Psychological explanation of criminal behavior

Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalysis (for the treatment of psychopath criminals)

Psychoanalysis is a technique recently developed by Sigmund Freud and his pupils notably Alfred Alder,
Karl Jung and Wilhelm Stekel. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), who was born in Moravia and completed his
medical training in Vienna, Austria. His work was brilliant, but very controversial. He came close to
discovering the value of cocaine as an anesthetic for eye operations. Freud himself used cocaine,
sometimes heavily, for about 10 years, but stopped completely in 1896. Freud first adopted the idea of
unconscious arguing that the behavior could be explained on the basis of traumatic experiences of an
individual in the early childhood that left a mark on the individual despite the fact that the individual was
not consciously aware of those experiences.

As a way to treat these problems, Freud invented a technique called as psychoanalysis. In this method
the patient relaxed and talked about what came to mind. In this way he could recall earlier events which
were not in his conscious. Freud later redefined conscious as ego and split the concept of unconscious in
id and superego.

Id is permanently unconscious and responds only to what Freud called “pleasure principle” (if it feels
good, do it).

Superego, in contrast is the force of self-criticism and conscience. It may contain conscious elements in
the form of moral and ethical codes, but it is primarily unconscious in its operation.

Ego attempts to mediate between the demands of id and prohibitions of superego.

So in simple words, the ego mediates between the id and the superego. The id is trying to get you to do
things like eat cakes and not go jogging, and the superego is trying to get you to make good decisions
and be an upstanding person. So the id and the superego are always fighting with each other, and the
ego steps in between the two.

Freud determined that conflicts between the id and superego generally result in guilt. The individual
wants to “rape, pillage, and plunder” but the superego says “no.” There are appropriate and
inappropriate ways in which individuals can deal with the guilt imposed by the desires of the id. There is
a variety of ways in which a person handles this situation.

According to Freud, sublimation is a healthy response to the guilt. In such instances, the individual
channels his or her drives into socially approved activities. A workaholic, for example, may be channeling
“excessive” sexual desires into work.

An unhealthy reaction to guilt may be to deny that the desires even exist. This repression may result in
additional problems.

Projection refers to when a person with repressed drives believes that many other people possess these
drives. A common example provided for such repressed individuals is the homophile, a person that sees
and fears homosexual tendencies in others, but is actually projecting their own repressed desires.
Another possible unhealthy response to guilt is reaction formation, the exaggeration of a person’s own
behavior to the opposite extreme. Here, for example, the person with strong sexual drives may declare
celibacy.

Freud contended that conflicts between the id and superego occur throughout life, but are particularly
important during childhood. If not appropriately resolved then, these unresolved conflicts will increase
the odds of problem behavior in later years. Freud went on to suggest that the criminal may suffer from
an overdeveloped superego, leading to constant feelings of guilt. For this reason the criminal may
actually do things, such as leaving clues at crime scenes, because of their unconscious desire to be
caught and punished. The solution to these unresolved and unconscious id-superego conflicts is to dig
deep into the mind and pull them out through psychoanalysis.

The problem is that we cannot see or measure them and therefore, cannot empirically test this theory.
Moreover, the skills that psychiatry lays claim to are highly subjective. How can we support or reject a
claim that the criminal seen committing a crime was driven by an unconscious desire to be caught and
punished. The Freudian system is in many ways seductive, because it is a closed frame-work of thought.
In this sense, it is not science, but a different paradigm for explaining behavior.

Research using Personality tests

The notion what constitutes a personality, generally have focused on the qualities of the individual other
than intellectual abilities. These qualities are often expressed using words such as aggressive, timid,
belligerent, friendly, suspicious, cooperative, likable, agreeable and argumentative. Psychological tests
have been developed more or less likely parallel to the intelligence tests. Delinquents and criminals have
been tested to observe the differences in their personalities.

