Zinc and Its Functions in Plants:

Zinc is an important micronutrient for human beings, animals as well as crops. Zn is an important
component of different enzyme catalyzing many metabolic reactions in plants. Zinc also plays significant
role in plant resistance against disease, photosynthesis, cell membrane integrity, protein synthesis, pollen
formation and enhance the level of antioxidant enzymes and chlorophyll within plant tissues. Zinc
deficiency not only retards growth and yield of plants, but it also has effect on human beings more than 3
billion people worldwide are suffering Fe and Zn deficiencies, and this condition is particularly
widespread in areas where population is heavily dependent on an unvaried diet of cereal based foods.
(B.Hafeez, 2013)i

Forms of Zinc in Soil

Mineral form:

Zinc exists as Zinc sulphides, Zinc carbonates, and Zinc silicate.

On weathering Zn ion released.

 Sphalarite- ZnS
 Smithsonite- ZnCO3
 Willemite- ZnSiO4
 Franklinite-Zn Fe2O2

Adsorbed form: Zn is adsorbed on the surface of clays, oxide minerals, carbonate and organic matters.

Solution form: In soil solution Zn exists as Zn ion and Zn (OH)+.

Organic complex form : Zn form stable complex with organic colloids. This form is not readily available
to plants.

FUNCTIONS OF ZINC:
Zinc is essential for much plant function. Some of them are

 Production of auxins, an essential growth hormone

 It activates enzymes in protein synthesis, plus is in the regulation and consumption of sugars. It is
necessary for starch formation and proper development.
 Zinc influences the rate of seed and stalk mature.
 It is necessary for the formation of chlorophyll and carbohydrates.
 The presence of adequate amount in the tissue the plant to withstand lower air temperatures.
 Important in synthesis of IAA.
 Essential for water uptake.
 Play important role in stabilization of protein.
Physiological function of zinc:

Component of Enzymes:
Zinc is an essential component of the following plant enzymes:

1. Carbonic anhdrolase.
2. Alcohol dehydrogenase.
3. Superoxide dismutase.
4. Carboxy peptidase.
5. Aldolase.
6. RNA polymerase.

Carbohydrate Metabolism:
Zinc exerts an effect on carbohydrate metabolism through its effects on photosynthesis and sugar
transformations. In general, zinc does not affect respiration in plants

(a)Photosynthesis: A deficiency of zinc can cause reduction in net photosynthesis by 50%-70%

depending on the plant species and severity of deficiency. This reduced efficiency of photosynthesis
could be due, at least in part, to reduction in activity of enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Zinc is aconstituent
of carbonic anhydrase, but the carbonic anhydrase in dicotyledons is a larger molecule and contains more
zinc than carbonic anhydrase in monocotyledons (such as the cereals). In general, in C3 plants there is no
direct relationship between carbonic anhydrase activity and photosynthetic carbon dioxide assimilation or
growth of plants with different zinc nutritional status. Zinc is a constituent of other enzymes involved in
photosynthesis, including ribulose 1, 5-biphosphate carboxylase (RuBPC) which has been found to
catalyse the initial step of carbon dioxide fixation in photosynthesis and has been found in navy beans,
barley, rice and pearl millet.

(b)Sucrose and Starch Formation: Zinc may play a role in the metabolism of starch because the starch
content, activity of the enzyme starch synthetase, and the number of starch grains are all depressed in zinc
deficient plants. Zinc deficiency has been shown to increase the concentrations of sugars and starches in
leaves of cabbage, but in the roots of beans carbohydrate concentrations were decreased. The reason for
this impaired sucrose transport is not fully understood, but could be due to role of zinc in integrity of bio-
membranes. (B. J. Alloway 2008)ii

Protein Metabolism:
Zinc is necessary for the activity of the enzyme RNA polymerase and it protects the ribosomal RNA from
attack by the enzyme ribonuclease. The importance of zinc in protein synthesis suggests that high zinc
concentrations are required by meristematic tissue where cell division as well as synthesis of nucleic acid
and protein is actively taking place. The most fundamental effect of zinc on protein metabolism is through
its involvement in the stability and function of genetic material.

