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EC8352 Signals and Systems 03 - by LearnEngineering - in
EC8352 Signals and Systems 03 - by LearnEngineering - in
EC8352 Signals and Systems 03 - by LearnEngineering - in
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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
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Analog signal:
A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as analog signal. Analog
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signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by x(t). It is also called
as Continuous time signal. Example for Continuous time signal is shown in Fig 1.1
Digital signal:
The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude is called digital signal
(Fig 1.2)
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A signal that is defined for discrete instants of time is known as discrete time signal.
Discrete time signals are continuous in amplitude and discrete in time. It is also obtained by
sampling a continuous time signal. It is denoted by x(n) and shown in Fig 1.3
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Fig 1.3 Discrete time signal eri
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1.2.3 Even (symmetric) and Odd (Anti-symmetric) signal
Continuous domain:
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Even signal:
A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to t=0 is called even signal
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Odd signal:
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A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to t=0 is called odd signal
Odd signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)
Even part 𝒙𝒆 (𝒕) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎 (𝒕) of continuous time signal 𝒙 𝒕 :
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1
Even part 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 2 [𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
1
Odd part 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 2 [𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
w.
Discrete domain:
Even signal:
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A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to n=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛).
Odd signal:
A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to n=0 is called odd signal Odd signal
satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = −𝑥(−𝑛).
Even part 𝒙𝒆 (𝒏) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎 (𝒏) of discrete time signal 𝒙 𝒏 :
1
Even part 𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = 2 [𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 −𝑛 ]
1
Odd part 𝑥𝑜 𝑛 = 2 [𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 −𝑛 ]
Aperiodic signal:
A signal that does not repeat at a definite interval of time is called aperiodic signal.
Continuous domain:
A Continuous time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
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𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
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𝟐𝛑
Fundamental time period 𝐓 = Ω
, where Ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec
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Discrete domain:
A Discrete time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
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If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
𝟐𝛑𝐦
Fundamental time period 𝐍 = , where ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec, 𝑚 is
g
𝛚
smallest positive integer that makes N as positive integer
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Energy signal:
The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called energy signal. The
non periodic signals like exponential signals will have constant energy and so non periodic
signals are energy signals.
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𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇
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𝑇
1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
For Discrete time signals,
𝑁
1 2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
1.2.6 Deterministic and Random signals
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Deterministic signal:
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainity over the signal at any
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instant of time i.e., its instantaneous value can be predicted. It can be represented by
mathematical equation.
Example: sinusoidal signal
Random signal
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Deterministic signal
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Continuous domain:
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Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal if it is defined for t≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for t< 0 or for both
𝑡 < 0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
When a non-causal signal is defined only for t<0, it is called as anti-causal signal
Discrete domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for n≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for n< 0
or for both n < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
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When a non-causal signal is defined only for n<0, it is called as anti-causal signal
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1.3 Basic(Elementary or Standard) continuous time signals
1.3.1 Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as eri
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u (t)
𝑢 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 1
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
g
0 t
En
. r (t)
.
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
w.
1
ww
0 1 2 3 . . t
Unit ramp signal
p(t)
:
4.5
𝑡2
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 2
2
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 0.5
0 1 2 3... t
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Relation between Unit Step signal, Unit ramp signal and Unit Parabolic signal:
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𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
Unti Parabolic signal is obtained by integrating unit ramp signal
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𝑡2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑝(𝑡)
2
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Unit step signal is obtained by differentiating unit ramp signal
𝑑 𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 1 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
g
𝑑 1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑝 𝑡 = = 2𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
∏ (t)
1 1
∏ 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤
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2
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒
-1/2 1/2 t
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𝛿 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝟎)
−∞
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Proof:
∞
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−∞
Thus proved
Property 2:
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∞
𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕𝟎 )
−∞
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Proof:
∞
g
𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 𝑡0 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 𝑡0
En
−∞
∵ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1
Thus proved
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2π
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where Ω = 2πf = T
and Ω is angular frequency in rad/sec
f is frequency in cycles/sec or Hertz and
A is amplitude
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t
t
-A
-A
Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal
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Depending on the value of ‘a’ we get dc signal or growing exponential signal or decaying
exponential signal
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x(t) a=0 x(t) a>0 x(t) a<0
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A t A t A t
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DC signal Exponentially Exponentially
growing signal decaying signal
g
A A
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t t
w.
A A
t t
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1.4 Basic(Elementary or Standard) Discrete time signals
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1.4.1 Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as
𝑢 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
eri u(n)
ine
1
. . .
0 1 2 3 4 n
g
:
4
𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0 3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0 2 . . .
1
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0 1 2 3 4 n
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 A
. . . . . .
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒
n1 -1 0 1 n2 n
Pulse signal
𝛿 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0
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1.4.5 Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal is defined as Sinusoidal signal is defined as
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𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛)
2π
where 𝜔 = 2πf = N
m and 𝜔 is frequency in radians/sample
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m is smallest integer
f is frequency in cycles/sample, A is amplitude
Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal
g ine
En
Sinusoidal signal
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Cosinusoidal signal
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ng
Exponentially decreasing Cosinusoidal signal
Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal
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g ine
En
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Response 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
where 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal, 𝑦(𝑡) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑥(𝑡) T 𝑦(𝑡)
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Discrete time system operates on a discrete time signal (input or excitation) and
produces another discrete time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig 1.85.
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The signal 𝑥(𝑛) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑛), this transformation can be
expressed as,
Response 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥(𝑛) T eri
where x(n) is input signal, y(n) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑦(𝑛)
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Fig 1.85 Representation of discrete time system
Linear system:
A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the
corresponding weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity:
𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑛)
where y1 n and y2 n are the responses of x1 n and x2 n respectively
Non Linear system:
A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑛)
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A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
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Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(2𝑡)
eri
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Discrete time domain:
Static system:
A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to
g
1.5.4 Time invariant (Shift invariant) and Time variant (Shift variant) system
Continuous time domain:
w.
If 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant
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with time.
If 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
Then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 ≠ 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑛0 ) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant
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1.5.5 Causal and Non-Causal system
A system is said to be causal if impulse response (𝑡) is zero for negative values of 𝑡
En
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 + 4)
A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response (𝑡) is non-zero for negative values of 𝑡
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Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
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only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future
input.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 3𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response h(n) is zero for negative values of n
i.e., (𝑛) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-Causal system:
A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
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𝑖. 𝑒. , if 0 < 𝑥 t < ∞ 𝑡𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑦 t < ∞ should be satisfied for the system to be stable
Impulse response should be absolutely integrable
∞
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𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < (𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞
−∞
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
eri
Discrete time domain:
A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
ine
Every bounded input yields bounded output.
