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Electrical drives and control for automation

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 Electrical drives and control for automation

Geevarghese Mathew Kurian, P. Aruna Jeyanthy, Christeena

Francis, Sunil K Joseph and Prem Jose Vazhacharickal
 Table of contents

Table of contents
Table of contents ........................................................................................................ ii

Table of figures ......................................................................................................... viii

Table of tables ...........................................................................................................xii

List of abbreviations.................................................................................................. xiii

Modules ....................................................................................................................xiv

Electrical drives and control for automation ................................................................ 1

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 1

1. Module 1 ................................................................................................................ 2

1.1 Direct current (DC) machines ............................................................................... 2

1.1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 DC generator .................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Constructional features ......................................................................................... 4

1.2.1 Pole Core, Pole Shoe and Yoke ..................................................................... 5

1.2.2 Armature core and windings ........................................................................... 5
1.2.3 Commutator and brushes ............................................................................... 6
1.2.4 Armature winding............................................................................................ 6
1.3 Emf equation of a DC generator ........................................................................... 8

1.4 Type of excitation.................................................................................................. 8

1.4.1 Separately excited DC generator.................................................................... 8

1.4.2 Self excited DC generator .............................................................................. 9
1.5 Armature reaction ............................................................................................... 11

1.5.1 MNA and GNA .............................................................................................. 11

1.5.2 Adverse effects of armature reaction ............................................................ 13
1.5.3 How to reduce armature reaction ................................................................. 13
1.6 OCC and load characteristics ............................................................................. 13

1.6.1 Open circuit characteristics .......................................................................... 14

1.6.2 Load characteristics...................................................................................... 16
ii
 Table of contents

2. Module 2 .............................................................................................................. 17

2.1 Principles DC motor ............................................................................................ 17

2.1.1 Significance of back emf............................................................................... 18

2.1.2 Voltage equation of a motor ......................................................................... 19
2.1.3 Conditions for maximum power .................................................................... 19
2.2 Torque and speed equations .............................................................................. 19

2.3 Torque-speed characteristics ............................................................................. 20

2.3.1 Characteristics of DC series motors ............................................................. 20

2.3.2 Characteristics of DC Shunt motors ............................................................. 21
2.3.3 Characteristics of compound motors ............................................................ 22
2.3.4 Cumulative compound motors ...................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Differential compound motors....................................................................... 24
2.4 Application of DC shunt, series and compound motors ...................................... 24

2.4.1 DC shunt motors........................................................................................... 24

2.4.2 DC series motor............................................................................................ 24
2.5 Principles of starting ........................................................................................... 25

2.5.1 Shunt motor starter ....................................................................................... 25

2.5.2 Three-point starter ........................................................................................ 25
2.5.3 Four-point starter .......................................................................................... 28
2.6 Losses and efficiency ......................................................................................... 28

2.6.1 Losses .......................................................................................................... 28

2.6.2 Efficiency ...................................................................................................... 30
2.7 Load test ............................................................................................................. 31

2.7.1 Swinburne’s test (No load test/losses method)............................................. 31

2.7.2 Brake test ..................................................................................................... 33
3. Module 3 .............................................................................................................. 35

3.1 Transformers ...................................................................................................... 35

3.1.1 Principles of operation .................................................................................. 35

3.2 Ideal transformer................................................................................................. 36

iii
 Table of contents

3.3 EMF equation of a transformer ........................................................................... 37

3.3.1 Voltage transformation ratio (K).................................................................... 38

3.4 Vector diagrams.................................................................................................. 39

3.4.1 Transformer on no load ................................................................................ 39

3.4.2 Transformer on load ..................................................................................... 40
3.4.3 Practical transformer .................................................................................... 41
3.5 Loss and efficiency ............................................................................................. 42

3.5.1 Loss in a transformer .................................................................................... 42

3.5.2 Efficiency of a transformer ............................................................................ 43
3.6 OC and SC test................................................................................................... 43

3.6.1 Open circuit or no load test........................................................................... 44

3.6.2 Short circuit or impedance test ..................................................................... 44
3.7 Equivalent circuit................................................................................................. 46

