener et al., 1984; Pavot et al., that goes beyond self-reports and demographics
1990). Even further, the ESM could be used to to identify the causal mechanisms of behavior
explore the momentary effects of activities such (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2000).
as spending time with friends, exercising, and
eating certain foods in a way that typical behav- Retrospective Data is a Powerful
ioral assessments cannot. Here again, the use of Motivator
the ESM has proven to be a much more effec-
tive way for identifying correlations between Interestingly, the ability of the ESM to allow
feelings (such as pleasant effects) and behavior looking back (what is known as retrospective
(such as future social activity) than self-report- data) over past behavior might have a signifi-
ing, even after controlling for previous social cant advantage in the field of behavior change.
activity (Lucas, 2000). The ESM has also been When comparing people’s reports on how they
useful for drawing connections between certain have been feeling, to how they feel at the mo-
types of interactions (such as with one’s spouse, ment, or how they think they will feel in the
boss, children, or friends) and resultant behav- future, past reports appear to be much more
ior. One study demonstrated that the types of predictive of future behavior. In one study,
interactions people had correlated with their researchers asked vacationing students to com-
personalities, and that their emotional respons- plete self-reports measuring their expectations
es were dependent upon both their personali- of pleasure for their vacation, online reports of
ties and the situational variables (Brandstatter, pleasure during the experience, and a retrospec-
1983). Other studies have connected situational tive recall of pleasure. The results indicated that
only the recalled effect, not online experience
or future expectation, directly and strongly predicted the desire to

take a similar vacation in the future. In another study, retrospective
reports of their experiences with their partners, as opposed to daily
reports, were the strongest predictor of enduring romantic relation-
ships (Oishi, 2002). What studies like this tell us is that what we
have done in the past is a very strong predictor of what we will do in
the future. In considering the amount of retrospective data that the
ESM offers, it’s easy to see how this can not only provide a window
into how we will behave, but also provide a very strong motivation
for change. Essentially, it’s the difference between being told how
we will feel (weight loss will make you feel healthier) and being told
how we did feel (when you went on your daily walks, your mood
was better). Instead of using external information (such as statistics)
or the predictive assumptions of others about how we will feel, the
ESM uses our own information as a motivational tool.
Self-Monitoring is a Powerful Behavioral Modification

Device
Because the ESM asks a person to report how they feel at different
intervals throughout the day, people tend to engage in greater levels of
self-monitoring. That is, as we report on how we feel and what we are
doing, we also become increasingly aware of the aspects we report on
ourselves. For example, using survey questions that ask about happi-
ness levels and exercise amounts are likely to increase our awareness
of these things. The tendency toward increased self-monitoring has Retrospective data: data
resulted in the use of the ESM as a tool for behavior modification collected from previous
experience.
(Wheeler and Reis, 1991). In one study, alcoholics said that reporting
their drinking made them more aware of their drinking (Litt et al.,
1998). Much in the same way that gratitude lists orient the brain to
notice more positives, the ESM questions increase our awareness of
the feelings and behavior we are reporting on. And becoming more
aware of not just what behaviors we are engaging in, but the specific
way in which these behaviors may correspond with our feelings and
situations offers a powerful tool toward behavioral change. Addition-
ally, because the ESM overcomes biases that typically collude self-re-
ports, insights that would not otherwise be available now become
possible. It is in this way that the much more accurate picture that the

270 | Unit 6
ESM can provide often acts as an “eye-opener” speak with their boss, they experience anger and
that ignites a strong desire for change. frustration. Connections such as this can be very
information in terms of how to design experienc-
The use of real-time data takes the study of
es to have the best outcomes on the way we feel.
behavior change out of the lab (where it is prone
to biases) and into the field (where it actually
Unexpected Enjoyable Experiences
applies). Because of this, the ESM offers tremen-
dous benefits in identifying, monitoring, and As the ESM involves random sampling
ultimately changing behavior. throughout the day, we often find that some
activities may hold unexpected benefits in the
way we feel. For example, we may find that
1. The ESM can provide a much more accurate while we might not have thought that our mood
picture of behavior free from memory bias. was positive while on our daily walk, that turns
2. Because the ESM uses real-time data, behav- out to be, in fact, one of the highest points of
ioral contingencies (especially of unknown our day. When we can identify these optimal
factors) can be identified. experiences (or peak moments) in the day, we
3. The retrospective data that the ESM provides have valuable information that can dramatically
is not only a strong predictor of future be- improve our happiness.
havior, but a very powerful tool for motivat-
ing behavior change. Unexpected Aversive Experiences
4. The use of the ESM increases self-monitor-
ing and often the results can act as a strong
In the same way that the ESM helps us uncover
“eye-opener” that ignites change. peak experiences, it also helps us become more
aware of those experiences that have a negative
While the ESM represent a unique approach effect on our mood. For example, we may find
with extraordinary potential for behavior that while we thought we enjoyed spending
change, it is not without limitations. We explore time with a particular friend, actually, our
these limitations in the next section. mood was quite low during that time. It is in
this way that the ESM can provide invaluable
Powerpoint: Three Things You Can data—as knowing just what experiences do not
Learn from Real-Time Data bring us joy can be just as important as know-
ing what does.
Unexpected Connections Between
Behavior and Mood Limitations of Experience
Because the ESM asks about both behavior Sampling
and mood, quite often unexpected connections The ESM can provide a unique opportunity for
can be identified. For example, a client might those who work in behavioral change to mea-
find that every time they clean the house, their sure and explore behavior in a real-time setting,
mood improves, while every time they have to
but because it captures “field data,” there are three main limitations
with its usage. Let’s take a look at these now.
Compliance
Asking people to wear a device throughout the day can, in many
ways, be experienced as a hindrance. For example, signals may oc-
cur at inconvenient times, such as during work meetings, while with
family, or while showering. Additionally, many of the earlier wear-
able devices were not easy to carry around in places, like at the gym,
or in inclement weather. For these reasons, the ESM sometimes
suffers from a lack of compliance as people can simply get tired of
wearing a device and responding to questions, and so they may
fail to respond to signals. Similarly, some people are inconsistent
in remembering to wear the device at all times. As the value of the
ESM depends on a complete collection of data, compliance can be a
major hindrance in using this method. However, as wearable devices
have advanced in technology, they are now much smaller and easier
to wear. In fact, the use of smartphones apps as ESM devices has
significantly improved compliance, and made the use of the ESM a
much more seamless process. Additionally, when participants are
motivated toward their behavior change, naturally their compliance
increases. (We will discuss specific ways to address compliance in
the next section.)
Observer Effect
The observer effect describes the effect that observing a behavior Observer effect: describes
has on the behavior itself. Because the ESM involves measuring— the effect that observing a
behavior has on the behavior
and thereby observing behavior over time—there is a possibility itself.
that the behavior that is being observed can change as a result.
For example, asking a person to report on their levels of happiness
throughout the day might make them more aware of their mood
(and perhaps negative moods that are aversive to them) and result
in them increasing their participation in activities associated with
happiness (such as spending time with friends, etc.) When this
happens, it is impossible to decipher between the intervention and
the observer effect in influencing the change. That is to say, did the
person’s mood improve simply because they were observing it, or

272 | Unit 6
did another factor boost their mood? To be doing. To be sure, there are many times when
sure, in the case of behaviors that we want to a person may not want to be signaled. People
increase (such as healthy eating and exercising), have also reported feeling that the ESM can
the observer effect does provide a significant interrupt other enjoyable activities, such as
advantage. On the other hand, if we were asked watching a movie, playing with kids, or when
questions about overeating, which then made socializing with friends. While the intent of
us more focused on food, we actually might be the ESM is to capture as broad a range of daily
more prone to overeat. Reactivity to the be- experience as possible—and the best way to do
havior being measured (or the observer effect) this is through random sampling—its use does
is a problem for any investigations of human require a person’s willingness to be signaled
behavior, but it can be especially problematic at any time. Typically when used in behavior
for the ESM because it involves so many repeat- change—especially when participants are moti-
ed assessments, which may lead people to pay vated toward improved behavior—their willing-
unusual attention to their internal states and ness increases. In the next section, we discuss
own behavior (Wheeler et al., 1991). specific ways to improve willingness.
With non-random sampling techniques (such Here are the important points to take away:
as event-contingent or interval-contingent sam-
1. Compliance can be a problem for the ESM
pling), people might look for events or antici- as it involves wearing a signaling device
pate behaviors or situations (Hormuth, 1986). throughout the day.
However, with a careful construction of ques-
2. Because the ESM involves repeated measure-
tions, much of the problem of reactivity can
ment of behavior, it is prone to the observer
be avoided. By asking people questions related effect, which means that questions must be
to behaviors we would like to amplify, and by carefully constructed to avoid unduly influ-
avoiding direct questions about behaviors we encing behavior.
would like to reduce, the observer effect can be 3. The use of the ESM can sometimes be felt to
used in an effective way. In the next section, we be too invasive by participants as devices are
discuss specific ways to design questions to best worn at all times and the signals can go off
support behavioral change. randomly.
While every research method and behavioral