Impulse response should be absolutely summable
∞
𝑘=−∞
En
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
arn
r(t) r(t+3)
: :
: 4
ww
3
2
2
1
1
0 1 2 3 ... t
-3 -2 -1 0 1 ... t
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ng
eri
g ine
En
arn
𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑟 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑟(−𝑡 + 2)
= 0 + 4 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −1
= 0 + 3 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0
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= 0 + 2 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
= 3𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
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= 3 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
= 6 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4
and so on
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Fig 1.163
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4. Check whether the following is periodic or not. If periodic, determine fundamental time
period
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a. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕
Here Ω1 = 5, Ω2 = 4
2π 2π 2π
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𝑇1 = = =
Ω1 5 5
2π 2π π
𝑇2 = = =
Ω2 4 2
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2π
𝑇1 5 = 4 (It is rational number)
= π
𝑇2 5
2
g
ω1 4π 2
𝑁1 = 1 (taking m = 2)
2πm 2πm
𝑁2 = = = 2m
w.
ω2 π
𝑁2 = 2 (taking m = 1)
𝑁 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 1,2 = 2
ww
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 2
1 −3𝑡 2
1
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷∞ = lim 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇 0 0
−6𝑡 𝑇 −6𝑇 −0
1 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒 1 1 1
= lim = lim − = lim =𝟎 ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0, 𝑒 −0 = 1, =0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 −6 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 6 ∞
Since energy value is finite and average power is zero, the given signal is an energy signal.
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6. Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal
𝝅𝒏 𝝅
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒋 +
𝟒 𝟐
eri
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
2 𝒋( + )
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑬∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) = lim 𝒆 𝟒 𝟐 = lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = ∞
𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
ine
𝑁
𝑗 (𝜔𝑛 +𝜃 )
∵ 𝑒 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 = 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛 =−𝑁
𝑁 𝑁
1 1 𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
g
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁
1 1
lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = 𝟏
=𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
arn
Since energy value is infinite and average power is finite, the given signal is power signal
𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
+ 𝒕𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)
w.
1 ≠ (4)
The given system is Non-Linear
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For input 𝑥2 𝑛 :
𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥2 (𝑛2 )
𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛2 )
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∵ 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛
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9. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒙 𝒕
𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0 + 2𝑥 0 ⇒ present inputs
ine
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −2 + 2𝑥 −1 ⇒ past and present inputs
𝑦 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 1 ⇒ future and present inputs
Since output depends on past and future inputs the given system is dynamic system
g
𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
arn
11. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕
Output due to input delayed by T seconds
w.
∵ 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 ≠ 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇
The given system is time variant
12. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙(−𝒏 + 𝟐)
Output due to input delayed by k seconds
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑥(−𝑛 + 2 − 𝑘)
Output delayed by k seconds
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥 −(𝑛 − 𝑘 + 2) = 𝑥(−𝑛 + 𝑘 + 2)
∵ 𝒚 𝒏, 𝒌 ≠ 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝒌
The given system is time variant
.in
14. Determine whether the following systems are causal or not
𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
ng
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
𝑦 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Causal system
eri
ine
15. Determine whether the following systems are stable or not
𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
g
−∞
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −4𝜏 1
(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = =
arn
−4 0
4
−∞ −∞ 0
∞
Let 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 , 𝑦 𝑛 = (𝑛)
⇒ 𝑛 = 3𝛿(𝑛)
∞
ww
The Fourier representation of signals can be used to perform frequency domain analysis of
signals in which we can study the various frequency components present in the signal, magnitude
and phase of various frequency components.
n
The Fourier series exist only if the following Dirichlet’s conditions are satisfied.
g.i
The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must be single valued function.
The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must possess only a finite number of discontinuous in the period T.
The signal must have a finite number of maxima and minima in the period T.
rin
𝑇
𝑥(𝑡) must be absolutely integrable. i.e., 0
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
The trigonometric form of Fourier series of a periodic signal, 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined
as
arn
∞ ∞
𝑡 0 +𝑇
1
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
w.
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
ww
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
Solution:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇 = 3 − −1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = =
𝑇 2
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑡 0 +𝑇 1 1 3
1 1 3
1
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝑑𝑡 + −1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 −1 𝑡 = (1 − (−1 ) − (3 − 1)]
n
−1 1
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1 4 4
g.i
1
= 2−2 = 𝟎
4
rin
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑡 0+𝑇 1 3
2 2
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + (−1)cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
=
1 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
−
sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡
ee 3
=
1 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡
𝜋
𝜋 1
−
𝜋
sin 𝑛 2 𝑡
𝜋
3
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛 𝑛
2 2
gin
−1 1
1 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= sin 𝑛 − sin 𝑛 −1 − sin 𝑛 3 − sin 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 − sin 3𝑛 + sin 𝑛 = 3sin − sin(2n𝜋 − )
𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
En
1 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝟒 𝝅
= 3sin − −sin 𝑛 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏
𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝒏𝝅 𝟐
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
arn
2 𝑡 0 +𝑇 2 1 3
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + − sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 −cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
−cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 −cos 𝑛 2 𝑡 cos 𝑛 2 𝑡
Le
= − = 𝜋 + 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
−1 1
1 −2 𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋
= cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 −1 + cos 𝑛 3 − cos 𝑛
w.
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 2 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
= 0+ cos 2𝑛𝜋 − − cos 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 =𝟎
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
ww
Example 2 Obtain Fourier series of the following full wave rectified sine wave shown in figure
-2 -1 0 1 2 t
Solution:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 ; ∴ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
2𝜋
𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = = 2𝜋
1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
n
2π 2π
g.i
Here Ω = = = π and A = 1
T 2
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
rin
𝑇 1 1
2 2 2 1
2 2 cos 𝜋𝑡 2 2 𝜋 𝟐
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 − =− cos − cos 0 =
𝑇 1 ee 𝜋 0 𝜋 2 𝝅
0 0 0
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑇 1 1
gin
2 2 2
4 4
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝜋𝑡 cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 + sin (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1
0 0 0
1
cos (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 cos (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡
En
2
=2 − −
1 + 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 cos (1 + 2𝑛) 2 cos (1 − 2𝑛) 2 1 1
arn
= − − + +
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛
2 1 1 2 1 − 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛 𝟒
= + = =
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2 𝝅 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒏𝟐
Le
∴𝑥 𝑡 = + cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡
𝜋 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2
𝑛=1
2.3 Exponential Fourier series
The exponential form of Fourier series of a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined as,
∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
The Fourier coefficient 𝑐𝑛 can be evaluated using the following formulae
0 1 2 3
Fig 2.26
t
Solution:
n
2π 2π
𝑇 = 1, Ω0 = = = 2π
g.i
T 1
Consider the equation of a straight line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
= ……… 9
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
rin
Consider one period of the given signal Fig 2.26 as shown in Fig 2.27 x(t)
𝑇 1 1
1 1 𝑡2 1
𝑐0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = =
𝑇 0 1 0 2 0
2
Evaluation of 𝒄𝒏
arn
𝑇 1 1 1
1 −𝑗𝑛 Ω 0 𝑡
1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 1 0 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋 0 0 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋
−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋
Le
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 1
= +0+ 2 2
=𝑗 + 2 2− 2 2
−𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −𝑗 (𝑛2𝜋) 0 𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋
𝑗 1 1 𝑗
= + 2 2− 2 2=
w.
𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛2𝜋
𝑗
𝑐𝑛 =
𝑛2𝜋
ww
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
𝑐1 = , 𝑐2 = , 𝑐3 = , 𝑐−1 = , 𝑐−2 = , 𝑐−3 =
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 −2𝜋 −4𝜋 −6𝜋
Exponential Fourier series
∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝛺 0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
n
g.i
2.4 Cosine Fourier series
rin
Cosine representation of 𝑥 𝑡 is
ee∞
Example 4 Determine the cosine Fourier series of the signal shown in Figure
x(t)
arn
-2π -π 0 π 2π 3π t
Solution:
Le
2𝜋
The signal shown in is periodic with period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = 2𝜋 = 1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
w.
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = 1, A = 1
T 2π
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
ww
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑇 1 𝜋
1 𝜋
1 1 1
𝑎0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 0 = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0] = [2] =
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
n
= =
𝜋 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
g.i
𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒐𝒅𝒅
∴ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝝅(𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )
rin
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑇 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 ee 2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝜋
= − = − −0 =𝟎
2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛) 0 2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)
gin
Evaluation of Fourier coefficients of Cosine Fourier series from Trigonometric Fourier series:
1
𝐴0 = 𝑎0 =
En
𝜋
2
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑏𝑛 2 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
𝑏𝑛
arn
𝜃𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =0
𝑎𝑛
x t = A0 + An cos nΩ0 t + θn
n=1
∞
w.
1 2 1 2 2
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = + 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋(1 − 𝑛 ) 𝜋 𝜋(1 − 4) 𝜋(1 − 16)
𝑛 =1
(𝑛=𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 )
ww
1 2 2 1 2 1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ = − [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ ]
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 15
𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝐹 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
Conditions for existence of Fourier transform
The Fourier transform 𝑥(𝑡) exist if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition
1. 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable
n
∞
g.i
𝑖𝑒 , 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
rin
2. 𝑥(𝑡) should have a finite number of maxima and minima with in any finite interval.
3. 𝑥 𝑡 should have a finite number of discontinuities with in any interval.
𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
Le
∴ 𝐹[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0
𝐹𝛿 𝑡 = 𝛿 0 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺 0
=1 ∵ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝛿 𝑡 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
w.
ww
-T/2 0 T/2 t
Solution:
−𝑇 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝜋(𝑡) = 𝐴 ; ≤𝑡≤
2 2
n
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 2𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 2𝐴 𝑇
𝐹[𝜋(𝑡)] = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 = [𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 ] = [ ]= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺
g.i
−𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 −
𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 𝑗𝛺 2 𝛺 2
2 2
𝑇
2𝐴 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 2 𝑇
= 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝛺
rin
𝛺𝑇 2 𝑇 2
𝛺
2
Example 8
ee
Find inverse Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗 𝛺) = 𝛿(𝛺)
Solution:
gin
∴ 𝐹 −1 [𝑋(𝑗 𝛺)] = 𝐹 −1 [𝛿(𝛺)]
1 ∞ 1 ∞ 1 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗 𝛺 𝑒 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝛺 = 𝛿 𝛺 𝑒 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝛺 = 1 ∵ 𝛿 𝛺 =
2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 ≠ 0
1
En
𝐹 −1 [𝛿(𝛺)] =
2𝜋
arn
n
g.i
rin
Example 9 Find unilateral Laplace transform for the following signals
𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)
X S =
∞
x t e−st dt =
∞
δ t e−st dt = e−s
ee 0
=1 ∵δ t =
1 for t = 0
0 for t ≠ 0
0 0
gin
𝒊𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 1 1 for t ≥ 0
𝑋 𝑆 = x t e−st dt = u t e−st dt = −𝑠𝑡
1𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = = ∵u t =
0 0 0 −𝑠 0 𝑠 0 for t < 0
En
arn
− 𝑠−𝑎 0
𝑠−𝑎
0 0
w.
1
Example 11 Determine initial value and final value of the following signal 𝑋(𝑆) = 𝑠 𝑠+2
Solution:
ww
Initial value
1 1
𝑥 0 = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 = =0
𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 𝑠 𝑠+2 ∞
Final value
1 1
𝑥 ∞ = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠+2 2
𝑆 2 +9𝑆+1
Example 12 Find inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑆[𝑆 2 +6𝑆+8]. Find ROC for 𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > 0
𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 < −4 𝑖𝑖𝑖) − 2 > 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > −4
Solution:
n
g.i
ROC
𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 > 𝟎
rin
jΩ
ROC lies right side of all poles
1 19 13
ee ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ
gin
𝒊𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < −𝟒
jΩ
ROC lies left side of all poles
En
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
-4 -2 0 σ 8 8 4
arn
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ
w.
ww
10
When continuous time system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariant
then it is called an LTI-CT (Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time) System.
.in
3.2 Impulse Response
When the input to a continuous time system is an unit impulse signal δ(t) then the
output is called an impulse response of the system and it is denoted by h(t)
ng
Impulse response, h(t) = H{𝛿(t)}
−∞
This is called convolution integral or simply convolution. The convolution of two signal x(t) and
En
There are four types of system realization in continuous time linear time invariant
systems.
They are
w.
Disadvantages:
More number of integrators are used
Inefficient and impractical (numerically unstable) for complex design
.in
domain and s-domain equations.
Advantages:
It uses minimum number of integrators
ng
Straight forward realization
Disadvantages:
It increases the possibility of arithmetic overflow for filters of high Q or resonance
The given transfer function is expressed into its partial fractions and each factor is
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realized in direct form II and all those realized structures are connected in parallel.