3.7.1 Voltage regulation......................................................................................... 47

3.8 Efficiency calculation .......................................................................................... 48

3.8.1 Maximum efficiency ...................................................................................... 49

3.8.2 All day efficiency ........................................................................................... 50
3.9 Auto transformers: constant voltage transformers and instrument transformers 51

3.9.1 Voltage regulation......................................................................................... 51

3.9.2 Instrument transformer ................................................................................. 55
4. Module 4 .............................................................................................................. 56

4.1 Three phase induction motor .............................................................................. 56

4.1.1 Construction of induction motor .................................................................... 57

4.2 Principle of operation .......................................................................................... 58

4.3 Slip ring and squirrel cage type .......................................................................... 58

4.3.1 Squirrel cage rotor ........................................................................................ 58

4.3.2 Phase wound rotor ....................................................................................... 59
4.4 Rotating magnetic field ....................................................................................... 60

4.4.1 Why does the rotor rotate ............................................................................. 60

iv
 Table of contents

4.4.2 Relation between rotor torque and power factor........................................... 62

4.4.3 Starting torque .............................................................................................. 62
4.4.4 Conditions for maximum starting torque ....................................................... 63
4.4.5 Rotor EMF and Reactance under running conditions ................................... 63
4.5 Torque slip characteristics .................................................................................. 66

4.5.1 Power stage in an induction motor ............................................................... 67

4.5.2 Torque developed by an induction motor ..................................................... 68
4.6 No load and blocked rotor test ............................................................................ 68

4.6.1 No load test of an induction motor ................................................................ 68

4.6.2 Blocked rotor test of induction motor ............................................................ 70
4.7 Circle diagram .................................................................................................... 72

4.7.1 Importance of circle diagram ........................................................................ 72

4.7.2 Test performed to compute data required for drawing circle diagram........... 73
4.7.3 Procedure to draw the circle diagram ........................................................... 74
4.7.4 Maximum quantities from the circle diagram ................................................ 75
4.7.5 Conclusions of circle diagram....................................................................... 75
4.8 Methods of starting ............................................................................................. 76

4.8.1 Direct on line starting of Induction Motors .................................................... 76

4.8.2 Starting methods of squirrel cage motors ..................................................... 76
4.8.3 Star-delta starter ........................................................................................... 78
5. Module 5 .............................................................................................................. 79

5.1 Principles of operation: single phase induction machines................................... 79

5.1.1 Double field revolving theory ........................................................................ 80

5.2 Split phase induction motor ................................................................................ 81

5.3 Capacitor start induction run motor ..................................................................... 83

5.3.1 Capacitor start and run motor ....................................................................... 83

5.4 Stepper motor ..................................................................................................... 85

5.4.1 Types of stepper motors ............................................................................... 86

5.5 Universal motor................................................................................................... 86

5.5.1 Construction of universal motor .................................................................... 86

v
 Table of contents

5.5.2 Working of universal motor ........................................................................... 87

5.5.3 Speed/load characteristics ........................................................................... 88
5.5.4 Application of Universal motor ...................................................................... 88
5.6 Synchronous machines types ............................................................................. 88

5.6.1 Basic principles of alternators....................................................................... 88

5.6.2 Stationary armature ...................................................................................... 90
5.6.3 Silent pole rotor ............................................................................................ 90
5.6.4 Smooth cylindrical type rotor ........................................................................ 90
5.6.5 Speed and frequency ................................................................................... 90
5.7 Emf equation of alternator .................................................................................. 91

5.7.1 Alternator on load ......................................................................................... 91

5.7.2 Synchronous reactance ................................................................................ 92
5.8 Voltage regulation ............................................................................................... 93

5.8.1 Determination of voltage regulation .............................................................. 93

5.8.2 Synchronous impedance method ................................................................. 93
5.9 Principle of operation-synchronous motors......................................................... 94

5.10 Method of starting synchronous motor.............................................................. 96

5.10.1 Using pony motors...................................................................................... 96

5.10.2 Using damper winding ................................................................................ 96
5.10.3 As a slip ring induction motor ..................................................................... 97
5.10.4 Using small DC machine ............................................................................ 98
5.11 V-curve ............................................................................................................. 98

