***

**** * ******

*****

16
Antennas

16.1 Introduction
ifo system, an sectromagnetic wave travels
E for from the trans1miter TE the receiver
eialsJaLquired a both ends for the parpose of copng the transmiterthroagh space, aod
n Many cf h
nche iimportant.characteristcs-Oi a pve anieana e identical f znd
d ti meanen is õften useafor tot
the receir to
rnsiing
m a y broonstructed from condocting wires or rodss boti
s, for exammpe, he
micoEeiegnencies apertares coupted to wavegus may be usedsoch oinary domestic
ere mas Abom antemmais an iamphe of anteanas are na
T derna, in which the cune apeure anteana Anteanes maybe fer
enas vhich the cuneat eists as a distributiosCist as astandingwave paitn, ard
soant raveling
ana, usually.cut to.cne-hef ave length we Agam, the ormay TY ntenna is an
ns Tsed mainy for short-wave conmnunicaious wicí gvesst is esonant properties
b dstocaes used for anteanas are mary imis ndwl bedescnbed late
ove the grond to the nd vanied, Tanging irem a simple length of wir
oking leas anténna oncurtain arays psed for very owfregueDy
s radar apparatns to the(YLÐroadcasting. from the
be asponosiers zadio telescope. Severalpoliceiman'
a trafic
huge parabolic dish anten-
of these will be discussed in detail in this chapter

162 Antenna Equivalent.Circuits

i o coDenicatiios link, the transmitting antenna is
coupked to the reciving antenna
ragactc wave The arrangement is somewhat simiar to the transformer through the
Serio 1.7, eacept that? with anteanas the
coupling is Domally coupling descnibed inn
very
ivoved raba than just te magnetic field, in the case of transformer_,
as
weak, and an
electromagaetic wave is
erquired for tie wave to travel from the transmiting anteara to Furthermoe, the finite propaga-
the receiving antenna
ficaak The antenna couping system can, however, be represented
can de sig-
asa four-termina network as illustrated

505
 ********* *

Bectronic Communications Antennas 507

by its Thévenin voltage generator cguivalcat circuit, feeding a reciver load impedance ZR. The connecion
well-known nerwork
because it allows the between antenna and transmiting or receiving equipment wil be by means of íceder Hines or guide, andthe
is userul largely
nerao* representadion vabd for any a n t e n n a
16.21(a). The be obiained
that a r c
on this is considered latr
effect of mismatch
s. iporani geDeral rsuis can input valtage is V. Thus,
ensie be p p i i
n
l aansnitimgJbe curent i s I1
input and the Anerwork theonem kadwn s the reciprocity theorem can also beappied to the anteama systerm sbovn
o w s antenna in Fig 16.2.1(a). This theorem states, in essence, tat if an emf E applied w he temimais of anitona 1 gives
Figur529( is
.

f r Tansmung terminals of antema 2 will give rse to the

DIenna
impedanr
rise to a terminal current I at antenna 2, then applying E to the
carrent I at the terminals of antenna 1. Nowii is known that all practical 2nteomas are diective; that is, they
(16.2.1)
radiaté beter in some directions than othes and reeive better írom some directions than ohers. A conse
the directive pattern for a given antenna will be the same for both
quence of the reciprociy theórems thatof
case of an aperire antenna fed by a waveguide, termi- the transniting and the receiving modes operating. Directivity is discassed in more detailin Secion 16.7.
shown. In the
mpin, anienrs
minals are
can Snl be mecasured in terms of the reflection coef Tbe antenna impedance ZA s a compex quantity--
this serse, but impedance
of c a T e i s n
no

Ea. (15.112):
Z RA tXA (1623)
jens giveaby
The reactive part X resuts from the Teactrve belds surounding the atema. As with ay reacanc ay
(1622) the reactance will be tuned ou, s o that
is stored i these selds and reluped tó source Wnerever possible, is givea by
presents a purely resistve load to the transmission Fine- The resistive part R4
the antenna
transmission ines,
used with
the same equation can be (1624)
e is he wzve impeance
of the wavegide, and RARics+ Rnd
impedance of the line. camiedifit the
th 2 he
Ciactenst

of antenna 1-in the receiving mode, Thévenin's

theorem can-be applied, and
the
The resistance Rrad is a f+ctidous resistance teracd theradiaion resistance, which, as was
o fnd the impeiance voltage at antenna 1 samerms terminal cinent as the antenna, on transSTmisszon wond dissipaie the same amonnt of power
Thbe Tbévenin is
voltage the open-circit
héain oage eqaivzlent generator foumd the emf source at radiated. A certain amount of power will be dissipated in the anteana s beat, and the power dissipated ie
The Thévenin impedance is found by sborting way. The resistanc R irtore
na n i n 2is ransnitning. The.Thévenin Rlas wbee-carrying thethe sametrent as Rad gives the poweer lost in-tiis
T
veage at antenna Ts terminals, and measuing
the resnjting cuuent antez0a Tbe concepts of oss Tesistance and radarion resistance a e
mot useful
2pyins a
the couping between theanteanas Teiesents the losses in
ance is then the ro of this voltageto-current Now, assumngthat ratio with wire antennas, for which terninal curents
the are eas+ly ideatiied and the loss resistance is mainly the
ciraited antema2 has no effect on the curent in'anteana 1, then the this type of antema let ibe he m s temnal cament Then the toal power
entyek de short the as given by Eq (1621. The antenna resistance the antenna wire.
of
terminais in this case will be same anteana eficicncy is thereforE
age b carent a ntana 1 for both transumitting and eceiving. The cquivaent circitfor transmilting suplied to ihe antenna isRa and thepower radiatedis TRaibe
is therefore the
dance in Fig. 162:1O,n (b). the transmitteris showa
same

n ie 162.16), and that for Tecciving is shown

equraeat otage guneraior feeding an antenna impedance of ZA, and
in (c) the antenma is represcated YRR (1625)

In the receiangmode, the eticiency

is
as tbe
definedload ratio of power delivered t a matched kcad from the actnal
amatcbed from the antenna with Res 2sumed equal to zeo Applying
antenna to the power delivered to to the receiving anteama circuit of Fig. 162.1(c), for the
the maxiraum power transfer
theorem (Section 1.11)
fink and for t lossless antenna itis V14Rad. Thus the receiving efñ-
real antenna the maamum poweris Vg/4R.
Eq. (16.25).
ciency is also given by and obiaining maxi-
Antenna matching to the feeder line is important for eliminating refected waves
Secion 13.12, and, in general, the matching
mum power transfer. Examples ot matebing circuits
are
given in
(2) network has to provide
boih
resechonless matching and matching for maximum power ransfer A matching
Anterna nework desigped to meet one af tese codidons automarically saisfesthe ocber condiion. Thus, as shown
Antema Recciver the impedance seen looking into the network at the feeder side is Zo, and at the antenna side
in Fig. 16.2.2(a),
is he complex conjugate
where inZ3=RA
described
Section 1.14.
ofZ4. This is roquired for maimum power transfer as

In effect, the matching nerwork unes the antenna to resonance and then transforms the resistive part

ta Za and can therefore be represented by the general arangement shown in Fig. 16.2.2(6). Working from
(c) transmission line,tnethe reactancejXA tunes outtothe +jXa component of antenna impedance, and
b) transmit
anienna. the tansfomer transtorms remainng Na component Z. Now, assuming that the transmission line is
circuit for the
as a four-terminal nerwork. (b) Equivalent
Equvalentcirri ntennas
)Equivalent
(C) circuit for the reçeive anienn
 509

Electronic Communications
Antennas

Matching
DEwodk

(a)
(
trenszmit and r e c e i v e . and the
copditons: () ZVA/Z%
+ Za,
Mismatch Z% is
Pgare 1624 delivered tò efñciency-
the p o w e r Hence, the matching
16.24b)). V-4R4.
conditions [Fig. conditions is
Ubder receiving delivered under matctaed
Z R power that wonld
have been
is also
in the Teceiving case

of a matching network proviëng refectioaless maicbing and maximum powe 4RAZ

(a) Terminal impedances of (a).
ircuit chat mects the general impedance transformations
Z+ ZA Using the relation-
and working from line to antenna, the transmitting and recciving conditions. is given by
network sees an impedance Zo, is the same forbot the matching ef+ciency
S far end, the matching into Ra. This Ra is-in
series with the-jXa clement, and thereforethe Thus the matching efñcieñcy and the tact tnaa 2Ut Z0
(1622
ransforms this Zo back power-transfer to Za. . : shipgiven by B.
asrequired for maxium (1627)
dance is RA-XA, Or_Za, ends sbown in Fig- 16.23. This provides maximm
I-ITA
be matcbed at both
as

ntenna feedef should matchingforthie line

the transmitter or into thereceiver
Italse provides refectioniess end
from mismatched at the antenna
fer -occurringsboudd-the line be
conditions the trans-s
ents multiple refiections at the anteana
end. Under transmitting
as shown in Fig. 1624
16.3 Coordinate System
effect of a mismatch
der now the resistance Zo feeding a load Z spherical of coordinates, shown
ofinternal is RaV6Z%+Za.The amkennaare snaly descr+bed in
tems
an emf
ineappear as circuitsource +ZAl and thbe power delivered totheZ4matching efñiency can be eisics ef an
center of a spbere, and any point P on the surface ofthec
ifowing in this
is Vo/Zo and therefore Tbedirecho pais inazinedto, be at the radius d and the angles 8 and p. These are shõwa with
matched conditions would be V674Z0, n Hg 163.1. TDe an o to the antenna bythé
vered under rcOardinatesz ,.
cocrdinates z andz Also sbown in Fig. 163.1 is the equatorial plane, which
rectangalar
the
derence to
RAV
(1626)
4RAZ plane
o+ZAF
Egaatoca

Transmitier
plane
or receivCT

Matching point
fer point PP om
cm the surface
nerwork
s
cror~nates
far of the
sphere are radius d and
Matching Z 16.3.1
Spherical angles 8 and ¢.
Figure
network

nfrrdrr matched at bothends

 10
Electronic Communications 511
s the plane. Oc the equator2
Dn b2s been aehned,
enter of the spiere is known as a
any plane right angles to it
at
Antennas
the line of propagation This can be
catsed t

n piame. n pracuce, tDe eguatonia

laneswi be ieinei by the plans T snety' that cant:
ontains he the electric vector may
rolate about
in the F2 layer of the ionosphere
1or the antenna plane and one of the In certain situations
wave wzh the
earth's magnenc heid
Examples will be given later. meridian cxample, by he
interaction of the
aiso be produced by
the
type or tracedused,
antenna and this efect is put to good

can o t by the tip of thbe elcctric vec

Rotation of fhe clectric vector
in Chaper 19.
Tne path
as described the
elliptical polarization If
6.4 Radiation Fields use
im'satele
cormmunications,
165.2, in which
case n 15Teiered to z2s

be aaellipse, as ustrated Fig.

