05/02/2020
Traditional Economic Meaning of
DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMNT
HSDH 3106
January, 2020
The New Economic view of
Development
• Development is the reduction or elimination of
poverty , inequality and unemployment within
the context of a growing economy.
• It is the development of people target/focus than
things.
• The challenge of development is improved
quality of life.
• Thus development means less poverty, cleaner
environment, more equal opportunity, greater
individual freedom, and richer cultural life.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
Meaning of Development - Todaro & Smith(2006)
• Development is not purely an economic
phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional
process involving reorganization and reorientation
of entire economic and social system
• Thus, “Development” is process of improving the
quality of all human lives with three objectives:
– Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels of
food, medical services, education through relevant growth processes
– Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem
through the establishment of social, political and economic systems
and institutions which promote human dignity and respect
– Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their
choice variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
Development
• Development is the capacity of the national economy,
whose initial economic condition has been more or less
static for a long time generate and sustain annual
increase in the Gross National Product at the rates of 5
to 7%.
• There is a emphasis on industrialisation often at the
expense of agriculture and rural development.
• Development is seen as an economic phenomena in
which rapid gains in overall growth would either trickle
down to the masses in form of jobs and other
economic opportunities.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 2
• Consequently, development is a dimensional
process involving changes in social structures,
popular attitudes, and national institutions, as
well as acceleration of economic growth, the
reduction of inequality, and eradication of
poverty(Todaro & Smith, 2006).
• Development is thus both a physical reality
and a state of mind for attaining a better life.
3 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 4
“Capabilities” Approach(Sen, 1985)
• Economic growth is not an end in itself and has to enhance
the lives people lead and the freedoms that they enjoy.
• Capability to function is what matters for status as a
poor/non-poor person and it goes beyond availability of
commodities.
• Capabilities: freedom that a person has in terms of the
choice of his functionings,…
• Functioning is what a person does with commodities of
given characteristics that they come to possess/control.
• The concept of functioning reflects the various things a
person may value doing.
5 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 6
1
 05/02/2020

Alternative Interpretations of Development

(Mabogunje, 1999)

• Views development from three perspectives. • Development as Modernization- emphasizes

• Development as Economic Growth- too often process of social change which is required to
produce economic advancement; examines
commodity output as opposed to people is changes in social, psychological and political
emphasized-measures of growth in GNP. processes;
– Note here the persistence of a dual economy • How to develop wealth oriented behavior and values in
where the export sector contains small number of individuals; profit seeking rather than subsistence and
workers but draws technology as opposed to self sufficiency
• Shift from commodity to human approach with
traditional sector where most people work and is investment in education and skill training
dominated by inefficient technology.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 7 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 8

How then do you measure Development?

• Development as Distributive Justice- view

development as improving basic needs
– Interest in social justice which has raised three
issues:
• Nature of goods and services provided by governments
• Matter of access of these public goods to different
social classes
• How burden of development can be shared among
these classes
– Target groups include small farmers, landless,
urban under-employed and unemployed

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 9 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 10

Measurement based on Development

Measurement using Economic Growth Indicators
Indicators
• Economic growth - the value of output of goods and services within a • Development incorporates the notion of a measure of welfare of human
year. beings in society – as such it is a normative concept of development, open
• Indicators: to interpretation and subjectivity
– GDP : The value of output produced within a country during a time period • It incorporates measures such as :
– GNP : The value of output produced within a country plus net property – Poverty
income from abroad – Inequality
– GDP/GNP per head/per capital: Takes account of the size of the population – Progress
– Real GDP/GNP: Accounts for differences in price levels in different countries – Sustenance
– PPP[Purchasing Power Parity] Measure: the number of units of a country’s – Self esteem
currency required to purchase the same basket of goods and services in the – Freedom
local market that a US $1 would buy in the USA.
– Sustainability
• Disadvantages of growth indicators: – Others
– Reliability of data? • national product per person,
– Distribution of income? • energy consumption per person,
• productivity per worker,
– Quality of life? • literacy, caloric intake,
– Black/informal economy? • % income spent on food,
• savings per person, etc.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 11 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 12

2
 05/02/2020

Measurement by Human Development

Index (HDI)
Other measures of Development
• Longevity – life expectancy • Number of Doctors per head
• Knowledge – access to education, literacy • Number of fridges/TV per head
rates • Number of cars per household
• Standard of living – GDP per capita; • Economic activity per sector
purchasing power parity(PPP)- comparison of
• Stress levels
different countries currencies through a
basket of goods approach. • Crime levels
• Health care data.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 13 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 14