Some Participants Feel the ESM is intervention has its own limitations, what is
Invasive important to remember is that many of the lim-
While the ESM enables capturing an inside itations of the ESM can be overcome through
look at behavior, some people feel it can be too proper administration and conscientious ques-
invasive. Because devices can go off randomly, tion design. In the next section, we discuss just
there is no boundary between when a person how to use the ESM as a powerful behavioral
can be signaled and the activity that they are modification device.
Powerpoint: Three Ways to Make Experience Sampling Skills for

the ESM Work for Your Clients Personal Trainers
Now that you are familiar with the experience
Familiarize Your Client with the ESM
sampling model, the ways it can be used to
Because the use of the ESM is a very new and facilitate behavior change, and the limitations
very innovative approach, in order for it to in its usage, we will explore the skills needed to
be effective, you must first familiarize your use the ESM effectively. These include adminis-
clients with the ESM. This means educating tering the ESM, choosing the survey questions,
them about how the ESM works, what they can assigning intervals, and measuring change.
expect, what will be expected of them, and what Lastly, we will explore ESM maintenance strat-
the ESM has to offer. Making sure your clients egies, and take a look at a few examples of the
are comfortable with the ESM in this way not ESM as a behavior change tool in practice.
only reduces any anxiety or doubt they may
have about the ESM, but will also improve their How to Administer the ESM
compliance and the eventual ESM outcomes.
Similar to using commitment strategies (or any
other method that is unfamiliar to your clients)
Limit the Amount of Questions
as a method of behavioral change, the efficacy
As the ESM is sometimes felt to be invasive by of this method is dependent upon the steps
clients, it is important to limit the number of taken to administer it. In order to use the ESM
questions asked. As a general rule of thumb, effectively with your clients, you will first need
the questions should take no more than two to familiarize your clients with the ESM, gain
minutes to complete. By reducing the amount their trust and ensure their motivation, limit
that the ESM interferes with your clients lives, the number of signals and questions they will
not only will you improve their compliance, but be asked in the ESM, explain the importance of
also their attitudes toward the ESM method. responding immediately and consistently, and
use bi-weekly data collection. We now discuss
Explain the Benefits of Real-Time Data each of these steps.
Understanding the ways in which the ESM can

Familiarize Your Clients
help them is an important part of your clients’
decision to participate in the ESM study, and Not just because the ESM is unfamiliar to your
also an important component of their attitude client, but also because it can be felt as being
toward the approach. By educating your clients invasive, it is especially important to ensure that
about the ways in which the ESM can benefit your clients understand what the ESM is, how it
them (offering as many examples as possible) works, what the benefits and drawbacks are, and
you can dramatically increase their motivation
and desire to participate.

274 | Unit 6
what they should expect. To do this, it can be helpful to refer to the

following definition of the ESM:
“The experience sampling method (ESM) is a research method de-

signed to gather real-time data of people and their natural environ-
ments. The method consists of wearing a device—such as a beeper,
cell phone, or Apple watch—and being prompted throughout the
day to respond to some sort of assessment questionnaire.”
You will need to explain to your clients that they will be wearing a
device 24 hours a day that will signal them at random intervals to
prompt them to answer questions. They will also need to understand
that accurate data collection depends on them responding within
thirty minutes of receiving the signal. Here, it is helpful to give your
clients an example of some typical survey questions, and inform
them that the questions are designed to measure their thoughts,
feelings, and activities in order to gain an understanding of the ex-
ternal events that may influence their behavior change process.
Here is a list of typical survey questions:
Cognative: Relating Rate each of the following cognitive dimensions of your subjective
to mental processes of
experience (on a 4-point scale):
perception, memory,
judgment, and reasoning
1. the challenge of the activity engaged in;
2. your skill in meeting these challenges;
3. the degree of control felt;
4. the degree of choice felt in how the activities were done;
5. your level of concentration at the moment you were signaled.
Affective: Relating to Rate each of the following affective dimensions of your experience
emotion or feeling (on a 4-point scale):
1. enjoyment of the activity;
2. interest in the activity;
3. anxiety;
4. anger.
In one sentence, describe what you are doing at the moment (who
you are with, where you are, and what you are doing).
Next, you should explain to your clients that the self-beliefs about themselves, or predications
use of the ESM is a very effective tool for behav- about change. Instead, what the ESM can pro-
ior change, and they can expect the following vide your clients is an extremely accurate picture
benefits: of themselves, including their thoughts, feelings,
and behavior. Often through the ESM unex-
• To identify connections between external
events and their behavior (both desired and
pected connections between external events and
undesired behavior). resulting behavior, unanticipated feelings about
activities, and unidentified feelings about change
• To uncover any unknown variables that may
processes can be uncovered. In the process of
be influencing their behavior.
gaining your clients trust—which we discuss
• To gather a large amount of retrospective more in the next step—it is helpful to also
data that will help them better understand
inform your clients that how they choose to use
their behavior, and to be better informed as to
which events, situations, and feelings lead to
the data collected through the ESM is completely
which behavioral responses. up to them, and that the purpose of the ESM is
simply to give them a more accurate and more
• To become more aware of their thoughts,
complete picture of themselves.
feelings and behavior as well as their attitude
toward the process of change.
Gain Trust
Once your clients understand the benefits of the
As you can imagine, any study method is prone
ESM, they will need to be aware of the follow-
to a lack of participant compliance, and possi-
ing drawbacks:
bly more so with the ESM due to the extensive
• Wearing a signaling device at all times can be nature of the data collection. For this reason,
inconvenient. many researchers have suggested that it is par-
• The signal may go off at undesirable times ticularly important to gain people’s trust and
and responding to it may be difficult. to establish what Csikszentmihalyi and Larson
• The efficacy of the ESM depends on consis- (1987) called a “viable research alliance” in or-
tently responding to the signal within thirty der to ensure participation. What this means is
minutes. that your clients need to fully understand how
• Being signaled at any time can feel invasive. the ESM works, what is expected of them, what
the benefits and drawbacks are, and the impor-
Lastly, it is important to explain to your clients tance of them responding to the signals consis-
what they can expect from using the ESM as a tently (even if they forget to wear the device for
behavior change device. As you know from the one or two days) (Stone et al., 1991). In terms
discussion above, the ESM can provide an inside of assessing if your clients have any hesitation
look at a person’s behavior, which overcomes about the usage of the ESM, it is also helpful to
many of the typical methods of assessing or ask the following questions:
facilitating behavioral change. What your cli-
ents can expect then is to gain a unique view of • Are there any reasons you may not want to
use the ESM as a behavior change tool?
their behavior that is absent of cognitive biases,

276 | Unit 6
• Can you foresee any difficulties in responding to the signal within

thirty minutes?
• Is there anything about the ESM that you are not comfortable with
or do not understand?
Ensure Motivation
Motivation toward change is an important part of any change
intervention, and as you know from the discussion on commitment
strategies, it is quite predictive of future participation. Similarly, re-
search shows that motivation plays a significant role in determining
whether a participant will successfully complete an ESM study (Wil-
son et al., 1992). In order to ensure your clients’ motivation then, it
is helpful to begin with a rating question:
• On a scale of 0–10, how motivated are you to change your
Memory biases: the behavior?
disconnect common when
we are asked to recall events. • On a scale of 0–10, how motivated are you to use the ESM as a
behavioral change device?
To use the ESM effectively, the answers to both of these questions

above should be no less than 7. If you find a client answers with a
number less than 7, it is likely that the inconvenience of wearing the
signaling device and responding immediately will deter their par-
ticipation or provide a limited and inaccurate picture of their be-
havior. Further, just as with any training approach, when clients are
not cooperative and invested in the methods used, efficacy suffers.
Therefore, when a client’s motivation ratings are less than 7, the use
of the ESM is not advised.
Limit the Number of Signals and Questions

Because the ESM can be somewhat burdensome, limiting the number
of questions and signals can make the process more inviting to your
clients and reduce the possibility of non-compliance. As a general rule
of thumb: the more signals per day, the shorter the form should be.
While limiting questions can in some ways reduce the reliability of in-
formation, keep in mind that the aggregation of the data collected will
provide increased reliability, and a broad look at a person’s behavior
across a range of situations (Csikszentmihalyi and Larson, 1987). For
the purposes of behavior change, it is suggested completed forms on a daily basis, and so you
to use 4–6 signals per day, with no more than 8 should ask that your clients return their survey
rating questions (these can be completed more forms to you on a bi-weekly basis. Further, to
quickly) and 1 one-sentence descriptive question. avoid habituation to the questions, which has
been shown to occur with the use of the ESM
Explain the Importance of Responding (Hormuth, 1986), you should collect data for no
Immediately and Consistently more than four weeks at a time.
As you know, the quality of ESM data de- Now that your clients are familiar with the
pends on your clients’ immediate and consis- ESM, we will turn our attention to the next
tent response. However, there is an important steps of using the ESM with your clients. These
trade-off in that potentially more responses are: choosing the survey questions, assigning
will be gained if clients are allowed to respond the intervals, and measuring change.
to signals at a later or more convenient time.
However, as you already know, a greater time- Choosing the Survey Questions
lag can lead to increased memory biases that
While there are a myriad of questions that can
can contaminate reports, and thus defeat the
be used with the ESM, you also know that more
purpose of experience sampling. Therefore, it
extensive questions could potentially lead to
is best to restrict responses, to no more than
decreased participation. Further, as we discussed
thirty minutes after receiving the signal (Cerin
in the section above, questions that ask directly
et al., 2001; Diener and Larsen, 1984; but twenty
about a behavior have the potential to amplify
minutes in Csikszentmihalyi and Larson, 1987;
the behavior (through increased self-monitoring
Stone et al., 1998), and to explain to your clients
and the observer effect), while questions that ask
that responding within thirty minutes is essen-
about feelings and thoughts that are presumed
tial to make the ESM more effective.
to be associated with the behavior will help to
uncover any behavioral contingencies. In terms
Collect Data on a Bi-weekly Basis for No
of designing the ESM survey questions that will
More Than Four Weeks
best promote behavior change in your client,
One consistency that has been identified with it is best to begin with a list of three behaviors
the ESM is that the quality of data appears to you would like to increase, and three behaviors
decline after 2–4 weeks of data collection (Stone you would like to decrease. For example, you
et al., 1991). Here, it may be that once partici- may wish to increase your client’s feelings of
pants become aware of what is being collected, happiness, their energy level, and their feelings
it is much easier for them to fabricate answers, of control, while decreasing their feelings of
or to complete the forms all at one sitting (as isolation, overeating, and avoidance of exercise.
opposed to responding to the signal every time). However, these behavioral goals should not be
This problem has been shown to be overcome shared with your client as the validity of the ESM
by requiring participants to turn in their (like any research intervention) depends on your