5.12 Synchronous condenser ................................................................................. 100

6. Module 6 ............................................................................................................ 100

6.1 Principles of operation: stepper motor .............................................................. 100

6.2 Step angle in stepper motor.............................................................................. 101

6.3 Advantages of Stepper Motor ........................................................................... 102

6.4 Disadvantages of Stepper Motor ...................................................................... 102

6.5 Types of stepper motors ................................................................................... 102

vi
 Table of contents

6.5.1 Multi Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor ......................................... 102

6.6 Single stack variable reluctance stepper motor ................................................ 105

6.7 Hybrid stepper motor ........................................................................................ 105

6.8 Advantages of Hybrid Stepper Motor ................................................................ 107

6.9 Disadvantages of Hybrid Stepper Motor .......................................................... 107

6.10.1 Advantages .............................................................................................. 108

6.10.2 Disadvantages.......................................................................................... 108
6.11 Torque speed characteristics of a stepper motor ............................................ 109

6.12 Control of stepper motor ................................................................................. 110

6.12.1 H-Bridge Control of Stepper Motors ......................................................... 110

6.12.2 Two wire Control....................................................................................... 111
6.13 Controllers for automation .............................................................................. 112

6.14 Servo control, digital controllers and control system ....................................... 112

6.14.1 Servo control ............................................................................................ 112

6.14.2 Digital control............................................................................................ 114
6.14.3 Advanced control system ......................................................................... 115
6.15 Digital signal processors and motor controllers .............................................. 117

6.15.1 Digital signal processor ............................................................................ 117

6.15.2 Motor controllers ....................................................................................... 118
6.16 Programmable logic controllers ...................................................................... 122

6.16.1 Basics of programming ............................................................................. 122

6.16.2 Functionality ............................................................................................. 122
6.16.3 Basic and complex functions .................................................................... 123
6.16.4 Timers and counters ................................................................................. 123
6.16.5 Programmable logic relay (PLR)............................................................... 124
7. Future perspective .............................................................................................. 125

References ............................................................................................................. 126

vii
 Table of figures

Table of figures

Figure 1. Schematic representation of electromechanical energy conversion devices.

................................................................................................................................... 2

Figure 2. Classification of electrical machines. ........................................................... 2

Figure 3. Elementary DC generator. ........................................................................... 3

Figure 4. Elementary DC generator working principle. ............................................... 3

Figure 5. emf waveform of a DC generator................................................................. 4

Figure 6. Cross-sectional view of DC machine. .......................................................... 5

Figure 7. Cross-sectional and longitudinal view of a commutator. .............................. 6

Figure 8. Lap winding. ................................................................................................ 7

Figure 9. Wave winding. ............................................................................................. 7

Figure 10. Separately excited DC generator............................................................... 9

Figure 11. DC series generator. ................................................................................. 9

Figure 12. DC shunt generator. ................................................................................ 10

Figure 13. DC shunt generator (i) short shunt (ii) long shunt. ................................... 10

Figure 14. DC shunt generator. ................................................................................ 12

Figure 15. Open circuit characteristics...................................................................... 14

Figure 16. Determining the critical field resistance. .................................................. 15

Figure 17. External characteristics. .......................................................................... 16

Figure 18. Internal characteristics............................................................................. 17

Figure 19. Multi polar DC motor................................................................................ 17

Figure 20. Equivalent circuit of DC motor. ................................................................ 18

viii
 Table of figures

Figure 21. Circuit diagram. ....................................................................................... 19

Figure 22. Characteristics of DC motors (a), (b) and (c). .......................................... 21

Figure 23. Characteristics of DC shunt motors (a), (b) and (c). ................................ 22

Figure 24. Characteristics of compound motor. ........................................................ 23

Figure 25. (a) cumulatively compounded (b) differentially compound...................... 23

Figure 26. Three-point starter. ................................................................................. 26

Figure 27. Four-point starter. ................................................................................... 28

Figure 28. Power stages. ......................................................................................... 31

Figure 29. No-load test and result analysis.............................................................. 32

Figure 30. Brake test. .............................................................................................. 34

Figure 31. Circuit diagram of transformer. ............................................................... 35

Figure 32. Circuit diagram of transformer. ............................................................... 36