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑥1 (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡 = 𝑥1 (𝜏 𝑥2 (𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
ww
−∞
∞
1 1 1
0 3 τ 0 2 τ -2 0 τ
Fig 3.21 Fig 3.22 Fig 3.23
.in
t-2 t 0 3 τ
Fig 3.24
ng
Case (ii) 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 < 2
eri
∞ 𝑡
(1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑡
1 ∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = (𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 0 =𝑡
t-2 0 t 3 τ −∞ 0
ine
Fig 3.25
g
En
(1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑡
1 ∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = (𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑡−2 =2
Le
0 t-2 t 3 τ −∞ 𝑡−2
Fig 3.26
1 (1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 3
∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = (𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑡−2
0 t-2 3 t τ −∞ 𝑡−2
= 5−𝑡
Fig 3.27
0 3 t-2 t τ
Fig 3.28
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡<0
𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 2
∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 < 3
5−𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 < 5
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡≥5
.in
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
+5 + 6𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
ng
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
eri
Applying Laplace transform of the given equation
𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 5𝑆𝑌(𝑆 + 6𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆)
𝑌(𝑆 (𝑆 2 + 5𝑆 + 6) = 𝑋(𝑆)
ine
𝑌(𝑆 1
Transfer function 𝐻(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆) = (𝑆 2 +5𝑆+6)
1
𝐻(𝑆 = 𝑌(𝑆 = (∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) => 𝑋(𝑆) = 1)
𝑆2 + 5𝑆 + 6
g
1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐻(𝑆 = = +
(𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 2) 𝑆 + 3 𝑆 + 2
En
1 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 2 + 𝐵(𝑆 + 3)
at 𝑆 = −3 𝑆 = −2
𝐴 = −1 𝐵=1
arn
1 1
∴ 𝐻(𝑆 = − +
𝑆+3 𝑆+2
Applying Inverse Laplace transform
Le
𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = + 2 + 2
(𝑆 2 2
+ 4)(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
𝑆 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐷
𝐿𝑒𝑡 2 = 2 +
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 2 + 1 (𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 2 + 1
𝑆 = (𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 (𝑆 2 + 1 + (𝐶𝑆 + 𝐷)(𝑆 2 + 4
𝑆 = 𝐴𝑆 3 + 𝐵𝑆 2 + 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑆 3 + 𝐷𝑆 2 + 4𝐶𝑆 + 4𝐷
Comparing constant term
0 = 𝐵 + 4𝐷
𝐵 = −4𝐷 … (7)
Comparing coeff of 𝑆 3
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0=𝐴+𝐶
𝐴 = −𝐶 … (8)
2
Comparing coeff of 𝑆
ng
0=𝐵+𝐷 … (9)
Comparing coeff of S
1 = 𝐴 + 4𝐶 … (10)
eri
Substitute 𝑒𝑞 8 in 𝑒𝑞 10 and 𝑒𝑞 7 in 𝑒𝑞 9
𝟏
𝑪 = ,𝑫 = 𝟎
𝟑
ine
Substitute value of C and D in 𝑒𝑞 8 and 𝑒𝑞 7
𝟏
𝑨 = − ,𝑩 = 𝟎
𝟑
1 1
g
𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑆
∴ 2 = 3 + 3
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 2 + 1 (𝑆 2 + 4) (𝑆 2 + 1
En
1 1
−3𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = 2 + 23 + 2 + 2
(𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
arn
1 4
−3𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = 2 + 23 + 2
(𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
Le
𝟏 𝟒
𝒚(𝒕 = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝟑 𝟑
w.
Example 3.4: Find step response of the circuit shown in Fig 3.30
R
ww
x(t) L y(t)
i(t)
Fig 3.30
Solution:
Applying KVL to the circuit shown in Fig 3.30
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Laplace transform
𝑋(𝑆 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑆 + 𝐿𝑆𝐼(𝑆) 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆𝐼(𝑆)
𝑋(𝑆 = [𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]𝐼(𝑆)
𝑋(𝑆
𝐼(𝑆 =
[𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]
𝑋(𝑆
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆
[𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]
1
For Step response 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡 => 𝑋(𝑆 =
𝑆
1
𝐿 1
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆 𝑆 = =
𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆 𝐿𝑆 + 𝑅 𝑆 + 𝑅
𝐿
Applying Inverse Laplace transform
𝑹
𝒚(𝒕 = 𝒆−𝑳 𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
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Example 3.5: Solve the differential equation using Fourier transform
ng
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(i) Find the impulse response of the system
eri
(ii) What is the response of the system if 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Solution:
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
ine
2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Fourier transform
(𝑗𝛺 2 Y(𝑗Ω + 6𝑗Ω𝑌(𝑗Ω + 8𝑌(𝑗Ω = 2X(𝑗Ω)
g
H(𝑗Ω = = 2
X(𝑗Ω) [(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8]
2 𝐴 𝐵
∴ H(𝑗Ω = Y(𝑗Ω = 2
= +
[(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8] 𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2
2 = 𝐴(𝑗Ω + 2 + 𝐵(𝑗Ω + 4
Le
at 𝑗Ω = −4 𝑗𝛺 = −2
𝐴 = −1 𝐵=1
−1 1
H(𝑗Ω = +
w.
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2
Applying Inverse Fourier Transform
𝒉(𝒕 = −𝒆−𝟒𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕
ww
at 𝑗Ω = −4 𝑗𝛺 = −2
2 2 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 2
𝐴=
(𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 4 1𝑑 (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
𝑗 Ω=−4 𝐵=
1 2! 𝑑(𝑗Ω 2
𝐴=− 𝑗𝛺 =−2
4
1
𝐵=
4
𝑗𝛺 = −2 𝑗𝛺 = −2
2 3 2
3 (𝑗Ω
𝑑 +2 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 𝐷= 3
𝐶= (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 𝑗𝛺 =−2
𝑑(𝑗Ω
𝐷=1
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𝑗𝛺 =−2
1
𝐶=−
2
ng
1 1 1
4 −4−2 1
∴ Y(𝑗Ω = + + 2
+
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
eri
Applying Inverse Fourier Transform
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚(𝒕 = − 𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒕𝟐 𝒖(𝒕
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
ine
Example 3.6: Find the direct form II structure of
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2
𝐻(𝑆 =
1 1
𝑆2 − 𝑆 +
g
𝑆−
4 2
Solution:
En
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2 5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2
𝐻(𝑆 = =
1 1 𝑆2 𝑆 𝑆 1
𝑆 − 4 𝑆2 − 𝑆 + 2 𝑆3 − 4 − 𝑆2 + 4 + 2 − 8
arn
4 11 2
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2 5− + 2 − 3
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
𝐻(𝑆 = 2 =
5𝑆 3𝑆 1 5 3 1
𝑆3 − 4 + 4 − 8 1 − 4𝑆 + 2 − 3
4𝑆 8𝑆
Le
1/S
ww
5/4 -4
1/S
-3/4 11
1/8 -2
Fig 3.39
Example 3.7: Realize the system with following differential equation in direct form I
𝑑 3 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
+3 +5 + 7𝑦(𝑡) = 2 + 0.4 + 0.5𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
𝑑 3 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 3
+3 𝑑𝑡 2
+5 𝑑𝑡
+ 7𝑦(𝑡 = 2 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 0.4 𝑑𝑡
+ 0.5𝑥(𝑡)
Taking Laplace transform
𝑆 3 𝑌(𝑆 + 3𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 5𝑆𝑌(𝑆 + 7𝑌(𝑆 = 2𝑆 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 0.4𝑆𝑋(𝑆 + 0.5𝑋(𝑆
Dividing both the side by 𝑆 3
3 5 7 2 0.4 0.5
𝑌(𝑆 + 𝑌(𝑆 + 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 3 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆 + 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 3 𝑋(𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
2 0.4 0.5 3 5 7
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆 + 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 3 𝑋(𝑆 − 𝑌(𝑆 − 2 𝑌(𝑆 − 3 𝑌(𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
.in
Direct form I structure
ng
1/S 1/S
2 -3
eri
1/S 1/S
-5
0.4
ine
1/S 1/S
0.5 -7
Fig 3.42
g
Example 3.8: Realize the system with transfer function in cascade form
En
4(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 3
𝐻(𝑆 = 3
𝑆 + 6.5𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 + 4
Solution:
arn
4 4
𝑆 𝑆+1 1+1 𝑆 𝑆+3 1+3 𝑆
𝐻1 (𝑆 = = 𝐻2 (𝑆 = = 𝐻3 (𝑆 = =
𝑆 + 0.5 1 + 0.5 𝑆+2 1+2 𝑆+4 1+4
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
w.
