Week 3-4, 5-8cahpter I. Linear Algebrasolving Systems of Linear Equations Linear Algebra 1

Chapter 2
OPERATION ON MATRICES
Lesson 1.1 Sum and Difference of Matrices
Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to;
 Classify the types of Matrices
 Calculate some simple operations such as addition, and subtraction of Two Matrices
Reading:
Meaning of Matrices
 A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers, objects, variables or parameters carefully placed
within the matrix. The objects in a matrix are called elements which can be arranged into rows and/
columns
a11 a12 a 13
[
A¿ a 21 a22 a 23
a31 a32 a 33 ]
The matrix above is a 3 by 3 matrix, the elements are as shown in rows and columns in the matrix above.
Types of Matrices
 Row matrix
is a matrix consisting of one row with dimensions 1 x n
A = [ a11 a 12 a13 ]
 A Column matrix
is a matrix consisting of one column with dimensions m x 1
a11
 Zero matrix
[]
A = a21
a31
a matrix where all the elements are zero.
0 0 0
[ ]
A= 0 0 0
0 0 0
 Diagonal matrix
a matrix that has element zero everywhere except in the leading or principal diagonal
2 0 0
[ ]
A= 0 3 0
0 0 4
 Identity matrix
LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

1st Semester, S.Y. 2020-2021
Bachelor of Secondary Education
Instructor 2
this is a type of diagonal matrix that has element 1 in the leading or principal diagonal and zero
elsewhere.
1 0 0
[ ]
A= 0 1 0
0 0 1
Example:
add the following matrices:
1. A= [ 09 1 2
8 7
, B=]6 5 4
3 4 5 [ ]
I need to add the pairs of entries, and then simplify for the final answer:
A +B= [ 09 18 27] + [ 63 54 45 ]
0+6 1+5 2+ 4
=[
9+3 8+ 4 7+5 ]
So the answer is:
= [ 126 6 6
12 12 ]
4 −3 1 −1 2 3
2. Add the matrices: A = ⌈ 0 5 −2 ⌉ and B= ⌈ 6 −7 9 ⌉
5 −6 0 0 −4 8
4 −3 1 −1 2 3
solution: A+ B = ⌈ 0 5 −2 ⌉ + ⌈ 6 −7 9 ⌉
5 −6 0 0 −4 8
4+(−1) −3+2 1+3

= ⌈ 0+6 5+(−7) −2+ 9 ⌉
5+ 0 −6 +(−4) 0+ 8
3 −1 4
= ⌈ 6 −2 7 ⌉ answer
5 −10 8
−4 −5 ⌉ −4 2⌉
3. Find the sum of A and B given: A = ⌈ and B = ⌈
1 −3 −3 4
Solution:
−4 −5 −4 2
A + B =⌈ ⌉+ ⌈ ⌉
1 −3 −3 4
−4 +(−4) −5+2
= ⌈ ⌉
1+(−3) −3+( 4)

Instructor 2
−8 −3
= ⌈ ⌉ answer
−2 1
4. find the ∑ of two 3 x 3 matrices :

2 −10 −2 6 10 −2
[
A= 14 12 10
4 −2 2 ] and
[
B = 0 −12 −4
−5 2 −2 ]
2 −10 −2 6 10 −2
Solution: A+ B =
[ 14 12 10
4 −2 2 ] [
+ 0 −12 −4
−5 2 −2 ]
2+ 6 −10+10 −2+(−2)
=
[ 14 +0 12+(−12) 10+(−4)
4+(−5) −2+2 2+(−2) ]
8 0 −4
=
[ 14 0 6
−1 0 0 ]
SUBTRACTING MATRIX A AND MATRIX B
4 −3 1 −1 2 3
5. Subtract the matrices: A = 0 5 −2 and B= 6 −7 9 ⌉
⌈ ⌉ ⌈
5 −6 0 0 −4 8
4 −3 1 −1 2 3
solution: A −¿B = ⌈ 0 5 −2 ⌉ −⌈ 6 −7 9 ⌉
5 −6 0 0 −4 8
4−(−1) −3−2 1−3

= ⌈ 0−6 5−(−7) −2−9 ⌉
5−0 −6−(−4) 0−8
5 −5 −2
= ⌈ −6 12 −11 ⌉ answer
5 −2 −8
−4 −5 ⌉ −4 2⌉
6. Find the difference of A and B given: A = ⌈ and B = ⌈
1 −3 −3 4
Solution:
−4 −5 −4 2
A −¿ B =⌈ ⌉ −¿ ⌈ ⌉
1 −3 −3 4

Instructor 2
−4−(−4 ) −5−2
= ⌈ ⌉
1−(−3) −3−( 4)
0 −7
= ⌈ ⌉ answer
4 −7
7. find the difference of two 3 x 3 matrices :
2 −10 −2 6 10 −2
[
A= 14 12 10
4 −2 2 ] and B = 0 −12 −4
−5 2 −2 [ ]
2 −10 −2 6 10 −2
Solution: A −¿ B =
[ 14 12 10
4 −2 2 ] [
−¿
]
0
−5
−12
2
−4
−2
2−6 −10−10 −2−(−2)

=
[ 14−0 12−(−12) 10−(−4)
4−(−5) −2−2 2−(−2) ]
−4 −20 0
=
[ 14 24 14
9 −4 4 ]
3 4 0 3⌉
8. Subtract : A = [−71
2 0
−¿ B = ⌈
2 1 ]
answer: we can’t add them because they don’t match up size-wise
References:
Sterling, M.J. (2009)., Linear Algebra for Dummies, 111 River St, Wiley Publishing
Hefferon, J., Elementary Linear Algebra with applications, (Fourth Edition)
Strang, G., Linear Algebra and Its Application, (Fourth Edition)

Instructor 2
Exercises for Matrix Operations
Lesson 2.1. Adding and Subtracting matrices
Name : ___________________________ Course &Year:_____________________

Section: ___________________________ Date: ____________________________
A. Write the most specific name for each matrix.
1 2 3
3
1. ⌈ ⌉
4
2. ⌈
a b⌉
7 12 [ ]
3. 2 4 5
3 5 6
Answer: ________________ Answer: _________________ Answer: _________________
0 0 1 1 0 0
[ ]
4. 1 0 0
0 1 0 [ ]
5. 2 4 0
3 5 6
Answer: ________________ Answer: ________________
B. Find the sum and differenct of Two Matrices
−2 2 0 −1 2
1. If A = [−11 −3 4 ]
and B = [
3 0 1 ]
,then find the sum and difference of A and B
1 0 2 0 −1 0 2 3 1
[ ] [ ] [
2. if A = 0 2 3 , B = −2 0 3 and C = 0 0 −3 find A + B + C.
1 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 −1 ]
Instructor 2
5 −3 1 0
3. if A ⌈ ⌉ + A=⌈ ⌉ , find the matrix A
2 4 0 1
2 3 ⌉ ⌈ −2 1 ⌉=⌈ 0 4 ⌉
4. if ⌈ + find the value of x.
−5 4 x 3 −3 9
5 4 3 2 3 4
[
5. Let A = 7 8
] [
9 and B = 4 −5 6 find A – B
3 12 −5 0 7 8 ]
OPERATION ON MATRICES
Lesson 1.2 Product of a Row Matrix and a Column Matrix

Lesson Objectives: at the end of the lesson the students must be able to;
 solve the product of matrices
 find the scalar multiples of a matrix
Readings:
Example of scalar multiplication

 Find (-1)A where Solution:
−1 2 3 −1 2 3
[
A= 6 −7 9
0 −4 8 ] [
(-1)A= −1 6 −7 9
0 −4 8 ]
1 −2 −3
[
= −6 7 −9
0 4 −8 ]
Matrix product
 The method of multiplication of matrices is not as intuitive and may seem strange, although this
method is extremely useful in many mathematical applications.
 Matrix multiplication was introduced by an English mathematician named Arthur Cayley
(1821-1895) . We will see shortly how matrix multiplication can be used to solve systems of linear
equations.