Membrane Integrity:
The role of zinc in maintaining integrity of cellular membranes may involve the structural orientation of
macromolecules and the maintenance of ion transport systems. The loss of membrane integrity is
considered by some to be the earliest biochemical change caused by zinc deficiency. In addition to zinc,
are also required to maintain integrity of cell membranes and these include: calcium, phosphorus, boron,
and manganese. In experiments with culture solutions containing no zinc, phosphorus accumulated to
toxic levels in the oldest. (Praveen et al., 2013) iii

Reproduction:
In subterranean clover it was shown that treatment of deficient plants with zinc had a greater- effect on
the number of inflorescences and seed yield than on dry matter production or the size of seed. Zinc-
deficient wheat has been reported to have developed small anthers and abnormal pollen grains.Showed
that zinc deficiency in maize severely retarded development of tassles, anthers and pollen grains. (B. J.
Alloway 2008)iv

Table 1. Sufficiency levels of zinc for major agronomic crops, vegetables, and fruits grown (Apurba et al.,
2013)

S.no Crop Plant part Time Sufficiency

range (ppm)
1 Apple Leaf from middle of current July 15-August 15 20-50
terminal shoot
2 Cauliflower Young mature leaf Buttoning 20-250
3 Edible bean Most recently matured Bloom stage 15-80
trifoliate
4 Field corn Whole tops Less than 12" tall 20-70
5 Pea recently matured leaflet First bloom 25-100
6 Potato Fourth leaf from tip 40-50 days after 20-40
emergence
7 Soybean Trifoliate leaves Early flowering 21-80
8 Wheat Whole tops As head emerges 15-70
from boot

Iron and its functions in Plants:

When insoluble ferric (Fe+3) form is reduced, it is converted to ferrous form in soil, and is then absorbed
by plants. Even though iron is hardly present in living matter (50–100 µg·g-1 dry matter), it is still an
essential element that is critical for plant life as this element is involved in plant metabolism. Being fourth
most abundant element in lithosphere, iron is generally present at high quantities in soils; however, its
bioavailability in aerobic and neutral pH environments is limited.

In aerobic soils, iron is found in Fe+3 form, mainly as constituent of oxyhydroxide polymers with
extremely low solubility. Plants have developed sophisticated mechanisms to take up small amounts of
soluble iron. Non-graminaceous plants release protons, secrete phenolics, reduce Fe +3 , and take up
iron). Once iron is solubilized, Fe+3 is reduced to Fe by a membrane-bound Fe +3 reductase oxidase . Fe
is then transported into the root by an ironregulated transporter (IRT1).

Iron imbalances and its symptoms:

The visual symptoms of inadequate iron nutrition in higher plants are interveinal chlorosis of young
leaves and stunted root growth. In waterlogged soils, concentration of soluble iron may increase by
several orders of magnitude because of low redox potential. Under such conditions, iron may be taken up
in excessive quantities. However, it is potentially toxic and can promote the formation of reactive oxygen-
based radicals, which are able to damage vital cellular constituents (e.g., membranes) by lipid
peroxidation.

Bronzing (coalesced tissue necrosis), acidity, and/or blackening of the roots are symptoms of plants
exposed to above-optimal iron levels. Thus, plants growing in high-pH soils are not very efficient at
developing and stabilizing chlorophyll, resulting in yellowing of leaves, poor growth, and reduced
yield. (Laan et al., 1991).v

Functions of Iron

1. In Photosynthesis
Approximately 80% of iron is found in photosynthetic cells where it is essential for the biosynthesis of
cytochromes and other heme molecules, including chlorophyll, electron transport system, and
construction of Fe-S clusters. In the photosynthetic apparatus, two or three iron atoms are found in
molecules directly related to photosystem II (PS-II), 12 atoms in photosystem I (PS-I), five in the
cytochrome complex, and two in the ferredoxin molecule. Such distributions show that iron is directly
involved in photosynthetic activity of plants and, consequently, their productivity (Varotto et al., 2002). vi

2. Effects of Iron on Plant Metabolism

As critical component of proteins and enzymes, iron plays significant role in basic biological processes
such as photosynthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, respiration, nitrogen fixation, uptake mechanisms (Kim and
Rees, 1992), and DNA synthesis through the action of ribonucleotide reductase.

It is also an active cofactor of many enzymes that are necessary for plant hormone synthesis, such as
ethylene, lipoxygenase, 1-aminocyclopropane acid-1-carboxylic oxidase, or abscisic acid.

Iron is constituent of all redox systems in plants, and the best known examples are enzyme systems
(hemeiron structure), including prosthetic groups like cytochromes. Iron plays role in porphyrin structure
of chlorophyll, and is therefore a principal component of chloroplasts. (Siedow, 1991) vii

3. As a cofactor in Cytochrome:
The best known functions of cytochrome are electron transport and involvement of cytochrome oxidase in
terminal step in respiration chain. Iron also interacts with non-heme proteins as an iron-sulfur protein
(e.g., ferredoxin, superoxide dismutase). Iron is major component of plant redox systems.
Because of its physicochemical properties, especially its affinity to active metalloprotein sites, it acts as
cofactor in redox reactions that are necessary for oxygen production and use. However, its best-known
function is its structural role in the prosthetic groups of enzyme systems such as cytochromes, catalases,
and peroxidases. These enzymes are also the main components of chloroplasts and mitochondria. The
cytochrome essentially acts as an electron carrier in the respiratory chain. (Marschner, 1995). viii

4. Mitochondrial iron transporter

Iron is also active in protein synthesis identified and characterized mitochondrial iron transporter (MIT).