in tbe polarization is refere
tor may
aiong the decDon of propagaion,
clockwise direction wben looking 1652a) the direccion of propagation
n clecic curen: in 2 wire is aizs TOUnded a rotaion is ina
calied lf-hamded
In ig.
anticlockwise, it is poiarizztion is circular pola
by magnetc held When the to as righi-handed; if it is A special case of elipacal
eeelectic charges in the wire current is
alternating, the is right-banded polarization are used in
eraied,
hichuevels 2wzy ion the wre z e R m oi an
which gives rise to an
altemaring
is into the paper, so the polarization
165.3, and both right-handed
and
let-hanoed rculer
elecuomagneic wave. {An electromagneic field zanor, as astrated in Fig. 2 i s o be considered to be a special
later. Linear poiarizabon
can

dering a semirig sbeei being mo COnstant velocity, which results in analogy may be made by con-
as described be into two linea
satelite c o n u n i c a t i o n s systems shown in Fig. 165.2, elipical polarizahon can resoked
cetis vibrated, which în efsc a s acceleradon to a
steady air displacement. If the c a s e of eliptical polarization.
As
these componenIs is zero.
some areas of it, a
sound wave will be resuits when o n e of
at travels through the air awzy i a i e sheet) generated Yectors, E nd E, Linear
polarizaion
h e recervng anten2
mns be he szme as that of tie
the poianiz2don of
The toxal ñed oignating frua a nating current in a wire is To receive a marimum signat,
same as that of the rznsied wzve. or exarmple, a
wi
is Gefined to be the
ic feld compoei tha lags úhe coea by 9 and that decreases a conpicated, consisting of (an elec= transmitting antenna, whicb
165.42), w a+iate a inear poiar1zed w a v e .
Á umiar receiving dinole

aEmaniic ieid ja com ampiitude as rhe cube of be distasca

sectric and magnetic fñeld) that is in
dipcle-|nte, iiectated in Fig. maximum recepon lf T 15 sorae angle y, 2s illustrated
at
electric vector for
ecreases in ampiuie 2s the squar i phase with the current and that " must be annted paralel to the
feld parallel to the receiving antenna willinduce a
distance; and (3) an eiectiomagnetic field hat leads the the component of the electric
90 and that decreases in amplitnie échy as the distance increases. Only the latter curent in Fig. 16.54(b), then only is E cos , and therefore the polarization lóss factor is
aches.tbe receiver ina normal race cmmunications system, wbereit appears to the electromagnetic field signal in it. This component
(16.5.1)
plame transverse electromagner E receiving antenna -

plf = cos
wave. The basic properties of a TEM wave are
Ppendix B.A sefulule of muEE S úat for antennas Tor which the largest dimension D isdisüssed very much
in
aler than the wavelength being zzed (D> ), the far-ffeld zone becomes theonly significant one for
Sces d gtai han 2D

(16.4.1)

.5 Poiarization
thefar-eid zoe, the polarisaizn f the wave is defined by the directionof the electric feld vector in
ticn to the diecioá of propagzi Linear polarization is when the electric vector remains in the same () b).
across the earth's surface is said
ne, as sbowa in ig. 165.1 (a). A 5 a polarized wave that is propagated viewed (a) along the direction of propagation and (b) on the axis of propagation.
bevericallypolarized wben the zic feld vector is vertical and horizontally polaried when it is par- Figure 165.2 Elipical polarizaion
television transmissions are horizontally polar-
n North America,
Hto the earth's suface. For exase, are also horizortally mounted,
wbereas in the United
wil be that irig anteanas
, and it observed
is us~ d tbere antennas
are mounied vertically.
pgdom vertical polarization

Direction of
propogation

Cirtular propagaion.
(2 Figure 1s.53
and (b) zlong the
direction of propag2lion.
a) on the axis of propagtion
i 2123tion as
 513

usefal quanuty is the

Electronic Communications Antennas Tgar
Anoha

for tbe ioss-

which real ateTnas can te owz iezsiry
Tranenimng standard to a7
thereiore

cipoir
Receiving This quantity is nsed
as a o
of a sphere
racis dis aTd,

ip The surface area

power densiry.
less isotropic radiator is (16.6.2)

4T
sol 2nge ae eiated by
**** E
a+d
the power
density
t can
be seen that (16.63)

Antenna
Power Gain of
an
reeving dipoie 16.7 oT De i i a n -hict it i
Soic a7gi wi T 2 dpending
n)t i and ó
2meana, the power per as a runchon oi t e agia
mrczs

Ror any i e ltherefore be wriben zTeray powE pe t soil an gie

measured, and it may a2s t h e r a n o of P s . ) D e
then Enned
antenna is
by G{E, S), s
P(O, ¢).The power gain ofthe radiaior. 1he a n funetion,
denoted
Field induced lossless issotropic
radiated by a
n aperne
PL8. 6)
G9,) Pi
P, (157.1)
A (a)Two ipoles aligned with t5e same polarization (b) Receiving dipole in thé same plane asE bat with hat ca e neasared or, a some cases, caic
important a CDaracterisaC
n sane plane as aperre, but aperture polarizatioa misaligned The gain function is very
olaization niseligned (c) Incoming wzve E
a
ates
i l be given
some erampks
a wel-deined maximum, which
A be denoed by Gu
lated, and finchon sbows
For most antennas, betbegain antenna is
of
and the radiation paterm
in angle The y is
Asiniar sitnation can exist wih an aperture antenna ilustrated Fig. 165.4(0).
as
(16.72)
angle between the induced ffeld in the and the incoming electric fîeld, and the polarization loss
aperture e.4) G
also cos
is
in this case, In both c a s e s the direction of propagation pormal
to the plane of the

The radiaioa pattem is seenthe be amy

to n runcaon Dormalizd o is marimuabe Tie maimmn
is only a gain in he sense that the antenna con-
refered to as sen ot
nena, but this
awhhe Gyisfses tbe power ia the matinam dirpction It does nox increase the tol poweaiaizi
of the anteana This is the rano of P(8,$)
osely associated with the powergn is tne direcive gai
16.6 Isotropic Radiator o'the average power per unit sond s
per unit solid angle is na
by tbe accl antenna and is i e n d by DB S The aver
were nu is tbe anteana efñciency and P is the power input, as
in all directions," so an isotropic radiator i_ one that radiates equaly in ge pow aerase is seen to be equal to naPi, and therefore the directivity is ehted topower gain
ne word isotropic means "eqnally nf an energy, but on a more pracd by
A star is an example isotropic radiator of electromagnetic However,
the
cons. beier in some directions than others and cannot be isotropic.
,all real antennas radiate standard to which real
antennas
can be (16.7.3)
and provides a
useful one
ond
an 15070pic radiaior is a very radiator, it may be
assurned lossless; thati1s,
11S
elneieney
efficiency is unity
c Furthermore, since this is a hypotheticallossless isotropic
radiator. Then since its In particular, the maximum vafue o DNB. $) is termed the direcriviy or directive gain given by

of the sphere shown Fig. 10.3.l. 1ne

PEnt ihe p0wer input to a in
thisisle antenna at the center
e power zdiated. Consider this at its center, the power per unit s010 n g e
D ma (16.7.4)
$1nce a prere has a solid angle of 4T steradians

(16.6.1)

Pi4wls
 515

lectronic mmunications
Antennas =
1.
G8.) described 8(6)
=

sin 0 and
s(¢)
EXAMPLE 16.7. descTibed later), the
radiation pattern
is

be
Hertzian dipole (to
rPlotthe
the polar diagrams. and (e).
plotted in Fig. i6.7.1(b) te
are
by
the polar diazran
The polar diagrarns
soLUTION of
subiended at
ie centT

is the angie 15
of an
antenma beamwidih
beamwidth the
The-3-dB 16.7.2,
where
(16.7.5)
illastrated in Fig.
lines. This is
gain
dB

6362 6

TEXAMPLE 16.7.2 Herzian dipole of Example

15.7.1.
-
the
beamwidth for 135.
Determine the-3-dB n g ez
=

2 = ¢5.
+5. Aiso. z2isa
SOLUTION stej)= sins ôj
=

j.5, givingo1
Therefore,
135-45°
= 90°
63 6261=

piane for this

that the beamwidth
applies only to the meridin
examplethis
It wi be observed from is a circie. values
plane polar diagram than - 3 d B , other connon
aena, since the equatorial
beamw+dth may besp cified forievels otùer
with the beamwidth.
must be specified along
the
n certaitases
the beamwidth level
270-
being -10 and -60 dB. Oviously
90 180
05 05
16.8Effective Area of an Antenna
from
effective area that collects electromagnetic energy
b thought of as having an that the antenna is in the
A receiving antenná may collects enerEy íom sunight. Asuming
asa solar collector
the incident wave, rather the wave cident o n it will be a plane
TEM w a v e havinga power density
180° 270 far-field zone of the racdiated wave, a spherical coordinate system, and
let
antenna be at the cenier of
of PD W of waveffront. Let the receiving the anteina. The
(b) coordinates (8, ¢) with reference to
the incoming wave directiom be specifed by
the angular taken into account by
for will be a function of direction, and tiis is
hgure 16.7.1 (a) Gain function GO, ¢) (b) Poiar diagram of function s(6). (c) Poiar diagram for function g(4) power delivered to
a matched load (receiver)
A= A(®, ) . Thus, if Pr is the power delivered
to a.
of direction; that is,
Example 16.7.1. making the effective area
a function
matched load,
PR PDA0,¢) (16.3.1)
The
sketched in Fig. 16.7.1 (a). will have maxi
a three-dimensional plot results, as The eïecive some
for efective area
Equation (16.3.1) serves as a defining equation
area.
is
n e Ean function plotted, od the surface of the figure gives the gain in the direction of the
mum value Aelf, called
the efective a r e a
of the antenna, just as the maxinum power gain is called value
the gain

O r i e i e írom the origin to any point in the direction (®1. P1).

Inot 100,

ne maximum is shown, as well as the gain G®1. $i),

gain Gu of thetheantenna. As
a result of the reciprocity theorem, the effective area normalized
same functional form as the nomalized power gain [E4. (16.7.2)1; that is,
to its maximum

has
asindicatei by G2 and G3. aiso occur in general. plane and one tor the mernd-
o n e for the equatorial
plots a r e often used,
1a
plane
, wo-dimensional
c t i o n g(8, 6) usuaily being the
o n e that is plotted.
since
In the equatorial plane
is constant. This
this is denoted by
is illusraled in
the t o - A8.=
Aeff
g(8.o) (16.8.2)

meridian plane by g(6),

lowino Const2nt, and in the
1OWang exampie.
 516
ADIenDE
Electronic Communications 517

<TVaisni
0.S (-3 dB} Antennas tie
termineis is A. ie i
DEveua

nza o
appearing at eiectic i t k
the open emfcircuit
a zave
having an
anicnna, prodoced by o
. Now, this is
denned

in Fig. 16.2.1 (c). effctive lengih les a7

EV own therefore an
16.9.1
eping
over the a n t e n n z and

0 dB) eieezve ieTg

*ii
2*T-
ralue. T e
dehned by Eq. (16.9.1)
is the minur
2nd w i ts it i5 to
De
uD Od
E v e length fea
2s
effecive area is in general, iOS5 1actrF
*OK

bcion of 6
and d. just as the for exampie,
he poiaizaion
0.5 (-3 dB) th 15 onenied for marimum induced emí, so.

a manna.
t can be
Sao-a

unity. defned in 2
diñSni
Dat icr T V T Z
ure 1672 --is Beemwidth of an antenna iengrh is the s a m e a s
For Uansithing antenna,effective for cansming is
E theorem that the effective iength
curreat
disuibuDon
iDe
z e c
E TeproCTTY of the desnes such a ie
condittons is in terms is
OEnnion of ler
under transmiting The efecive lengih
along the antenna
sn g2
t tollons hai Aeg is proporional w ary nctior
2s a ofphysical length lengb is cqnai t he 2 2 rnder rhe 2ct2

to M. lt can
constant of proporionalty is ihe same jor all ántennas:also be. sbown from c r e n t and
efective
the
N4T. Thus reciprocity theorem that the PUCE i
npit te i s a
the input teminal curent; ihena
curve. Let lo represent
curve
(16.9.2)
Joteff area undeT curestength
C (16.8.3) -

Thus, if the gain ofan antenna is measrcd UDderiransmttingconditions as GT its EXAMPLE169.1 may be a_suned
to be
ceiving conditions can be found from Eq. (16.83) to be effective area nnder the cureetiengtcurve
FortheA dipole described in Section-16:11,
terminais. Find the effecive length
o cos B, where = 0 at the input
cureat for the cosine is+a-
The pbysical length of the antenna is N2, and the average
A (16.8.4) SOLUTION
4T tion is