Figure 33. Circuit diagram of transformer. ............................................................... 37

Figure 34. Flux in a transformer............................................................................... 38

Figure 35. Voltage in a transformer. ........................................................................ 38

Figure 36. No load current. ...................................................................................... 40

Figure 37. Circuit diagram of transformer on load. .................................................. 41

Figure 38. Circuit diagram of transformer on load. .................................................. 41

Figure 39. Practical transformer. ............................................................................. 42

Figure 40. Phasor diagrams for different load conditions......................................... 42

Figure 41. Circuit diagram for OC test. .................................................................... 44

Figure 42. Circuit diagram for SC test...................................................................... 45

Figure 43. (a) circuit diagram of a transformer (b) equivalent circuit........................ 46

ix
 Table of figures

Figure 44. Secondary circuit and equivalent circuit. ................................................. 46

Figure 45. Equivalent circuit of shifting external load to primary. ............................. 47

Figure 46. Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer......................................... 47

Figure 47. Phasor diagrams of a transformer under load. ....................................... 48

Figure 48. Ordinary two winding transformer. .......................................................... 52

Figure 49. Auto-transformer..................................................................................... 52

Figure 50. Squirrel cage rotor with copper bars and alloy brazed end rings. ........... 59

Figure 51. Phase wound rotor. ................................................................................ 60

Figure 52. Direction of motion of stator and rotor conductors. ................................. 61

Figure 53. Power triangle......................................................................................... 64

Figure 54. Torque slip characteristics. ..................................................................... 67

Figure 55. Power stages. ......................................................................................... 67

Figure 56. Calculation of no load test in induction motor. ........................................ 69

Figure 57. Testing of blocked rotor in induction motor. ............................................ 71

Figure 58. Procedures to dram circle diagram. ........................................................ 74

Figure 59. Circle diagram showing maximum quantities........................................... 75

Figure 60. Primary resistor. ..................................................................................... 77

Figure 61. (a) Direct switching (b) without autotransformer. .................................... 78

Figure 62. Star delta starter. ..................................................................................... 78

Figure 63. Torque speed characteristics.................................................................. 81

Figure 64. Single phase induction motor. ................................................................ 82

Figure 65. a) Split-phase induction motor b) phasor diagram .................................. 82

Figure 66. Torque speed characteristics.................................................................. 83

x
 Table of figures

Figure 67. Capacitor start induction motor. .............................................................. 83

Figure 68. Torque speed characteristics.................................................................. 84

Figure 69. Stepper motor. ........................................................................................ 85

Figure 70. Stepper motor. ........................................................................................ 87

Figure 71. Speed-torque characteristics. ................................................................. 88

Figure 72. Diagram of an alternator. ........................................................................ 89

Figure 73. Main flux and armature flux at UPF, PF lagging and leading.................. 92

Figure 74. Synchronous impedance method. ........................................................... 94

Figure 75. Synchronous machine. ............................................................................ 95

Figure 76. Direction of rotor rotation in synchronous machine.................................. 95

Figure 77. Starting as a squirrel cage I.M. ................................................................ 97

Figure 78. Starting as a slip ring I.M. ........................................................................ 98

Figure 79. V and inverted V curve of synchronous motor. ........................................ 99

Figure 80. Various types of stepper motor. ............................................................. 101

Figure 81. Multi stack variable reluctance stepper motor........................................ 103

Figure 82. Excitation of phase A of stepper motor. ................................................. 104

Figure 83. Excitation of phase A of stepper motor. ................................................. 104

Figure 84. Hybrid stepper motor. ............................................................................ 106

Figure 85. Cross section of a Hybrid stepper motor. .............................................. 106

Figure 86. Torque speed characteristics of stepper motor...................................... 109