Mitochondria contain many metalloproteins that require iron to carry out their function. In fact, several
enzymes belonging to both respiratory chain and to the tricarboxylic acid cycle are iron-containing
proteins.

Crucial steps of Fe-S cluster assembly for the entire cell take place in mitochondria, suggesting an
important role for this compartment in iron handling by the cell.

Like heme iron, Fe-S proteins play major role in oxidoreduction, and both binuclear Fe-S clusters (2Fe-
2S) and tetranuclear Fe-S clusters (4Fe-4S) occur. Each cluster is surrounded by four cysteine residues
associated with polypeptide chain. These clusters are known as ferredoxins if they act exclusively as
electron carriers and are characterized by very high negative redox potential. (Bertini and Rosato, 2007) ix

5. Crucial Heme containing Enzymes:

The best-known function of iron is in enzyme systems in which heme or hemin function as prosthetic
groups. Here, iron plays somewhat similar role to magnesium in porphyrin structure of chlorophyll. These
heme enzyme systems include Catalase, Peroxidase, Cytochrome oxidase, and various cytochromes,
but the role of these enzymes in plant metabolism is not completely understood.

6. In Chlorophyll Synthesis
Iron and chlorophyll concentrations are often well correlated in green plants. The same metabolic
pathway involved in chlorophyll formation also operates during the biosynthesis of heme. Iron appears to
control rate of deltaaminolevulinic acid (ALA) formation, which is the precursor of porphyrins. During
iron deficiency, a decrease occurred in the condensation rate of glycine and succinyl-CoA to form ALA.
In iron-deficient leaves, the photosynthetic apparatus remained intact, but the number of photosynthetic
units decreased (Rice CA, 1968)x

7. In Protein Metabolism
Iron is also involved in protein metabolism. During iron deficiency,protein fraction decreases with an
increase in soluble organic N compounds. Nitric oxide (NO) is bioactive molecule that has recently
emerged as cellular messenger in numerous physiological processes in plants. The complexes formed
between iron and NO are called ironnitrosyl complexes, and these interactions are central in NO
biochemistry. NO can form iron-nitrosyl complexes in vivo with Fe-S and heme protein centers that are
important for the biological activity of NO. Fe-S proteins are viewed as carrier proteins that avoid the
toxicity associated with free iron and allow its delivery at lower intracellular concentrations (Mansy
et al., 2004). The redoxrelated NO species can have simultaneous effects on cellular iron metabolism and
homeostasis via mechanisms that might involve S-nitrosylation and or ligation of NO to Fe-S clusters
(Hell and Stephen, 2003)xi.

Conclusion:
Iron and Zinc are very crucial nutrients for crops and their deficiency severely affects plant development
and growth, and excess iron in cells is toxic. Therefore, there is an optimal window for the Iron and Zinc
concentration to ensure smooth crop development.
i
Haheez B., Khanif M. and Saleem M. (2013)„‟Role of zinc in plant nutrition- A review” .American, journal of experimental
Agriculture vol. 3(2), 374-391.
ii
Brian J. Alloway (2008) “Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition”. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Science vol. 4(24)
1881-1884.
iii
Praveen Kumar Goteti, Leo Daniel Amalraj Emmanuel, Suseelendra Desai, and Mir Hassan Ahmed Shaik (2013)
“Prospective Zinc Solubilizing Bacteria for Enhanced Nutrient Uptake and Growth Promotion in Maize” International
Journal of Microbiology.8(7),456-467
iv
. Brian J. Alloway (2008) “Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition”. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Science vol.
4(24) 1881-1884.
v
Laan P, Smolders AJP and Blom CWPM (1991). The relative importance of anaerobiosis and high iron levels in
floodtolerance of Rumex species. Plant Soil, 136: 153-16
vi
Varotto C, Maiwald D, Pesaresi P, Jahns P, Salamini F and Leister D (2002) The metal ion transporter IRT1 is necessary for
iron homeostasis and efficient photosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant J., 31: 589-599.
vii
Siedow JN (1991) Plant lipoxygenase: Structure and function. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., 42: 145-188
viii
Marschner H and Römheld V (1994) Strategies of plants for acquisition of iron. Plant Soil, 165: 261-274
ix
Bertini I and Rosato A (2007) From genes to metalloproteins: A bioinformatic approach. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem., 2007: 2546–
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x
Rice CA (1968) Iron compounds and plant nutrition. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 19:239-248.
xi
Hell R and Stephan UW (2003) Iron uptake, trafficking and homeostasis in plants. Planta, 266: 541-551