Instructor 2
Product of a Row Matrix and a Column Matrix
 In order to understand the general procedure of matrix multiplication, we will introduce the concept
of the product of a row matrix by a column matrix. A row matrix consists of a single row of numbers
while a column matrix consists of a single column of numbers. If the number of columns of a row
matrix equals the number of rows of a column matrix, the product of a row matrix and column
matrix is defined. Otherwise, the product is not defined. For example, a row matrix consists of 1 row
of 4 numbers so this matrix has four columns. It has dimensions
 The product of two matrices is found by multiplying the corresponding elements in each row by each
column and then adding them together (ROW…COLUMN)
 1 x 4. This matrix can be multiplied by a column matrix consisting of 4 numbers in a single column
(this matrix has dimensions 4x1.
 Are the following matrix multiplications possible?
1−1 1−1 70
15 [ ][ ]
1. 0 2 x 0 2 = NO
15 [ ][
3. 2 π x
31
0 0 1
2 4 3 ]
= Yes
3x2 3x2 3x2 2x3
1 0 2
2.
2 1
[ ] [ ]
0 0
x
2x2
3 5
4 2
= yes
2x2
[ ][
4. 3 1 4 x
5 7 2
3x3
0 1
2 7
= No
2x2
]
Row by column multiplication

1x4 row matrix multiplied by a 4 x 1 column matrix: Notice the manner in which corresponding
entries of each matrix are
Revenue of a car dealer

A car dealer sells four model types: A,B,C,D. On a given week, this dealer sold 10 cars of model A, 5 of
model B, 8 of model C and 3 of model D. The selling prices of each automobile are respectively Ᵽ12,500, Ᵽ
11,800, Ᵽ 15,900 and Ᵽ 25,300. Represent the data using matrices and use matrix multiplication to find the
total revenue
Multiplying a 2x4 matrix by a 4x3 matrix to obtain a 4x2

Instructor 2
 The following is an illustration of the product of a 2 x 4 matrix with a 4 x 3 . First, the number of
columns of the matrix on the left equals the number of rows of the matrix on the right so matrix
multiplication is defined. A row by column multiplication is performed three times to obtain the first
row of the product:
 70 80 90.
Undefined matrix multiplication

 Why is this matrix multiplication not defined? The answer is that the left matrix has three columns
but the matrix on the right has only two rows. To multiply the second row [4 5 6] by the third
column, 3 there is no number to pair with 6 to multiply.
is
iis not defined
More examples:
1 6
A=
3 1 −1
[
2 0 3 ] [ ]
B = 3 −5
−2 4
Find AB if it is defined:
1 6
[ 3 1 −1
2 0 3 ][ 3 −5
−2 4 ]
Is Matrix Multiplication Commutative?
 Now we will attempt to multiply the matrices in reverse order:
1 6
BA = 3 −5
−2 4 [ [] 32 1 −1
0 3 ]
 Now we are multiplying a 3 x 2 matrix by a 2 x 3 matrix. This matrix multiplication is defined but
the result will be a 3 x 3 matrix. Since AB does not equal BA, matrix multiplication is not
commutative.
15 1 17
 BA= −1 3 −18
2 −2 14[ ]
Example:

Instructor 2
1. 3 [ 43 87]
Solution: 3 x 4 = 12 final answer = [ 129 2421 ]
3 x 8 = 24
3x3=9
3 x 7 = 21
2. Multiply matrix A and Matrix B

A= 1 2 and B = 5 6
3 4[ ] 7 8 [ ]
Solution:
First, check the dimensions of the matrices. Matrix A has a dimension 2 x 2 and matrix B has a
dimension 2 x 2. The inner dimensions are the same so can perform the multiplication. The product
will have the dimension 2 x 2.
1 2 5 6
AB =
3 4
x
7 8 [ ] [ ]
1 ( 5 ) +2(7) 1 ( 6 ) +2(8)
= [ 3 (5 )+ 4 ( 7 ) 3 ( 6 ) +4 (8) ]
5+ 14 6+16
= [ 15+28 18+ 32 ]
Answer = [ 1943 2250]
5 −1
3. given A=
−1
a. Find AB
2 3
4 0 5 [
∧B= −4 0
2 3
] [ ]
b. Find BA
Soluiton:
5 −1
a. AB = [ −1 2 3 x
4 0 5
−4 0
2 3
][ ]
−1 ( 5 )+ 2 (−4 ) +3(2) −1 (−1 ) +2 ( 0 ) +3(3)
= [ 4 ( 5 )+ 0 (−4 )+5 ( 2 ) 4 (−1 )+ 0 ( 0 ) +5(3) ]
1+ 9
= [ −5+ (−8 )+6
20+10 −4+15 ]
Instructor 2
= [−730 1011 ]
5 −1
b. BA = −4
2
0 x
3 [ ][
−1 2 3
4 0 5 ]
5 (−1 )±1(4 ) 5 ( 2 )±1( 0) 5 ( 3 )±1(5)
=
[ 2 (−1 )+3 (4) 2 ( 2 ) +3(0) 2 ( 3 ) +3(5)]
−4 (−1 )+ 0 ( 4 ) −4 ( 2 )+ 0(0) −4 ( 3 ) +0 (5)
−5+−4 10 15+−5
= 4
[ −8 −12
−2+12 4 6+ 15 ]
−9 10 10
[
= 4 −8 −12
10 4 21 ]
Practical application
 Suppose you a business owner and sell clothing. The following represents the number of items sold
and the cost for each item: Use matrix operations to determine the total revenue over the two days:
 Monday: 3 T-shirts at Ᵽ10 each, 4 hats at Ᵽ 15 each, and 1 pair of shorts at Ᵽ 20.
Tuesday: 4 T-shirts at Ᵽ 10 each, 2 hats at Ᵽ 15 each, and 3 pairs of shorts at Ᵽ 20.
Solution of practical application

 Represent the information using two matrices: The product of the two matrices give the total
revenue:
Unit price of each item:
Qty. Sold each item on Monday
Qty sold of each item on Tuesday

Instructor 2
34
[]
[ 10 15 20 ] 4 2
13
 Then your total revenue for the two days is =[110 130] Price Quantity=Revenue
References:
Exercises for Chapter II. Matrix Operations

Lesson 2.1. Product of a Row Matrix and a Column Matrix

Instructor 2
Name : ___________________________ Course &Year:_____________________
Section: ___________________________ Date: ____________________________
A. Use the Matrices to solve the Scalar Multiplication

39 18 12 13
A=
−7 10
[
30 11
, ] [ ] [
B = 2112 ,
0 64
C = 8 14 6
7 4 21 ]
1. 5A 3. 3B
Solution: Solution:
2. -2B 4. -4 C
Solution: Solution:
B. Use the Matrices to solve the Matrix multiplication
4 10 2 −3 12
A=
−1 5
[
3 2
,B=
3 6 4
] [
−8 0 12
, C= −2
59
6 ] [ ] [
, D= 9 3 1
0 8 −10 ]
1. AB
2. BC
3. CA
4. BD
5. DC
Chapter III
Determinants of Matrix

Instructor 2
 State the property of determinants;
 Compute the determinant of a 2 × 2, 3 × 3, or sparse n × n matrix; and
 Evaluate determinants of n x n matrices using cofactor expansion;
Reading
Determinants- The determinant is defined as a scalar value which is associated with the square matrix. If X
is a matrix, then the determinant of a matrix is represented by |X| or det (X).
A determinant of a matrix represents a single number.
We obtain this value by multiplying and adding its elements in a special way.
The determinant of a square matrix A is the integer obtained through a range of methods using the elements
of the matrix.
The determinant of a matrix is a special number that can be calculated from a square matrix.
A Matrix is an array of numbers:
The symbol for determinant is two vertical lines either side.
Example:
|A| means the determinant of the matrix A
Calculating the Determinant
First of all the matrix must be square (i.e. have the same number of rows as columns). Then it is just basic
arithmetic:
For a 2×2 Matrix
For a 2×2 matrix (2 rows and 2 columns):

Instructor 2
The determinant is:
|A| = ad − bc
"The determinant of A equals a times d minus b times c"
It is easy to remember when you think of a cross:
 Blue is positive (+ad),

 Red is negative (−bc)

Example:
1. B = [ 43 68] 2. A = [ 14 22]
Solution: Solution:
|B|= 4×8 − 6×3 = 1(2)-2(4)
= 32 – 18 = 2-8
= 14 = -6
For a 3×3 Matrix
here are the key points:

 Notice that the top row elements namely, a, b, and c serve as scalar multiplier to a corresponding 2 –
by -2 matrix
 The scalar a is being multiplied to the 2x2 matrix of left-over elements created when vertical and
horizontal line segments are drawn passing through a.
 The same process is applied to construct the 2 x 2 matrices for scalar multipliers b and c.
For a 3×3 matrix (3 rows and 3 columns):
The determinant is:
|A| = a(ei − fh) − b(di − fg) + c(dh − eg)

"The determinant of A equals ... etc"

Instructor 2
It may look complicated, but there is a pattern:
To work out the determinant of a 3×3 matrix:
 Multiply a by the determinant of the 2×2 matrix that is not in a's row or column.