278 | Unit 6
client being unaware of what is being assessed. Once you have a list of
desirable and undesirable behaviors, there are four things to keep in
mind when designing the ESM questions.
Ask Direct Questions to Amplify Behaviors

For any behavior that you are seeking to increase (such as exercising,
eating healthy, or sleeping), it is best to use direct questions, such as,
“On a scale of 0–4, how healthy do you feel?” or “On a scale of 0–4,
how happy do you feel?” or “On a scale of 0–4, how physically fit do
you feel?” Questions such as these draw your clients’ awareness to
the behavior the question is asking about, and therefore can act as a
behavioral priming device, whereby they will begin to think more
about how healthy, fit, and happy they feel. Thinking about this may
not only increase their awareness of the times they do not feel this
way, but will also motivate them to participate in activities that pro-
mote these feelings (such as exercising, spending time with friends,
and eating healthy).
Avoid Direct Questions About Behaviors to Be Reduced

For the same reason that asking directly about a desired behavior
can increase its occurrence, asking about an undesired behavior
may also lead to its increase. Much in the same way that asking
alcoholics if they felt like drinking draws their attention to drinking
(and possibly makes them want to drink) asking clients about the
times they feel like eating poorly or skipping exercise may increase
their focus on (and potential participation in) these things. For this
reason, survey questions should avoid asking direct questions—such
as, “On a scale of 0–4, rate, how much you felt like overeating?” or
“On a scale of 0–4, rate how well you did at controlling your sugar
intake today?”—about any undesirable behaviors.
Ask Questions About Events and Feelings Possibly

Correlated With Behaviors to Be Increased or Reduced
Behavioral and
emotional contingencies: Because one of the benefits of the ESM is that it helps to uncover
behavioral and emotional
connections, such as behavioral and emotional contingencies, questions can be de-
isolation and overeating. signed to ask about conditions that are hypothesized to be linked
to behavioral states that you wish to enhance to provide information that is not only more
or reduce. For example, if feelings of a lack of accurate, but easier for clients to complete.
control are thought to precede overeating, a
question that asks clients to rate their level of Assigning the Intervals
control, alongside a question that asks them to
describe what they are doing will reveal (or not) From the discussion above, you know that
this connection. Similarly, if increased feelings there are three types of ESM intervals to choose
of productivity are presumed to coincide with from. While each of these types has specific
increased time spent exercising, a question that purposes (interval-contingent signals eliminate
asks your clients to rate their level of productiv- the need for wearable devices, while event-con-
ity along with a descriptive question about their tingent intervals isolate specific events and their
experience would explore this connection. Oth- resultant behavioral and emotional responses),
er examples of questions include: “On a scale of it should also be clear that signal-contingent
0–4, how happy are you with your marriage?” intervals (also known as random sampling)
and “On a scale of 0–4, how happy are you with are the type of ESM used most consistency
your work?” Again, while there is a wide range and with most efficacy in the field of behav-
of questions you could design, they should ioral change. Therefore for the purpose of this
be presented in a rating form, and accompa- course, we use the signal-contingent types of
ny a question about your clients descriptive ESM.
experiences.
Measuring Change
Ask for a One-sentence Description While there are numerous ways to measure
of Situations Alongside the Measured change both objectively (pounds lost, strength
Behaviors and endurance gains, and changes in body
While a descriptive question is an essential composition) and subjectively (self-reports of
component of an ESM survey design, it should subjective well-being), for the purpose of behav-
be limited to one sentence. This accomplishes ior change, the ESM offers three primary ways
two things: it reduces the burdensome nature to measure change:
of describing an experience multiple times
throughout the day, and it focuses on provid- Reductions in Undesirable Behavior
ing information in the present tense. Because
While the ESM provides a way to identify
the ESM works through real-time data, when
behavioral and emotional contingencies, which
the descriptive experience includes informa-
may uncover which events and situations
tion about what a person did in the past, or is
appear to precede which behaviors, they also
thinking about doing in the future, it is subject
provide a very accurate way to measure the ex-
to memory biases, and miscalculations in pre-
tent to which undesirable behaviors occur. For
dictive behavior—for this reason, limiting the
example, let’s say that the initial data collected
experience description to one sentence is a way

280 | Unit 6
through the ESM reveals that a client is over- measure improvements in their attitude toward
eating four times per week; it would be possible change. And as you know from the discussion on
to measure if this behavior decreases over the commitment strategies, a client’s attitude toward
course of the four weeks through which data change is the strongest predicator of continued
was collected with the ESM. involvement.
Increases in Desirable Behavior Using Experience Sampling to

Maintain Change
In the same way that reductions in undesir-
able behavior can be identified through the Because the ESM offer the opportunity for such
use of the ESM, behaviors that you would like a rich collection of data, the opportunities to
your client to increase can also be measured. promote change extend beyond what typical
For example, while initial data collection may behavioral assessments would allow, and also
expose that your client eats vegetables only two provide a vast opportunity to maintain change
times per week, through collecting data for four long after the ESM study. However, maintaining
weeks, it would be possible to measure if they this change depends upon making the informa-
begin to eat vegetables more frequently. tion obtained through the ESM accessible and
easy to apply. Because the ESM provides such
Improvements in Attitude Toward a broad based assessment of a person (and the
Change many behavioral nuances that may exist), it can
be helpful to organize the results of an ESM
Perhaps one of the most exciting advantages of study in the following two ways:
the ESM is the ability to measure subtle shifts in
a client’s attitude toward elements of the change
Make a List of the Emotions,
process. For example, while the initial data
Thoughts, and Situations That Precede
collection may expose that your client reports
Undesirable Behaviors
low levels of happiness while exercising, over
the course of collecting data for four weeks, you Frequently, ESM studies will elucidate con-
may see that your client’s attitude toward ex- nections between undesirable behaviors and
ercise shifts, and they begin to associate more external events that your clients may not have
positive feelings with exercise. Similarly, you known existed. For example, they may not have
may uncover that in the first week of using the known that every time they felt frustrated at
ESM, your client reported feeling overwhelmed work, they were less likely to go to the gym,
when trying to order healthy food at a restau- or that overeating often coincided with being
rant, yet over the course of the four weeks, they frustrated with their partner. Through making
reported lower levels of anxiety associated with a list of all of the external events that precede
eating out. It is in this way that the ESM not undesirable behaviors, your clients will become
only provides an inside look at just the way your much more aware of the connections that lead
client experiences change, but offers a way to to the behaviors they are trying to change, and
will have a powerful tool in making and main- including, supplements to improve her sleep,
taining change. eating more protein at night, and self-motiva-
tional strategies to curb her behavior. However,
Make a List of Emotions, Thoughts, while Joy could abstain from eating at night for
and Situations That Correspond With a few nights, she always regressed and found
Desirable Behaviors herself again at the refrigerator in the middle of
the night. To uncover if there were any correla-
Just as with undesirable behaviors, most likely
tions between Joy’s eating at night and other
there will be several external events that corre-
behaviors, situations, and events, I chose for her
spond with desirable behaviors that your clients
an ESM approach with survey questions that
are unaware of. For example, before doing the
targeted her feelings of anxiety and control, as
ESM study, they may not be aware that their
well as any situations that involved her address-
mood is better while exercising in the evening
ing her financial situation. After the first week,
versus exercising in the morning, or that their
what emerged was that any time Joy had to pay
higher levels of concentration correspond with
bills, or address her finances in any way, her in-
better food choices. It is connections such as
somnia (and eating at night) were exacerbated.
these that will allow your clients to make pivot-
Additionally, when Joy had planned a long run
al shifts in their behavior, and through making
the next day, she also ate more at night. In re-
a list of the emotions, thoughts, and situations
viewing the results from the four weeks of data
that correspond with their desirable behaviors,
collection we found two important connec-
they will be able to refer back to this list as a
tions: Joy’s feelings of anxiety precipitated her
way to maintain behavioral change.
insomnia and eating at night, and Joy’s anxiety
was highly connected to her increased running
Experience Sampling Examples of mileage (especially long runs in the morn-
Change ing) and worries about her finances. Once Joy
Now that you are familiar with the ESM and became aware of these connections, something
the ways in which it can be a potent resource in interesting happened: her eating at night de-
promoting behavioral change, let’s take a look creased. In Joy’s words, “Just knowing what was
at a few case studies. going on, made conquering it so much easier.”
On her own, Joy decided to make her running
Joy schedule more flexible, incorporating shorter
runs done more frequently, and took steps to
Joy was a 39-year-old woman who had been address her finances. Through taking these two
active most of her life. However, Joy began to small steps, Joy was able to make significant
experience insomnia late in to her thirties and reductions in her nighttime eating.
developed a habit of waking in the middle of
the night and eating. In an attempt to con- Rebecca
trol this behavior, Joy had tried many things,
Rebecca was 25-year-old woman who had a