Core Values of Development

• Three basic core values as a practical guideline for
understanding development are:
• Sustenance - the ability to meet basic needs.
When life sustaining basic human needs like food,
shelter, health and protection are absent
underdevelopment exists.
– Purpose of Development is to create an environment
in which all people can expand their capabilities and
opportunities can be enlarged for both the present
and future generations.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
• Self-esteem: to be a Person. Self-Esteem is having
a sense of worth and self-respect, of not being
used as a tool by others for their own ends.
– Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an
important perhaps even indispensable, way of gaining
esteem.
• Freedom from servitude/dependence - to be
able to choose. Freedom is to be understood in
the sense of emancipation from alienating
material conditions of life and from social
servitude to nature, ignorance, other people,
misery, institutions and dogmatic beliefs.
15 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 16

Objectives of Development The level of Development

Three Objectives of Development: Terms to explain the level of development
• To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic • Developed/Developing or Underdeveloped
life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and LDC/MDC/NIC
protection.
• North/South (vs. East/West)
• To raise levels of living including in addition to higher incomes,
• First/Second/Third/Fourth World
the provision of more jobs, better education and greater
attention to cultural and humanistic values , all of which will • Transition economies
serve not only to enhance material well-being but also to • Emerging economies (The Brandt Line)
generate greater individual and national self-esteem. • The distribution of MDC and LDC.
• To expand the range of economic and social choices available
to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and
dependence not only in relation to other people and nation
states but also to the forcesDr. Wamalwa
2/1/2020
of ignorance and human misery. 17 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 18

3
 05/02/2020

What is Development Management

• What is distinctive about development management? • Development management may be characterised as
• What is management? management in the context of development as a
• Management is a problem-solving process of effectively achieving
organizational objectives through the efficient use of scarce long‐term historical process
resources in a changing environment. • It is therefore management of deliberate efforts at
• The roots of the word ‘management’ can be traced back to the Latin word progress by means of intervention in the social change
‘manu agree’, which means ‘to lead by hand’.
• According to F.W. Taylor, ‘ Management is an art of knowing what process on the part of a variety of agencies.
to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest • Thus development management should be thought of
way.
• While Harold Koontz views ‘Management as an art of getting things in terms of process and is distinctive in aiming at social
done through and with the people in formally organized groups. goals external to any particular organization in the
– It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform context of value‐based conflicts.
and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group
goals.‘

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 19 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 20

Justification for Development Management

• We have all seen, heard, worked under or been • In other words, effective development
part of a management one time or other. management involves directing and organizing
– But have you ever wondered what makes people or resources under one’s influence, to
management such an fundamental part of any ensure better co-ordination, productivity and
development activity? best possible positive output in the development
• Effective development management guides the field.
employee onto a path of efficient and productive • Whether it is a singular person managing at a
development work. small development activities or multiple persons
– A good Manager of development will not ask involved in large scale development organisation,
employees to do something that he/she may not do the overall impact of good management is always
himself/herself. the same, that of high impact.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 21 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 22

Importance of Development Management

• It helps in achieving development goals • Reduces Costs

– It assembles and organizes the resources, integrates the resources in effective manner to
achieve goals.
– It directs group efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals.
– By defining objective of development clearly there would be no wastage of time, money and
effort.
– Management converts disorganized resources of men, machines, money etc. into useful
organisation.
– These resources are coordinated, directed and controlled in such a manner that organisation
work towards attainment of goals.
• Optimum Utilization of Resources
– Management utilizes all the physical & human resources productively - this leads to efficacy in
management.
– Management provides maximum utilization of scarce resources by selecting its best possible
alternate use in industry from out of various uses.
– It makes use of experts, professional and these services leads to use of their skills, knowledge,
and proper utilization and avoids wastage.
– If employees and machines are producing its maximum there is no under employment of any
resources.
– It gets maximum results through minimum input by proper planning
and by using minimum input & getting maximum output.
– Management uses physical, human and financial resources in such a
manner which results in best combination - this helps in cost
reduction.
• Establishes Sound Organization
– No overlapping of efforts (smooth and coordinated functions).
– To establish sound organizational structure is one of the objective of
management which is in tune with objective of organization and for
fulfilment of this, it establishes effective authority & responsibility
relationship i.e. who is accountable to whom, who can give
instructions to whom, who are superiors & who are subordinates.
– Management fills up various positions with right persons, having right
skills, training and qualification.
– All jobs should be clear to everyone.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 23 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 24