= = =
𝑋1 (𝑆) 1 + 0.5 𝑋2 (𝑆) 1 + 2 𝑋3 (𝑆) 1 + 4
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
X2(S) W2(S) Y2(S) X3(S) W3(S) Y3(S)
X1(S) W1(S)
Cascade form:
X(S)
1/S
Y(S)
-0.5 4
1/S
1/S
1 -4 3
-2
Fig 3.57
.in
𝑆(𝑆 + 2
𝐻(𝑆 =
(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4
Solution:
ng
𝑆(𝑆 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐻(𝑆 = = + +
(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3 𝑆+4
eri
𝑆(𝑆 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4 + 𝐵(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 4 + 𝐶(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3)
Let S= −1 Let S= −3 Let S= −4
−1(1 = 𝐴(2 (3) −3(−1 = 𝐵(−2 (1) −4(−2 = 𝐶(−3 (−1)
ine
𝟏 𝟑 𝟖
𝑨=− 𝑩=− 𝑪=
𝟔 𝟐 𝟑
1 3 8
−6 −
∴ 𝐻(𝑆 = + 2 + 3
g
X (S)
1/S
arn
-1 -1/6
1/S
Le
-3/2
-3
w.
1/S
8/3 Y (S)
-4
ww
4.1.1 Sampling theorem (or) uniform sampling theorem (or) Low pass sampling theorem
Sampling theorem states that “A band limited signal 𝒙(𝒕) with 𝑿(𝝎) = 𝟎 for |𝝎| ≥ 𝝎𝒎 can
.in
be represented into and uniquely determined from its samples 𝒙(𝒏𝑻) if the sampling frequency
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎 , where 𝒇𝒎 is the frequency component present in it”.
(i.e) for signal recovery, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest
ng
frequency present in the signal.
eri
Proof:
Sampling Operation:
𝝳T(t) is impulse train
ine
𝝳T(t)
xs(t)=x(nT)
x(t)
-5T -4T -3T -2T -T 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T
0 nT
g
Fig 4.2
En
x(t) xs(t)=x(nT)
𝝳T(t)
Fig 4.3
Analog signal 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal as shown in Fig 4.1, 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 is the train of impulse shown in Fig 4.2
Sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is the product of signal 𝑥(𝑡) and impulse train 𝛿𝑇 (𝑡) as shown in Fig 4.2
Le
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿𝑇 (𝑡)
∞ ∞
1
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡
w.
𝑇
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞
1
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡
ww
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
Applying Fourier transform on both sides
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡 ]
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝑋(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔𝑠 )
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
2𝜋
𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
279
∞
1 2𝜋𝑛
∴ 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝑋(𝜔 − )
𝑇 𝑇
𝑛=−∞
(𝑜𝑟)
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑋(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓𝑠 ) 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
Where 𝑋(𝜔) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋(𝑓) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Where 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝑠 (𝑓) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Spectrum of continuous time signal x(t) with maximum frequency 𝜔𝑚 is shown in Fig 4.5.
.in
X(Ѡ)
ng
-Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡ
Xs(Ѡ)
eri
ine
1/T
Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
arn
Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
w.
From the plot of 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) (Fig 4.6, Fig 4.7, Fig 4.8),
For 𝝎𝒔 = 𝟐𝝎𝒎
There is no separation between the spectral replicates so no guard band exists and 𝑋(𝜔)
can be obtained from 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) by using only an ideal low pass filter (LPF) with sharp cutoff.
For 𝝎𝒔 < 2𝝎𝒎
The low frequency component in 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 overlap on high frequency components of 𝑋 𝜔 so
that there is presence of distortion and 𝑋 𝜔 cannot be recovered from 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 by using any
filter. This distortion is called aliasing.
So we can conclude that the frequency spectrum of 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) is not overlapped for
𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 ≥ 𝝎𝒎 , therefore the Original signal can be recovered from the sampled signal.
For 𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 < 𝝎𝒎 , the frequency spectrum will overlap and hence the original signal cannot be
.in
recovered from the sampled signal.
ng
𝜔𝑠 − 𝜔𝑚 ≥ 𝜔𝑚 𝑖. 𝑒 𝝎𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝝎𝒎
(𝑜𝑟)
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎
eri
i.e., Aliasing can be avoided if 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚
ine
4.1.2 Aliasing effect (or) fold over effect
signal.
En
When 𝑓𝑠 < 2𝑓𝑚 , (i.e) when signal is under sampled, the individual terms in equation
1 ∞
𝑋𝑠 (ω) = T n=−∞ 𝑥(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔𝑠 ) get overlap. This process of spectral overlap is called frequency
folding effect.
arn
Occurrence of aliasing
Aliasing Occurs if
Le
To Avoid Aliasing
i) 𝑥(𝑡) should be strictly band limited.
It can be ensured by using anti-aliasing filter before the sampler.
ww
It is the theoretical minimum sampling rate at which a signal can be sampled and still be
reconstructed from its samples without any distortion
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑁 = 2𝑓𝑚 . 𝐻𝑧
281
The process of obtaining analog signal 𝑥(𝑡) from the sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is called data
reconstruction or interpolation.
∞
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇
𝑛=−∞
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇
∞
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
.in
𝑛=−∞
The reconstruction filter, which is assumed to be linear and time invariant, has unit impulse
response (𝑡).