This relationship was used, for example, in deriving Eg. (1525) for free-space transnission. Note that Gr
akes into account antenna efñciency, and therefore so does the effective area. Often, in theoretical calcula
tions, the directivity Dr is used in Eg. (16.8.4) instead of Gr, and this will give a higher valbeofefiactive
Thus.
rea since directivity excludes the antenna effñciercy.
factor, given by Eg. (16.2.7). The area av x physical length
Another factor that can reduc the effective area is theifnismatch
the antenna is matched to the line,
no
reduc
area is reduced directly by this factor, and, of course,
ecuve
ion occurs
of the angular coordinates and d. Deined
8
Freously, the effective area was shown to be afuntion from polarization misalignment Hence, from Eg. (16.9.2),
account any loss resuling
4 A ( G , $) automatically takes into fac
loss
well as the polarization
the maximum value A,n of A(0, 6)
that is known, as
tor power, tne
S Usnally strength, and Aef
t Since the plf is defined
for electric field t
T
v e n by Eg. (16.5.1).
in Aeff as a result of polarization misalignment is (pl)
ucton
For low- and imediunm-tfrequency antennas that are mounted vertically from the earth's surface, the
efective length is usnally eterred to as the etfective height her This is directly related to the physical beight.
Efective height must not be confused ith the physical heights hr and ig introduced in Section 15.3. For
x169 Effective Length of an Antenna dipole may be mounted at sOne mast height
h above the is
it is particularly
useful with microwave example 5d
a but its effective
ground, length
antenna,
fom of a linear con ahvays WT,.
hough the con ot ei~ecive area can be uscd with any
antenna
is of the
of the userul.

an p where the physical

suructure
proves
to be
more

Cquencies, the effective length,

2r ONductors,
an analogous concept,
 518

6.10 Hertzian Dipole

The Herzian dipoie is a short onic Communicati
its Jength. Such an bnear
antenn
antenna cannot be rezaizedthat, when radiati 519
of a number of Hertzian dipoles in
practice diating, is assumed to Antennas
iniated This is useful n iself
connected in series. The Dut longer io
t raie cí chänge dí aTei and iversely
ous sections but also the that it n
radiation antennas cancarry be unifom current
also
found that the instantansous eiectric feid is proportionai
tihe chain of Hetzaan propeTnes of longer belps to illustrate the properdes of the assumed to be along
proportonal to the distance d the full expression being
aipoles
roximaion to manng up ihe antennas can oten Herzian dipole made up (16.10.2)
Herrzian
a longer antenna. roperties discussed a
sed in ththe
ot poie by
be maintained in th
showD in Fig.
the wire if 16.10.1(2). THe achieved by
can be
supernposing tie resultsprevioi 6 and zight angis to the
length of he dipole, the curent is its
lergth &t is much capacidve capacidvely
ends allow loading the ends of Tbe subscrip: 8 is used to show hat 'the ficld is in the direction

time d/c is inciuded, which is

of the cocrdinate
the time taken for a ciiange in cures 10 De
assumed to be shorter thana
wavelengthnearly
a
uniform charging short a irection of propagaion. A delay
effective at the point in the far-íeld zone.
(öf «
A).Thus, over thecurent
enure
The maximum value of the eiectric fieid, denoted by Eg, is

T elerric fieid in 10 sin o sin 9

allel
the far-ñeld zone
is E =T o Io (16.10.3
tothe electric field, which, as
shown in
directly proportional to the (16.10.1)
Fig. 16.10.1t5), is component of currept that
Io sin 8. From the is
The s curent zay be cubetiued for the mavimum crent +o to give the ms ñel sreagh n
physics radíâüon, itpar-is
of Appendix B it is shown that the power density in tihe far-field zone is givea by E127, and using the m s
feld obtained from Eq. (16.10.3) gives, for the power density,

Pp-PDy sín*8 (16.104)

where

PDM30 (16.105

The total power fow through a surip Fig 16.10.1(¢)Jis givea by dP Pp dA. where dA is he aa of
=

the stip. From the geometry of the figure, d4 =2md sin 0 de. The total power is the summation of all such
elemental amounts dP, which in the limi becomes the integral

sin 8
Area dA
2mdPpu sin'ede
_SmdPDM (16.10.6)
.
Substituting for Ppy and simplifying.

Pr1'so (16.10.7)

Now, the radiation resistance is defined by the

relationship Pr =
I'Rad» and therefore, from Eg. (0.10.1),
(c) Rrad So (16.10.8)
S1n (0). C) pnetc
curent component l,
to the
fheld E, is proportional
Hertzian dipole. (b) Far zone

rdas
T
e
deteminiFng radiated power.
 521
be determin This is
direive
NIn
can aLSO

angle, às in the defined as the

raho of the
Electronic Communications
E
UnT soDd

wer densiry PXe.

is P{E, d) =
)=
rivation of Eq. (16.7.4). power per unit Antennas
salid argK anc dPp [see, The
nit Soid angie
is F r T , and herefore (see, for
1or examnle b.relatio
example,
solid
nship berwecenangie
o to hethe
(16.6.3)). The average per
power
DE6, ) =*6,d)
PT
4T dPDM sin^8
ST &PDM/3
= 1.5 sin

i H
10.9). the is seen to
be Du= 15,
there is no Variarion of.and the normalized gain is
nna there (16.109) dipo
as of the synDey ol
De
antenna, varnianon of gain in the
DO
g{6, )= sine.
&the 2ri2io0 e mendan plane is g(6}= sin 6. These are equatonal
the plane [thatis, gto)= 1},.
funcions that were
6..i.
of the Hertzian dipole is
piotied in
astiv, the effective area found, using E.
(16.8.4), to be C) e 5)
C
D

oper-THs
on an Herzn poie.
Aetf 1.54T
-0.119 dipole ()
Cureat ard
volagestandäng

of
waves

/ 2 dipole
comprd o hat of a

(16.10.10) 5ure 1611.1

Half-wave
2 dipoie (c) Radiation pattera
a

waves oa a
eñcive at2 for inity eñciency. g e stand+ng
is is the

6.11 Haf-wave Dipole

h a a e dipole is a resonant antenna,the total length of which is nominally A at the cairier fregpengy
i n g Hves of voltage and current exist along the anlenna, a good approximation to the distribuson being
2
rzined by 2ssuming ihe antenna to be aopened-OuT A Sechon of an
an
open-circuitedtransmissioa kine. As
own in Section 13.7, spacing it
the between
standng-wave maximum and minimun is A, and since the cu
in from the end, while the voltage is a mai
at s t be zero at the open circuit, wll be maximum /A
a

at the
A POLnt. Figure 16.11.1(a) shows how the magnitudes of voltage
um at the end going to a mininum from the end, while Fig. 16,11.1(6) shows the line opened out to form
nd cuTet vary as a function ofdistance
which are assumed unchanged. Because a 180
diference.
difference inroduces a phae
l dipoie, along with te voltage section distnbuions,
and current made of Hertian dipoies (6) Path
up
(T radians for the incicent wave, and radians for the Figure 1&11.2 ()
Haf-wave drpok

hese shift also occurs along theA it is convenient show the voltage and current as in Fig. 16.L.16)
to
Eitded wave in the opposite direction),
zero at the feed point.
Of course, the voltage must be finite at
the feed
this is to depend on boch ê and 6. Tbus the
fromx this is (do-d) 2m/A and
seen
is 2ssurned to through The nhase shit resultang
e voltage go
cannot be identical to that
of the transmission line section sincethe geom trom all Hertnan dipole elements making up
the dipole must
pount Pesutung
, 2 the amplinude distribution agree very measured well with the Tesponsc at some distant
citferene, as well as the
distribution on the dipole. The total
results based on these assumptions
curtent

O te
antnna is different; bowever, of a large number of Hertzian dipoles conpected
take into account this phase the individual fields for the full length of the x dipole. This is quite
then be considered as consisting 16.1.16). Tesronse caa be found by integrating to Eq. (16.10.3), the
h e A dipoie may determined by the current distribution
shown in Fig.
dfiult integration to pertorm,
and will be
oniy the resuits here. given Coresponding
Sanes, current
r
in each being from different
clements on
the half-wave
between radiation strength is
be a phase difference 16.11.2(6). Applyingthe cosinc penk fiekl
d), as shown Fig.cos and for do
Aei2lso in
difference in distance (do
eSult of
the
-

6,
this
e - 2dot
gives Was , do (16.11.2)
th results in d d + mathematics
as

s15oTmed by 6, do. andd

=
the same
applying

5 , t is left as an exercise for the

student to show
edin derivne Ea. (i5.3. *). (16.11.1)

(do-d)
= lcos 0
 Electronic Communications
Antennas 523
whert cos(/2) cos )
F6) =

sin

HDon Is therefore
(16.11.3)
Sat
pormaiize pOEE
s6) = F(6)

(16.11.4)
Ar wit Heii indieforgidò)
of symmety. It is left
=Decause as an exercise for the
kesmwa the dipole is student to
tharthe
s 78
(16.11.5)
ngoia iagraT Fr8) is shown in Fig. 16.11.1(c) along with that
for the Hertzian L
F = sin f for mnarison both domalized te unity for A dpole.
i Other important results for

DM 1.64
(16.11.6)
(16.11.7)
AcT0.13 muiiis é a) cme
16-11.8) Figure 16.11.4 Resonant dipole radiation panerus with their careat disaitaions

Rrad75 (16.11.9) ( )three, and () four times the bair-wavelength.

e mpeiina wlbe a funeton of fTequeney, being capacidive.for frequencies just below h e capacitance and ioe= dctarce
conductors large in diameter. This has the eñect-ofa increasinsthe deviation betwen the 3-® p o g
s
zicive for reguepciesabove the resonamt values,uptothenextresonantvalue,which
vs e ysiaiength- is approximatey one wavelengh. Becaise the velocity on the wire is
thus Jowering the Qof the antenñaThe resnlt is wider-irequency
bandwidth.
s i o han that in f e space,
points, or a wider half-wave sequency, but occurs aiso a al gr
y Tesonance does Dot occur at exactly the point, but at a slightly Resonance in the dipole is not limted to the
ingi n reche aboat 95% of the A valoe. Ate= c u r e t distr+butions are dierent for each case, and de rsit isa
a, the antenna impedance is 73 +j4250 ples of the balf-wave frequency. The is i6.114 or e c a s d
ate 5t owwingh it is 73 , as illnstrated in Fig. 16.11.3. ferent radiation paterm for each resonant frequency.
This ilnstraied n ig
The drawings show that de m e oflodes
Traiged wes rrely single-frequenry sinnsoids,
are but are modulated. All modulated waves are effective length equal to 1,2,3,amd 4 times the balf-wavelength
of half-waveienghs used Carent piasing cànsy
a aer and a namber of sieband frequencies spread out on either side. Since the half-wave on each side of the radiator is equal
to
the mmiiple
e ar y ohe ned aniena) is resonantat only one frequency, and since it behaves like a frequency to another and thus is sbown by the curent arows. Again, these patsæè
180 from oneA secion +tmst iso be boted
a c e a ober fregaencies. the sideband frequencies will be distorted somewhat. For narow ones that would result if theantenna w e r e moanted free in space, away rome+ecions
antéana length, and ifasonant feed point is
a i s s i o this disezetion is ot significant, but at higher bandwidths it can cause trouble. The that the current node occurs at diferent posiions on the
nodes that occur, that is, ît mast be ocated a , ;
b e improved süghdy by spoiling the effective Q ofthe antenna by making the radiating maintained, it must be located at one of the ament
,..away from either end af the radiator
antema atis will always be lager han
With the increase in the nurmbef of lobes, the lobes nearest the
closèr to the aris with increasing numb
the others. These are the major lobes, and they get progressively
of lobes.