 Likewise for b, and for c
 Sum them up, but remember the minus in front of the b
As a formula (remember the vertical bars || mean "determinant of"):
"The determinant of A equals a times the determinant of ... etc"
2 −3 1
|
Example 1. 2 0 −1
1 4 5 |
Applying the formula:
a b c
| |
det d e f = a∙ det
g h i
e f
h i
−b ∙det
d f
| |
g i
+ c ∙det
d e
g h| | | |
2 −3 1
|
Solution: det 2 0 −1 = 2 ∙det
1 4 5
4 5|
0 −1
-(-3)det
2 −1
|
1 5 |
+ 1∙det
2 0
1 4 | | | |
= 2 [ 0−(−4 ) ]+ 3 [ 10−(−1) ]+ 1 [ 8−0 ]
= 2(0+4)+3(10+1)+1(8)
= 2(4)+3(11)+8
= 8+33+8
6 1 1
|
= 49 2. C= 4 −2 5
2 8 7 |
Solution:
|C|= 6 × (−2 × 7 – 5× 8) – 1 × (4 × 7 – 5 × 2) + 1×(4 × 8 – (−2 × 2))
= 6 × (−54) – 1 × (18) + 1 × (36)

Instructor 2
= −306
1 3 2
2|
3. −3 −1 −3
3 1 |
Solution: = 1 ∙det |13 −31 |-(-3)det|−32 −31 |+ 1∙det|−32 −13 |
= 1 [ −1−(−9) ]- 3 [ −3−(−6) ] + 2 [ −9− (−2 ) ]
= 1(-1+9) -3 (-3+6) + 2(-9+2)
= 1(8)-3(3)+2(-7)
= 8-9-14
= -15
Properties of Determinants
1. Propery 1. Interchanging rows with columns
¿B ¿=¿ A∨¿
a1 a2 a3 a1 b1 c 1
| || |
b 1 b2 b3 = a2 b2 c 2
c1 c 2 c 3 a 3 b3 c 3
2. Proeperty 2: Interchanging any two rows/ columns, the sign of the determinant is changed but its
absolute value is unchanged ¿B ¿=−¿ A∨¿
a1 b 1 c 1
| |
| A|= a2 b 2 c 2
a3 b 3 c 3
consider the determinant ,
a2 b2 c 2
| |
|B|=¿ a1 b1 c 1
a 3 b3 c 3
expand by second row,
|B|= -a 1(b 2 c 3−b 3 c2) +b 1(a 2 c 3−a3 c2)−c 1(a 2 b3 −a3 b2)
¿−¿ ¿(b 2 c 3−b 3 c2) - b 1(a 2 c 3−a3 c2) + c 1(a 2 b3 −a3 b2))
The term in the bracket is same as the equation (2)
a 1 b1 c 1
| |
So |B|=− a 2 b2 c 2 or |B|=¿ −| A|
a 3 b3 c 3
3. Property 3: If every element of a row or column of a determinant is zero, the value of the determinant
is zero. For example:
0 0 0
|
| A|=¿ a2 b2 c 2
a 3 b3 c 3 |
= 0(b 2 c 3−b 3 c2) −¿0(a 2 c 3−a3 c2)+0(a 2 b3 −a3 b3)

Instructor 2
| A| = 0
4. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is multiplied by the same constant K, the value
of the determinant is multiplied by that constant.
a1 b1 c 1
| |
| A| = a2 b2 c 2
a 3 b3 c 3
ka1 kb 1 k c 1
|
Consider a determinant , | A| = a2 b2 c 2
a3 b3 c 3 |
|B|=¿ k a 1(b 2 c 3−b 3 c2)−¿ kb 1(a 2 c 3−a3 c2)+ kc1(a 2 b3 −a3 b2)
= k(a 1 ¿ ¿)−¿ b 1(a 2 c 3−a3 c2)+c 1(a 2 b3 −a3 b2))
a1 b 1 c 1
k
| |
So |B| = a2 b 2 c 2
a3 b 3 c 3
Or |B| = K | A|
5. If two rows or columns of a determinant are identical, the value of the determinant is zero.
a1 b1 c 1
| |
| A| = a1 b1 c 1
a 3 b3 c 3
= a 1 ¿ ¿)−¿ b 1(a 1 c 3−a3 c1)+c 1(a 1 b3 −a3 b1)

= a 1 b1 c 3−a 1 b 3 c 1−a1 b 1 c 3 +a3 b1 c 1+ a1 b3 c 1−a3 b1 c 1
| A| = 0
6. The value of a determinant is not changed if each element of any row or of any column is added to
(or subtracted from) a constant multiple of the corresponding element of another row or column. For
example, if
a1 b1 c 1
| |
| A| = a1 b1 c 1
a 3 b3 c 3
Consider a matrix,
|B|= ¿
= ¿ ¿)−¿ ¿(a 2 c 3−a3 c2)+(c 1+ kc 2)(a 2 b3 −a3 b2)

Instructor 2
a1 b1 c 1
| |
= a2 b2 c 2 + k(0) because row 1st and 2nd are identical
a 3 b3 c 3
|B| = | A|
7. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements.
2 0 0
|
| A|= 0 −5 0
0 0 3 |
= 2(-15-0) - (0-0) + 0(0-0)
= 30, which is the product of diagonal elements.
= 2(-5)3 = -30
8. The determinant of a matrix is equal to the determinant of its transpose.
9. The determinant of the product of two square matrices is equal to the product of the determinants of
the given matrices.
Determinants; Cofactor Expansion
Determinants of 2×2 and 3×3 Matrices
2×2 determinant
3 x 3 determinant

Instructor 2
Elementary Products
Elementary product: a product containing one entry from each row and one entry from each column.
In formula (4) each elementary product is of the form
where the blank contain some permutation of the column indices {1, 2, 3}.
Signed elementary product
The sign can be determined by counting the minimum number of interchanges in the permutation of the
column indices required to put those indices into their natural order: the sign is + if the number is even and –
if it is odd.
 Determinants of Matrices with Rows or Columns That Have All Zeros
Theorem 4.1.2. If A is a square matrix with a row or a column of zeros, then det(A) = 0
Determinants of Triangular Matrices

Theorem 4.1.3. If A is a triangular matrix, then det (A) is the product of the entries on the main diagonal
Minors and Cofactors
If a is a square matrix, then the minor of entry a ij ( also called the ijth minor of A) is denoted by M ij and is
defined to be the determinant of the submatrix that remains when the i th row and jth column of A are deleted.
The number Cij = (-1)i+j Mij is called the cofactor of entry aij (or the ijth cofactor of A)
Example:

Instructor 2
Determinants; Cofactor Expansion
Cofactor Expansions
Use a cofactor expansion to find the determinant of
Cramer’s Rule
Adjoint of A matrix
If A is and n x n matrix and Cij is the factor of aij, then the matrix