4
 05/02/2020

• Establishes Equilibrium • Simplifies The Organizational Structure

– It enables the organization to survive in changing environment - it keeps in
touch with the changing environment.
– With the change is external environment, the initial co-ordination of
organization must be changed.
– Therefore, management adapts organization to changing demand of market /
changing needs of societies - it is responsible for growth and survival of
organization.
• Essential for Prosperity of Society
– Efficient management leads to better economical production which helps in
turn to increase the welfare of people.
– Good management makes a difficult task easier by avoiding wastage of scarce
resource - it improves standard of living.
– It increases the impact which is beneficial to society
– Organization comes with new development interventions and research that is
beneficial to society.
– Management controls effective work division, specialization and resource allocation - this
creates a uniform flow of work and specifies boundaries of responsibilities, authority and
rights, which do not overlap.
– This structure is necessary, as it clarifies to each employee his position and field of influence in
the organization. In such a scenario, every employee would know his/her basic rights, duties,
immediate superiors and subordinates, along with the knowledge of opportunities awaiting
him, as his relation with the company grows.
– Effective management also helps to ascertain that no two people are doing the same work and
that right person is allocated for the right job, thus increasing productivity
• Increases Stability
– The company should be maintained in such a fashion that external environment turbulences
do not hamper the organisation's functioning.
– This requires effective changes that need to be made in the organisation, without hurting the
organisation's stand or its workers too much - without proper management this will not be
possible.
– Management also provides increased stability and adaptability to the organisation, helping it
survive environment conditions and grow with time.
– Also, the workers would not be apprehensive about losing their job, which would, in turn, help
them work with peace of mind.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 25 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 26

Development Management Methods and Tools

• Reduction In Wastage
– When resources of an organisation are effectively managed, wastage is reduced, thereby
lowering overall costs and attaining the state of ‘resource optimization’.
– Proper utilization of resources and reduced wastage prevents both under employment and
exploitation of resources.
– Management can identify resources which are scarce and find alternatives for the same, thus
reducing the cost again.
• Achieving Organisation Targets
– When an organisation begins its operations, specific goals are setup which can only be
achieved if all the parts of the organization function together and efficiently.
– Proper management makes sure that each part of the organisation works towards achieving a
common goal without disarray.
– Management actually plans, executes and balances the resources of the organisation in such a
way that there is maximum work output to attain the goals of organization swiftly, while
retaining work quality.
– In absence of proper management, different sections go on to attain individual targets.
However, common goal may not be achieved, which would further lead to delays, losses and
low quality output.
• Management and planning tools are used to facilitate effective planning
and management of various business/development operations.
• They are used to guide in planning, analysis, and decision making
processes – they are used to achieve efficiencies in planning and
management operations.
• Individually, they are used by organisations to make better decisions and
implement new interventions effcet9veely.
• Individually, they provide systematic and organised way of assessing ideas
and making decisions.
• However, when used in combination with each other they provide an
important effective way to systematically solve complex development
issues in organisations.
• Common development management and planning tools include but not
limited to: Activity Network Diagram; Process Decision Programme Chart;
Prioritization Matrices; Matrix Diagram; Interrelationship Diagram; Tree
Diagram; Affinity Diagram; LFA; SWOT analysis.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 27 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 28

Activity Network Diagram (AND)

• Also called Arrow diagram, is used to map • How to create an “AND”:
activities and tasks of a project in sequential • List all activities required;
order. • Identify each activity with a box;
• It is generally a graphical depiction of a project • Determine the chronological order of activities;
timeline. • Determine if the tasks will be completed simultaneously;
• The toll shows interdependent relations between • Draw activity boxes in chronological order – if activities are
simultaneous place them parallel to each other; draw
activities, tasks, and groups as they all impact a arrows depicting the sequence of the activities;
project. • If two or more activities need to be completed after a task,
• Boxes and arrows are used to depict this activities have two or more arrows emerging from the activity box;
and the links between them as well as chart the • Continue connecting activity boxes with arrows until the
sequential order of the entire process. entire project sequence has been completed.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 29 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 30

5
 05/02/2020

Example using house construction project The Tree Diagram

• Also called systematic diagram, is a systematic method
to outline all the details needed to complete given
objective or process.
• It is sued to break down broad categories or complex
processes into small details allowing you to examine
the finer details.
• It is an orderly structure similar to an organisation
chart of family tree diagram.
• It help underamdidng the process by graphically
breaking down processes to smaller levels of detail.
• The technique encourages you to direct you thinking
from generalities to specifics.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 32