I= /2 I=0,475 &s
,3---- Z 73 A6.12 Vertical Antennas

Ground Reflections
and an
The ground will act as an atmost perfect reflecting plane for any
antenna placad near its surface, apP
entmiror image of
thieantenna will appear to be located inmediately beneath the surtace
below the ana
ou
(a) wave from a
ere 16.113 t This is illustrated by Fig. 16.12.1, which shows a distant observer receiving a direct point
its lengn antenna and a reflected wave that appears to come from the coTesponding point on te image
ofe hif-wzre dipcie cut to exactly N2 is 73 +j42.5 2. (6) Shortening
.

arce
t
 524

Electronic Communications
AntennaS
Direiwave
Rcflcted
wave
Ouscva
525
Antona
Retlectinng
mage Soriace

Fgar 16Ii Veucal

anienna and its reâecied
image
Because of the interacion
Dodiñed and appears to be the berween the direct and refected waves, the radiation
polar pattern drastically
The amount of interaction is vector sumonofhow radiañon írom two
separate antennas, the real one andis the
dependent
beight is eveal wavelengths, then ifar above the ground the antenà is image.
precdcally no inieracüon will occur, and the antenn2
De mounted in free space. For heights placed If the effective
up to a few nay be cozsidered to
antenna and its image act as a wavelengths, the reffections must be considered, and the
The image antenna is anphase aray of Two antennas.
exat miror
at each point image of the real antenna, and the
the
same.as those within the
real antenna, except for reversed
apparent currents within it are
nienna grounded
is grounded, bonzontaly or vertically polanzed. polarity.
oF DOt
This is true whether the
b)-
Grounded Vertical Antennas
Most of the
medium-frequency =Figure 16.122 Grounded ertical radiators. urrent distnbTS 2nd raiain pess
anteanas. This (MF) broadcast antennas fall into this category, do the Than N2 6 N2,and (c) twice 2
type of antenna, known the Maconi asVHF
antenna, is made up of a vertical mast, mobile-whip
as
that forms the main radiating conducior. It may be pole,
or supported by insulated guy wires androd
or
placed ina location where good electrical groundfree-standing
is available. Good is Figure 16.12.2(b) shows the current distributions and pat+erm
marshy ields and seacoast flats. If poor soil locations for MF anteanas include for a l vertical raizr The suructure
no longer behaves ike a coznbined dipole but mOre hke an array of twO
burying a mat of heavy conductors copditions exist, artiicial ground plane may be created by
an Separate nmas of e same lengh
extending radially from the mast
andpreferably at kast a Half-wavelength, for fed 180 out of phase with each other. Each half is a A antenna, and the rwo halves
radiation patterns are phase along ground surface. This makes the antenma appear toainedso
at least
from the mast. The ends of the up that their
to aæ
buried radials quarter-wavelength,
a
in the
together, with deep grounding stakes driven at their extremities. The are
usually connected ten shape as the dipoke, but with an addittonal gain of 3 dB.
have the same pat-
irom ground, and the base of the mast is
feed.line from the transmitter is
connected between the mast electricaily insulated W h e n the length of tie radiator is increased
above , side lobas begin to
lifts off the ground. Figure 16.12.2(c) shows the result for the 1A radiator. This isppear, d the main lobe
some special cases the
feed poipt may be located at a current base and the ground (Tn
Since node farther up the mast.)
high-power transmitters may generate potentials of several identical n shape to the
pattern for the 1A dipole shown in Fig. 16.11.4(6), except that the botom half of the partern bas been folded
structure, high-quality hundred
Tefon are used. insulators are a must. At lower frequencies special plastics kilovolts on the antenn2
such as polystyrene and
over and added to the top half. It is
obvious from this that if a vertical is to raäiate zlong the surface of the
ground, it must not be higher than >l or too much power will be radiated into the sky. f sky waves are to
The
grounded vertical antenna be used, a longer radiator must be used to get the main lobe off the ground.
dipole, with the radiator vertial tocombines
with its image to act in
Or
the grOund surface. exactly the same manner as a doublet The
ous iengths with the curent distribudons on the antenna andFigure 16.12.2 shows grounded verticais of vari- verticalsare favored because they may be fed direcly with a cabBe at the
low-impedance cur
its rent node thatoccurs at the base of the mast At low frequencies it is often not physicaly feasible to builda
vertical plane. The radiation pattern in the horizontal plane image, and the resulnng radiation
is circular. pattern in mast that is a full à in height, so a fom of "top-hat" loeding is employed to make the radiator iook elecri
efective height, current distributions on the combined
the For vertical radiators of
A or caly longer than it physicaily is. A borizontal wire is connected to the top of the mast to make up the miss
antenna-image structure is
o r ipole of twice the length of the radiator and produces a radiation identical to a in
ing length. This may be a simple wire, as in inverted L and T antennas, or it may be in the fom of adisk
ta al of the radiation patterm appears to he belew the pattern that is the same. ength of the horizontal or he disk radius is adjusted so that the current node occurs at the base ot the mast
csi rom the radiator is contained in that portion of the groundthat
surface and in fact does not
is above the surface. The
exist. All and from the feed point the antenna appears to be a a runed vertical. The curent density m te n
pattem portion is low and does not radiate nearly as much power as does the vertical portion, with the rEstt
Fi milariy to the half-uave dipole. The current disunbution and radiation
ver
ed pattern are shown in
. 1e structure behaves iike two antennas being fed in parallel; the radiation tle change occurs in the radiation pattem. Some minor lobes in the upward direction do occur, e
h2 hat cf the dipole. or aboui i6.) resistance is lobe is caused to liecloser to the ground because of more even current distribudon within the verucau
Ihis iype of antenna is sometimes retemed to as a unipoie anie?nna, because only one Falaung cic
 Electronic Communicatons
Antennas
527
inailato
moni
the second conductor is. at a curtn dc,11 ay be electricaliy connected to
affecting the characteristics, making a very sturdy mechanical structure.
a
ed
support rod without

CTound-plane
rois Car lop 6.14 Loop and Ferrite-rod Receiving Antennas
Loop Antenna
The loop aruenna is made up of oe or more turns of wire on aframe, which may be Te
b)
aDd js yery mmch smaller than one wavelengh across. Tis znuenna is popiarfor tro T Or cirala
ativelycompact, lendingitself to use with portabie recervers, and (2) it i quie direcive. ienduisre
2) to LSe
with direction-findingequipmen
A lop antenna is sbown in Fig. 16.14.1 (a), with its radiaioa paterr The nai
Fare 1 6 3 A a e a s (2} VHF ericai with 2-simulated ground plane. (b}UHF mobiie
whip mountai ona doughmt shape of the doubiet anterina, except that ine pianeo i the doughm conesonistot he

loop,so thE Toop wradiateoquay wel in

al_ireaicns withín is own piane piae of the
Dccarsaiong ihe axis of he loop, : ** nar is used in directon i n n g The h
Grounded vericais are frequentdy used at VHF for mobile service because of their simple stuctre In the loop does not drastically affect the radiation pariem except when the iengh aad idh f heeof
ase ihe radiator engh varies from a few feet down io a few inches, and a real earth
ground cannot beused unegual, in which case a squashed aoughnut shape
occurs.
ei antean2s a seics of radial gound-plane rods are frequently used, while for the mobile antennas, the Loopantennas.made of severa urns of wire 2round a rectangular firame were pooar for e
a top of he veticie
is uto provide the gound plane. Figure 16.12.3 illustrates these grounds broadcastreceivers, withthe loop being mounted in theback of the c n e Recentiy, bes
o ainost
antennas
entirely replaced by the smaller feraiterod
613 Folded Elements
2ntennas discassed so far ail nse single-conductor radiators. However, if each conductor is twinned with Cou

Cond conductor, insalated from, but closely paralel to it, and coanected together at the voltage node
nts, then a similar cmeat pattem will F r o me d

be induced in the second conductor. The radiation pattern wii be

acty the same as for the singe-conductor antenna, but tbe radiation resistance.will be different, just four
25c m

Des hat produced by the single radiator. Thus a folded vertical antenna as shown in Fig. 16.13.1(a vil
ve 2 radiztion resistance four times that of the single vertical (4 x 175 n s fx
36.5), or 146 0 The folded pole
bown in Fig. 16.13.1(b) has a radiation resistance of 4 X 73. or 292 0. MFbad
Tbe folded dipole anteñna is favored as the
diving element of VHF dipole arrays because it cm be
made very inexpensively with self-supporting ubing and provides a higher terminal impedance, whichteads
oSet the reduction of impedance resulting from the loading of the parasitic elements. Since the eener of (

Parallel
Coarial wire
feed seed

Ground
plare

(a)
(c)
antenna. (C) Juivalent
(b) Figure 16.14.1 Loop antennas, (s) Square loop antenaa with its radiation patem (b) Femite rod
circuit for the ferrite rod antema.
Fol dipes. (2i Foided cuerer-vzve verica! and (b) folded haif-wave dipole.
 **

529
Electronic Communications Antennas
in a recciving antenna. he
the terminals 1s ofmore importance Qee is
52B are RAN, äere B Since the voltage
appearing at d i r e c i o n a l properties of the
feriterdctor
strength, he magnetic fux linkages for FOd a n t e n n a s . The
whea the oop
is aligned for marimun signal area in meters, and Nis the amber often given as a figure
of merit
the null may
Dot be quite s o pronoanced
square
in teslas, A is the physical loop antenna, alzhough
the ms maeneic fux density emf is given Faraday's law as the rate of change of f x linkages, which ilar to those of
the loop

nrns in the loop.

The induced by
of gves
of angular íreguency
a
16.15 Nonresonant Antennas
or a wave

V, »BAN (16.14.1)
to the received íreqnency,
the voltage at thecepac- Long-wire A n t e n n a
of an extermal capacitor in length that is suspeaded e
When the oop is uned by the circuit Q to give igh
means
several wa2velengths
thar, a wire termmination ar the r e m e
by antenna is just and has a
reSistive sa is
or terminal is magniñed (1414.2) The long-wire
earth. Tbe wire is d n v a t
one
end that end. This forzms a transmissinon E
maxV.2 = wBANQ above the of the line at
characteristic impedince ransmitted down tiis n e tr
small matched to the a n alternanng current wave is
the induced voltage may be quiz T
>ince there 15 Dorefecioua hei
terminabon. When end.
smaller than the received waveiength, matcbed
Since the loop is usually
much The Q is determined by desired the remm anda
the EDeTgy 15 adiated intospae. regardless of its length-to- enc
increasing any one of the
factors in Eq. (16.14.2). inductaoe and terminated end, about halfof on the
wire

fcan be inTeased by the number of nirns increases the coil standing

exists, and
no
waves appear
the wire, and tbe remainder is issipated in the
small: increasing dissipated in
changing tbe fux deasity by renurn wave is

clecivity. Tbe area-mnst kept the fux-density

be smaliamount
even changmg B-affects tie Q. However, cores. Tnis
a i t e i v e is of the energy not radiated, a
feriie
hanges he m d achieved ith 2 minimal change
of 2 using t e m i n a t i n g resistance. with its horizontal radiation pattern. The rziatiom r e r

Sing a maenetic
c o e can' he
The long wire
is illustrated in Fig. 16.15.1(a),
angles to the
wiTe f tde wire wes-mounted in i espa s
b etrue for any direction
at ight
Dw in widespread use. tern shown would