Instructor 2
C 11 C12 … … C1 n
[
C = C 21 C 22 … … . C2 n
Cn 1 C n 2 … …. C nn ]
Is called the matrix of cofactors from A. the transpose of this matrix is called the adjoint (or sometimes the
adjugate) of A and its denoted by adj(A)
Theorem 4.3.1. if the entries in any row (column) of a square matrix are multiplied by the cofactors of the
corresponding entries in a different row(column), then the sum of the product is zer0.
a11 a12 a 13
[
A¿ a 21 a22 a 23
a31 a32 a 33 ]
If we multiply the entries in the first row by the corresponding cofactors from the third row, then the sum is
a 11 C 31+a 12 C32+a 13 C33
Let’s consider a matrix A’ that results when the third row of A is replaced by a duplicate of the first row
We know than det(A’)=0 because of the duplicate rows.
Cramer’s Rule
 Not all systems have a definite solution. If the determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero, a
solution cannot be found using Cramer’s Rule because of division by zero.
 When the solution cannot be determined, one of two conditions exists:
The planes graphed by each equation are parallel and there are no solutions.
The three planes share one line (like three pages of a book share the same spine) or represent
the same plane, in which case there are infinite solutions
Evaluating a 3x3 Determinant
 Expanding by Minors (little 2x2 determinants)
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a c2 a b2
|a 2 b2 c 2 |=a1| 2 |−b1| 2 |+c 1| 2 |
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
1 3 −2
0 3 2 3 2 0
|2 0 3 |=( 1 )| |−( 3 )| |+(−2 )| |
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3
=( 1 )(−6 ) −( 3 )( 3 ) +( −2 )( 4 )
=−6 −9 −8 = −23
Using Cramer’s Rule
 to Solve a System of Three Equations

Instructor 2
Consider the following set of linear equations
a11 x1  a12 x2  a13 x3  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2  a23 x3  b2
a31 x1  a32 x2  a33 x3  b3
where
a11 a12 a13 b1 a12 a13
D  a12 a 22 a23 D1  b2 a22 a23
a13 a32 a33 b3 a32 a33
a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

D2  a12 b2 a23 D3  a12 a22 b2
a13 b3 a33 a13 a32 b3
Consider the following equations:
2 x1  4 x2  5 x3  36
3 x1  5 x2  7 x3  7
5 x1  3 x2  8 x3  31
 A  x   B
where
 2 4 5 
 A  
 3 5 7 

 5 3 8 

2 36 5
D2  3 7 7  1008
5 31 8
2 4 36
D3  3 5 7  1344
5 3 31
D1 672
x1    2
D 336
D2 1008
x2    3
D 336
D3 1344
x3    4
D 336
Example 1

Instructor 2
Solve the system
3x - 2y + z = 9
x + 2y - 2z = -5
x + y - 4z = -2
9 2 1
5 2 2
2 1 4 23
x   1
3 2 1 23
1 2 2
1 1 4
3 9 1
1 5 2
1 2 4 69
y   3
3 2 1 23
1 2 2
1 1 4
2. Expand across along the first row:
Expand down the second column:
3. Expand across the first row:

Instructor 2

Instructor 2
10. First expand across the second row, then expand either across the third row or down the
second column of the remaining matrix.
References:
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/joshsmith1110-162211-determinants-math-ppt-shella-
paglinawan-education-powerpoint/

Instructor 2
Exercises for Chapter III. Determinants
Name : ___________________________ Subject:___________________________

Course &Year:_____________________ Date: ____________________________
A. State or illustrate the property of determinants

0 5 −2 1 −3 6
|
1. 1 −3 6 = - 0 5 −2
4 −1 8 || 4 −1 8 |
Answer: ______________________________________________
2 −6 4 1 −3 2
2.
|1 6 3 | |
3 5 −2 = 2 3 5 −2
1 6 3 |
Answer: ______________________________________________
1 3 −4 1 3 −4
3.
| ||
2 0 −3 = 0 −6 5
5 −4 7 5 −4 7 |
Answer: ______________________________________________
1 2 3 1 2 3
4.
| ||
0 5 −4 = 0 5 −4
3 7 4 0 1 −5 |
Answer: ______________________________________________
B. Compute the determinants of the following equation.

Instructor 2
1 5 −6
| |
1. −1 −4 4 = ___________________________________________________________
−2 −7 9
1 5 −3
2.
| |
3 −3 3 = __________________________________________________________
2 13 −7
2 3 0
3.
| |
1 3 4 = __________________________________________________________
1 2 1
5 0 −1
4.
|
1 −3 −2
0 5 3 | = __________________________________________________________
C. Evaluate determinants of n x n matrices using cofactor expansion
1 −2 3
|
1. 6
|
7 −1 = __________________________________________________________
−3 1 4
−4 1 3
|
2. 3
|
0 −3 = __________________________________________________________
2 −2 3
1 1 4
| |
3. 0 −1 2 = __________________________________________________________
2 3 0

Instructor 2
3 0 4
| |
4. 2 3 2 = __________________________________________________________
0 5 −1
Chapter IV
Real Vector Spaces
 Determine if the given vector u is in the span of the vectors in W
 Identify linear independence of vectors
 Compute ithe components of the vector v with respect to the given orthonormal basis
 Find the expressions using Inner Product Space (IPS)
Readings:
Vector Spaces
 A space in which the elements are sets of numbers themselves
 Is a collection , V, of vectors and two operations, ±, such that the following hold for u, v,w∈ V and
c, d ∈ R
Many concepts concerning vectors in Rn can be extended to other mathematical systems.
We can think of a vector space in general, as a collection of objects that behave as vectors do in Rn . The
objects of such a set are calle vectors.
 A vector space is a nonempty set V of objects, called vectors, on which are defined two operations,
called addition and multiplication by scalars (real numbers), subject to the ten axioms below. The
axioms must hold for all u, v and w in V and for all scalars c and d
1. u + v is in V. closure under addition
2. u + v = v + u. commutative
3. (u + v) + w = u + (v +w) associative
4. there is a vector (called the zero vector) 0 in V such that u + 0 = u.(o exists in V, ie u+0 = u
Additive inverse
5. For each u in V, there is vector – u in V satisfying u + (-u) = 0
Inverse
6. c u is in V. closure under scalar multiplication
7. c (u+v) = cu +cv distributive
8. (c +d)u = cu +du distributive
9. (cd) u = c(du)

Instructor 2
10. 1u = u multiplicative identity
Example
a b
Let M 2× 2 = : a , b , c , d are real
c d
In this context, note that the 0 vector is
.
Example
Let n ≥ 0 be an integer and let
P n = the set of all polynomials of degree at most n ≥ 0.
Members of P n have the form
p ( t )= a 0 + a 1 t + a 2 t 2 + ··· + an t n
where a 0 , a 1 ,..., a n are real numbers and t is a real variable. The

set P n is a vector space.
 Rn has been based on the two basic vector operations, namely, vector addition and scalar
multiplication. For instance, the notion of a linear combination of vectors,
We will just verify 3 out of the 10 axioms here.
 uses these two operations. And so do all of the definitions involving linear combinations, such as
span, linear independence, basis, and coordinate vector. Even the idea of a linear function
is based on these two operations:
here are sets besides Rn that also have naturally defined addition and scalar multiplication. For example, the
set M2x3 of 2 × 3 matrices:
Both Rn and M2×3 are “vector spaces.” A vector space is a set having an addition and a scalar multiplication
that satisfy some properties. In this section, we study vector spaces in general. This allows for efficiency in
that we can apply anything we learn about a general vector space to any particular vector space that we
encounter.
Vectors in Rn

Instructor 2
Definition:
A vector is characterized by:
- a direction;
- an orientation;
- a length.
v
u
w
Geometric representation:
x In:
Geometric representation:

1st Semester, S.Y. 2020-2021 y
Instructor 2
Some Operations:
 Multiplication of vectors by scalars:
2x
Some Operations:
 Vector addition:
x+y
y
x
x
Vector Norm:
The length or the norm of the vector is the positive real number given

Instructor 2
Subspace
Definition of subspace:
W is called a subspace of a real vector space V if
1. W is a subset of the vector space V.
2. W is a vector space with respect to the operations in V.
Important Result:
W is a subspace of a real vector space V 
1. If u and v are any vectors in W, then u  v W .
2. If c is any real number and u is any vector in W, then cu  W .
Example:
W1  the subset of R 3 consisting of all vectors of the form,
a 
 0 , a  R
 

0  ,
together with standard addition and scalar multiplication. Is W1 a subspace of R ?
3
We need to check if the conditions (1) and (2) are satisfied. Let
a1  a 2 
u   0 , v   0 , c  R
 0   0 
.
Then,
(1):
a1  a 2  a1  a 2 
u  v   0    0    0   W1
 0   0   0 
.
(2):
ca1 
cu   0   W1
 0 
.