The reconstruction filter, output 𝑦(𝑡) is given by convolution of 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) and (𝑡).
ng
∞ ∞
∴ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 ∗ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 . 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
eri
−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞ ∞
= 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑛=−∞
ine
−∞
𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇
𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑡 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇
∞
g
∴𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 (𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
En
H(f)
Xs(t) T x(t)
w.
-fs/2 fs/2 f
Fig 4.9
ww
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
1 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 1
= = sin 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 = sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡
𝑓𝑠 𝜋𝑡 2𝑗 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡
∴ 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 ……… 1
∞
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 (𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
Example 4.1: Determine Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval corresponding to each of the following
signals
𝑥 𝑡 = cos 1000𝜋𝑡 + cos 3000𝜋𝑡 + sin 4000𝜋𝑡
𝜔𝑚 = 4000𝜋 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 = 4000𝜋 ⇒ 𝑓𝑚 = 2000𝐻𝑧
.in
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 4000 𝐻𝑧
1 1
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = = = 0.25 𝑚𝑆
ng
2𝑓𝑚 4000
𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
ine
𝑛=−∞
𝜋
En
1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞
2𝜋
−𝜋
Example 4.9: Find Fourier transform of the following
arn
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
ii) 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛)
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
Solution:
Le
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
∞ 0, 𝑛≠0
𝑗𝜔 𝛿 𝑛 =
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐹 𝛿 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 = 𝑒 0 = 1 1, 𝑛=0
w.
𝑛=−∞
∞ ∞
𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐹 𝑢 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 0, 𝑛<0
𝑢 𝑛 =
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0 1, 𝑛≥0
1 1
= 1 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 + ⋯ ∞ = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1−𝑥
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
It is Right handed exponential signal
283
∞ ∞
𝑗𝜔 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑋 𝑒 = 𝐹 𝑎 𝑢(𝑛) = 𝑎 𝑢(𝑛)𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
−𝑗𝜔 2
1
= 1 + 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 𝑎𝑒 + ⋯+∞ =
1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
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𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑋 𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒 =𝐴 𝑥𝑛 =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1−𝑥
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑗𝜔𝐿 −𝑗𝜔𝐿 −𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝑒 −𝑒 𝑒
ng
2 2 2
2𝑗 sin 2 −
𝑗𝜔 𝐿−1
−
𝑗𝜔 𝐿−1 sin 2
𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐴 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔 =𝐴 𝜔 𝑒 2 = 𝐴𝑒 2
𝜔
𝑒 2 − 𝑒− 2 𝑒 2 2𝑗 sin 2 sin 2
𝑋 𝑒 = sin(n θ)𝑒 = 𝑒 = e −
2j 2𝑗
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
En
𝑛=0
−j(𝜃+𝜔) j(𝜃−𝜔)
1 1 1 1 1−e −1+e
= − = −j𝜔
2𝑗 1 − e j(𝜃−𝜔) 1−e −j(𝜃+𝜔) 2𝑗 1 − 2e cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
1 2je−j𝜔 sin θ e−j𝜔 sin θ
arn
= =
2𝑗 1 − 2e−j𝜔 cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 1 − 2e−j𝜔 cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
Le
4.4 Z-Transform
𝑍[𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛
ww
𝑛=−∞
4.4.2 Inverse Z-transform
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0
∞
𝑍𝛿 𝑛 = δ n 𝑧 −n = Z −0 = 1
𝑛=−∞
∴𝑍 𝛿 𝑛 =1
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𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
1 1 𝑍
= 1 = −1
=
1− 1−𝑧 𝑍−1
ng
𝑧
The above series convergence if 𝑍 −1 < 1 i.e ROC is 𝑍 > 1
eri
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
∞ ∞ −1
−𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 = −𝑎 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)𝑧 =− 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
ine
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞
𝑎−1 𝑧 −𝑎−1 𝑧 1 𝑧
=− −1
= −1 −1
= −1
=
1−𝑎 𝑧 −𝑎 𝑧 1 − 𝑎𝑧 1 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑧−𝑎
En
Re(z)
Le
w.
1 − 0.6𝑍 −1 + 0.08𝑍 −2
Solution:
1 𝑍2
𝑋 𝑧 = =
1 − 0.6𝑍 −1 + 0.08𝑍 −2 𝑍 2 − 0.6𝑍 + 0.08
𝑋(𝑍) 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑍 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4
𝑍 𝑍
𝐴= 𝑍 − 0.2 = −1 𝐵= 𝑍 − 0.4 =2
𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍=0.2 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍=0.4
𝑋(𝑍) −1 2 −𝑍 2𝑍
∴ = + ⇒ 𝑋(𝑍) = +
𝑍 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4
285
Im (z)
ROC: 𝑍 > 0.4
ROC lies outside of all poles. So both the terms
are causal 0.2 0.4
Re(z)
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = − 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
Im(z)
.in
ROC : 𝑍 < 0.2
ROC lies inside of all poles. So both the terms are
non-causal 0.2 0.4Re(z)
ng
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 − 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)
eri
ROC :
0.5 < 𝑧 < 1 Im(z)
𝑍3
Example 4.29: Find the inverse Z transform of 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2
using Cauchy residue method.
Solution:
arn
𝑍3
𝑋 𝑍 =
𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2
𝑛−1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑍 𝑍 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑍 = −1
+ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑋 𝑍 𝑍 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑍 = 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
Le
𝑍3 𝑍 + 1 𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑍3 𝑍 − 1 2
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑍 + 𝑍 𝑛−1
𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2 𝑍=−1
𝑑𝑍 𝑍 + 1 𝑍 − 1 2
𝑍=1
w.
1 2 𝑛 + 2 − 1 1 2𝑛 + 3
= − −1 𝑛−1 + = − −1 𝑛−1 𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑢(𝑛)
4 4 4 4
ww
𝑥 0 =1 𝑥 1 =1 𝑥 2 =2 𝑥 3 =2
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = 1,1,2,2, …
.in
𝑥(𝑛) 𝑦(𝑛)
H
The input signal x(n) is transformed to output signal y(n) through the above system
ng
5.2 Impulse Response
When the input to a discrete time system is a unit impulse 𝛿(𝑛) then the output is called
Consider two LTI systems with impulse response h1(n) and h2(n) connected in parallel as
En
x(n) System 1
h(n)=h1(n)+h2(n)
h2(n)
y2(n)
System 2
Le
2
Fig 5.1 Parallel connections of discrete time systems
w.