In 1950, Schuessler and Cressey published the survey study made in US during preceding 25 years in
which comparisons were made between delinquents and non-delinquents in terms of score in objective
tests of personality. Somewhat less than half of the studies showed personality differences between
delinquents and non-delinquents existed. But due to the doubtful validity of these tests, Schuessler and
Cressey states that it was “impossible to conclude from these data that criminality and personality
elements are associated.

In the same year, Gluecks published an intensive study that compared 500 delinquent and 500 non-
delinquent boys. Gluecks developed three prediction tables, one based on the factors in social
background, one based on the character traits as determined by the Rorschach test and one based on
the personality traits as determined by the psychiatric interview. All three gave impressive results. For
example only 10% of the juveniles in the best score class may be expected to become delinquent as
opposed to about 90% in worst score class.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which is a list of 550 statements developed to aid
in psychiatric diagnosis. People taking MMPI test indicate whether the statement in the test is true or
false for them. Different scales are then scored and assumed to measure different aspects of personality.
The ten scores a person gets on theses scales are then arranged into a “profile” for no single score
indicate a person’s performance ion the MMPI.

Waldo and Dinitz examined 94 personality studies performed between 1950 and 1965 in an update of
Schuessler and Cressey’s study, and found that about 80% of these studies reported statistically
significant differences between criminals and non-criminals. The most impressive results were found
with scale 4 of MMPI, previously called “psychopathic deviate” scale, which consistently produced
significant results. These studies generally concluded that delinquents and criminals were more
“psychopaths” than non-delinquents and non-criminals.

Antisocial personality disorder and crime

Some people seem to have no regard for others and can cause harm to them without any regret or
feelings of guilt. When this behavior is pervasive, a person may have a chronic mental health condition
known as antisocial personality disorder. Sometimes people with antisocial personality disorder are
called “sociopaths.”

People with antisocial personality disorder are willing to use deception or manipulation to get whatever
they want, such as power or money. They may con people and use an alias, and they may steal or use
aggressive behavior to achieve their desires. Even when caught, they show no regret or guilt. They lack a
sense of empathy and cannot consider the feelings of others without help. They also tend to act
impulsively, which can lead to arrests and time in prison.

The most common signs of antisocial personality disorder are a lack of regard for the rights of others and
an extensive pattern of violating them.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders states that to receive a diagnosis of antisocial
personality disorder, a person must exhibit at least three of the following symptoms:

 Repeatedly performing unlawful acts

 Lying or conning others for profit or pleasure
 Acting impulsively
 Repeated physical fights or assaults
 Disregard for the safety of oneself or others
 Irresponsibility at work or in financial obligations
 Lack of remorse when mistreating others
Cleckley points out that the term psychopath is applied by various psychiatrists and hospital staffs
sometimes becomes so broad that it can be applied to almost any criminal. He argues, however, that the
majority of the psychopaths is not criminal and the majority of criminals is not psychopaths.

Psychotherapy, or talk therapy, is usually the treatment recommended for antisocial personality disorder.
A therapist can help a person manage negative behaviors and build interpersonal skills they may lack.
Often the first goal is simply to reduce impulsive behaviors that can lead to arrest or physical harm.
Family therapy might be a useful option to educate family members and improve communication, and
group therapy may also help when limited to people with the disorder.

The terms psychopaths and antisocial personality are not merely descriptions of behavior patterns, but
also implies that those behaviors originate in the personality of the offender. Because psychiatrists
assume that antisocial actions originate in the personality of the offender, some psychiatrists have
recommended that people with “antisocial personality disorder” be locked up until they reach middle
age and even they be executed. This is because psychiatrists have no effective method of treating this
disorder, so they assume that the person will continue to commit antisocial actions if allowed to remain
free.

Researchers believe that genetics plays some role, as having a parent with the disorder puts one more at
risk. Research on adopted children of parents with the disorder indicates that environment may also be a
factor, such as when children receive poor discipline, have negative role models, or are not taught to
respect the rights of others. Children of an alcoholic parent are also at increased risk.