Ferrite-rod Antenna in
similar to the oneillusted
coil of wire on-a ferrite rod
The materials eaibita
hE jerrie-d anienna is made by windinga fergromagnetism:
a r e materialsthat exhibit the
properties of feromagnetic eetals
1614.1(b).Ferites as-magnetic metals do, but unlike the
gh relative permabiity in the
same manner
frsqoençies, eddy currents indüced wn the Dzccin 22d

haveaigh bulk resistiviy- This meañsthat Ahighmade. valves for are around 0
and
ThEY ziso and high-Q coils can be Typical which is Vartica
materials are practially- cnonexistent,
n A high length-to-diameter ratio
for the rod gives a high permeability, Horizontal
10,000
for resistivity to aie od
desirable. several factors. If the coil
is too long conmpared
compromise among inductanceIfit is
The size of coilis a with temperature will cause
à nouceable change in the (a)
the change of pemeability as.well, since the effectivepeme
length, the core-is critical
too sbort, the Q will be iow.
Positioning the coil on the center to a minimum
teither
a maximum at
oa the rod, ranging from direction to trim e coil
ability is a function ofposition ailowing adjustment in either
n e a r the quarter-point, at opposite nds
to
The coil is nsually placed rod, they must be placed
end than one coil /s mounted on the same erical
inductance. When more

maximem emf
Horizantal
them the induced
minimize interaction between modified loop antenna, so
a
the ferrite rod is basically
The coil of wire on

at
appearing its terminals is given byy (14.3)
VwBANF4
for
for short coils to abon &7
for coil length, ranging from unity
wnereF modifying factor accounting (Viewed rom top)
of the rod
one that extends the ful length for the actual coil posidon
relative permeability of the
rod, as measured
Hetfective
A rod cross-sectional area (B.42(8.3), (b)
be derived by combining Eqs.
A effective length ofa ferrite rod a n t e n n a
can
with its horizontal and e
(laSion for the
antenna
Nonresdnant anennas, (a) Long-wire
16.9.1), and (16.14.3) to give Figure 16.15.I ils ho*T**ntal and vernical
radiation patterns.
(15.14.4) (b) Rhombic
antculä,.wih

2i
ett
 529
Eiectronic Communications Antennas
528 in a receiving antenna, the
factor6o.
e gis
the magnetic fux linkages are BAN, where B appeariog at the
terminals 15
of monE mportance of the feriterod antenna ares
loop is aligped for mamum signal strength, area in
When the Since the voltage for rod anternas. ine directuonal properties Sim

densty n tesias, A IS
ne pay'sical loop square meters, and Nis the number often given as a figure of merit tbe null may
not be quite so pronounced
is thè ms magnetic fux indued emi is grven by Faraday's law as the rate of change of fux linkages, which
ilar to those of the loop antena, although

of turns in the loop. Te

gives
for a wave of angula Íreuency
a

V wBAN (16.14.1) 16.15 Nonresonant Antennas

to the received frequency, the voltage at the capac-

means of an external capacitor
When the eop is tuned by to give
Long-wire A n t e n n a
eng s saspeaded z some e
the circuit Q w a v e l e n g i s in
itorterminal is magnibed by wire several
is just that, a as a
ieTmranon z thatis
e zoote end
max = uBANO (16.14.2) The long-wire
antenna

at one end and Tesiscve

wire is drivea traasuissioa line wtha grond
above the earth.
The
of the l n e ar
trat ronms a
end. Ims
be quite smal characteristic impedance nsited dowa dhis e touardt d the
much snali=r than the received vaveiepgth, the induced voltage may matcbed to the
termination Wben
a alternating curent wave I t h e S oreiectiot thrend no
Since he ioop is usualy factors in Eq. (16.14.2). Tbe Q is
determined by the desired
retum and a matched
space. Since
any ooe of the oftheenergy is raciated mto
tcan be increased by increasing smal: increasing the numbg of turns increasestbe coil
indoctance and
terminated end, about half waves appear on
i e w i r . Tgardiess
o s sgi-nwriengh rao
n o staading he remaindea is äiae
eeciity. The are-ms kpt the
be and and
However, changing tbe fiux density by exists, n the wire,
changmg fxJebsityB affeces tine Q. r e u n wave
not radiated, a small
amount is dissipated
hanges theg nd ee

2chievsd 770 2 mnm change of using fe+ite

cores. Tnis aiternatkve is Of the energy
core
can be borizontal raiadom partea The radiation pat-
Sing magneic
2 terminating resistance.
ilustrated Fig. 16.15.1(a),
in
with its
i e space
The long wire is wire
ue. te wesRMdin
H
ow widespread the wie f
at ight angles to
shown would be troe for
any direction
tern
Ferrite-rod Antenna
rod sirmilar to the one illustrated in
is made by windinga cel of wire ona ferite
T ferie-rd arnenna are materials thatexhibit the properties of ferromagnetism. The maternals
exhibita
1614.1b). Femites the feromagnetic metals
magnetic metalsdo, but unlike
gh relative permeablity in he same manneras ahigh írquencies,eddy currents induced within the
Droheesigh ba>k resistvity:and 1his means that values for a are around 100
and-
high-Q coils can be made. Typical
aierias are practicaly nonexisteat,length-to-diameter ratio for the rod gives high
a pemmeability, which is
Ncm A high
torresisiviy 10,000 Horizontaa

desirable. several-factors. If the coil is too long compared to

the rod
The size of col is a compromise among
with temperature will cause á noticeable change
in the inductance. If itis
ength, the change of perinecbility the col on the core-is critical as well, since the effective perme
too sbort, the Q will be low. Positioning at the center to a minimum at either
the rod, ranging from maximum
a
ability is a function of position on direction to trim the coil
Tte coil is nsnaly placed mear the quarter-point,
allowing adjustment in either
end at opposite ends to
mounted on the same rod, they must besplaced
inductance When more than one coil is
veia
minimize interaction between them loop antenna, so the induced
maximum emf Horizsnta
The coil of wire oa the ferrite rod is basicaly modifed
a

appearing at its terminals is given by (16,14.3)

V, wBANFA.
coils to about 0.7 for
for coil length, ranging from unity for short
TE modifying factor accounting
one that extends the full length of the rod (Viewad fom top)
rod, measured for the actual coil position
Heffective relative permeability of the
as

A = rod cross-sectional arca

combining Eqs. (B.4), (B.8),

An exp antenna can be derived by
1or the effective length of a ferrite rod Verbea
ta
169.1),0n
(i69 horizontal and
with is
and (16.14.3) to give Nonresonant antennas, (a) Long-wire antenna,

16.15.1 pattems.
(16,14.4) Fgure its hizontal avd vertical
radiation

Ceff
2mANFHr (6) Rhombie
nvteima wih
 -

531
Electronic Communications Antennas
530
Usually it is a fraction of a wavelength above the ground, and ground refecions cause most of the energy
to be radiated upwad so that the verncal would be a single lobe of twice the strength of the boni.
pattern Curent Caar
zonta! fobes.
phase
it is not very eicient, has a comparatively low gain, and takes lcad a lead
This antenna is not often used because
Aiso, matching the transmitter to the line can be a problem. However, since no stapding
p a ot of space.
antenna has no resonances, and as jong as the iength of the wire lies in the range 2A to 10,
waves exis the
constant for all frequencies in that range.
It is thius used as a broadband
its characteristics renain relatively in the HF band from 3 to 30 MHz The
antenna for low-cost point-o-point communications, especialy
dt of the patern lends itself to skwave
propagation in this band.
upward
-

Rhombic Antenna
is an array of four interconnected
is diamond-shaped layout.lt
The rhonbic anterna takes is name from in Fig. 16.5.1(6). Each of the four legs has the same
long-wire antennas, laidout in the manneE-shown ebd and transmits unreffeced cur-
an ATs
The ransnission line feeds
one
and Hes in the range 2X to 10A of the sides and the is
lengh toward the resistive terminaton
at the far end.The lenghs
each side cancel properly, leaving only a
Tent w a v e down chosen so that the side lobes
are interelated and must, be carefully cause the lobe to be
angie rhombus. Again, ground
refections -T
the main axis of the (6)
singe main lobe lying along a-finction-of the length of the legs. --. f r he felid s g i t i e
amount of tit is (C) Phasoräagan
ited pward into the sky, and ihe chosen s o that n0 refiecions occur, and the
anterina as is the
is untuned,used array of dipoles.(6) Plan view
The resistive temination is
, alowing a singie struchure to-be over
Figure 16.16.1(a) Linear in the i i e

anfema. Is iequency range is broad, almost

10 to
individual feld strengths at a point
for point-to-point diagram for the
tilt is chosen properly, is iðeai
kong-wire saccessie phse
shows the phasor and to undego
most ofthe HF bands. Ir is highly directional and t t e Figure 16.16.1(c) assumed to have equal
amplitwdes E
polygon, and a geumeiais
field strengths
are
of the
direct feed with an open-wire The individual the ciosing side
siywaye popagaiie
falis in the range from 600
to 800 0, allowing field strength amplitude Eg is
The feedpoint impedance fails between 40° and 75° and the shifts . The resultant
resistor is in the s a m e range. Tbe angie o 15 to 60. a polygon is
parallel line, and
the terminating
obtained with the rhombic ranges from for such (6162
and 10A. Tbe resulting directive gain of four poles placed sin(m2)
eg ength between 2A and inexpensive and usually takes
the forn

he physical structure is relativeBy simpie

and wires supported
on tension
insulators for the radiators. The feed ine is
a
ERB Sin(2)
hombus the transmitíer house sangh wockd e
at the zpexes.of the be within reason, although
it is usual practice
to place
of about 320 from a sjngie
element, the icld
paallel ine and can any length example, a 2X. rhombic MHz would have diagonals
for 3 1otal power had been radiated therefore
of the rhombus. For if the s a m e VnE, and
Dear the feed end in an urban
eñvironment.
. NoW, AF is the ratio of Er to
antenna is not practical been VnE). The array factor (26.163)
m wide. This
p long by aboat 250 sin(m2)
AF Va sintt2)
ement
element
TAg

16.16 Driven Arrays over that of a single

the feld strength
elements, usually a dipoles, equispaced. which the arrày
increases
2)-
2) and

consists of a number
of basic antenna from each element,
the direc- s s
the tactor by As approaches
zeru,
sinng
A ltTear array of antennas phasing radiation
the same total power. at = 0.
suitably operating the
trans-
in that ocurs

the array axis. By identical elements has a

maximum

along a line refered to as of with factor

aTay
ot number of ways. To
illustrate this, arrays
It is assumed
that each
element is fed ne that, from Eq.
(16.16.3), (16.16.4)
Can be altered in a
so
vIy sketched in Fig.
16.16.1(a). first eiement is /. sin(u/2) -> (/2),
c u r r e n t to the
i n g mode will
be considered, 2s
successive phase shifts
a. Thus the shows the plan (n2) Va
ampliudes, but
with
element, 1/a-1)a.
Figure 16.16.1(b)between AFmax /n(/2) andcurrent phas-

dtCnis equal succes

of
to the third, I2a, and to the nth equatorial plane. The distance
1) is
ne second, Ia,and for c o n v e n i e n c e this is taken to be the element r with respect to element (n
choice ot elctcg
an appropviate
the array, lead of be selected by
O is s cos o, and
therefore the phase
to ( 1 )
is
C Olrection ofthe
maximum can

n with respect
veronts lead elernent
of as illustrated in the following sections.
the total ph2se
45 Cos . Thus (16.16.1) ing,

s Cos t a
 532 Electronic Communications Antennas 533

Broadside Array Rafiaice

The broadside array as the name suggests bas its maimum directed along the nomal to the plane of the diecho
a a , when uis 90 in Fig. 16.16.1(6. This requires to equal zero as shown in Eq. (16.16.4), and from
Ea. (16.16.1 ), this in nan raguires a to equal zero or the currents to be in phase. This can be achieved very
-6-9-A
coveniently spacing the
by elements
ahart and alternately crossing the feed shown
points as
Hg. 16.16.2a). The ñeld surength polardiagramin the equaiorlal plane is given by the nomalizd amay fac-
in

the number of elements sharpens the beam in the

tor. The diagram is sketched in Fig. 16.16.2a). increasing
direcdon, but will aiso introduce small sidelobes as sketcbed in Fig. 16.16.2(a). The pelar diagram
broadside
element (normalized to the maximum value VE), and for
in the mei dian piane will be tha for a singe
it would be similar to that shown in Fig. 16.11.1.
an aray of haf-wave dipoies,
of wàich is made
Qie often the broadside aray is used in conjunction with second array reffectors,
a

a balf-waveiength behind the main aray. Tbe back }Jobe is now refected
forward
he same size and mounted
and adds direetly to the foFward ioie, improving îts gain and directivity and making the structereunidirec
Tefectors
Tonai. The reñeciors may be iven. of they may be parasitic
A variatdon of this aray, called a coilirear broadside crray, is formed when a number ofdipoles driven
the
in phasë are spared in-line along the same aris. This aray radiates equally well in all directioes within
iule radiation off this plane and none along the aay axis.
planenormal io the axis, but produces very
A
End-fire Array
the axis ofthe aray, when IS
The end je ar} 2sthe name suggests; has-the main beam directedtoalongzero, andbene, fromE 46:16.1,
1616.1(b). Asshew# in Eg(6:16:),ama+imum reguires be

