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J Public Adm Res Theory-1999-Raadschelders-281-304 - A Choerent Framework For The Study Os Public Administration
J Public Adm Res Theory-1999-Raadschelders-281-304 - A Choerent Framework For The Study Os Public Administration
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ABSTRACT
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intuitively—that governance was about to become intertwined
with society to an unprecedented degree. These same contempo-
raries were most concerned with understanding the ideological
and political implications of the American Revolution and the
French Revolution. In the middle of the nineteenth century, some
major issues were equality before the law and thus universal
suffrage; human rights and the balance between collective respon-
sibility and individual freedom; a restraint on government inter-
vention for the protection of brotherhood; and a man-made con-
stitution as a founding document for governance. Alexis de
Tocqueville was as intrigued with America's checks-and-balances
as Voltaire (in exile) had been with English civil rights a century
earlier. The Englishman John Stuart Mill stood upon die shoul-
ders of Condorcet and Jeremy Bentham when he advocated social
democracy and universal suffrage. And finally, the almost for-
gotten American, Duganne, heralded liberal-capitalist society and
government as the pinnacle of civilization 130 years before
Fukuyama (Raadschelders 1997).
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In his introduction to the second edition of The Adminis-
trative State, Dwight Waldo indicated that Public Administration
in the postwar period had found new foci and disciplines, in
addition to political science, that were relevant to its subject of
study. These included social psychology, economics, sociology,
and business administration (Waldo 1984, liv). He had argued
previously that the nature and boundaries of the study were prob-
lematical (Waldo 1968, 5), and he suggested that public adminis-
tration ought to be pursued from a "professional perspective"
(p. 9). Using Kuhn's terminology, Vincent Ostrom (1974, 14;
18) argued that Public Administration faced a paradigmatic crisis
because of the proliferation of prevailing theories, the methodo-
logical experimentation, the explicit discontent among scholars,
the large amount of philosophical speculation, and the debate
surrounding fundamental epistemological issues. Ostrom's solu-
tion was to develop Public Administration as a science of associ-
ation. Golembiewski (1977a and b) has suggested that the disci-
pline of Public Administration ought to be developed by means of
a "family of miniparadigms" such as organizational development.
In a review of Public Administration research Perry and Kraemer
(1986, 221) considered Fritz Mosher's remark of thirty years
earlier still relevant:
The field has not channeled its research efforts; its scope of interest seems
unlimited; it has not developed a rigorous methodology; it has been pretty
blase about definitions; it has not agreed on any paradigms or theorems or
theoretical systems; it has not settled on any stylized jargon or symbols;
with a very few experimental exceptions, the field has not been modeled or
mathematized into an "adminimetrics."
Since 1986, the crisis of identity has been the subject of a series
of articles (Box 1992; Houston amd Delevan 1990; Stallings and
Ferris 1988; White, Adams, and Forrester 1996). The crisis has
not been limited to the United States; it also has been reported on
a smaller scale on the European continent.
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managerial, and the sociological models in which Public Admin-
istration was grounded in France were tearing the study apart.
While he reported that this period of doubt had come to an end
by the late 1980s, thanks to the emerging "paradigm" [sic] of
public policy, he concluded that Public Administration would
remain wedged between legal dogma, public management theory,
and political science, and thus it would continue to have difficulty
staking an exclusive claim to its subject of interest (p. 70). With
respect to Germany, methodological and theoretical weakness
have been mentioned, although the identity of Public Adminis-
tration was rooted in its legitimacy as a study of and for reform
(Seibel 1996, 78). In this respect German Public Administration
is reminiscent of the roots of American Public Administration
around the turn of the century. In the Scandinavian countries
(Beck Jorgenson 1996) and the Netherlands (Kickert 1996), an
identity crisis existed as well, which was, as elsewhere, related to
the multi- and interdisciplinary nature of the study. The Dutch
emeritus Van Braam recently (1998) observed that the scientific
authority of Public Administration will continue to be seriously
challenged as long as we cannot agree on the core that constitutes
the study. While for practical reasons many accept the coexis-
tence of various core concepts, Van Braam argues—more
strongly than Perry—that such will not lead to a coherent and
theoretically unified study (p. 49).