Figure 87. A typical digital processing system. ....................................................... 118

xi
 Table of tables

Table of tables

Table 1. Sequence of H-Bridge control. .................................................................. 111

xii
 List of abbreviations

List of abbreviations

AC : Alternative current
APC : Advanced process control
ARC : Advanced regulatory control
ASD : Adjustable speed drive
CT : Current transformers
CVT : Capacitor voltage transformer
DC : Direct current
DCS : Distributed control system
DOL : Direct on line
DSP : Digital signal processor
emf : Electron motive force
GNA : Geometrical Neutral Axis
IMC : Intelligent motor control
MNA : Magnetic Neutral Axis
MPC : Multivariable Model predictive control
ms : Milliseconds
OC : Open-circuit
OCC : Open circuit characteristic
PLC : Programmable logic controller
PLC : Programmable logic controller
PLR : Programmable logic relays
PPM : Pulse-position modulation
PPS : Pulse per second
PT : Potential transformers
PWM : Pulse-width modulation
RC : Radio control
SC : Short-circuit
VA : Volt Ampere
VSD : Variable speed drive
VT : Voltage transformer

xiii
 Modules

Modules

Module 1
DC machines, Principles of operation, Emf equation, Types of excitation, Armature
reaction, OCC and load characteristics.
Module 2
Principles of DC motor, Torque and speed equations, Torque-speed characteristics,
Application of DC shunt, Principles of starting, Losses and efficiency, Load test.
Module 3
Transformers, Principles of operation, Emf equation, Vector diagrams, Losses and
efficiency, OC and SC test, Equivalent circuit, Efficiency calculation, Auto
transformers.
Module 4
Three phase induction motor, Principles of operation, Slip ring and squirrel cage
type, Rotating magnetic field, Torque slip characteristics, No load and blocked rotor
test, Circle diagram, Methods of starting DOL.
Module 5
Principle of operation, Split phase motor, Capacitor start motor, Stepper motor,
Universal motor, Synchronous machine types, Emf equation of alternator, Regulation
of alternator by emf method, principle of operation of synchronous motor, Methods of
starting, V-curves, Synchronous condenser.
Module 6
Stepper motor: principles of operation, Types of stepper motors, Torque-speed
characteristics, Control of stepper motor, Controllers for automation, Servo control,
Digital controllers, Advanced control system, Digital signal processors, Motor
controllers, Programmable logic controllers.

xiv
 Electrical drives and control for automation

Electrical drives and control for automation

Geevarghese Mathew Kurian1, P Aruna Jeyanthy2, Christeena Francis1, Sunil K Joseph3 and Prem
Jose Vazhacharickal4*
* premjosev@gmail.com
1
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Kottayam Institute of Technology and Science
(KITS), Chengalam, Kerala, India-686691
2
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Kalasalingam University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu,
India-626126
3
Department of Computer Sciences, Mar Augusthinose College, Ramapuram, Kerala, India-686576
4
Department of Biotechnology, Mar Augusthinose College, Ramapuram, Kerala, India-686576

Abstract
Electrical drives convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and act as a
intermediary between electrical supply systems, various energy sources, driven
machines and the energy consumer. Electrical drives are major component in
industrial applications, driven technical developments and focus of various
developments. The core component of every electrical drive is the motor. This book is
divided into six modules. Module 1 deals with DC machines, principles of operation,
emf equation and armature reaction. Module 2 contain principles of DC motors and
their torque-speed characteristics. Module 3 mainly deals with transformers and their
efficiency calculations. In module 4, various aspects of induction motors were covered.
Module 5 and 6 mainly focusses on split phase and stepper motors. Today electrical
drives and their automation has become an essential integral part of every system and
process. This book will focus primarily on electrical drives and their control for
automation, although some of the topics covered will remain applicable to process
control.

Keywords: Motor, Transformer, Automation, Split phase motor, Stepper motor.

1
 Electrical drives and control for automation

1. Module 1

1.1 Direct current (DC) machines

1.1.1 Introduction
An electrical machine is an electro- mechanical energy conversion device. The device
which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is called a motor. The device
which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called a generator. The
basic principle behind the working of an electrical machine is electromagnetic
induction. Fig 1.1 shows the schematic representation of an electrical machine.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of electromechanical energy conversion devices.

The classification of electrical machines is shown in Figure 2

Figure 2. Classification of electrical machines.

1.1.2 DC generator
A direct current (DC) generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The
energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically induced
electron motive force (emf). Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically
induced emf is produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction.
Hence, the two basic essential parts of a dc generator are (i) a magnetic field and (ii)
a conductor or conductors which can move to cut the flux.

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