0-cos0) + a

Tbus
(16.16.5)
Rasuhant

the spacing s. Thus the

**The negative sign indicates that soccessive phase lags are required, proportional to

phase angle v for the end-fire array becomes

s(cos - 1) (16.16.6)

This shows that with ó equal to zero, is also zerò, and therefore the airay factor becomes the matimum
value given by Eq. (16.16.4). When
as 180, the angle becomes -4Ts/, which, for s =/2, yields
=

beam, this
maximum, and for proper end-fire operation with only a singe radianon
p
2 . This would also give a
used in practice is to space the eleents by T/4 Diven arrays. (a) Broadside array with
radiation pattern. (b) End
fire aray with
to

cng of /2 must be avoided. A common arrangement Figure 16l6.2 rotated at nght angies o
SOme sum of two dipole patterns
16.16.2(b). Depending on the number elenents,
of showing its radiation pattem as the
in C)Turnstile antenna
u Orectly feed them in parallel as shown Fig. much smaller than the forward lobe. For a gven number
rDaCklobes may exist. but these are generaily
" Cements, the end-fire array does not produce as naOW a beam as the broadside atay. Turnstile Antenna angles
band. Because ftheir phys- half-wave dipoles placed
at
ng t
5oth the broadside and the end-fre arrays may be used for any frequencybeen used in the 1r
16.16.2(0) shows a simple rumstile antenna,
consisting of two
two dipole paiciu
usualiy limited to the HF bands and higher,
but they have LE banusthem Figure This results the
in
812e. they are ether and fed 0 out ofphase with each other.
stations int MF and HF bands frouely
use
to each
Ont-to- municatioi" ISeas broadcas!
wellf d broadcas the see di: a . Ica
534 Electronic Communications
Antennas 535
he manner sbown in the fîgure, prodocing æn alimost cireuar patiern in the plane of the turnstile. The paterm
Parasitic Directors
also bas the fean1re that it is polarized in that same plane, so that if it were mounted in the horizontal planc
which is placed in front of the driven dipole, is made aboam s
the antenna would radiate horizontally polanzed
waves about equally well in all
directions alone the om The director element,
the dipole
It is spaced to proide maximum radiation in the forward direei
Sereral of these unsiles mey be stacked along a verical axisand phasedso as to improve the radiation direc so that it is capacitive.
ivity along the ground (that is, in the plane of polariZanon). This Ype of antenna is frequendy used for tele spacing is again found experimentally to be about 0.15A. The is shown in
patern Fig. 16.17.10 opñmu
in the VHF-UHF bands.
vision broadcasting Yag-Uda Array
antenna 15 a parasiuc arTay comprising a drivea
haif.-wave dirois aDenn
The Yagi-Uda (or simply thae Yagi) more (up to 13i dir
folded dipoie, a
Single parasinc reiecto, and
one or
16.17 Parasitic Arrays that is usually a
the previous one were the dr+ven element, so that the wheie
each director cut to act as if struchre is illustrated in Fig. 16.17.2(a): All the eieme
tapers in
Parasitic Reflectors the direction of propagation. The
fastened to the conducting. grounded
central support
rod. 1 i s has 9o efct on the currents since t Support
to the main or driven antenna at a curent pode.
Parasitic elemenis are secondary antennas that are placed in close proximity point in the center
of each element is
Theyare nox directy fed, bat have currents induced in them from fhe main element (or fröm the received Only one refector eed tised, 1he
be since the addhion ofis asecond er third reiector adás Drecia notF
case of a receiving antenna). The secondary antennas are
tund so as to cause a lagging or iead-
ing te the directivity
of tee structure: direcuve gain improved considerabiy by the adiion a
wave iH the and this the radiation pattern of the main directive gains from about ds roT 2 ee-element 1ag to about 15 dB for a Eve-elemenr
reradiated from them, changes directors. to give
ing phase snit in energy that is of one main lobe iying in ne Torward
dire ion along the axis of the a v si
antenña,as shown in Fig. 16.17.1(a) and (b). Yagi. The pattern consists Polanzaion is in the direction of the eiemet axes
than the driven several very minor lobes
in other direcuons.
The refecior element is placed behind the driven dipole and is made about 5% longer
radiationoccurs.along the nopal in A folded dipole is often used as the drven ckemeat t0-raise the antenna tenminal impedance. The par.
2 ) dipole so that it is inductve. Spacing adjusted until
is maximum
thednven.element, which results n a lowering of tbe efecive
front of th dipoBe (aray axis) asshown in Fig. 16.17.1(a). Optimum spacing, which is found by experiment, asitic elements are quite clösely coupled to tolded dipole-brings the impedance level back up-io
S USuaily abom 0.15A.- radiation resistance. The foursold multiplication ot-the
teEminalesistance of 200to 3000.
reasonablelevels.A Yagi withafolded-dipole wonldhave a
This type of antenma would-be' very bulky at low irequencies, Dence,it issed mot otainthe VH
have built Yagis for the 20-m band, but the structre is large and cumbersome. Is hig
range. Radio amateurs
for point-to-point fixed-requency communicationS nerworks, eitherat
temin
directional gain makes it ideal

Folded Spacing 02
Ref Red Respole along boo
0.5
a.475A D 1,
0451 D2 3
04291
Radiator
Keiector 055A 0SA* Coodbctins

(iductive lag)

(a)
Twin-cad
fecs
()

Rad Dir

Director 0.45A ZKetktin

:tem.
Radiator (capac:tive leed) pla
(6) and
radialion
pa:ien
dimensions

0.5A shown with its

The structure is
Figure 16.17.2 (a) Five-element Yagi-Uda array.
(b) reffector with a dipole Iecd
with a dipole feed. (c) Coner
)Refiector.( , or.
(6) Pl:reifector
*2ttem nfad
 535
They have.
lea been used for base Electronic Communic
er stanons. stanons on
mobile
line, railroads, Antennas
orat
repe2u
b ew o x i n g s e a is
surung out along a
communicaions systems wbere
highways, or pipelines.
plane Reflector Arays Di
JHF IS COmmon
ire to use a
plane
refiecTing Surface, either a flat radiato
surface ora corner of two
iae of the singie renector eiement of the Yagi. The refecting surface sur-
ces in each direction and can be
much larger. It (see Fg. 16.17.2b) must
interconnected metal ods. Somewhat may be a solid metal surface,
CoE

e uirt
nerwork of interconnected
mesb or a nerwork
tit e corner iecto. sbown in Fig. 16.17.2(c), but onl in the plane acrosssharper
hmay the fold is directivity obtained Coariai Teet
feed line
fector is aranged so tnat une aven apole (or directional antenna D

shead of the refiector surface. A miTOr image of the

of any type) is mounted
driven antena occurs a
the srface and appears to radiate a wave that arrives at the driven aatenna quarter-
in phase with
wEveeu enne Tadiaion, but deiayed one penod: Ibe resulung radiation patterm apears to be the vec-
e-

e radiation from wo in-phase anteanas, one of which is the mage.

B e a directa

16.18 VHF-UHF Antennas

F poma

Discone Omni-
radiate an omnidirectional pattem in the horizontal pläne, with vertical
Theicone añferna is designed to of nearnly H i )E
wih usable characteristics.áver afrequency range
-
omnidireioal
Dissone
oiarizatickis a broadband antenna Figure16.18.1 VEEUF
2ennas. (a)
tine and is imounted directly ca the erd ofthartine.
is uSualy dzsigned to befed directly from
a sATc0axiaB dipole aray
in Fig. 16.18.1(a).
discone is illustrated
The base-station operation for urban mobile comnmications systems,
antenna is ideal for
This type of and rugged, ad is quite inexpen
a good o onidirectional
pattern, is physically very compact Log Periodic Antenna
since it gives to that ofthe dipole antenna. Ened p aiong te xis
the horizontal plane is comparable fed wih alhemgpae
directional gain along of dipcies,
sive to conatruct. Its is basically an aray
coterna sçacing ll afom
Tbe logperiodic Te e i e m e r e g s n
stracture is illustrated in Fig. 16.18.1(c).
The
Helical Antenna ofradiation.
much less than- ratio, given as
a coil of wire: Ifthe
helix diamderis to a
(1618.1)
helical a n t e r n a is basically will behave very
The rediator element of a it is center-fed, the
whole strocare
less than one wavelength, and must propagate
one wavelength, its length Since the current wave
in the "normal" mode. freespace velocity. The
antenna, radiating than
Tuchr like a compact dipole much less
the axis will be or
its actual velocity along the half-wase resonantlenguh is given as
of divergence
along the helix conductor, and pitch of the helix coil, and eost combinaions of Also, the angle (16.18.2)
half-wavelength. For
the diameter
determined by
velocity will be much less than the free-space
locations
where it 15
not p0Ssts
a tan
be very used in
e l * l physically This type of
antenna i_ sometimes
E 01az2tion is eilliptical.
wavelengths
rooftops.
helix madeseveral
areas or on
AT
DIE to mount a full-sized dipole,
such as in urban
and the polarized is to be cbtained. of the
proximately
one elength,
beam ofcircularly
narrow beam o m u s t be larger
than high efñciency (OT)
if ñunctioa of
the logarithm
When usedin this
is made row
L i perioic
The open-end length
If the helix diameter a a directional chardte
producing mpedance
end-fire mode, 15° to 36. iie unique feature
that its
bmadband, and it
has the , where many
end-fed, the helix
radiates in an
helixes is on
the order of This a n t e i L a has ch.aracteristics are o r mobile-base-station operations,
d width obtainable
with single behind the
feed end. tn
table for
track neree Us u a n e . The
antenna

refiector is placed moable equeney, is otten used

This type of direcave characternistic
antenna
SDeam onn a are
and plane
o
node dipxie anay. sVsten w ith gad
mounted
a
of a
mounted structures

tics
mode, the radiator is usually end-fed and that
can be casily
asily
sat
llites
These
ust be* h.undied over a single antema

directionai antenna that is ysically compact for tracking channeis

often used been
vey
end-fire
helixes a r e and have
of astronomy
ing moving sources. Arrays used for radio
parabolas
muchExpensive
I than the large 16.18.1[D).
illustrated in Fig.
hclix is
trackers. The end-fre
u r Satellite
38 539
Electronic Communications
16.19 Microwave Antennas Antennas

Homs
ves can be radiatad dicdy rom the end ot a
waveguide in the same way as from the
en transmission line. The end of the waveguioe represents end of an
an
nceof the waveguide inic that of frw space, and the radianon abupt ransition from the characteristic
Tesultüng is neitber efñcient nor very
Hieive Tais state of añais can eimproved considerably by fiaring out the end of the
a borniike strucrure graa ansitdon can thus take place as the wave passes from waveguide to formn
the mouth of the
NarTow-mouthed hons wiii iong fare sections
proauce sharper beams than shallow, born
nes Aiso. he wider-mouhed bonms tend wide-mouthed
produce a wavefront with a distinct curvature, which
to