282 | Unit 6
history of inconsistency in her fitness routine. Shane

While at times she would work out every day,
Shane was a 35-year-old man who had a his-
eat healthy, and could lose as much as thirty
tory of troubled weight loss. While he could
pounds, at other times, she lost motivation,
lose weight without much difficulty, he always
completely went off her eating routine, and
regained it—and sometimes more. However, his
didn’t work out at all. In Rebecca’s description,
eating habits seemed to follow a strong polarity:
“I never know why I can’t seem to stay motivat-
he either was on a strict diet, or he ate whatever
ed; I can get there, but I know I will always fall
he wanted. For Shane there appeared to be no
off the wagon at some point.” Because I suspect-
middle ground. In order to attempt to uncov-
ed that Rebecca’s behavioral lability might be
er any emotional contingencies that might be
reflective of an underlying emotion, I designed
influencing his behavior, I designed the survey
the ESM survey questions in such a way as
questions in such a way as to assess his feelings
to assess her feelings of control, anxiety, and
of anger, deprivation, and control. At the time
competence, to hopefully identify any correla-
of the ESM inception, Shane had just begun to
tions between these feelings and her exercise
try to eat healthy, which as he said, was always
behavior. After four weeks, when Rebecca and
the time that he either, “decided to go for it, or
I reviewed the data, what emerged was a strong
give up.” Upon beginning the ESM, I told Shane
connection between her feelings of control
to simply continue eating and exercising (or
and competence and her tendency to exercise.
not) as he normally would, as I wanted to gain
Stated precisely, when she felt like she had little
an accurate picture of his behavior as well as
control, or even felt incompetent, she avoided
any correlations that may be affecting it. After
exercise. Conversely, it was only when she felt
looking at the results of the data, Shane and I
competent and in control that she engaged in
found an interesting connection: any time his
exercise. Interestingly, what these findings also
feelings of deprivation heightened, he went off
revealed was that it was through exercise that
his diet and binged on all of his desired foods.
she felt much more in control and competent.
Additionally, Shane’s feelings of deprivation
That is to say that her reports of control and
seemed to correspond to his feelings of a lack
competence were higher after exercising than
of control. That is, when he felt he had little
before. In uncovering this connection, Rebecca
control in his life, he wanted more control over
was able to see that, while she often avoided
what he ate. When Shane was able to see that
exercise when she felt out of control and not
his eating behavior was reflecting his feelings of
competent, it was exactly these times when
control and deprivation, he made the decision
exercising might help her the most. In becom-
to adopt a less stringent approach to eating,
ing aware of this, Rebecca shifted her view of
allowing more desirable foods along with his
exercising from one of an “unenjoyable duty” to
healthy choices. Not only did this allow him to
one of a “mental booster.” In seeing exercise in
avoid the cycle of restrict and binge, but also
this way, Rebecca was able to maintain a consis-
allowed him to feel less deprived and more pos-
tency in her exercise behavior, avoiding the past
itive toward the process of losing weight.
highs and lows.
Summary
The state of flow is similar to a self-transcendent can also be effective at helping clients identify
experience in that one feels completely im- states in which they may be experiencing flow
mersed in the activity and experiences a feel- is through the use of an experience sampling
ing of oneness and a loss of awareness of time. method (ESM). The ESM uses signaling devices
Characterized by the following factors: intense that prompt clients to answer questions about the
and focused concentration, merging of action activities they are doing and their feelings about
and awareness, a loss of reflective self-con- them to uncover connections between activities
sciousness, a sense of personal control over the and resulting emotions—some of which may be
situation, a distortion of temporal awareness, optimal experiences. Through first familiarizing
and the experience of the activity as autotelic, the client with the ESM approach, then design-
flow comes with some serious psychological ing a study that utilizes short answer questions,
benefits, from improved awareness and height- with no more than four to six signals per day,
ened strengths to improved life satisfaction, trainers can help clients identify those states that
creativity, affective states, sports performance are most pleasurable and those that are undesir-
and self-esteem. To get into flow, the following able, as well as their attitude toward change. Of-
three conditions must be met: a clear set of ten what is revealed for clients is that some states
goals, immediate feedback, and the perception they may not have anticipated are more enjoyable
that there is a good balance between our skills than at first thought, while others that they may
and the challenges of the task. have predicated to have minimal impact on their
feelings actually have a profound effect on them.
Trainers can be very effective at helping their
Using this technique, the trainer becomes a
clients facilitate flow states when they utilize
pivotal force in helping the client reach optimal
activities that have clear goals, offer immediate
experience, and helping them ultimately create
feedback, and a challenge level that meets the cli-
the lifestyle that offers the most enjoyment.
ent’s perception of their skills. One way trainers

APPENDIX
The Complete Change Workbook

The Complete Change Workbook | 285
Appendix Outline
1. Self-Motivation Booster: At Home Exercises to 3. Change Methods That Work: The Complete
Supercharge Motivation Commitment Strategy Guide
a. Mastery 4. Am I Getting Better? How to Use Experience
b. Autonomy Sampling to Propel Change
c. Purpose a. Design the Study
2. Get Positive: Positive Psychology Skills to Cre- b. Inspiring Change

ate a Winning Mindset
a. Optimisim
b. Gratitude
c. Meaning
d. Achievement
Changing behavior is not easy. It involves perse- rewards, and sometimes even use positive
verance, consistent effort, a willingness to con- self-statements. But when it comes to motiva-
tinue trying (even after failure), and a stealthy tion, there are really only three things we have
amount of motivation. However, changing to keep in mind: mastery, autonomy, and pur-
behavior is much easier when you have the right pose. I call this the MAP of motivation. With-
tools. In this guide, you will learn how to ignite out these three core components, any attempt
the flame of motivation, think in optimistic to change our behavior is usually short lived.
ways, adopt a growth mindset, find meaning So let’s take a look at how you can use MAP to
and engagement in life, develop deeper, more supercharge your motivation.
meaningful relationships, use small gains to
reach larger goals, find a sense of flow, use pow- Mastery
erful commitment devices to propel change,
and utilize the experience sampling method to Anytime you are trying to change your behav-
create a more meaningful, fulfilled, and happy ior, there is always a new behavior to be learned,
life. So let’s get started! assimilated, and integrated into your life. How-
ever, one thing that makes integrating a new
behavior difficult is when we don’t understand
Self-Motivation Booster: it, or don’t feel confident doing it. Changing
At Home Exercises to behavior is highly linked to self-confidence and
self-efficacy (the degree to which we feel we
Supercharge Motivation
are capable of change). And not surprisingly,
There are many ways we try to motivate our- the more capable we feel—and the greater our
selves. We add incentives, promise ourselves feelings of mastery—the better our motivation

286 | Appendix
toward the change becomes. In order to build a to the gym twice in one day for one week. You
sense of mastery into a new behavior, there are could also use challenges to change your eat-
a few things we can do. ing behavior. For example, you could make it a
competition with yourself to see if you can eat
Learn Something no later than 6 PM all week, or if you can eat
200 less calories every day of the week for one
Let’s say you are trying to lose weight. How week. Challenges like this turn the often dreary
could you incorporate something to learn that task of changing behavior into a fun game with
will help you with this goal? Perhaps you could challenges to be mastered.
educate yourself about the role of macronu-
trients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) in
Reach a Goal
energy metabolism, and practice altering your
diet until your energy is at a peak. Or may- Mastery is highly linked to setting, pursuing,
be you could learn about how to use strength and reaching goals. And goals themselves, are
training to build muscle and lose fat, and design powerful motivators when they are used in
a program for yourself that utilizes what you concert with mastery. For example, choosing
have learned. You could also use goals as learn- the goal of running a marathon (or 10K) that
ing incentives. For example, you could enter also involves learning how to train for the race
a running race (a 10K race, half marathon, or not only ignites the desire to reach the goal, but
marathon) and then devote yourself to learning also the innate desire to grow and master new
how to train for the race. All of these are effec- skills. Some other goals that incorporate learn-
tive ways to turn the task of losing weight into ing include signing up for a tennis tournament
an opportunity to learn something new, and to and learning how to perfect your tennis game,
ignite your motivation in the process. entering a bike tour and learning how to train
for the event, and signing up for a vacation that
Create a Challenge involves riding horses and taking riding lessons
to prepare. Adding goals such as these shifts the
Challenges are fantastic ways to draw upon our focus from how best to change behavior to how
innate desire for mastery. That is, when in a best to reach the goal—which does much more
competitive environment (even if we are com- for our motivation.
peting with ourselves), we are naturally com-
pelled to engage, perfect, and use our strengths
to meet the challenge. Using the weight loss ex- Autonomy
ample from above, we could create a challenge Making important decisions—especially those
to run (or walk) ten miles in one week. Or if that involve making a change—for many reasons
you are already running (or walking) ten miles, is highly linked to a sense of autonomy. For one
you could increase the challenge to fifteen thing, people are much more likely to follow
miles in one week. Similarly, you could create their own intentions than those of other people.
a challenge to add “double days”, where you go Additionally, a sense of control over the decisions
(and the process of change) is a crucial compo- or advice—you certainly can—but ultimately,
nent of motivation. When we feel like the choices you must choose how you use that advice. For
we make are in our control, and serve our own example, while you may seek the help of a per-
interests (as opposed to trying to appease some- sonal trainer to lose weight, and this trainer will
one else), not only do we feel a sense of own- teach you the important parts of strength train-
ership over them, but we are also much more ing and nutrition, you should not rely solely on
motivated to do them. Here are a few ways we this advice. Instead, continue to educate yourself,
could incorporate a sense of autonomy when we incorporating useful aspects from everything
want to adopt a new behavior: you learn into something that uniquely suits you.
Choosing your own approach in this way is a
Choose Your Own Goals powerful way to take ownership over your goals,
and to ignite your motivation.
Especially when you are trying to do something
that you haven’t done before, it’s so easy to allow
Choose Your Own Trajectory
another person to choose goals for you. In some
ways, it’s easier on you too—you don’t have to Once you have met your goals, where you go
think about it. But autonomy depends on you from there is up to you. While others may tell
making the decisions about what you want. And you that the next best thing for you to do is to
it starts with your goals. So let’s say you are try- compete in a race, become a fitness instructor,
ing to lose weight. Ask yourself where you want or a weight loss counselor, the life path you
to be next week, next month, in six months, and follow (your trajectory) is yours to choose. Ask
in one year, and then set these goals for yourself. yourself what is most important to you, what
If others tell you your goals are unreasonable, brings you the greatest sense of achievement,
that’s fine, they are not their goals, they are your satisfaction, and joy. And go after it. If others
goals. If you fail to reach them, you can look tell you it is not right for you, or not possible,
back, ask what you can learn and what you need that’s fine. Maybe it’s not right for them. But
to do differently, and then start again. The pro- this is your life, and your path to follow. And
cess is yours and when you take ownership over when you follow it, so does your motivation.
it, your motivation soars.
Purpose
Choose Your Own Approach
Having a sense of purpose lies at the heart of
Like goals, the methods we use to reach them are everything we do. Purpose not only connects us
so easily influenced by others. Especially when to something larger than ourselves, it also helps
you are trying to do something you haven’t done us to attach our efforts to those around us, and
before, its easy for others to tell you how to do it. in a way that makes what we do a contribution
But when you follow other people’s methods— to the greater community around us. When
just like goals—they become theirs, not yours. we find a meaning beyond ourselves, one that
That is not to say that you can’t take instruction transcends our self-interests, it gives what we do