• Tree Diagram procedure

• Develop a statement of the goal or project objective
• Written the main goal or objective at the top9for vertical
tree ) or far left (horizontal tree) of your flip chart, white
board or paper
• Think of the key activities that must be completed in order
to achieve the objective or project goal
• Branch these activities of the main goal. Your diagram should
progress from the general to more specifics with each level
• Think of Additional tasks that must be done in order for the
objective to be achieved
• Branch these activities off the main activities
• Continue to create increasingly specific levels of the tree
until all possibilities are exhausted.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 33

Matrix Diagram
• This is a tool that shows the connection between ideas or variables
in a table format.
• It enables you to analyse relatively complex issues but revealing
interactions and dependencies between different elements or
variables.
• MD graphically establishes relationship between tow or more items
in such a way as to provide logical connecting points between each
item.
• The diagram displays the strength of relationships using grid of rows
and columns.
• A relationship is indicated at each intersection of rows and columns
as either present or absent
• Therefore, the tool allows you to identify the presence and
strengths of relations between or more items.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 35 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 36

6

The Process Decision Programme
Chart (PDPC)
• A PDPC is a tool for identifying and documenting
the steps required to complete a process.
• It is meant to assist you prepare contingency
plans by mapping out every conceivable event
that can occur when moving from problem to
possible solutions.
• The technique allows you to systematically
identify what might go wrong with the plan.
• Hence, you can create appropriate contingency
plans to limit risks.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
• Identify Countermeasures
– For each “what –if "questions (potential problems), identify
possible counter measures that you could take to minimise the
effect of the risk
– Put countermeasures as a fifth level
– Connect the countermeasures to the tasks/activities to
complete the chart.
• Evaluate Each Counter measure
– Review each countermeasure to decide how practical each one
is. Consider how easily it can be implemented, its cost, time
required, and effectiveness.
– Designate practical and effective countermeasures with “0”, and
impractical and difficult countermeasures with “X”.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
05/02/2020
• Steps of creating a PDPC
• Develop a Tree Diagram for the proposed Process or Plan
–
–
Write a statement of the goal of project objective on the first level
Write the main activities on the second level
–
–
List the associated tasks needed to accomplish the main activities on the third level
Ensure all activities and tasks have been considered
• Brainstorm what could go wrong
– For each bottom level activity, identify possible problems that could occur while performing
the task
– For ach activity, ask “what if questions”
– List possible problems that could occur
– Review the list of potential problems and eliminate the ones that are improbable or whose
consequences would be insignificant
• Add Potential Problems to the Tree
– Select possible problems based on combination or probability of the risk occurring and the
potential impact should the problem occur
– Connect the remaining potential problems to the Tree Diagram as a fourth level linked to the
activities or tasks. Theses are represented as “what if” items.
37 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 38
39
Affinity Diagram
• Is a tool used for organising a large amount of
disorganised information into group based on
their natural relationships and affinity(similarity
of characteristics).
• It is often used to solve problems with issues that
seem to be very complex and difficult to manage.
• It is type of brainstorming technique that allows
you to generate, organise, and consolidate
information concerning complex processes,
issues, or problems.
41 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 42
7

• Constructing an Affinity Diagram
– Write down each idea (generated from a brainstorming
session) on a separate index card or post-it note.
– After you have written all the ideas down, place the
cards/post-its randomly on a board or table. At this point,
don't worry about organising the information.
– Review the ideas to see possible relationships between
ideas - participants should discuss patterns or relationships
that are identified.
– Move the cards/post-its notes that are similar/related
ideas together on the table or wall.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
How to create an ID
• Gather supplies
– Gather sticky notes, flip chart paper(or white board) and
markers.
• Develop the problem statement
– Write a statement defining the issues at the top of a white
board or flip chart.
• Brainstorm issues related to the problem
– Brainstorm ideas about the issue and write them on individual
sticky notes or note cards.
– Some of these ideas may be the result of a previous activity
such as the affinity diagram, or tree diagram.
– Use those ideas to brainstorm additional ideas.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa
05/02/2020
– Sort the cards/notes into groups until all cards/ideas have
been assigned a group.
– After the ideas are grouped, select the meaningful affinity
heading to categorise each group or theme.
– Write the heading on a card and place the heading cards at
the top of each groupings.
– Analyse the affinity diagram with all participants. This will
help the group reach a decision or come to a better
understanding of the key issues to be addressed.
43 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 44
Interrelationship Diagram (ID)
• This tool, also called, relations diagram, identifies and displays all
interrelated cause-and - effect relationships among different
concepts or ideas.
• Basically, it established links between ideas or concepts, and shows
that they can be logically linked with more than one other idea or
concept at a time.
• The process of creating ID allows you to systematically identify and
analyse the cause – and – effect relationship that exists among all
critical issues.
• The process therefore helps one to understand the natural links
between different aspects of a complex development issues that
you are able to develop an effective solution.
• The technique enables one to think in multiple directions(lateral
thinking) rather than linear thinking.
45 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 46
• Identify cause-and-effect relationships
• At this stage, you determine the relationships between
ideas.
– Place one idea at a time on the white board or flip
chart.
– Analyse if the idea is related to any others. Ask, “Does
this idea cause influence or influence any other idea?”
– Place ideas that are related together.
– Leave space between the notes or cards to allow for
drawing arrows.
47 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 48
8
 05/02/2020