The is unde (a)

jdeal wouid be for he waves io ieave ihe ho:m with a
SIT
compietely planar wavefront, and to
nhsh this 2 iousing mectanism such as a curved reiector or a lens, may be used with the bon: accom-
-Three ypes of bons are ahouT In Fig.l6.19.1. ihe irst is the sectoral hon, which is fared in
only
me plane [Fg. 169.1(a)j: thz second is the pyTarmidal horm, which is fîared inboth planes [Fig. 16.19.16)1. iicde
Bon oí ü used n
att
ectangular waveguides. The third type is conical [Fig. 16.19.1(c)] and is used
sith a circuiar waveguide to prodce a circiariy polanzed beam. Horn-type antennas do not
provide very
hoh irecitv bn a e of simple. rugged construci on. I i s makes them ideal as primary feed antennas for
paTraboic reiectos andjenses.
Te choice cr hon dimensios is dependent ón the desired beam
angle directive gain andand
o t h e ratio cí ñar length to waveiength LA and îare angle¢, sbown in Fig. 16.19.1(d). -
involves

Parabcleldal fPefisctor Anteana

Themost widely used antenna for micrOwaves is the paraboloidal reflector antena, which consists.of a pri-
may zieara such 2s a dipoe or horn siuated at the focal point of a paraboloidal refiector, as saown in
Spllover
Fg 16192 The noa, or physical apertre, of the refector is circular, and therefector contour, when (
Fted onto zy piane cóntaining the focal point F and the vertex V parabola as shown in
forms a
j6.19 26). The pah length FAB = FA'B" for this curve, where the line BB is perpendicular to the Paabola (c) Radiaion o de panboicid r i e r
aod riay nd
TiEr s The importznt practical implication of this property is thatthe refiector can focus parallelrays Figure 16.19.2 (a) Parabolic refector (b)
o te socal point and. conversely, it can prodyce a parallel beam from radiation emanating from the focal
u r 16.1921c) lustrates this. An isotropic point source is assumed to be situated at the focal point.
radiarioa fon e pramary raia0r
t h e desired pareliel beam being shown, it can be seen that some of the rays are not ptured troublesome in satellite ground
stations. Also, some
can bepartcularly bean This is temed baciobe rato
. 2 ese constitute spiliover. In the receive mode, spillover increases noise pickup, which addiúon to the desired parallel an
in the forward direction in radiatioa is undesirable because t
occuTS radiator. Backlobe
is from the backlobe of tbe primary designad to o
ehmunateredecor a
Since it with the reflected beam, and practical
radiators àre coverts

and the paraboioidal and

Tere destucavely spberical waves

The isotropic radiator at the focal point

will radiate the wavefront is coastan
of d
waves. Thus, over the aperture
of an ideal refiector,
uese To piane
constant phase. ante the ngular
functioa of the primarynurnder,
detemines

retlector is a radiation
The directivity of the paraboloidal pertire
radi

to reflector dianeter, fD. This ratio, known as the

aper
dow nucd of the primary
synmeune
of focal length s
is circularly
which in turm detemis antenne
founa
that

aperture otf the' relector, [Fig. 16.19.3(a)),

2 fmom the primary < r/2, it is
radiation
Assuming that
is intercepted by the retlector. angles y in the
range*
(F- V) and is conñned to
about the reliector aNis (16.19.1)
the effective area is given by
Fimure19.]
16 191 (C) (d
Hom nare
clor2l inm, (b) Pyramid:] horn. (c) Conical horn. (d)
 540
541
Electronic Communications Antennas

i s - g t o -10 E beloeàar a t e n e
Feut 16.193 e ieure 16.194 Edge iluinaion
from primary+teana
Focai point ourside the resccio b) Rocal point inside
the refectoc

The beamwidth also depends oa the primary

radiator and its
posiion. In acice s and t
D4 is the t h e - 3 d B beamwidth is given approximately by
wh =
physicai area of the reiector apertire, and I(6/2) is a most types of feed
cn(or lomination ejicCiEnc, wIch function, temed the aperture
D d he eñect oi heanguiar 2perr Win
tzkes nto account both the radiation pattem of the primary 70A
the focal BW@ es (15.19.4)
6.19.5íal (wich equiresfD>14), the point ontsid he refletar, as shown in
m eduei son that at the Center, and ineprimary-radiation at the perimeter of the refector willnot be and the beamwidth betwween' nulls by
Se zpertre smaency, but a the eepeE reector illimination approaches a unifaan yalue, This
spillover occuing Making fD too arge incrases nuiis B =2B*Ba]
Sv D the extent tha aperture einiency then deCTeases.
ot insiie the rëffector, as shown in ig I6.195(0). Here, no ReducingD to less than 1/4 places the focal 140 eges (16.195)
iect tapes from a mzximum at the ceníer to spillover occuns, but the ilhnination of the D
zero witin the eiectoregion. This nonumiomilumina-
ti teais to reace zpertTure eiiciency. Also, placmg the primary antenna
he reiecaor ñecting the primary antenna too close to the reiectorresults in
impedance and ràdíation patern, which is difñcalt to take into
o i ean be shown that the
aperture efñciency peaks at aboat 80%, with the angular FRXAMPILE 16.19.1
aperture
o ziout 4fo 70 depending on
d anguia e u p is
the primary radiation pattern. The relationship between apera1reranging
num- Find the directivity, beamwidth, and effective for paraboloidal relector antea i wich the
area a
reflector diameter is 6 m and the illumination eficiency is 0.65 The freguency of agenion is 10 G

sOLUTION
/Y
0.25 co (16.19.2)
ypag,for a znguler zperture of 55°, .

10 X10
=
0.03 m=3cm
the aperture number is

=0.25 x 1.92 = 0,48 A - 3.14NE_,28.26 m

4

Aet0.65A = 18.4 m*
4. Satisriga pint should ie outside the mouth of the reflector, since fD is then greater than
e:uis
enmeter of tre
are gotair.ed in
practice if the main lobe of the primary antenna intercepis m Po At 257,000(54.1dB)
Ont su rerector 2t the
-9 t9-10 dB level as shown in
Fig. 16.19.4.
Sg TD% for A in
Eq. (16.19.1) and using 70A7O XO.03
Eq. (16.8.3) for gain, we get = 0.35
BW-3aB)
G= (16.19.3) (ne: 2*ORS 0,70°
 542
Variations on 543
the
The Parabolic Reflector Electronic Communications
is paradolir rierior is a
favonte antenna
Antennas
Dielectric Lens Antennas
relatively simpie in for fixed ofioe.
dishes have been consrucion,
buiit for ase wih and uniess large in point-to-point microwave is refracted
when
passes rougn
2 surace sparating 2 zope

r e t that allows the size, it is commanications magnetic radiazion dielectric coastant in ezauy
ue
saE T tnat gnt is Teíacei The angles.
rotation in both the radio telescopes, p to 200quite inerpensive. Huge steerabiesystems Electro e of huigher
ed by the modiñed
modiñed version of S * I S iz
Snels 2,
wIiCz stats [reieng to
gers such as saeiites ft in
and radio stars. horizontal and vertical diameter, and mounted on a parabolic and refracion are reiatcd

Antennas used foT

directions to allow
the tacking of movaDie of incidece
Fig. 16.19.6(a)] that
and the lowest
noise figure.radioastronomy must udiize all their area for moving tar
(16.19.6)
ically locaied our of the Speia fced systems are reception to get the highest eficieDcy
ist of these uses & path of the inconing used so that the feed antenna is rednced in size
dipoie radiadon. Two or
a
spbericai refecior piaed zntennz Fhich normally radiates outside types feed are shown
of
in Fig. 16.19.5.phys-
The consta, w rS De TEactve indez of the maeial The
eiecied back a: the directdy behind the the
parabola as wel as onto it, but dieiecinc
of
entering the. egion highthe
and is added to dipoie to prevent direct radiation. The wen i e radiarnor passes iom e igh
ves
parabola has and same
relanosaips oo
siDce the reñecto the Tefractive property is Dciprocal, dieiecic medium, exapt TLAt ibe subscipts i and r a r e inteshne
pOSIDOn is diierent for difYerent main portion of the radiation. Somebaciiobe radiation is
diekctric medim int the lowet
The second nethod
is know as the frequencies. tuning is necessary is
The Tuaterial. usd for the lens usualiy
one
or e n I t piashes. su 25 poiysyeoe
the
paabetoid
the virTuaf focal señectoT. and Cassegrain feed
the byperbofoid subreffector have asystem ig 16.19.5(bJ. The hon feed antenna, which is used to nir à rerging
Teion. ot tne coiiimanng iens,
point of the
ciecied of the subrefector ypziboiuid is coincident with the
common axis of
symnet1y as Figure 16.19.6Coj illustrates the principie one direction wih a pianar wavefront The lens in this case is a
iluminates the main reñector focal point of the paraboloid.shown, and
Radiation beam of radiation into
m e tYaveling in only
suriaces at ight 2ngles, so no eiac-
spillover the eiges is low. This is of
at
approximately covex one. Radiatiop along
the axis of the
iens passes trougn boin
spilover resuits in high noise levels. particular advantage in low-noiseuniformly and, equally important, at an angie f r o m tne axIs 1s inciaent at
the CTved iniece at n ande oiar tha
receiving systems, where large- tion takes placë. Radiaton it into n e
ies, at A. The urvamre of the lensis SUch
Two rypes of nodiñed borns
also DOCmaland is refractes toward the normal as passes
ig 16.195c). Incoming use-parabolic surfaces. The first of these is the-Cass homn
radiation is refected that afterrefraction therays
are all paralle! to the axis
frepm a large lower FA-t2kes sighty longer to reach the reíacing suace, i g i i
sectonal front and forms the bot+om of the parabolic section that has a rectangular
hon. up to a smaller parabolic
Radiation at-the mgle along IA Howevez,-tBevelocity orpopasation iin the aiectric
hon, and then to
aioTn antenna leeated at the foalpoint of tie combined surface that fosns thetop-ofthe slisht time lag compareito that along the axs
atzatagethat mconming radiaion is not blócked by the feed parabolas This hom bas the
The second horn is the hog hon
[Figure structure, butit is much more complex to bild.
zbolic refector mounted 16.19.5(d)]. This is basically a large hom antenna
ii is often used for
directlý in íront of it and onented to radiate with a par-
at right angles to the axis of the horn.
micowave communication Jinks, such as the Bell TD-2
Simple in construction while giving the high system, because it /s compact and
ine directivity of the parabola and also
advantage that it may be rotated at the neck on a. sliding high eficiency. It also has
adue manipulation. joint, allowing steering of dhe beam without
omal

Parabolic a) Refracang
Parabolic
sections sections
Spverical
resiector
Window

spherical
relicctor
Fatdhom
Pareic Peralic
Telecic :eiecio b (c) (d) c)
Figure 16.19.5 the
Mehis
Feffec (t) Cassegrali
n oí 2
feedi7.2 crOEVe Figure 16,o 1ielechir lens nnas. (a) Snell's Lay of refraction. (b) Principle ot coit
1era"*: *antennas.
pAI3 i norn s
fa) Prraboic reflector frd from a dipole anda swill splierical
)araboloid ret. Sectio es of zem
f.()(.a*s hoin, ( *
 idnaod

544
545
issiower than that in air, and a
hat along A'B, compensaing Electronic Communications
raiabon aTTVesdelay
so thet ali the occurs in the Antennas the etnpien
Dont the imped2nce for
leaving the iens. at the fiairadiation
interface BB in along the axis AB as of the slot can be
caiculated by irst caiaulating
the compienenta
darast