Instructor 2
 W1 is a subspace of R 3 .
Example:
Let the real vector space V be the set consisting of all n  n matrices together with the standard addition and
scalar multiplication. Let
W2  the subset of V consisting of all n  n diagonal matrices.
Is W2 a subspace of V?
Let
a11 0  0  b11 0  0
0 a22  0  0 b22  0 
u  W2 v    W2
        
   
0 0  a nn 
, 0 0  bnn 
, and c  R .
(1):
a11  b11 0  0 
 0 a 22  b22  0 
uv    W2
     
 
 0 0  a nn  bnn 
since u  v is still a diagonal matrix.
(2):
ca11 0  0 
 0 ca 22  0 
cu    W2
     
 
 0 0  ca nn 
since cu is still a diagonal matrix.
 W2 is a subspace of V.
Example:.
Pn 
the set consisting of all polynomials of degree n or less with the form together with standard
polynomial addition and scalar multiplication. Pn is a vector space. P  the set consisting of all
polynomials with the form together with standard polynomial addition and scalar multiplication. Then, P is
also a vector space. Then, Pn is a subspace of P .
Example:
V4  the set consisting of all real-valued continuous functions defined on the entire real line together with

Instructor 2
standard addition and scalar multiplication. Let V4  the set of all differentiable functions defined on the
*
entire real line together with standard

*
addition and scalar multiplication. Then, V4 is a real vector space. Also. V4 is a subspace of V4 .
Example:
W3  3
the subset of R consisting of all vectors of the form,
a
 a 2  , a, b  R
 

b   ,
together with standard addition and scalar multiplication. Is W3 a subspace of R ?
3
Let
 a1   a2 
u  a12 , v  a22 , c  R
 b1   b2 
.
Then,
(1):
 a1   a2   a1  a2   a1  a2 
u  v  a12   a22   a12  a22    a1  a2    W3
2
 b1   b2   b1  b2   b1  b2 
.
Therefore,
u  v  W3 .
 W3 is not a subspace of R 3 .
Example:
V3 
the set consisting of all polynomials of degree 2 or less with the form together with standard
polynomial addition and scalar multiplication. V3 is a vector space. Let
W4  the subset of V3 consisting of all polynomials of the form
ax 2  bx  c, a  b  c  2 .
Is W4 a subspace of V3 ?
Let

Instructor 2
u  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0  W4
and
v  b2 x 2  b1 x  b0  W4 .
a 2  a1  a0  2 b2  b1  b0  2
Then, and . Thus,
u  v  (a2 x  a1 x  a0 )  (b2 x 2  b1 x  b0 )
2
 (a2  b2 ) x 2  (a1  b1 ) x  (a0  b0 )  W4

since
 a2  b2    a1  b1    a0  b0   (a2  a1  a0 )   b2  b1  b0   2  2  4 .
 W4 is not a subspace of V3 .
Linear Independence
S   v1 , v2 , , vk  span ( S )  W
Let and . Is it possible to find a smaller (or even smallest) set,
for example,
S 
  v1 , v2 , , vk 1  , such that
span ( S )  W  span ( S  ) ?
To answer this question, we need to introduce the concept of linear independence and linear
dependence.
Definition of linear dependence and linear independence:

v , v , , vk in a vector space V are said to linearly dependent if there exist constants,
The vectors 1 2
c1 , c2 , , ck , not all 0, such that
c1v1  c2 v2    ck vk  0 .
v1 , v 2 , , v k are linearly independent if
c1v1  c2v2    ck vk  0  c1  c2    ck  0 .
v , v , , vk are linearly dependent or linearly independent:

The procedure to determine if 1 2
c v  c v  c v  0
1. Form equation 1 1 2 2 k k , which lead to a homogeneous system.
2. If the homogeneous system has only the trivial solution, then the given vectors are linearly
independent; if it has a nontrivial solution, then the vectors are linearly dependent.
Example:

Instructor 2
1 0  0 
e1  0, e2  1, e3  0, and S   e1 , e2 , e3 
   
0 0 1
. Are e1 , e 2 and e3 linearly independent?
[solution:]
1  0  0 1 0 0  c1 
c1e1  c 2 e2  c3 e3  c1 0  c 2 1  c3 0  0 1 0 c 2   0
   
0 0 1 0 0 1 c3 
 c1  0 
 c 2   
 
 0 
 c
 3  
0   .
Therefore, e1 , e 2 and e3 are linearly independent.
Example:
1    2 8
v1  2, v2   1 , v3   6 .
3  1  10
. Are v1 , v 2 and v3 linearly independent?
[solution:]
1    2  8  1  2 8   c1 
c1v1  c 2 v2  c3 v3  c1 2  c 2  1   c3  6   2 1 6  c 2   0
3  1  10 3 1 10 c3 
 c1   4 
   
c2   t   2  , t  R


 c3   
  1
 .
Therefore, v1 , v 2 and v3 are linearly dependent.
Example:
Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space consisting of all 2  2 matrices is linearly
independent or linearly dependent.
2 1 3 0 1 0 
S   v1 , v 2 , v3     ,  2 1 ,  2 0 
 0 1     .
[solution:]

Instructor 2
2 1 3 0 1 0  0 0 
c1v1  c 2 v 2  c3 v3  c1   2  2 1  3  2 0   0 0 
 c  c
0 1      .
Thus,
2c1  3c 2  c3  0  2  3 1  0 
1  0   0  0 
c1 0    
c1  c2  c3     
2c 2  2c 3  0 0   2  2  0 
       
c1  c 2 0  1  1   0  0  .
The homogeneous system is

 2 3 1 0 
1 0 0   c1  0
  c 2    
0 2 2    0 
   c3   
 1 1 0  0  .
The associated homogeneous system has only the trivial solution
 c1  0
c    0 
 2  
 c3  0
.
Therefore, v1 , v 2 and v3 are linearly independent.
Example:
Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space consisting of all polynomials of degree
 n is linearly independent or linearly dependent.

S   v1 , v2 , v3   x 2  x  2, 2 x 2  x, 3x 2  2 x  2 .
[solution:]
    
c1v1  c2 v2  c3 v3  c1 x 2  x  2  c2 2 x 2  x  c3 3x 2  2 x  2  0 . 
Thus,
c1  2c 2  3c3  0 1  2  3  0 
c1  c 2  2c3  0 c1 1   c 2 1   c3 2  0
2c1   2c3  0  2 0 2 0
.
The associated homogeneous system is
1 2 3  c1  0
1 1 2 c 2   0

2 0 2 c 3  0
.

Instructor 2
The homogeneous system has infinite number of solutions,
 c1  1
c   t  1  , t  R.
 2  
 c3   1
Therefore, v1 , v 2 and v3 are linearly dependent since
tv1  tv 2  tv 3  0, t  R .
Note:
1   2 8
v1  2, v2   1 , v3   6 ,
3  1  10
In the examples with or with
 2 2 2

S   v1 , v2 , v3   x  x  2, 2 x  x, 3x  2 x  2 , v1 , v 2 and v3 are linearly dependent. Observe
that v3 in both examples are linear combinations of v1 , v 2 ,
8 1   2
v3   6   4 2  2  1   4v3  2v 2
   
10 3  1 
and
   
v3  3x 2  2 x  2  x 2  x  2  2 x 2  x  v1  v 2 .
As a matter of fact, we have the following general result.
Important result:
The nonzero vectors

v1 , v 2 , , v k in a vector space V are linearly dependent if and only if one of the
vj, j  2 v , v , , v j 1
vectors , is a linear combination of the preceding vectors 1 2 .
Note:
v , v , , vk are k vectors in
Every set of vectors containing the zero vector is linearly dependent. That is, 1 2
vi v , v , , vk are linearly dependent.
any vector space and is the zero vector, then 1 2
Basis and dimension vector spaces.

Definition 1. If S={v 1 , v 2 , … , v k } is a set of vectors in a vector space V , then the set of all vectors in
vector space V that are linear combination of the vectors in S is denoted by the span S or
span {v 1 , v 2 , … , v k }. Note that the span of any nonempty system of vectors is a vector space.
Example 0. 1. Span{(0,1)}={c(0,1)=(0,c): c is any number}. In plane it is y- axes.