Children who have conduct disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder before age 10 are at
increased risk for having antisocial personality disorder as adults. This is particularly true for children
with conduct disorder who are abused or neglected. Researchers estimate that 25% of girls and 40% of
boys with conduct disorder will have antisocial personality disorder as adults.

Antisocial personality disorder occurs in roughly 3% of the U.S. population. The disorder occurs in men 6
times more often than in women. 80% of people with the disorder will have developed symptoms by the
age of 11.

Impulsivity and crime

Impulsivity is a component of the initiation of behavior and predisposition to have rapid and unplanned
reactions to internal and external stimuli without regard to the negative consequences of these reactions
to individuals and others.

In general, a widespread group of researchers assume that impulsivity is manifested in hyperactivity, a

tendency to become impatient and to seek immediate gratification and to become distracted.

 William and Herrnstein gave a theory that focused on this characteristic.

It was based on the assumption that crime is inherently rewarding so everyone would commit it unless
we were restrained by our internal inhibitions.

These internal inhibitions are generally associated with what is called ‘conscience’ and are developed
usually in childhood by the parents through their child rearing practices.

Within the context of these assumptions, William and Herrnstein proposed that the key individual-level
factor associated with criminality is the tendency to think in terms of short term rather than long term
consequences of crime. This is because of several factors, including impulsivity and low intelligence level.
William and Herrnstein argue that the tendency to engage in crimes is associated with five other factors.

1. Certain features of family life, such as poor child rearing techniques can produce weak
internalized inhibitions

2. Memberships in subcultures such as street gangs can increase the value on crime.

3. The mass media can directly affect aggressiveness by modeling and convincing them that they
are being treated unfairly

4. The economic system can influence that they can achieve award through legitimate activity
 5. Schools can influence whether the students can achieve awards through legitimate activity

William and Herrnstein reviewed a massive data to support their theory.

 Glenn Walters also proposed a theory with a strong focus on impulsivity as an enduring
personality trait. Walters defined “lifestyle criminals” who are characterized as a global sense of
irresponsibility, self-indulgent interests, an intrusive approach to interpersonal relationships, and
chronic violation of societal rules, laws and morals. He argued that criminals have eight specific
thinking patterns that allow them to perpetuate this pattern of actions.

1. With mollification these criminals point out the inequities and unfairness of life and blame
others for their own choices.

2. Cut-off is a visual image or verbal cue that terminates all thought in a moment and simply allows
them to act criminals without worrying about consequences.

3. A sense of entitlement means that any actions are justifiable to achieve what is desired.

4. Power orientation means that the criminals think that this is a dog-eat-god world and those who
are strong, can do whatever they can get away with.

5. Sentimentality is the tendency for these criminals to look back at all the good things they have
done in their lives and to claim that they therefore should not be held responsible for the bad
things.

6. Super optimism is the tendency to believe that nothing bad will ever happen to them, including
the being punished for the crimes that they did.

7. Cognitive indolence means that they do not just pay attention to all the details of life.

8. Discontinuity means that they fail to follow through on commitments, carry out intentions and
remain focused on goals over time.

 Another theory with strong focus on impulsivity is of Moffitt’s theory of “life-course-persistent”

offenders. Moffitt describes them as a small group of people who engage in “antisocial behavior
of one sort or another at every stage of their life.”

Examples of such behavior would be

 Biting and hitting at age 4

 Shoplifting and truancy at age 10

 Drug dealing and car theft at age 16

 Robbery and rape at age 22

 Fraud and child abuse at age 30

Moffitt argues that these behaviors begin with early neuropsychological problems that are caused by
factors such as drug usage or poor nutrition of mother while she is pregnant, complications at birth
resulting in minor brain damage or deprivation of affection or child abuse and neglect after birth. These
neuropsychological problems then tend to generate a cycle that results in an impulsive lifestyle. The
parents dealing with children having these problems often themselves have psychological deficiencies.
As the child ages, these problems can directly cause problems interfering with the ability to control his
behavior and to think of future consequences of his actions. Although this theory is recent, a number of
studies have produced supportive results.