Many tpes of lens The feed impedance impedance by

shown in Fg. systems can be used for the phase. The resuk is a compared to The actual slot impedance is reiated to the dipole

16.19.6(c). TheSe planar wave tary dipole.

lenses, whichcollimating
are zoned
usrated in Fig. 16.19.65). or
paralleling which states that
(16.19.7)
c mateis
tha must be usedHowever, He zone are function
basically the same in function asTwo of these are
ing is made at a
sight sacriñcæ of
to make struchure aliows
the lens, with
a
a
large reduction in the thbe comvex lens xz- ()
directivity.
Again, idealiy, the lens should be coTesponding savings in cost and volume of
dielec be comleNEy
mum
eiciency and fed with even weigh This sav impeedance of tbe siot and Z
is the radiation impedaoce of
mstes the The hom gain.
antenna is the oer its entireiluminaion Where Z is the radiation
the slot does not have to be rectanguiar,
but can be ay oevrnis
aye

even-iluminanon reqnemen.
oompact highly direcive For the
most
popular method of feed surface to achieve max (äipole) anteana Tbe shape
c
because they are e2sy to nake
and relatively esay
za

and most closely circular (annuiar) slots are favored

cation inks and mobie naTOW-beam higber microwave approx Rectangular and
a n a r r o w beam of
radiation
antenna that is
radar systems oí he for the lens
popular frequencies,
makes a
shows 2 n amular sio, which produces
lyze. Figure 16.19.7(©) ideal slots cm be formed direciy in the zea
ia o
type used for such as applitations Arays of siots
f r use in air raft The
vehicie-speed monitoring. porabie
are

Slot Antennas conmum such as polystyrene. Thesmooth suice prrxle

aircraft and then windowed with a
dielectric maierial uf a
of the zircrat Phasing the feed to the sios allows proiuction
When ot in not interfere with he streamliang iti e
through a wade angle without physically moving the stracare das alloving
2 a
large metaiic
refecing suriace. Figure piane
is thatmay be swept
over a coapied to an RF source,
ine feed 16.19.7(a) shows itbehaves like dipole antenna moanted
a
nobl radar systemsS
eut uut
C
that the E recTangular
or
waveguide in such slot in
a
A variation of the slot antenna is the ñotch appropziately shaped zotch is
anterna, where an

lies along the lárge plane. The slot is coupled

a a
microwave frequencies, the slot manner feld short
to a
the edge of a large
metal surface and connected to an RF source. Again, the chief use is cn zirctafi, *nere
may be energized
mission ne may be
connected as described.in Section axis of the slot, indicated. At as
thie notches can be made inthe edges-of the wing surfaces and filled with dielectuic material o ma
directdy.
Tbe beravior of this slot anienna across the slot
as shown' in Fig. 14.2. Atlower frequencies, rans a
aerodynamically smooth.
tihe slot is repiaced by aaheet can
be showa to be equivalent toI6.19.7(a). .

dipole
dimensions of the sio are ustaiy such that the behindit in free space;complementary
with a refector
a

as shown in Fig.anteanz
in
which
ing fsequesEy. The long aris is
resaling radiadon paten is similar to thátapp+öxiamately a 1619.70). Tbe PROBLEMS
for the
dipole
half-wavelength
with
a thie opera
refector a

16.1. () Theterminal inpat cureatto an antenna is 211 Awhea the terminal voitage is 100 1004 Y.
Determine the anteana pedance.6) The voltage reffection coef+cieat measred an 2 50{} 9
mission line feeding an antenna is OJ5. Detecmine the antenna impedance
16.2 Assuming 100%eficieoy for the antennas in Problem 16.1, determine the adiaion
each of cáses () and (oA, nd the power transmitted in (a).
sesista
O1 63, Derve Eq. (16.27) ofthe textL
Pi2e
fece 16.4.: An antenna of impedance Za =45- ji0 N is connected directly to a 50-0 transmissioft
Determine the matching eiiciency.
(2) 16.5 The (% », z) coordinates for a point in space are given as
(10, 5, -2). Determine the polar sph al
(b *coordinates (d, 8, 9) s shown in Fig.16.3.1.
i6.6. A paraboloidal reiector antenna has the
a diameter equal to 100. Determine the
far-field zone is the only eetfective component of the total radiated feld. The
distance at whie
is 10 GHz. fequency of op#
16.7. Two dipoles are amauged for transmission and
antenna is in the plane of the incoming wavefront, reception as shown in Fig. 165.4.
and the maximum induced emf is
Therei
10 V. Calculate the
indhced emf when the eceiving antenna is rotated meast
the plane of the wavefrount. and ()
(a) 30, (D) 60,
Plane
urtace
16.8. A power of 100 W is radiated from an
isotropic radiator. Calculate the power radiated per uni
angle and the power iensity at a distance of 5 km from the
antenna
Figu (c) 16.9. An isotropic anteana radha Tes energy
i 0.1.1 Slot antenn.as. equally in all ditrections, The total power delivered to th
iArnuiar sloi. (2) Rectangular sio. (b)
Complementary dipole cquivalent
ator is 100,0 W.
LaCudie the Ower density and eleic field intensist distances oi (3) 7 *
of a slet.
reciangu (b) 1km, (¢) 10 , antct) lt . h stance on lo
 546
16.10.
Caiculate the diroctivit for
gain 10:1, the antennas for which 547
radiationeficiency
16.1. The 0063 0) power onic Communicatior
patterm gain 45 dB, the following
poiar graph
on
soranenna in
beamwidhs. papa snd o oa linerthe mendian plane is
eficiency 90% specifcations apply: (a) Antennas
fs which
t i e eiemenze
are spaced

gaph paper. (c) givea by sin 0. Plot this pawer

end-fre aray
phasing required for an
t i s spacing
the current fouresmen zray i h
16.12. An antenna has # eternine function of angie for a n i n n a for
Chznnel 4
te
16.13. Caiculate the gain of 35 Detemine the-3-dB and thefunction (a) Plot the array factor as a
elements and spacing
fo a
+ v e e i e r D e n t Yagi
e i e m e n is to be
955 of

17 dB and effective engthydBairequency of 300 MHz Calcnlate

radiation resistanceoan antenna that has
a the
-10-dB alculats
SOD (66
theJengths of the
to 72 MHz). The
effective iength
factor is 1o be 5%, 2nd eacb

less-
a effective area. the previous one in length. Smaliesi eiement is no
in Probiem 16.14.
o350A ata iequencydirective gain over area.
iengths for a
10-eiement log-periodic
aay f D
elemeat is c u t for
16.14. Ry 144 MHz. Use the isotopic antenna of
an
of 08. Calculate the eiemet 1 5 , and the kongesz
making use of Eq. the angie of divergence a
and effective (B.12)
iength of an and the maximun power transfer relaionship shown nan 1 0 of the largest elemet,
a frequency of 50 MHz. wnch h e aperture n u n b e is
antenna are related by theozem, show that the Calculate the angular aperture for
a paraboioidai
refector a n t e i n a for
calcuiaie the
0. the reiector novth s 0 n ,
effecive a r (a) 0.25, (b) 0.5, and (c) 0.6.
Given that the
diameter of
mouth in each c a s e
30m<ef poSihon of the focaB point with reference
to the
refector

16.15. An elementáry doublet-has. an Rras 1-30. (a) Specify the diameter of a parabolic refector
required t o provide gain
the captre
a cf 75 B
aTea of
ie
a t a frequency

antenna and its-

inteasity at aelectrical
(b) Calculate
Calcuiare the field length of 0.0625X and caries of 15 GHz. The area factor of the feed is0.65.
the main lobe of point located 40 km RF curent
an 3-dB beamwidth.
16.16. A directional antepnaradiation from the doublet
and at an
of 2.5 A
angle of 25° from
ns.
631. For an antenna 45 +jl59, connected direciy
impedance of Z4
to ranamission Ënes of imnped-

and 6002, respecivel. Obain the maiciing ejiciency in each case.

power of 90 WThe has an effective radiated
curent is 1.088 Ams. radiation resistance is foundpower
to be 74
Find
power loss; and (d) the antenna (a the añtenna
-ances50N/750/ 1202/3002,
of l1.1 kW when
it is fed with (Hint: Write a MATLAB function file for this purpose). Repear
the above exerciSe, when tie antenna
N at resonance, and the terminal inpat
a
impedance is Z4 45 -j152.-
=

directive gain,efficiency: (b) the measured antenna aar CosG, where

source has. Unidiresctional-Cosine radiation intensity paIerm given.by: U
in decibels, over terminal
1632. A
16.17. Calculate the resistañce; ) the antenna. the power patten.
over amisotropic urentinduced in the terminals ofa vertical àan
isotropic radiator. Unax is the maximum radiatión intnsitý. Plot, using MAILAB/Mathematicz,
antenna, a terminal impedance of
electric field with an intensity of receiving
35 N, load impedance antenna if it has again of 6 dB P=Un cos 8 sin &de do. Calcuiate the directivity, D
a
of 35 , and it is in
-
The total
poivr Tadiated+s given by:
16.18.
Calculate the capture area of the 10V/m frequency of 7 MHz.
at a an

16.19. Plot the antenna Problem 16.17. of the source. Deduce that
for a source with Bidirectionai Cosine radiation intensity pattern, the
for 0 normalized radiation pattern for ainxdipole directivity is half ofthe above case:
<360
16.20. Calculate the 3áB Calculate values for each 10° displacement anteina, using Eq. (16.11.4), polar grap on a 16.33: A source has 'Sine oughnut)radíation intensity pattera given by: Umn6, where V is the
b.L. beamwidih
Using the relationships of x antenna in Problem of .
the maximum radiation intensity. Plot, using MATLAB/Mathematica, the power pattern. The totaB
calate the effective lengthgiven by Eqs. (16.11.8) and 16.19..
of a x (16.11.9) and the results of Problem 16.14, cal powerradiated is given by: P= Umar:sin e d8 dh. Calculate the directivity, D of the source.
0 A
loop antenna is made by dipole.
neld of 0.015 juT, at 10 MHz
10winding
turns of
wire oF a 1-m* frame. It is located in a : 16.34. A short dipole
coincident with the polar (6 0) axis has a sine-squared radiation intensity patterm
=

n e antenna, and oriented for maximum signal magnetic given by: U= UmaxSin 6, where Uma is the maximum radiadon
voitage if the antenna is tunedstrength.
and (b) the termínal Find (a) he induced intensity. Plot, nsing MATLAB/
al resistance of 65 N in to resonance at 10 emt
MHz, with a Mathematica, the power pattern. The total radiated pover in the above case
series with a is given by:
o n finder using loop antenna is25-pF
a
capacitor
used to locate P Uma sin 6 de d¢.Obtain i direcivity, D of the dipole.
north A a where receives a good signal. He mounts hisillegal transmitter. The operator goes to
he an

oen rotates the antenna from receiver só that the antenna faces due
0 north 16.35. A source has
n inder to a new location B, which heclockwise through 48 to obtain a null. He moves unidirectional
a
oha s a where Umax is the maximum cosine-squared radiation intensity pattern given by: U =
Umaxcos ,
new determines is exactly 2550 m due east of A, radiation intensity. Plot,
ance irom bearing rotating the antenna 15° counterciockwise
point A andbyfrom and
from 0° north. Compute the dis-
radiated power in the
above case is given by: using MATLAB, he power pattern. The total
16.24. point B to the transmiiter.
Calculate the effective
Crective length leng of a ferrite-rod receiving antenna that has 120 turns wound P
cos sin
0de do. Obtain the dìrectivity, D of the dipole.
eter
0.75 and the
ferrite rod that has a
relative on a
20.5. Plot the frequency to be 1 MHz permeability
of 160. Assume the lengn
1acOr
aray factor as a
e S are function of angle o for a fo
spac:. A. ement broadsid*. ray for wnle
ele