Instructor 2
2. Span{(1,0)}={c(1,0)=(c,0): c is any number}. In plane it is x- axes.
3. Span{(1,1)}={c(1,1)=(c,c): c is any number}. In plane it is the straight line y=x.
Definition 2. The vectors v1 , v 2 , … , v k in vector space V a said to form a basis for V if
a). v1 , v 2 , … , v k span V and
b). v1 , v 2 , … , v k are linearly independent.
Characterizations of a Basis
Let S={v 1 , v 2 , … , v k } be a set of vectors in a vector space V. The
following statements are equivalent.
1) S is a basis for V.
2 ¿ S is a minimal spanning set for V.
3) S is a maximal linearly independent subset of V.
Example 1. The vectors e 1=( 1, 0) end e 2=(0 ,1) form a basis for R2, because
a). if a=(a1 ,a 2) is any vector from R2 , then a=( a 1 , a2 ) =a1 ( 1, 0 ) + a2 ( 0 , 1 )=a1 e1 +a2 e 2 . That means that
any vector from R2is linear combination of the vectors e 1 and e 2.
b). If c 1 e1 +c 2 e2 =0, then ( c 1 , c 2 )=(0 , 0), c 1=0 , c 2=0 , that is vectors

e 1 and e 2 are linearly independent.
The vectors e 1=( 1, 0,0) , e 2=(0 ,1,0) , e 3=( 0 , 0,1 ) form a basis for R3 .
In general
e 1=( 1 , 0,0 , …0 ) ,
e 2=( 0 , 1,0 , … 0 )
e n=( 0 , 0,0 , … , 1 ) form a basis for Rn .
Each of these sets of vectors is called the natural basis or standard basis for R2 , R3 , Rn respectively.
Example 2. LetV =P n be the set of all polynomials of degree ≤ n together with zero polynomial.
The set of vectors {1 , t , t 2 , … , t n } forms a basis for the vector space Pn called the natural basis for Pn .
Example 3. Show that the set S={v 1 , v 2 , v 3 } where v1 =( 1,0,1 ) , v 2 =( 0,1,0 ) , v 1=( 1,2,0 ) is a basis for R3 .
Solution. a). Let a=(a1 ,a 2 , a3 ) is any vector from R3 .
Then from ( a 1 , a2 , a3 ) =x1 v 1 + x 2 v 2+ x3 v 3 =x1 ( 1,0,1 )+ x 2 ( 0,1,0 ) + x 3 ( 1,2,0 ) and
x 1 + x 3=a 1
{ x2 +2 x 3=a2
x 1=a3

Instructor 2
Solving this linear system we obtaining x 1=a3 , x 2=a2−2 ( a1−a 3) , x 3=a 1−a3 . That means that any vector
from R3is a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v 2 , v 3.
b). Let y 1 v 1 + y 2 v 2+ y3 v3 =0= ( 0 ,0,0 ). Then we obtain the linear system of equations
y 1+ y 3 =0
{ y 2+ 2 y 3=0 .
y1 =0
Solve this system y 1=0 , y 2=0 , y 3=0.
That means that vectors v1 , v 2 , v 3 are linearly independent.
So, vectors v1 , v 2 , v 3 to form a basis for R3 .

Definition 3. A vector space V is called finite - dimensional if there is a finite subset of V that is a basis
for V .
If there is no such finite subset of V , then V called infinite – dimensional.
Theorem 1. If S={v 1 , v 2 , … , v n } is basis for vector space V , then every vector in V can be written in
one and only one way as a linear combination of vectors in S .
Theorem 2. If S={v 1 , v 2 , … , v n } and T ={w1 , w2 , … , wk } is basis for vector space V , then m=n.
Definition (Dimension)
The dimension of a vector space V is defined to be

dim V = the number of vectors in any basis for V
= the number of vectors in any minimal spanning set for V
= the number of vectors in any maximal independent subset of V.
Example 4. 1. If V = {0} is the trivial subspace, then dimV = 0 because the basis for this space is the
empty set.
2. dim R3=3, because the three unit vectors { (1 , 0,0) , (0 , 1,0) , ( 0 , 0,1 ) } form a basis for R3.
3. dim Rn =n, because the n unit vectors { e 1 ,e 2 , … ,e n } form a basis for Rn .
Example 5. The dimension of P2 is 3, because vectors {1 , t , t 2 } form a basis for P2. dim P3 = 4, because
vectors {1 , t , t 2 , t 3 } form a basis for P3, in general
dim Pn=n+1, because vectors {1 , t , t 2 , t 3 , … , t n } form a basis for Pn.
Example 6. The dimension of M 23 , the vector space of all 2× 3 size matrices, is 6 because its elements
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
v1 = (
0 0 0 )
, v 2=
0 0 0( , v3 = )
0 0 0 (
, v 4=
1 0 0 ) (
, v5 = )
0 1 0 (, v 6= )
0 0 1 (
form a )
basis for this vector space. Indeed this system of elements is linear independent: If
c 1 v 1+ c 2 v 2+ c3 v3 + c 4 v 4 +c 5 v 5 +c 6 v 6 =0 then

Instructor 2
c 1=c2=c 3=c 4 =c 5=c 6=0 as far as
c 1 c 2 c3
(
c 1 v 1+ c 2 v 2+ c3 v3 + c 4 v 4 +c 5 v 5 +c 6 v 6 =
c 4 c 5 c6).
a1 a2 a3
Every element A= ( a4 a5 a6 )
of M 23 is a linear combination of the system:
a1 a2 a3
( a4 a5 a6 )
=a1 v 1 +a2 v 2 +a 3 v3 + a4 v 4 +a5 v 5 +a 6 v 6.
If S=( v ¿ ¿1 , v 2 , … , v n )¿ is an ordered basis for the n dimensional vector space V , then every vector u
in V can be uniquely expressed in the form
u=c 1 v 1+ c2 v 2 +…+ c n v n
, where c 1 , c2 , … , c n are real numbers.
c1
[]
We will refer to [ u ] S = c 2⋮ as the coordinate vector of u with respect to the ordered basis S . The entries of
cn
[ u ] S are called the coordinates of u with respect to S . Now the equality
u=c 1 v 1+ c2 v 2 +…+ c n v n
Can be written in the form u=S × [ u ] S
c1
the product of matrix S=( v ¿ ¿1 , v 2 , … , v n )¿ with the matrix [ u ] S = c 2⋮ .
[]
cn
Example 6. Let S={v 1 , v 2 } be basis for R2, where v1 =( 1,1 ) , v2 =( 0,1 ) .
If u=( 1,2 ) compute [ u ] S .
Solution. To find [ u ] S we need to compute constants c 1 , c2 such that

c 1 v 1+ c 2 v 2=u .
c 1 (1,1 ) + c2 ( 0,1 )=( 1,2 )
c 1=1
{ c 1+ c 2=2
Solving this system we have c 1=1 , c 2=1.
1
[]
Thus [ u ] S = .
1
Inner Product Space (IPS

Instructor 2
Definition
Let V be a vector space and Then < , > is called inner product
If hold the following aksiom :
1. ¿ ū , v̄≥¿ ¿ v̄ , ū>¿ ( Simetry)
2. ¿ ū+ v̄ , w̄≥¿ ¿ ū , w̄>+ ¿ v̄ , w̄>¿ (Aditivity)
3. For some kR, ¿ k ū , v̄ ≥¿ ¿ ū , k v̄ ≥¿ k < ū , v̄> ¿ (Homogenity)

4. ¿ ū , ū>≥ 0 , for every ū and ¿ ū , ū≥0 ⇔ ū=0̄ (sifat Positivity)
Vector space with inner product operations is called Inner Product Space (IPS)
Let V be a IPS,
1
Norm (length) of a vector ū ‖ū‖=¿ ū , ū ¿ 2 =¿
The angle of two vectors :
cos α=¿ ū , v̄> ¿ ¿

‖ū‖‖v̄‖
Example 1 :
Euclidean IPS ( Rn )
n
Let ū , v̄, R then ¿ ū , v̄≥u 1 v 1+u 2 v2 +...+u n v n
1
‖ū‖=¿ ¿ ū , ū ¿ 2 ≥ 0
= (u12 + u22 + …..+un2)½
Example 2 :
Let W  R3 with yhe inner product
¿ ū , v̄≥2u1 v 1 +u2 v 2 +3 u3 v 3
where ū , v̄ ∈W
Show that W is IPS
answer : let ū , v̄ , w̄ ∈W
¿ ū , v̄≥¿ 2u1v1 + u2v2 + 3u3v3
= 2 v1u1 + v2u2+ 3v3u3
¿< v̄ , ū> ¿(simetry)
( iv)< ū , ū≥2u 12 +u22 +3 u32
It is clear that ¿ ū , ū>≥ 0 for every ū and ¿ ū , ū≥0 only if ū= 0̄