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Second, existential crisis, which also concerns both the
practice of public administration and the study of Public Admin-
istration/government. This is a crisis in the "lived world" of
government officials, of citizens, of PA academics, and so forth.
Some believe that Public Administration has achieved moral
authority by serving citizens despite the weak scientific authority
of the study (Perry 1991, 15). Haque (1996, 512-13) argues that
the existential foundation of government in society remained
fairly strong for decades, but the practice of public administration
now faces a different crisis, which influences the legitimacy,
ethics, and morale of the public service. He distinguishes a
credibility crisis (i.e., diminishing demand for and unfavorable
public attitude toward the practice), a normative crisis (i.e.,
gradual displacement of basic public norms of public administra-
tion by market norms of private management), and a confidence
crisis (i.e., loss of professional confidence and commitment
among scholars of public administration). Haque's analysis cer-
tainly strikes a chord, but in the end it does not entirely con-
vince. Since the time that the concept of bureaucracy was coined
(mid-1700s), credibility crises have occurred regularly, especially
during economic recession. As for the normative crisis, suffice it
to say that public and market norms compete, and neither can
completely displace the other. Furthermore, the growing attention
to public ethics and public law suggests a normative crisis of
quite a different order. Finally, with regard to the confidence
crisis, every true scholar will doubt his own convictions. Waldo
said it: "My rearing and education disposed me to the soft side;
to a humanist approach to social science and to a suspicion of all
philosophies and methods that offered Truth" (1984, xliv).
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This article focuses mainly on the academic crisis in the study of
Public Administration.
Exhibit 1
The Identity Crisis of P(p)ublic A(a)dministration
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Existential -lack of moral authority -discipline among others
crisis or subdiscipline within
(e.g., political science,
business administration, law)
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The intrinsic function of public administration is the
governance of society. Public administration exists to realize the
governance of society. The purpose of public administration is to
govern, and thus government and governance are the core con-
cepts that help us to organize the study of Public Administration.
Governments exist because they have the resources to translate
the citizens' needs into collective action. Whatever era or area,
citizens had some kind of government. A government will con-
tinue to exist for an undetermined period of time only if it is able
to meet the most basic expectations of its population. However,
citizens in Ancient Egypt held different expectations of their
government than did their counterparts in early twentieth century
democracies, and, surely, citizens of the Central and Eastern
European countries hold quite different expectations of their
governments than do their contemporaries in the United States
and in other late twentieth century democracies. Ultimately
governance is not solely a top-down issue, much as the ruling
elites would like to believe. They are aware that they will at
some point either need to address citizens' needs or run the risk
of losing power.
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tiveness solely. The use of government and governance as core
concepts, however, does not push the publicness nor the adminis-
trativeness to the background.
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North America and Europe, as I imagine elsewhere, government
is empowered to make public decisions that will have bearing
upon (hence, are binding for) both public and private actors even
though the perimeters for collective action are set by government
as well as by the citizenry, the industry, the interest groups, and
so forth.
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the core of the study of Public Administration (see exhibit 2).
The most basic question we can ask is, What is public adminis-
tration? Derived from that we also ask, Where are public deci-
sions about collective issues made? It is important to emphasize
that in the case of Public Administration, we need to identify the
core before we can map the study. We simply will not succeed in
mapping the study if we take one of its major foci (as Golem-
biewski's miniparadigms suggest) or one of its possible
approaches/concepts (Ostrom's angle) nor if we ignore one
among many foci and approaches, because that would always
place some topics and approaches above others.
Exhibit 2
Public Administration as a Body of Knowledge
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aid, etc.
Policy
Army
Implementation
Police
Evaluation
Education,
Communication
etc.
What is
Public
Administration? Political
officeholders Political parties
History Parliament
Heritage Leadership
Representation,
Civil b
etc.
\ servants
\
Civil Service
Cost-benefit Recruitment B
Rational behavior Career, HRM
"Managerial" Representativeness,
philosophy etc.