• Draw arrows to identic ate directions of influence

• Use an arrow to connect related factors:
– Draw arrows from an idea or factor to the ones it cause or influences. The
arrows should be drawn from the factor that influences to the one influenced.
– For strong correlations, use solid line. For weaker correlations, draw the arrow
in that direction.
– Never draw two-headed arrows. Determine which one has the stronger
influence and draw the arrow in that direction.
– Repeat until all relationships are linked.
• Analyse the Diagram to identify Drivers and Outcomes
– Count the ideas or factors that have outgoing(from) arrows.
– Record the counts at the bottom of each box. The ones with the most
outgoing arrows will be the key root causes or drivers.
– Count the ideas or factors have incoming (to) arrows.
– Record the counts at the bottom of each box. The ones with the most
incoming arrows will be key outcomes or results.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 49 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 50

Prioritization Matrices
• It is a tool that sorts and ranks various options into
order of importance using weighted criteria.
• This technique helps identify which problems are most
important to work on solving first.
• It displays options and criteria in row and column
format.
• Weights are assigned to each criteria.
• The matrix allows you to identify an item’s relative
importance by deriving a numerical values for its
priority.
• This allows you to select and prioritize some options
over others.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 51 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 52

Log Frame Analysis

• Logframe is another name for Logical • The logical framework approach was
Framework(LF) or Logical Frame Work
Approach(LFA) developed in the late 1960s to assist the US
• LF is a planning tool consisting of a matrix which Agency of International Development (USAID)
provides an overview of a project’s goal, activities with project planning.
and anticipated results.
• Now most large international donor agencies
• It provides a structure to help specify the
components of a project and its activities and for use some type of logical or results framework
relating them to one another. to guide project design.
• It also identifies the measures by which the
project’s anticipated results will be monitored.
2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 53 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 54

9
 05/02/2020

Logical Framework Structure

A Logical Framework (or LogFrame) consists of a matrix with four columns
and four or more rows which summarize the key elements of the project plan
including:
• The project's hierarchy of objectives.
– The first column captures the project’s development pathway or intervention
logic.
– Basically, how an objective or result will be achieved. Each objective or result
should be explained by the objective or result immediately below.
– Although different donors use different terminology, a LogFrame typically
summarizes the following in its first column:
• The GOAL / OVERALL OBJECTIVE/ DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVE
• The PURPOSE / IMMEDIATE OBJECTIVE
• The OUTPUTS
• The ACTIVITIES
• In developing a logframe, it is very important to pay attention to how the
objectives and results are formulated.
• The second and third columns summarize how the project’s
achievements will be monitored and consists of the following:
– Indicators
• a quantitative or qualitative measurement which provides a reliable way to
measure changes connected to an intervention. In essence “a description of
the project’s objectives in terms of quantity, quality, target group(s), time and
place”
– Sources of verification
• Describes the information sources necessary for data compilation that would
allow the calculation of indicators.
• Lastly, the final column lists the following:
– Assumptions
• the external factors or condition outside of the project’s direct control that are
necessary to ensure the project’s success.
• In the next slide components of logframe are summarised.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 55 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 56

LFA Components

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 57 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 58

Strengths of the Logical Framework

Approach
• Logical Frameworks can look very different • It draws together all key components of a
from one another depending on a donors planned activity into a clear set of statements
requirements and the design team. to provide a convenient overview of a project.
• The terminology used also differs between • It sets up a framework for monitoring and
donors. evaluation where planned and actual results
• Other similar tools include the Logic Model can be compared.
which is also an overall summary of a project • It anticipates project implementation and
plan and anticipated results or outcomes. helps plan out development activities.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 59 2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 60

10
 05/02/2020

Weaknesses of the Logical Framework

Approach
• It may cause rigidity in program management.
• It is not a substitute for other technical,
economic, social and environmental analyses.
• LogFrames are often developed after the
activity has been designed rather than used as
the basis for design.
• It can stifle innovative thinking and adaptive
management.

2/1/2020 Dr. Wamalwa 61

11