Example 3:
Show that ¿ ū , v̄≥u 1 v 1+2 u2 v 2−3 u1 v 1 is not IPS

Instructor 2
Answer :
We Know ¿ ū , ū≥u12 +2 u22−3 u32
When 3u32 > u12 + 2u22

Then ¿ ū , ū>≤ 0
Not positivity
Example 4:
If ū=(1,0)∧ v̄=(0,1)
Find ‖ū‖ andd ( ū , v̄)
a. In R2 euclid
b. In weight euclid : ¿ ū , v̄≥3 ū v̄+ 2 ū v̄
Soluiton:
2
a .‖ū‖= √ 12 +02=1d ( ū , v̄)=‖ū− v̄‖=‖(1,−1)‖=√ 1 +¿ ¿
b .‖ū‖= √(3.1.1)+(2.0 .0)=√ 3d ( ū , v̄)=‖ū− v̄‖=‖(1,−1)‖=√ (3.1 .1)+(2.−1.−1)=√ 5
If u, v, and w are any three vectors in IPS, and k scalar, then:

a) < 0, v > = < v, 0 >
b) < u, v + w > = < u, v > + < u, w >
c) < u, kv > = k < u, v >
d) < u – v, w > = < u, w > - < v, w >
e) < u, v - w > = < u, v > - < u, w >
Example :
< u – 2v, 3u + 4v >
= < u, 3u + 4v > - < 2v, 3u + 4v = < u, 3u > + <
= < u, 3u > + < u, 4v > - < 2v, 3u > - < 2v, 4v >
= 3 < u, u > + 4 < u, v > - 6 < v, u > - 8 < v, v >
= 3 ||u||2 + 4 < u, v > - 6 < u, v > - 8 ||v||2
= 3 ||u||2 - 2 < u, v > - 8 ||v||2
Orthonormal Set
A Set in the inner product space is called orthogonal set
IF every couple of vectors on the set is orthogonal.
Orthonormal set  orthogonal set which each vector has norm equal to one.
Let, T ={ c̄ 1 , c̄ 2 , ... , c̄ n }in the IPS
¿ c̄ i , c̄ j≥0 for every i, j =1,2,... n and i ≠ j

T is called a ortonormal set if ‖c̄i‖=1 for every i

Instructor 2
Example :
1. A= ¿ 1 ¿ -1 in the Euclidean IPS, A is not orthogonal set
{( ) ( )}
¿0 , ¿ 0
2. B=
¿1
¿ 0{( ) ( ¿¿ -10 )}in the Euclidean IPS, A is not orthogonal set
,
Let S= { v̄ 1 , v̄ 2 ,... , v̄ n } Is a orthonormal basis for a IPS V

If ū is a vector in V, then ū=¿ ū , v̄ 1> v̄ 1 +¿ ū , v̄ 2> v̄ 2 +...+¿ ū , v̄ n > v̄ n
Proof : ū=k 1 v̄ 1 +k 2 v̄ 2 +...+k n v̄ n
For some i , we have : ¿ ū , v̄ i≥¿ k 1 v̄ 1+ k 2 v̄ 2+ ...+ k n v̄ n , v̄ i >¿
¿ k 1 < v̄ 1 , v̄i >+ k 2< v̄ 2 , v̄ i >+...+k i < v̄ i , v̄ i >+...+ k n < v̄ n , v̄ i >¿
Because S is a orthonormal set

¿ v̄ i , v̄ j≥0 for every i≠ j and ¿ v̄ i , v̄ j≥0 for every i≠ j
Answer :
1 1
ū=k 1 v̄ 1 +k 2 v̄ 2ū=¿ ū , v̄ 1> v̄ 1 +¿ ū , v̄ 2> v̄ 2ū= 1 = 1 , √
2 () ()
2 1
√2⟨ ( )⟩ ⟨ ( ) ⟩
2
v̄ 1+ 1 , √
()
2 −1
√2
2
v̄ 2ū=
3
√2
v̄ 1+
−1
( )
√2
v̄ 2¿
¿is coordinate vector from u relative to S
Let S= { v̄ 1 , v̄ 2 ,... , v̄ n }
Is a orthogonal basis for a IPS V
v̄ 1 v̄ v̄ v̄ v̄ v̄
If ū is a vector inV, then ū=¿ ū , > 1 +¿ ū , 2 > 2 +...+¿ ū , n > n
‖v̄ 1‖ ‖v̄ 1‖ ‖v̄ 2‖ ‖v̄ 2‖ ‖v̄ n‖ ‖v̄ n‖
ū=¿ ū , v̄ 1> ¿ 2 v̄ 1+ ¿ ū , v̄ 2> ¿ 2 v̄ 2+...+¿ ū , v̄ n > ¿ 2 v̄ n ¿ ¿ ¿
‖v̄ 1‖ ‖v̄ 2‖ ‖v̄ n‖
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
Definition
A set of vectors in an inner product space is called an orthogonal set if all pairs of distinct vectors in the set
are orthogonal. An orthogonal in which each vectors has norm 1 is called orthonormal set.
 Let W be a subspace of an inner product space V, if {s1,s2,…,sr } is orthonormal basis for W and a
any vectors in V, then pro j W ā= pro j s̄ ā+ pro j s̄ ā+…+ pro j s̄ ā
1 2 n
Example
Let R2 have the Euclidean inner product and W be the subspace has orthonormal basis:
ā=( 0,1,0 ) , b̄= ( −45 , 0 , 35 )

Instructor 2
Find component of u = (1,1,1) orthogonal to each vector in the space W
Solution
( −15 )( −45 , 0 , 35 )= 251 ( 4,1 ,−3 )

pro j W ū=⟨ ū , ā ⟩ ā+ ⟨ ū , b̄ ⟩ b̄ ¿ 1.(0,1,0)+
Component of u orthogonal to each vector in the space W is

1
¿ ū− pro j W ū=...= ( 21,0,28 )
25
Gramm-Schmidt Process
S= { c̄ 1 , c̄ 2 , … c̄ n }a basis for IPS V
B= { w̄1 , w̄2 ,... , w̄ n }orthonormal basis of The following squence of steps as Gramm Schmidt
Process
c̄ 1
1. w̄1=
‖c̄ 1‖
2. c̄ 2 w̄ 2
q1 c2
w2  c2 , w1  w1
p1  proyw1 c2  2
 c2 , w1  w1
w1
q1  c2  p1
w1 p1 q1  c2   c2 , w1  w1

Instructor 2
c 2   c 2 , w1  w1
w2  Unit vector in direction
q1
c 2   c 2 , w1  w1
ci  projW i 1ci
3. c3 w3 wi 
ci  projW i 1ci
c3
Wi-1 : subspace spanned by W1,…,Wi-1
q2
w3 p2 W it
q2  c3  p2 1
w 2 w
p 2  proyW c 3  c 3 , w1  w1   c 3 , w2  w2
q2  c3  ( c3 , w1  w1   c3 , w2  w2 )
Unit vector which
c3  ( c3 , w1  w1   c3 , w2  w2 )
w3  orthogonal with W
c3  ( c3 , w1  w1   c3 , w2  w2 )
Example :
1 0 0
Let : B= ū
{ ( ) ( ) ( )}
1 = 1
1
, ū 2 = 1
1
, ū 3 = 0
1
be basis of Euclidean IPS in R3.