288 | Appendix
tremendous impact—not just for others, but for when starting a new behavior (or anytime when
ourselves too. Not surprisingly, people are much your motivation wanes). So ask yourself, who
more motivated when they feel their efforts help can you help, or who are you best and uniquely
others. Here are a few ways we can use a sense equipped to advise, inspire, or counsel. Maybe
of purpose to help shift behavior: through becoming fit, for example, you will feel
distinctly suited to advise other people who face
Ask Yourself Why What You Do challenges like yours. Or perhaps, becoming fit
Matters will connect you with your talent for motivation
and you will start groups to help others reach
Anytime we change a behavior or start some- their goals. When you can attach your efforts to
thing new, there are always questions, self-doubt, helping others, not only are their lives improved,
and ambivalence. What we are doing is new, but so is your motivation.
and we are not yet sure it is right for us (or that
we will be able to accomplish it). It is when we
Ask What You Can Help Others Do
ask questions like these that we most need to be
aware of why what we are doing matters. Ask The more specifically we understand the ways
yourself, what will be different for those around in which what we do matters to those around
you if you make a change, or what contribution us, and the more uniquely we can bridge our
could you make to the lives of those around efforts to the goals of others, the greater our
you through this change. If your goal is to lose motivation becomes. Especially when we see that
weight for example, maybe the perception of our contributions have helped others to reach
your children will be radically shifted when they their goals, we feel driven to continue helping.
see you work hard and accomplish something To identify just what you can help others do, ask
that is very challenging. Or perhaps, when you yourself, what goals can you help those around
are able to finish your master’s degree you will you reach, what can you help people accomplish,
be able to work in a field where others’ lives will or in what ways can you help improve the lives
be changed through your efforts. Understanding of others. Understanding just what you can help
deeper reasons such as these can help you see people accomplish not only connects you to their
that what you do has a unique and specific pur- accomplishments, but also, very powerfully, to
pose—which also does wonders for motivation. your own motivation too.
Ask Who You Can Help Get Positive: Positive

Knowing that others are affected by our efforts Psychology Skills to
is a huge component of motivation. Especially
Create a Winning
when we see just the ways in which what we do
can change the lives of those around us. It ignites Mindset
an innate drive within us to continue what we Creating a winning mindset consists of many
are doing. And this can be extremely useful factors. We have to learn to think optimistically,
cultivate gratitude, find meaning, experience And the more a pessimist adopts this way of
achievement, develop trusting relationships and thinking, the less likely they are to see the times
find engagement in what we do. In this guide, when things go well. Much in the same way that
you will find several exercises that will help you doing a daily gratitude list primes the brain to
with each of these things. Keep in mind that find the positive things around us, using pes-
developing mental strength is a process, and like simistic attributions primes the brain to find
developing physical strength, one that depends pessimistic explanations—even when things go
on consistent practice. well. To overcome this then, we have to learn to
find unique outcomes. That is, the times when
Optimism the outcomes are positive.
When it comes to optimism, much of it is To help you begin to find unique outcomes,
related to how we think—especially about bad then, consider the following prompts:
events. When bad things happen, thinking in • Describe a time when you thought things
permanent and pervasive ways not only makes were going to go poorly, and instead they
the negative feelings associated with the event worked out well.
last longer, but also paralyzes our resources
• Describe a time when something bad hap-
to respond adaptively. For pessimists, the real pened, yet you learned a valuable lesson.
problem is them thinking in too rigid, inflexible
• Describe a time when something positive
ways. Because pessimists categorize adversity
unexpectedly happened.
in a formulaic way, their responses also tend to
follow a pattern—that is, to be immobilized by • Tell me about a time when you were pleasant-
adversity. On the flip side of things, when pos- ly surprised.
itive things happen, pessimists also use pattern • Tell me about a time when someone exceed-
explanations that fail to identify the unique out- ed your expectations.
comes that successes represent for them. Much • Describe a time when your expectations
in the same way an optimist will quickly brush about a situation were exceeded.
off a bad event and carry forward with their
The goal of these prompts is to help you see past
sunny nature, a pessimist will quickly brush
rigid thinking and patterned explanations, and
off a good event and continue seeing the glass
begin to question the permanent ways in which
as half empty. Becoming more optimistic takes
you might typically describe things. In identify-
practice. Here are a few exercises that will boost
ing these unique outcomes, you will also become
your optimism:
more open to an optimistic explanatory style,
and then to hopefully taking a more optimistic
Finding Unique Outcomes
approach to events in your life. Ultimately, you
As you know, the pessimist sees things in will be shifting your view of yourself, from some-
predictable and rigid ways, which unfortunate- one who is held hostage by adversity, to someone
ly tends toward patterned gloomy outcomes.

290 | Appendix
who can find positive outcomes in things—even things like, “Sometimes bad things happen,”
when things don’t go well. “My boss was in a bad mood,” “I was late leav-
ing the house,” or, “I neglected to strengthen
Let’s now take a look at how you can find alter-
my knee properly to run.” While the explana-
native (and more adaptive) attributions.
tions you choose to use for these negative events
can be anything you like, the important thing
Finding Alternative Explanations is that you stay away from permanent causes
Because the pessimist is used to explaining (using words like “always” and “never”) and
things in a characteristic way—usually neg- instead find explanations related to temporary
atively— they often do not see past these ex- (and fixable) conditions.
planations. That is, they lack the very creative Now take a look at the following list of state-
thinking that alternative explanations depend ments which describes positive events.
on. Much of the problem is due to the pessi-
mist’s familiarity with a defeatist way of think- • You got a promotion at work.
ing. Because there is a comfort and predictabili- • Your spouse (or significant other) surprised
ty (remember that pessimists do not have a high you with a gift.
tolerance for uncertainty) in their attributions, • You won a prize in a drawing.
pessimists, although they may desire for things
• You were able to run farther than your
to be different, may also be uncomfortable
thought possible.
with the uncertainty that could bring. This, of
course, complicates the process of finding al- • You reached your fitness goals.
ternative explanations. However, finding alter- Again, write down three to five explanations for
native attributions, just like learning to tolerate each positive event, but now using permanent
uncertainty, can be improved with practice. causes. You could list things like, “I am a hard
To help you find alternative explanations, look worker,” “I put a lot of effort into the things I
at the following list of statements, which de- do,” or, “I am a lucky person”. Here, again, the
scribe negative events. words you choose to use are up to you, but what
is important is that the attributions incorpo-
• You were fired from your job. rate stable traits, which are descriptive of your
• You injured your knee running. character, as opposed to temporary conditions
or those that exist outside of yourself.
• Your car was stolen.
• Someone very close to you became ill. Through drawing your attention to unique out-
comes, and encouraging yourself to find alterna-
• Your missed your flight.
tive explanations for events in your life, the goal
Next, write down three to five possible expla- of these exercises is to help you learn to think
nations for each of these negative events using optimistically. And as you know, optimism de-
temporary causes. For instance, you could list termines not just the words you chose to explain
the events in your life, but more importantly, greater variety of things to be grateful for, but
how you respond to those events. that finding them becomes easier. You will
become what Achor calls “more primed to the
Gratitude positive,” and your brain will simply get better
at getting grateful.
Positive emotions are a very important part of
creating a life of well-being. Generating positive
Give Thanks
emotions through activities such as taking a
walk, enjoying a sunset, and eating a tasty meal Another way to improve gratitude is to offer
are what create a pleasurable life, and one worth thanks. When we offer thanks to those around
living. Recent studies in positive psychology us, like keeping gratitude lists, our brain be-
have demonstrated that when performing tasks comes more primed to the positives as we
designed to raise gratitude levels, people do ex- search for reasons to thank people.
perience a significant boost in their mood, which
To do this exercise, write, verbally deliver, or in
lasts till well after they stop doing them (Achor,
some measurable way, communicate thanks to
2010). In terms of where best to allocate energy
three people a day. You can choose any three
to create more positive emotion, gratitude seems
people you like, such as close family members,
to be the best bet. Even further, performing acts
extended family members, coworkers, or even
of gratitude orients the brain to notice more
strangers. Again, the people you choose, or
positives and to pay less attention to negatives,
what you thank them for, is not important—it is
which enhances the effect (Achor, 2010). Here are
the act of thanking them that matters. However,
some exercises you can do to boost your grati-
like a gratitude list, you must choose three dif-
tude (also listed in Module Four).
ferent people every day. Also, keep a list of who
you thank every day, and for what reasons, so as
Do A Gratitude List
not to duplicate.
To do a gratitude list, write down three new
As you move through this exercise, what you
things you are grateful for every day for twen-
will find is not only that offering thanks be-
ty-one days. You can list things like your child’s
comes more natural, but that you enjoy doing it.
smile, your family’s health, nice weather, a
And finding joy in things is a crucial part of a
compliment someone gave you, your ability to
happy life.
help someone in need, or even simple things
like having a roof over your head and food on
Give Back
the table. There are no right or wrong answers.
What is important is simply that you list three Helping others not just connects us with our
new things every day, and avoid repeating the own capacities and skills, but also deeply
same answers. connects us to our sense of purpose, and our
sense of gratitude. When we search for ways to
Over time, what you will find is not just a
be helpful, we also search our own skills and