Equality
Legality Unions
"Public" philosophy Associations
Civicness, etc. Interest groups
Citizens, etc.
the one that is widely known as the levels of choice and levels of
rules (Kiser and Ostrom 1982). If we focus on the level of foun-
dations, the empirical-theoretical work in the section 1A of the
outer ring is concerned with constitution (e.g., Lane 1996). The
proceedings or process-section IB in the outer ring represents
research on the frames within which these decisions are made:
organizations (e.g., Blau and Schoenherr 1971; Gulick 1937;
Meyer 1979). Also important are the ways in which these deci-
sions are communicated (e.g., Garnett and Kouzmin 1997) and
coordinated. The third element in the outer ring concerns all
research on policy implementation and evaluation (1C [e.g.,
Pressman and Wildavsky 1973]).
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The Second Quadrant (input: who)
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efficiency represent two sides of the same contemporary coin, the
presence of the administrative past (Fesler 1982) provides the
perimeters within which democracy and efficiency were and are
defined. As there are pure theories of democracy (e.g., Dahl
1970), there are pure theories of efficiency (e.g., Simon 1957),
theories about the impact of time (e.g., Bartolini 1993), and
theories about the sequential, hence, dynamic, nature of decision
making (e.g., Lindblom 1959). In section 3A of the outer ring,
research on such topics as equality, citizens and civicness (e.g.,
Almond and Verba 1963; Putnam et al. 1993), and public/admin-
istrative philosophy (e.g., Hodgkinson 1978) can be situated.
Section 3B comprises empirical work on costs and benefits,
rational behavior, managerial philosophy, and so on. The last
section in this quadrant is concerned with research in the field of
administrative history (e.g., Finer 1997; Gladden 1972; Raad-
schelders 1998) and the history of management (e.g., Barley and
Kunda 1992; Wren 1972).
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recognized.
INTERDEPENDENT QUADRANTS
which these actions are pursued and monitored. In line with what
I regarded to be important issues of P(p)ublic A(a)dministration
(section 3), the nature of the input varies from country to country
and is dependent upon who participates in decision making within
a particular arena of ideology, practical problems, and tradition.
This is why the question about what P(p)ublic A(a)dministration
should be can materialize in a variety of ways. At its core, how-
ever, P(p)ublic A(administration stands as defined: government
and governance of society.
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ing in an historical perspective (e.g., Webber and Wildavsky
1986); the development of organizations in terms of their domi-
nant managerial ideology (e.g., Barley and Kunda 1992); the
origin of the legal/constitutional system of the western world
(e.g., Berman 1983); the development of state government in the
United States (e.g., Garnett 1980); the welfare state as a function
of the input of interest groups (e.g., Flora and Heidenheimer
1990); and the development of political-administrative relations
(e.g., Raadschelders and Van der Meer 1998). While these
examples all concern the section of tradition (3Cc), the reader
easily can relate the other input sections to various output
sections.
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dichotomy since at least the early nineteenth century. Govern-
ment expands and contracts according to prevailing attitudes
toward market, state, and associations. Hence, practice influences
our theorizing, and this framework seeks to emphasize that (see
also the first feature).
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thoughts for us; the second will show us how we can, but not
how we must, organize our thoughts.
the search for a coherent and unifying theory negates that which
is characteristic of all social and historical sciences: they all deal
with and depart from the reflection and interpretation that are so
basic to human nature. Scholars of P(p)ublic A(a)dministration do
not have to stake a claim to their subject of interest. Instead, they
should draw upon various monodisciplinary approaches to arrive
at a more encompassing (i.e., multi- and interdisciplinary) per-
spective of that huge phenomenon called government (Rutgers
1993). Few will declare themselves against an encompassing per-
spective, but critics could and will argue that this will be very
abstract and far removed from day-to-day reality. Likewise, any
attempt to present Public Administration as a coherent body of
knowledge can be criticized for its oversimplification and reduc-
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tionism, and this article is no different from others in that
respect. But any attempt to link the various topics relevant to our
study cannot but be encompassing.
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