Find the Orthonormal basis
Answer :
14/10/2020 07.52
1
()
√3
ū1 (1,1,1 ) 1
Step 1. v̄1 = ¿ ¿
‖ū1‖ √3 √3
1
√3

Instructor 2
ū2− pro y v̄ ū2
Step 2 v̄ 2= 1
‖ū2− pro y v̄ ū2‖

1
We obtained ū2− pro y v̄ ū 2=ū2− ⟨ ū2 , v̄ 1 ⟩ v̄ 1

1
2 1 1 1 −2 1 1
¿ ( 0,1,1 )− (
, ,
√ 3 √3 √ 3 √3
¿ , ,
3 3 3 )( )
4 1 1 √6
Hence, ‖ū 2−pro y v̄ ū2‖= 1
√ + + =
9 9 9 3
−2
()
√6
1
Such : v̄ 2=
√6
1
√6
ū3− pro y W ū 3
Step 3 . v̄3 =
‖ū3− pro y W ū 3‖
1 1 1 1 1 −2 1 1 1 1
Then ū3− pro y W ū3=ū3 −⟨ ū 3 , v̄1 ⟩ v̄ 1− ⟨ ū3 , v̄ 2 ⟩ v̄ 2¿ ( 0,0,1 )− ( , , ) (
− , ,
√ 3 √3 √ 3 √3 √ 6 √ 6 √ 6 √ 6
¿ 0 ,− ,
2 2 )( )
0
−1
We get : v̄3 = √ 2
1
√2
()
1 −2
{( ) ( ) ( )}
0
√ 3 √ 6 −1
1 1
So, { v̄ 1 , v̄ 2 , v̄ 3 }= , , √2
√ 3 √6 1
1 1
√2
√ 3 √6
Is a basis ortonormal for vector space R3

With Euclidean IPS
Example :
1 0
Let plane shape which spanned by
{( ) ( )}
0 , 1
1 1
is subspace of Euclidean IPS in R3

Instructor 2
1
Find orthogonal projection of vector ū= 1
1 ()
To the plane shape.
Answer :
1 0
v̄ =
1
,
() ()
Let 1 0 2 1 be basis of Subspace of IPS Because { v̄ 1 , v̄ 2 } is linear independent
v̄ =
1
1st Step : Basis  orthonormal basis .
v̄1 ( 1 , 0 ,1 ) (1 , 0 , 1 ) 1 1
w̄ 1= ¿ 2 2
‖v̄1‖ √( 1 ) + ( 0 ) + ( 1 ) 2
¿
√2
¿ ( ,0,
√ 2 √2 )
( √12 , 0 , √12 )>¿¿ 0+0+ √12 ¿ √12
So, ⟨ v̄ 2 , w̄1 ⟩ =¿ ( 0 , 1 ,1 )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⟨ v̄ , w̄ ⟩ w̄ = ( , 0 , )
2 1 1 v̄ −⟨ v̄ , w̄ ⟩ w̄ =( 0 , 1 ,1 ) −( , 0 , )¿ ( ,0 , )
2 2 1
2 1
2 2 2
√ 2 √ 2 √2
−1 1
¿( ,1 , )
2 2
−1 2 2
1
We obtained : ‖v̄ 2−⟨ v̄ 2 , w̄1 ⟩ w̄1‖=
√( 2 )
+ ( 1 ) 2+
2 ()
1 1 6
¿
√ 4
+1+ =
4 4 √
1
¿ √6
2
v̄2 −⟨ v̄ 2 , w̄1 ⟩ w̄1
We get w̄ 2= The Orthonormal Basis :
‖v̄2 −⟨ v̄ 2 , w̄1 ⟩ w̄1‖
−1
{( ) ( )}
1
(¿ −12 , 1 , 12 ) √2 2
√6
−1 2 1
1
√6
0 ,
1 √ 6
¿
√ 6(,
√ 6
,
√6 )
2 1
√2
√6
1
Orthogonal Projection of Vector ū= 1 On W is :
1 ()
Pr o y W ū=⟨ ū , w̄1 ⟩ w̄1 + ⟨ ū , w̄2 ⟩ w̄2

Instructor 2
So, ⟨ ū , w̄1 ⟩ =¿ ( 1 ,1 , 1 ) ( √12 , 0 , √12 )>¿
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2
¿
√2
+0+ ¿
√ 2 √2
¿ √2 and ¿ ū , w̄2 ≥¿ (1 , 1 ,1 ) ( −1 , ,
√ 6 √ 6 √6 ) >¿¿− + + =
√6 √6 √ 6 √ 6
Pr o y W ū=⟨ ū , w̄1 ⟩ w̄1 + ⟨ ū , w̄2 ⟩ w̄2
−1
()
3
1
1 ()
=0 +
2
3
1
3
()
3
2
¿
3
4
3
Exercises for Real Vector Spaces
Name : ___________________________ Subject:___________________________

Course &Year:_____________________ Date: ____________________________
A. Determine if the given vector u is in the span of the vectors in W
1. ū=(7,3) 2. ū=(1 ,−19) 3. ū=(−7 ,−3 ,−6)

w=¿{ (3,1), (2,1,-1),(-3,1,1)} w=¿{ (3,-5), (2,1)} w=¿{ (2,1,3), (1,1,0), (-2,-1,3), }
B. Identify if the vectors are linearly independent. Justify each answer

5 7 9
1. 0
[ ][ ][ ]
, 2
0 −6 −8
, 4

Instructor 2
0 0 −3
2.
[ ][ ][ ]
0, 5 , 4
0 −8 1
1 −2 0
3.
[ ][ ][ ]
4 , 5 , 0
−7 3 0
C. Compute the components of the vector v with respect to the given orthonormal basis.
3 4 −4 3
1. v = (1,8) ; a = ,
5 5
b=( ) 5 5
, ( )
2. v = (8,2,3) ; a = ( 13 , 23 , 23 ), b = ( 23 , 13 ,− 23 ), c = ( −23 , 23 ,− 13 )
3. Let W be subspace of 3 with euclidean IPS and span by
1 1 −1
() ( )
1 and 0 Find a orthogonal projection 1 on
0 −1 2 ()
Inner Product Space (IPS)
d.Find the expressions : If < u,v > = 2, < v,w > = -3, < u,w > = 5
||u|| = 1, ||v|| = 2, and ||w|| = 7
a. < u+v, v+w >

Answer: ________________________________
b. < 2v-w, 3u+2w >

Answer: ________________________________

Instructor 2
c. < u-v-2w, 4u+v >
Answer: ________________________________
E.Check that this operations is a Inner product or not
a. ¿ ū , v̄ >¿= u12v1 + u2v22 in R2
Answer: ________________________________
b. ¿ ū , v̄ >¿= u1v1 + 2u2v2 – u3v3 in R3

Answer: ________________________________
c. ¿ ū , v̄ >¿= u1v3 + u2v2 + u3v1 in R3

Answer: ________________________________

Instructor 2

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Chapter 2

a matrix where all the elements are zero.

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

4+(−1) −3+2 1+3

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

4. find the ∑ of two 3 x 3 matrices :

4−(−1) −3−2 1−3

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

2−6 −10−10 −2−(−2)

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

Name : ___________________________ Course &Year:_____________________

A. Write the most specific name for each matrix.

Answer: ________________ Answer: _________________ Answer: _________________

Answer: ________________ Answer: ________________

B. Find the sum and differenct of Two Matrices

Lesson 1.2 Product of a Row Matrix and a Column Matrix

Example of scalar multiplication

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

3x2 3x2 3x2 2x3

Row by column multiplication

Revenue of a car dealer

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

Undefined matrix multiplication

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

2. Multiply matrix A and Matrix B

Solution of practical application

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

Exercises for Chapter II. Matrix Operations

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

A. Use the Matrices to solve the Scalar Multiplication

B. Use the Matrices to solve the Matrix multiplication

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

A determinant of a matrix represents a single number.

A Matrix is an array of numbers:

The symbol for determinant is two vertical lines either side.

|A| means the determinant of the matrix A

Calculating the Determinant

For a 2×2 Matrix

For a 2×2 matrix (2 rows and 2 columns):

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

It is easy to remember when you think of a cross:

 Blue is positive (+ad),

|B|= 4×8 − 6×3 = 1(2)-2(4)

For a 3×3 Matrix

here are the key points:

For a 3×3 matrix (3 rows and 3 columns):

The determinant is:

|A| = a(ei − fh) − b(di − fg) + c(dh − eg)

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

To work out the determinant of a 3×3 matrix:

 Multiply a by the determinant of the 2×2 matrix that is not in a's row or column.

As a formula (remember the vertical bars || mean "determinant of"):

"The determinant of A equals a times the determinant of ... etc"

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

= a 1 ¿ ¿)−¿ b 1(a 1 c 3−a3 c1)+c 1(a 1 b3 −a3 b1)

LINEAR ALGEBRA Prepared by: SHELA M. RAMOS

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