292 | Appendix
strengths and look for unique ways to apply • www.good.is/post/the-good-30-day-chal-

them in ways that are impactful not just for lenge-become-a-good-citizen Each day of the
month, this site suggests a different way to
others, but ourselves as well.
give.
In this exercise, you will perform one act of ser- • www.kickstarter.com Known as the world’s
vice per week. You can choose the act yourself, largest funding platform for creative projects,
but as a starter you can look at the following list Kickstarter hosts a variety of projects—ev-
of resources, or find another resource entirely erything from games, books, movies, art,
that suits your interests, such as a charity or music, plays, and services and products—all
that need funding to launch. You can also
volunteer organization.
watch the progress of a project you fund, and
Here is the list of some giving resources: see your name listed as one of the project’s
supporters.
• www.freecycle.org The freecycle community
is an online list of people with things to give, • www.kiva.org On Kiva, you can identify
and people with things they need. You can opportunities to make microloans of $25 or
search the list as a way to connect with oth- more to entrepreneurs in the developing
ers, and to see what they need and what you world. Like Kickstarter, you can see and track
can give away. the progress of the people you help.
• www.humaxnetworks.com This site offers a While it is up to you to choose what act of

suite of social networking tools for individu- service you perform every day, keep a daily
als and organizations. There are materials to list to ensure that a different act is performed
run a “reciprocity ring,” where a community every day.
of people—typically fifteen to thirty—come
together, and as each person presents their Giving is a natural remedy for boosting positive
request to group members, they make a con- emotions. Not only will you find that giving im-
tribution too, such as knowledge, resources, proves your sense of well-being, but giving also
and connections, to fulfill each other’s needs.
creates positive feelings that are powerful and
• www.hopemob.org This initiative is called have long-lasting purpose—crucial components
“the place where generous strangers unite to of creating the life you want.
bring immediate hope to people with press-
ing needs all over the world.”
Meaning
• www.thekindnessoffensive.com The Kindness
Offensive is a group of people who strive to The pursuit of meaning is an essential part of
be aggressively helpful, organizing some of well-being. Yet, recent statistics from the Cen-
the greatest acts of random kindness in his- ter for Disease Control estimate that 4 out of
tory. They’ve provided a toy for every child in
10 Americans have not yet discovered a satisfy-
a hospital in London, given away a half a mil-
ing life purpose. Much of the reason for this is
lion pancakes, distributed tons of giveaways
at festivals around Britain, and provided free
that we often confuse happiness with meaning.
medical supplies and housing to support Meaning is a much larger and more complex
families in need. concept than happiness, and is intrinsically
connected to something larger than ourselves. spirituality (or lack thereof), personal goals,
That is, in order to find meaning, we need to be hobbies, and things you are passionate about.
giving ourselves (or our services) to something You can list anything from honesty and integrity
beyond ourselves. Meaning is also strongest to connection and trust. You can also list things
when we feel as though our strengths and skills such as acclaim, success, and feeling significant
uniquely position us for the task at hand. But and appreciated. Once you have created a list, ask
part of the problem is, as much as we pursue yourself the following questions:
meaning, it doesn’t happen extemporaneously.
• What values no longer seem important?
Rather, it involves the deliberate dedication of
our strengths toward something that has deep • What values now seem more important?
importance to us. The process of finding mean- Once you have answered these questions, it’s up
ing, then, can be one of trial and error. First, we to you as to how to proceed. The most import-
have to determine what matters to us—what is ant thing is that you now have a clearer sense of
deeply important to us. We also have to know what you value.
our values, priorities, and strengths. And then,
we simply have to try things until they “feel” Re-Aligning Priorities
right. Here are some ways to find more meaning
in your life: Like values, priorities are at the heart of change.
How we understand our priorities often regulates
Assessing Values how we conduct our lives, and the importance
we give to activities in our life. And change is
Changing your life, and then constructing one often inspired by a conflict between what we
that better fits you depends on knowing your would like to happen (the ideal), and what we are
values, When we know what is important to us, actually doing (the reality). This conflict reflects
we can go about crafting the life that reflects a crucial misunderstanding of our values. Of-
that. But we have to start with what matters. Un- ten, we find that we are not living in accordance
derstanding (and often changing) values is at the with what is really important to us. Identifying
root of changing lives, and here, even adversity priorities can also be a very powerful motivator
can offer a unique opportunity. When you are for change because it highlights a disconnect that
faced with the realization that something in your materializes often in undesirable ways. Priorities,
life has to change, the desire for change, and for aligned with behavior, constitute the recipe for
growth, is catalyzed. The next step is for you to change. However, you must first become aware
carry out an unbiased appraisal of your values, of what your current priorities are, and then
and determine what values will now work under re-align them to reflect your current reality. To
the changed circumstances. To do this, you can do this, you can do what I call priorities ranking.
use what I call a values assessment. A values Start by listing the most important thing in your
assessment begins by you making a list of all of life, and put a number one next to it. Then, write
the values you can think of, considering every down the second most important thing and put
area of life, such as family, career, friendships,

294 | Appendix
a number two next to it. Continue with this list no right or wrong answers. The goal is simply for
until you have listed ten items. Then, ask yourself you to consider what you enjoy doing, regardless
the following questions: of the extrinsic payment attached to it. It is what
you do just because you feel good doing it, not
• Have any priorities become more important
now?
for any other reason. The answers to this ques-
tion are typically autotelic in nature, meaning
• Have any priorities become less important
that they are rewarding in and of themselves.
now?
For this reason, autotelic activities do not require
Once you have the answers, recreate the list, external motivating factors, such as fame, power,
ranking the priorities as they now apply. Here or wealth. For example, you may find that you
again, where you go from here is up to you. enjoy rescuing dogs because it feels rewarding
What is important is that you have a clear idea to you. Similarly, you may find yourself helping
of what your priorities now are. out at your child’s school because, again, it feels
rewarding to you.
Take the Volunteer Test
What autotelic activities—things that do not
Volunteering, because there is no compensa- offer external rewards—do for you is they ease
tion, is a wonderful way to consider what really your natural resistance to trying something
matters to you. When we remove money from different. Because the rewards for volunteering
the equation, we begin to think differently are internal, and the service you offer is free of
about what we’d like to do with our time, what charge, the evaluation of progress is measured
our unique talents and strengths are, and how in terms of how you feel. By asking yourself
we can use them to help others. Volunteer- questions like “Did I enjoy doing this?” “Did I
ing also orients us toward helping others, and feel good when I did it?” external evaluators,
re-connects us with the joy of giving back (or like money and status, become secondary. More
paying forward). But more importantly, volun- importantly, you will be uncovering what is
teering, because it involves acting beyond our truly meaningful for you.
own interests, is a very powerful way to find
meaning. One way to begin to find meaning, is Achievement
to take what I call the volunteer test.
For most people, finding a sense of achievement
Begin by asking yourself the following question: can feel like a vast and often complex endeavor.
Much of the reason for this is due to the fact that
If money were not a factor, and I could volunteer
achievement is often linked to accomplishing
my time anywhere I choose, what would I do?
something large and admirable. However, as you
Next, write down the first three things that come can imagine, this construction of achievement
to your mind. You can list things like “help at also acts as a barrier. The reality is that what is
the animal shelter,” “volunteer at an elementary considered admirable is entirely subjective and
school,” or “help at a homeless shelter.” There are not something that lends itself to an external
standard. What one person may consider an 100 pounds). By breaking things into smaller
achievement, may have no importance to an- pieces, you can find a way around the fear and
other. But what this also means is that in terms anxiety associated with larger goals. But more
of our experiencing a sense of achievement, importantly, you begin to experience a sense of
what matters most is our own perception of our achievement early on, which not only enhances
triumphs. This also holds tremendous promise, motivation, it also enhances well-being.
because what this means is that achievement can
To begin, write down the following list of goals:
come in any size. And often, the road to large
achievements is paved by smaller, more seeming- 1. One-year goal.
ly insignificant ones along the way. Using smaller 2. Six-month goal.
achievements to create larger ones is a frame-
3. Three-month goal.
work with which to not only experience a greater
sense of achievement, but also to understand the 4. One-month goal.
process of change. By starting with more man- 5. Two-week goal.
ageable accomplishments, you can build a sense
6. One-week goal.
of confidence in your skills, and also ignite your
desire to take on larger tasks. Over time, these 7. Daily goal.
small quantitative gains add up to a much larger
Once you have a list of goals, break each one
and more profound qualitative change. Here are
into smaller separate parts, starting with your
a few ways you can experience a greater sense of
daily goal. (And write these down). For exam-
achievement.
ple, if your daily goal is to exercise for one hour
per day, you can break this goal into twenty
Chunking minutes in the morning (perhaps with abdomi-
Chunking involves breaking large complex nal exercises or walking), a twenty minute walk
tasks into smaller more manageable ones. For on your lunch break, and then a twenty minute
example, if you want to run ten miles, but it strength session in the evening. If your weekly
seems too overwhelming, you could break the goal is to walk ten miles, again, you can break
run into five smaller runs—each of two miles this up into two miles per day for five days, or
in length. As you begin your run, you will only one mile every morning and two and a half
focus on the first two miles, and then once you miles each weekend day. How you chunk your
get to that point, then allow yourself to focus goals is completely up to you, as there is no
on the next two miles, and so on. By break- right or wrong way. What is important is simply
ing the run into smaller parts, and confining that you understand the process of making
your focus to only the part you are doing at seemingly unmanageable things more man-
the moment, the larger run seems much less ageable, and along the way, you will uncover a
overwhelming. Chunking is a crucial skill powerful way to feel a greater sense of achieve-
because often the entirety of one’s goals can ment in your life.
seem almost impossible (e.g., to consider losing