System1 System2
Fig 5.2
Let us consider two systems with impulse ℎ1 (𝑛) and ℎ2 (𝑛) connected in cascade as shown in
Fig 5.2
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separate unit delay element for input and output variables. It provides direct relation between
time domain and Z-domain equations. This form is practical for small filters.
ng
Advantages:
Simplicity
Most straight forward realization
eri
Disadvantages:
More number of unit delay elements are used
Inefficient and impractical for complex design
ine
Consider a system with system function
𝑌(𝑍) 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2
𝐻(𝑍) = =
g
𝑋(𝑍) 1 + 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎2 𝑍 −2
𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑎2 𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑏0 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 𝑋(𝑍)
En
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
𝑏1 −𝑎1
Le
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
𝑏2 −𝑎2
𝑌(𝑍)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 … … … 〈6〉
𝑊(𝑍)
From eq 〈5〉 we have
𝑊(𝑍) = 𝑋(𝑍) − 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 𝑊(𝑍) − 𝑎2 𝑍 −2 𝑊(𝑍) … … … 〈7〉
From eq 〈6〉 we have
𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑏0 𝑊(𝑍) + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 𝑊(𝑍) + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 𝑊(𝑍) … … … 〈8〉
.in
Realization of eq 〈7〉 Realization of eq 〈8〉
X(Z) W(Z) b0
W(Z) Y(Z)
ng
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-a1 b1
𝑍 −1
eri
𝑍 −1
-a2 b2
X(Z)
g
b0 Y(Z)
En
𝑍 −1
-a1 b1
𝑍 −1
arn
-a2 b2
then all those realized structures are cascaded i.e., connected in series.
Consider a system with the following system function
(𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )(𝑏𝑚0 + 𝑏𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
ww
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-ak1 bk1 -am1 bm1
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-ak2 bk2 -am2 bm2
Realizing 𝐻1 (𝑍) and 𝐻2 (𝑍) in direct form II and the cascade form of the system function 𝐻(𝑍) is
shown in Fig 5.7
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5.3.5 Parallel form realization
The given transfer function is expressed into its partial fractions and each factor is
realized in direct form II and all those realized structures are connected in parallel as shown in
ng
Fig 5.8.
𝐻(𝑍) = 𝑐 + ∑
𝑁
eri
𝐶𝑘
1 − 𝑃𝑘 𝑍 −1
ine
𝑘=1
Where {𝑃𝑘 } are poles of the system function
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁
𝐻(𝑍) = 𝑐 + −1
+ −1
+ ………+
1 − 𝑃1 𝑍 1 − 𝑃2 𝑍 1 − 𝑃𝑁 𝑍 −1
g
X(Z) C
En
C1
𝑍 −1
P1
arn
C2
P2 𝑍 −1
Le
w.
CN Y(Z)
𝑍 −1
ww
PN
Applying DTFT
1 1
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
6 6
𝑗𝜔
𝑌(𝑒 ) 1 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔
Frequency response 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = = 1 1 = 2𝑗𝜔 − 1𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 1
𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 𝑒 6 6
6 6
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
= 1 = 𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 − 6𝑒 − 6 𝑒 − 2 𝑒 + 13
1 𝑗𝜔
1 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 3) + 𝐵 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2)
.in
At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = −13 At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 12
−13 = 𝐵(−13 − 12) , ∴ 𝐵 = 25 1
2
= 𝐴(12 + 13) , ∴ 𝐴 = 35
ng
3 𝑗𝜔 2 𝑗𝜔
5
𝑒 5
𝑒
eri
𝑗𝜔
𝐻(𝑒 )= 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑗𝜔
𝑒 − 𝑒 +1
2 3
Applying inverse DTFT
3 1 𝑛 2 1 𝑛
ine
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + (− ) 𝑢(𝑛)
5 2 5 3
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ; 𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
En
2 4
Solution:
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ; 𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
arn
Applying DTFT
1 1
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 1 −𝑗𝜔 ; 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) =
1− 2
𝑒 1 − 34𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
Le
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
= = 1 + 3
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12)(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 4
ww
3 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 4) + 𝐵 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2)
At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 12 At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 34
1
2
= 𝐴(12 − 34) , ∴ 𝐴 = −2 3
4
= 𝐵(34 − 12) , ∴ 𝐵 = 3
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) −2 3 𝑗𝜔
−2𝑒 𝑗𝜔 3𝑒 𝑗𝜔
= + => 𝑌(𝑒 ) = +
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34
Applying IDTFT
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
𝑦(𝑛) = −2 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + 3 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
Taking Z-transform
3 1
𝑌(𝑍) − [𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑦(−1)] + [𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑍 −1 𝑦(−1) + 𝑦(−2)]
.in
2 2
3 −1
= 2𝑋 (𝑍) + [𝑍 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑥(−1)]
2
3 −1 1 −2 3
ng
𝑌(𝑍) − [𝑍 𝑌(𝑍)] + [𝑍 𝑌(𝑍) + 1] = 𝑋(𝑍) [2 + 𝑍 −1 ] ∵ 𝑦(−1) = 0, 𝑦(−2) = 1
2 2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥(𝑛)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑥(−1) = 0
1 𝑛
eri
1 𝑍
𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ⟹ 𝑋(𝑍) = 1 = 1
4 1 − 𝑍 −1 𝑍 −
4 4
3 1 𝑍 3 1
∴ 𝑌(𝑍) [1 − 𝑍 −1 + 𝑍 −2 ] = [2 + 𝑍 −1 ] −
ine
2 2 1 2 2
𝑍− 4
3 −1 1
𝑍 (2 + 𝑍 )
2 2
𝑌(𝑍) = −
g
1 3 −1 1 −2 3 −1 1
𝑍 − (1 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 ) 1 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 −2
4 2 2 2 2
En
3 1
𝑍 2𝑍 2 + 2 𝑍 2
𝑍2
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 ( 3 1 ) − 3 1
𝑍 − 𝑍2 − 𝑍 + 𝑍2 − 𝑍 +
4 2 2 2 2
arn
3 1 3 1 1
𝑌(𝑍) (2𝑍 2 + 𝑍) 𝑍 (2𝑍 2 + 𝑍) − 𝑍 (𝑍 − )
2 2 2 2 4
= 1 1
− 1
= 1 1
𝑍 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − )
4 2 2 4 2
Le
2 3 1 2 1 3 2 13
2𝑍 + 𝑍 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 𝑍 + 𝑍
2 2 8 2 8
= 1 1
= 1 1
(𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 2) (𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 2)
w.