296 | Appendix
Recreating the Story the story any way you like. For example, if the
first sentence is “Man fell in love, got married,
In many ways, people are not only held back
had two children, and his wife left him,” the
by the fact that achievements can feel almost
second sentence could read, “Man went travel-
too large to be accomplished, but they are also
ing with a friend, fell in love with hiking, and
often interrupted by setbacks. When life events
started an adventure company.” Do this five
get in the way, one of the first things that falls
times until you have five different stories.
to the wayside is forward-focused achievement.
Instead of thinking about what makes us feel When you are done, you should have five
accomplished, adversity fixates our focus on alternative perspectives on the same setback.
simply surviving. For many people, getting Again, what you write, and how the story is
back on track (toward achieving again) can be completed, is up to you. There are no right or
extremely challenging. Opportunities that are wrong answers. If you get stuck, you can ask
missed are not easily re-created. The process a trusted friend to help come up with story
of recreating a life story is an opportunity. completions. The goal is to be able to look at the
The story can be constructed in a way that situation in many different ways, from multi-
orients you toward your goals, harnesses your ple perspectives. What you will find is not just
strengths, and utilizes your unique skills. It can that a story can be told in many different ways,
also be an opportunity for you to recapture past but that any situation, even a very challenging
dreams and hopes, try new approaches, and see or heartbreaking one, can be considered from
things from multiple perspectives—all crucial multiple perspectives. When it is, it can also be
components of changing behavior. What you completed in many different ways. And when
may also discover is unique opportunities that you can focus on how you complete the story—
you might have otherwise overlooked. as opposed to the frustrating setback itself—
you will become more oriented toward using
To do this, let’s do what I call a setback
your strengths and skills toward solutions that
storyline.
provide a sense of achievement. Not only does
Begin by writing down the events of any set- recreating the story help you overcome barriers,
back that have occurred in your life, but in just but it is also a powerful way to open the door
one sentence as a story. For example, you may toward a greater sense of achievement.
say, “Man fell in love, got married, had two
children, and his wife left him.” Or you might Change Methods That
say, “Woman lived her whole life wanting to be
a gymnast, only to break her leg in practice.”
Work: The Complete
Be as concise as possible, incorporating all the Commitment Strategy
relevant details into one summarizing sentence. Guide
Once you have your sentence, you are going to
add one more. In this next sentence, complete Changing behavior is hard. For example, the
recent rates of the chances of success of New
Year’s Resolutions indicate that while 52% of Step One: Use small goals that
people are confident of success, only 12% report
carry high confidence levels
success in keeping New Year’s resolutions.
Another example is weight loss. In a Gallup poll Starting with small goals with which your
from 2008, 56% of Americans said they would confidence is high is a fantastic way to build
like to lose weight, while only 30% were seri- confidence. And if you are trying to change a
ously trying. Even more tellingly, 59% of those behavior that you have tried to change in the
interviewed in 2001 said they were trying to past, building confidence is essential. To deter-
lose weight, implying that at least 15% were still mine which goals are right for you, ask your-
trying seven years later. Perhaps the question self a few questions: What is one small change
we should be asking is why do people set goals that you could make that you would consider a
and then fail to keep them? success toward your goals? On a scale of 1–10,
how confident are you that you could make that
The answer—and a solution to keeping one’s change? What you are looking for is a goal that
commitments—might be found in the research is relatively minor in the overarching construct
on commitment devices. A commitment device of your larger goals, but that will give you a
is an arrangement that a person enters into with tangible result. Some examples are walking for
themself to make certain choices more expen- twenty minutes every other day, eating twen-
sive than others. The idea behind the theory ty grams of protein every morning, drinking
is that people have consistently experienced coffee as opposed to cappuccinos or mochas, or
problems with self-control in a number of areas. eating only one brownie every other day instead
And these problems with self-control, lead to a of three. In order to ensure that your confidence
lot of missed goals, unkept commitments, and to reach these goals is high, your answer to the
forgotten resolutions. Yet it is here that commit- second question should be 8 or above. In order
ment devices offers something very promising: for any behavior change strategy to work—and
An agreement that one makes with oneself to especially a commitment device—we have to
fulfill a plan for future behavior that would start with successes that will develop confidence
otherwise be difficult due to an interpersonal in your abilities, before moving on to larger
conflict, such as a lack of self-control. The idea challenges. Often, it is these small seemingly
is that through making the choices that con- insignificant changes that lead to larger qualita-
tradict our personal goals more “costly” (cost tive change.
can be measured financially—known as “hard
costs”—or psychologically and socially—known
Step Two: Use frequent hard
as “soft” costs), we will be less likely to make
them, and thus more likely to make choices that commitments.
are in accordance with our set goals. Let’s take Hard commitments are those agreements we
a look at how you can design a commitment make that have penalties attached to them.
strategy to reach your goals. For example, we agree that when we drive on
the road we will follow the speed limit or we

298 | Appendix
will likely have to pay a hefty speeding ticket. ask her to give you back $50 for every mile you
Similarly, you can make an agreement with a complete. Increasing the frequency in this way
friend to increase the time you spend exercis- inserts small successes into the larger task of
ing. It might go something like this: you give reaching your weekly mileage goal, and makes
your friend $1000 to keep unless you run (or the rewards of your efforts more frequent and
walk) twenty miles in one week. Or, you give more tangible. And these small successes go
you spouse $100 from which to dispense $10 a long way toward the larger goal of changing
for every day you don’t eat ice cream. Both of behavior.
these are examples of hard commitments, and
while they may seem quite stern, hard commit- Step Three: Move from smaller
ments consistently result in better outcomes
goals to larger goals.
(that is, lasting behavior change). The basic
idea behind hard commitments is that you Starting with small goals is a great way to build
make an agreement to do something (such as confidence, and once you have had some success
to adopt a healthy behavior, exercise more, eat at achieving a desired goal, you will be ready to
less desert) and if you fail to keep you com- move to a larger one. For example, let’s say that
mitment, you have to pay a “penalty,” which is you started with a small goal to walk ten minutes
typically financial in nature. Because the cost every day for one week, and you successfully
of not performing the desired behavior (having reached this goal, well now you can move to
to pay the penalty) is greater than the effort try to walk fifteen minutes every day for anoth-
associated with the behavior, hard commitment er week. You can also choose a different goal
strategies are very effective ways of changing entirely, such as eating only one small yogurt for
behavior. In terms of changing your behavior, it desert every day for the next week. However, one
is best to use hard commitments with frequent thing to keep in mind is to make the shift from
time intervals. For example, you might design small goals to larger ones incremental in nature.
an agreement where you have to work out for For example, if you were successful at reaching
twenty extra minutes every day for one week, or a goal at which you had a confidence level of 8,
avoid eating ice cream for one week. By making the next progression would be to attempt a goal
the time intervals (one week or less) relatively at which you have a confidence level of 7. Pro-
short, your chances of success increase, and gression should be no more than one number (in
your confidence builds. You can even increase confidence rating) per week, and if you are not
the frequency with which you implement the successful at your goal, simply move to a small-
penalty, by asking your friend or spouse to er goal, in which your confidence is higher. For
dispense a small portion of the total penalty example, let’s say that you chose a goal at which
back to you for every day you are successful. you rated your confidence at 8, yet you were not
For example, you might start by giving you successful at reaching this goal, then you should
friend $1000 to keep for you if you don’t make move to a goal at which you rate your confidence
your goal of twenty miles in the week, and then at 9. The reason for this is twofold: people do
not always estimate their confidence accurate- and demonstrate much greater interest in them
ly (sometimes we are more confident than we because they reflect your own motivations.
think, or sometimes we underestimate the dif-
Following the steps above will help you utilize
ficulty of the task), and what is most important
a very potent defense against the self-control
here is to feel successful.
problems that so often deter our goals. But even
more importantly, effective use of commitment
Step Four: Connect goals to strategies will allow you to begin making com-
long-term outcomes mitments that you will keep, which will build
While any goal attainment carries a positive your confidence, and make you feel successful—
connotation, it is best to always connect what- all critical components of behavior change.
ever goals you achieve to long-term outcomes.
The reason for this is that people always work Am I Getting Better?
harder on goals that they have an interest in.
You are much more likely to allocate effort
How to Use Experience
toward achieving a small goal, when you see Sampling to Propel
it in the much larger perspective of your life Change
and when it represents something that is very
important to you. For example, let’s say that The experience sampling method (ESM) is a
one of your primary reasons for losing weight research method designed to gather real-time
is to “be able to keep up with your kids.” So data of people in their natural environments.
you begin by choosing a commitment strategy The method consists of wearing a device—such
with a small goal of walking ten minutes per as a beeper, cell phone, or Apple watch—and
day, and a penalty of $10 a day should you not being prompted throughout the day to respond
complete your walk. You are successful at this to some sort of assessment questionnaire. For ex-
goal, so you move to another goal to eat only ample, we can wear a beeper that is programmed
half a candy bar for desert for one week, and to go off at random intervals four times through-
again you are successful. While these goals are out the day. When signaled, we must respond—
a great start, you must keep in mind that your usually within thirty minutes—to a predesigned
primary reason for weight loss is to keep up set of questions. The assessment questions
with your kids. Therefore, goals that direct- typically ask about our mood, who we are with,
ly reflect this will increase your interest and and ask for a short description of the activities
participation. For example, you could choose we are doing at the time we are signaled. Today,
a goal to play ten minutes of soccer with your different ESM approaches have effectively been
kids every day, which is in direct relationship to used in a variety of situations to identify moods
your overall long-term goal. When small goals and how they correlate to activities, flow states,
such as these connect with long-term outcomes, and even to identify situations that may trigger
you experience them as much more purposeful, addictive conditions, such as drinking (Bos et
al., 2015). The ESM can also be used alongside an

300 | Appendix
objective measure—such as pounds lost—to help Once you have you questions and your sig-
assess our progress in a weight loss program. naling intervals, make sure that you respond
Through the use of the ESM, we gain not only a consistently to the signals within thirty minutes
subjective measure of how we felt while doing the in order to gather accurate data. Complete your
activities that led to weight loss, but which specif- responses to the signals for one full week and
ic activities were linked with the highest levels then ask yourself the following questions:
of happiness. It is in this way that the use of the
ESM can bridge the gap between interventions In What Ways Is My Mood
that might work, and our attitude toward those Connected to My Behavior?
interventions. And because our attitude toward
(or interest in) an activity is one of the strongest Because the ESM can be used to ask questions
predictors of continued involvement, the ESM about both mood and experience (behavior),
represents a very promising way of propelling it can be very helpful in drawing awareness to
change. Let’s take a look at how you can use the the affect your actions have on the way you feel.
ESM to boost your change efforts: When you use the ESM in this way to connect
your mood to your resulting behavior, you not
Design the Study only gather valuable data on your experience,
but also a very persuasive motivator for change.
In order to use the ESM effectively, start
by designing questions that ask about your In What Ways Are My Thoughts
mood, thoughts, and behavior. Here are some Connected to My Mood?
examples:
By asking yourself about your thoughts in a
• On a scale of 1–10, rate your current mood.
signal-contingent interval, not only do you
• In one sentence, describe your thoughts. increase your awareness of your thoughts, but
• In one sentence, describe your activities. also the way they influence your mood—which
is another very potent inspiration for change.
It is important to keep the questions brief and
easy to answer, as you will be answering them During Which Activities Do I Feel
several times throughout the day. Engaged?
Next, you will need to use a signaling device, As the ESM was originally developed to identify
such as a beeper, smartphone, or any sort of peak experiences, it is a very effective way to
wearable device, and choose the signaling help uncover the activities that bring you the
intervals. As the goal is to acquire as much greatest level of engagement (and fulfillment).
data as possible about your daily experience When you focus your attention on the things
and the way it affects how you feel, it is best to that bring you the greatest satisfaction, you pro-
use 4–6 signals delivered at random intervals vide a very convincing motivation for change.
throughout the day.
Inspiring Change some activities may hold unexpected benefits

in the way you feel. For example, you may find
While the use of the ESM is a very useful tool to
that while you might not have thought that
identify connections between thoughts, mood
your mood was positive while on your daily
and behavior, it is also a very effective way to
walk, it is, in fact, one of the highest points of
measure change. Once you have completed an
your day. When you can uncover these optimal
ESM study (of at least one week), you will have
experiences (or peak moments) in the day, you
a quantity of information about your daily ex-
have valuable information—that can dramati-
perience: the way you feel at certain times of the
cally improve your happiness.
day, the way specific activities influence your
mood, the influence your thoughts have on
Unexpected Aversive Experiences
your mood, and the way your emotions affect
your behavior. In terms of inspiring change, In the same way that the ESM can help you
look for the following things: uncover peak experiences, it also helps you be-
come more aware of those experiences that have
Unexpected Connections Between a negative effect on mood. For example, you
Behavior and Mood may find that while you thought you enjoyed
spending time with a particular friend, actually,
Because the ESM asks about both behavior and
your mood is quite low during that time. It is in
mood, quite often unexpected connections can
this way that the ESM offers invaluable data—as
be identified. For example, you may find that
knowing just what experiences do not bring you
every time you clean the house, your mood im-
joy can be just as important as knowing what
proves, while every time you have to speak with
does.
your boss, you experience anger and frustration.
Connections such as these can be very infor- Through learning about which activities, situa-
mative in terms of how to design experiences to tions, and events bring you the greatest joy, how
have the best outcomes on the way you feel. your thoughts are connected to your mood, and
how your emotions influence your behavior,
Unexpected Enjoyable Experiences the ESM offers tremendous benefits in not only
inspiring change, but helping you create a more
As the use of the ESM involves random sam- happy, fulfilled, and meaningful life.
pling throughout the day, you may find that

302
INDEX E M S
emotional contingencies 278 maintenance 10 scaling questions 28
A empathy 16 mastery 29, 32, 285 self-efficacy 4
achievement 294 environmental reevaluation 7 meaning 292 self-liberation 7
action 10 experience sampling method memory biases 276 self-motivation booster 285
affirming 27 262
motivation 48 self-reevaluation 7
agreement with a twist 22 extrinsic reward 52 assessment 42 shifting focus 22
amplified Reflection 21
F motivation assessment 42 short-run self 120
assessment 9 siding with the negative 23
autonomy 29, 30
fitness psychology 56 O
simple reflection 19
flourishing 64 observer effect 271 social liberation 7
B flow 198 open-ended questions 24 soft commitments 160
behavioral contingencies 278 flow channel 205 optimism 289 Spotlight Effect 210
C G Optimism Test 67, 79 stage-matched 6

stimulus control 7
change model 6 gratitude 291 P
Strengths Inventory 92, 93
stages of 6
H positive psychology 63
summarizing 26
change talk 16 Positive Psychology Model
collaborative 16 hard commitments 161 63 T
commitment device 108 helping relationships 7 post-traumatic growth 71
temptation costs 114
commitment strategies 108 hyperbolic discounting 113 precontemplation 10
preparation 10 U
Complete Commitment
Strategy Guide 296
I
psychic entropy 198
uncovering ambivalence 19
consciousness-raising 7 interviewing, motivational 15 purpose 29, 33, 287
contemplation 10 intrinsic reward 52 V
counter-conditioning 7
R
L validating 27
real-time data 222
D listen reflectively 25 reframing 23
decision balance 6 long-run self 120 reinforcement management 7
discipline 49 loss aversion 156 resistance points 20
disconnect 59 retrospective data 268
double-sided reflection 22
dramatic relief 7
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Transformation

Transformation First Edition

Claire Dorotik-Nana, MA, LMFT

Course Textbook for TRANSFORMATION SPECIALIST

Copyright © 2019 International Sports Sciences Association.

Published by the International Sports Sciences Association, Carpinteria, CA 93013.

Direct copyright, permissions, reproduction, and publishing inquiries to:

International Sports Sciences Association, 1015 Mark Avenue, Carpinteria, CA 93013

About the Author

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2 Motivational Interviewing, p14

3 The ISSA Drawing-In Process, p47

4 Positive Psychology, p62

5 Commitment Strategies, p107

6 Flow and Experience Sampling, p193

1. Why Personal Trainers Need to Know About Behavioral Change

Why Personal Trainers Need to Know About

of behavioral change used, the relationship with How This Information

International Sports Sciences Association

• To develop the skills to identify the stage of change the client is in

• To utilize the pivotal skills of relationship building to develop a

• To incorporate powerful motivational interviewing techniques to

• To harness the three core elements of motivation to ignite the

• To incorporate powerful positive psychology skills to raise the cli-

• To utilize innovative commitment strategies to dramatically moti-

To incorporate progressive experience sampling methods to help

It should be noted that behavior change is not exclusive to weight

Originally developed by James O. Prochaska and colleagues in the

advantages (the “pros”) of changing outweigh the disadvantages

• Self-efficacy, which is described as the confidence that a person can Consciousness-raising:

International Sports Sciences Association

Stage 2: Contemplation Stage 4: Action

decisional balance toward change. Also, as a Assessing the Client

International Sports Sciences Association

• Have you taken any measurable steps toward changing?

• If you haven’t taken any steps toward change, do you plan to do so

Action stage: characterized

Stage 1: Precontemplation (Not Stage 2: Contemplation

International Sports Sciences Association

International Sports Sciences Association

1. The Motivational Interviewing Model 3. Using Ambivalence to Motivate Your Clients

The Motivational Interviewing Model

MI differs from the humanistic approach in an important way: it

International Sports Sciences Association

goals and behavior (ambivalence) can be unmasked. By using various

Motivational interviewing as a behavioral change method is based

• The power to change is within each client.

• Ambivalence is a normal part of change that can become a motiva-

• Ambivalence can be overcome through the coach–client alliance

Additionally, MI sessions are guided by a set of principles that dif-

The Five Principles of Motivational

Empathy: a specifiable 1. Express empathy to your client through reflective listening.

• Gently persuades, with the understanding 2. Warning or threatening. Threats and

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Principle #2: Uncover Ambivalence

As your clients communicate with you, you’ll be able to get a sense

As you listen carefully to your clients, your goal should be to detect

International Sports Sciences Association

who later go home, feel overwhelmed, doubt themselves, and act on

More importantly, uncovering your clients’ ambivalence through

Principle #3: Avoid Argument

Principle #4: Avoid Resistance

to respond in a new, perhaps surprising, way and to take advantage

Adjusting to resistance is similar to avoiding arguments, in that