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 1
+ +
(𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 1)
2
ww
3 2 13 1 1 1 1
𝑍 + 𝑍 = 𝐴(𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) + 𝐵 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − ) + 𝐶 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1)
2 8 2 4 2 4
1 8
At 𝑍 = 4 :𝐴=3
25
At 𝑍 = 1 :𝐵 = 3
1 −19
At 𝑍 = 2 :𝐶 = 2
8 25 19
𝑌(𝑍)
∴ = 3 1+ 3 − 2 1
𝑍 𝑍− 𝑍−1 𝑍−
4 2
8 𝑍 25 𝑍 19 𝑍
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 + −
3𝑍 − 3 𝑍−1 2 𝑍−1
4 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
𝑥(𝑛) = { , , , , , , } ℎ(𝑛) = {1, 1, , 1, 1}
↑ 3 3 3 3 3 3 ↑
.in
ng
Tabulation method
∞ ∞
eri
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦(𝑛) = ℎ(𝑛) ∗ 𝑥(𝑛) = ∑ ℎ(𝑘)𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
𝑥(𝑛) = { , , , , , , } ℎ(𝑛) = {1, 1, , 1, 1}
ine
↑ 3 3 3 3 3 3 ↑
𝒌 −𝟒 −𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 9
𝒙(𝒌) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
g
3 3 3 3 3 3
En
𝒉(𝒌) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 − 𝟐) 1 1 1 1 1
arn
𝒉(−𝒌 − 𝟏) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟏) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟐) 1 1 1 1 1
Le
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟑) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟒) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟓) 1 1 1 1
w.
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟔) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟕) 1 1 1 1
ww
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟖) 1 1 1 1
𝑦(−2) = (0)(1) = 0
1 1
𝑦(−1) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) = 3
1 2
𝑦(0) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 1
1 2 3
𝑦(1) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 2
1 2 3 4 10
𝑦(2) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 3
1 2 3 4 5
𝑦(3) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 5
3 3 3 3 3
2 3 4 5 6 20
𝑦(4) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) =
3 3 3 3 3 3
3 4 5 6
𝑦(5) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 6
3 3 3 3
4 5 6
𝑦(6) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 5
3 3 3
5 6 11
𝑦(7) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) =
3 3 3
6
𝑦(8) = ( ) (1) = 2
3
.in
1 1 10 20 11
∴ 𝑦(𝑛) = {0, , , 2, , 5, , 6, 5, , 2}
3 ↑ 3 3 3
ng
Example 5.5: Obtain Cascade form realization
eri
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Solution:
1 1
ine
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Taking Z-transform
1 1
𝑌(𝑍) − 𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) − 𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑋(𝑍) + 3𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍) + 2𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍)
g
4 8
𝑌(𝑍) 1 + 3𝑍 −1 + 2𝑍 −1 (1 + 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 2𝑍 −1 )
En
= = = 𝐻1 (𝑍). 𝐻2 (𝑍)
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 − 1 𝑍 −2 (1 − 1 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 1 𝑍 −1 )
4 8 2 4
arn
(1 + 𝑍 −1 ) (1 + 2𝑍 −1 )
𝐻1 (𝑍) = 1 𝐻2 (𝑍) = 1
(1 − 2 𝑍 −1 ) (1 + 4 𝑍 −1 )
Le
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
w.
1/2 1 -1/4 2
Fig 5.19 Direct form II structure of 𝐻1 (𝑍) Fig 5.20 Direct form II structure of 𝐻2 (𝑍)
ww
X(Z) 1 1 1 Y(Z)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
1/2 1 -1/4 2
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
𝑌(𝑍) 1 + 3𝑍 −1 + 2𝑍 −2
=
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 − 1 𝑍 −2
4 8
−16
.in
1 1 2𝑍 −2 + 3𝑍 −1 + 1
− 𝑍 −2 − 𝑍 −1 + 1
8 4
2𝑍 −2 + 4𝑍 −1 − 16
ng
(−) (−) (+)
−1
−𝑍 + 17
𝑌(𝑍)
𝑋(𝑍)
= −16 +
−𝑍 −1 + 17
1 1
1 − 𝑍 −1 − 𝑍 −2
4
= −16 + 1
17−𝑍 −1
eri
1
(1 − 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 𝑍 −1 )
8 2 4
ine
17−𝑍 −1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡1 1 = 1 + 1
(1 − 2 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 4 𝑍 −1 ) 1 − 2 𝑍 −1 1 + 4 𝑍 −1
1 1
g
17−𝑍 −1 = 𝐴 (1 + 𝑍 −1 ) + 𝐵(1 − 𝑍 −1 )
4 2
En
𝑎𝑡 𝑍 −1 = −4 −1
𝑎𝑡 𝑍 = 2
1 1
17 + 4 = 𝐵(1 − (−4)) 17 − 2 = 𝐴(1 + (2))
2 4
∴ 𝐵=7 ∴ 𝐴 = 10
arn
10 7
∴ 𝐻(𝑍) = −16 + 1 −1 + 1
1− 𝑍 1 + 4 𝑍 −1
Le
𝑌1 (𝑍) 10 𝑌2 (𝑍) 7
𝐻1 (𝑍) = = 𝐻2 (𝑍) = =
𝑋1 (𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 𝑋2 (𝑍) 1 + 1 𝑍 −1
w.
2 4
𝑌1 (𝑍) 𝑌2 (𝑍)
= 10 ⇒ 𝑌1 (𝑍) = 10𝑊1 (𝑍) = 7 ⇒ 𝑌2 (𝑍) = 7𝑊2 (𝑍)
𝑊1 (𝑍) 𝑊2 (𝑍)
ww
𝑊1 (𝑍) 1 𝑊2 (𝑍) 1
= =
𝑋1 (𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 𝑋2 (𝑍) 1 + 1 𝑍 −1
2 4
1 1
𝑊1 (𝑍) = 𝑋1 (𝑍) + 𝑍 −1 𝑊1 (𝑍) 𝑊2 (𝑍) = 𝑋2 (𝑍) − 𝑍 −1 𝑊2 (𝑍)
2 4
X1(Z) 10 X2(Z) 7
Y1(Z) Y2(Z)
𝑍 −1 -1/4 𝑍 −1
1/2
Fig 5.22 Direct form II structure of 𝐻1 (𝑍) Fig 5.23 Direct form II structure of 𝐻2 (𝑍)
Combining figures Fig 5.22 and Fig 5.23 we can form parallel form realization as shown in
Fig 5.24
X(Z) -16
10
𝑍 −1
1/2
Y(Z)
7
-1/4 𝑍 −1
.in
Example 5.7: Convolve the following discrete time signals using graphical convolution
ng
𝑥(𝑛) = ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛)
eri
Solution:
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
ine
x(n) h(n) h(-k)
1 1 1
g
0 1 2 3 4 5 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 n
En
𝑦(0) = (1)(1) = 1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 1
𝑦(1) = (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 2
Le
h(-k+1)
1
w.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 n
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 2
ww
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 n
∴ 𝑦(𝑛) = {1,2,3,4,5, … . }
.in
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = {2,6,10,15,11,5,7,4}
ng
eri
g ine
En
arn
Le
w.
ww