NURSING RESEARCH
RESEARCH
- Systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to
answer questions or solve problems (Polit et al.,
2012)
- SYSTEMATIC (Process), CONTROLLED,
EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION (Empirical:
something observed; a basis about the relationships
or propositions) à Propositions about the
relationship of phenomena
- GOAL: to develop, to refine and expand the body of
knowledge;
* Research is not necessarily finding all things new but at
times refining what already exists
NURSING RESEARCH
- Systematic inquiry to develop knowledge addressing
issues of nursing practice, education, administration
and informatics
- Administration (in Practice), Education
- Broader study of people and the nursing profession
including historical, ethical and policy studies
- Focused on ethical issues in nursing
• Core Competency Standards
• Patient Satisfaction among Surgical Patients
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN NURSING
- ULTIMATE GOAL: To improve the practice of its
members so that services provided to its clientele will
be maximally effective
- Enhance professionalism
- Proof of accountability
- Strengthen social relevance of nursing
- Basis for sound decision making
PURPOSES OF NURSING RESEARCH
1. IDENTIFICATION: what is the phenomenon?
2. DESCRIPTION: observe, count, classify, delineate
the phenomenon
3. EXPLORATION: investigates the full nature of a
phenomenon, its manifestations and factors affecting
it
4. EXPLANATION: attempts to explain the why or
underlying cause/explains systemic relationship
5. PREDICTION: what will happen if?
6. CONTROL: how can the phenomenon be altered?
SOURCES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
1. TRADITION: Certain truths are accepted as given
on the basis of inherited customs or tradition
2. AUTHORITY: Refer to people with specialized
expertise; Not enough when used alone
3. EXPERIENCE AND TRIAL AND ERROR AND
INTUITION: Own experiences represent a familiar
and functional source of knowledge
4. LOGICAL REASONING: Combines experience,
intellectual faculties and formal system of thought
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 1
5. ASSEMBLED INFORMATION: Benchmarking
data
6. DISCIPLINED RESEARCH: Most sophisticated
method of acquiring knowledge; Findings from
rigorous research investigations are considered to be
at the pinnacle of the evidence hierarchy for
establishing an evidence- based practice
CONCEPT: abstraction based on observation of behaviors or
characteristics; known as “phenomena” in qualitative studies
THEORY: Integrated act of concepts used to describe,
explain predict and control a phenomenon
• LEVELS OF THEORIES
1. PRACTICE BASE THEORY: affecting practice
2. MIDDLE RANGE THEORY: less vague;
something more definable
3. GRAND THEORY: COMPLEX: has many
dimensions
ASSUMPTION: statements considered “True” and no longer
true
HYPOTHESIS: Formal statement of expected relationship
and needs to be tested
VARIABLES: characteristics traits, qualities or properties
that changes or varies
GENERAL PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
• PURE RESEARCH/ BASIC RESEARCH: for
knowledge sakes; extends knowledge; Grounded
Theory
• APPLIED RESEARCH: find answers to problems
in an area; Immediate application to evidence based
practice
SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
• IDENTIFICATION: Little or known above the
phenomenon or inadequately defined or
conceptualized; to be identified or named first; What
is the phenomenon?
• DESCRIPTION: Focuses on measurable attributes;
Describes the dimensions. Variation and importance
of phenomenon
• EXPLORATION: full nature of the phenomenon;
includes the phenomenon’s manifestation or factors
• EXPLANATION: explains why or the underlying
cause; Explains systematic relationship
• PREDICTION: Foretell what will happen during the
course of the study; what will happen if..
• CONTROL: ability to write a prescription to
produce the desired outcome; How can the
phenomenon be altered?
 NURSING RESEARCH

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE (LATES) 1. POSITIVISM/ MODERNISM: Objective pursuit

1. Logical reasoning of knowledge; Rational and Scientific; Orderly,
2. Assembled information; Authority (lowest form of disciplined, and with tight control;
knowledge) QUANTITATIVE
3. Trial and error; Intuition; Tradition 2. NATURALISM/ CONTRUCTIVISM: Reality is a
4. Experience construction of the individuals participating in the
5. Scientific Research research; Research interacts with participants to
determine their interpretation of reality;
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE QUALITATIVE
- Conscious and judicious use of current “best”
evidence in the care of patients and delivery of health POSITIVIST NATURALIST
care services (Titler, 1999) Fixed design Flexible design
- Conscientious use of current based evidence in Discrete, specific concepts Holistic
making clinical decisions about patient care Deductive processes Inductive processes
Control over context Context-bound
Verification of hunches Emerging interpretations
LEVEL DESCRIPTION Quantitative information Qualitative information
Systematic review of Randomized Clinical Trials Seeks generalizations Seeks patterns
1
Systematic review of non-randomized trials
Single RCT ACCORDING TO PARADIGM
2 •
Single non-randomized trial
Systematic review of correlational or QUANTI QUALI
3
observational studies FOCUS Concise & Narrow Complex & Broad
4 Single correlational or observational study
Deductive & Inductive &
Systematic review of descriptive or qualitative or REASONING
5 Logistic Dialectic
physiologic studies Purpose Test Theory Develop Theory
Single descriptive or qualitative or physiologic
6 Basis of Cause & Effect Meaning &
studies Knowledge Relationship Discovery
Opinions of authorities, experts, committees May
7
sometimes be outdated Hypothesis Yes No

Data Numbers Narrative

TYPES OF RESEARCH Analysis Statistics Thematic Analysis
• ACCORDING TO LEVEL OF Concept Variables Phenomenon
INVESTIGATION Focus
1. EXPLORATORY: surfacing what are the possible Subject/ Participant/
Sample
factors that might influence; not describing the Respondents Informant
relationship
2. DESCRIPTIVE/ASSOCIATION: Describe the RESEARCH PROCESS
relation STEP 1: Formulating & Delimiting Problem
3. EXPERIMENTAL: influences the other variable; STEP 2: Reviewing the Related Literature
cause and effect STEP 3: Undertaking Clinical fieldwork
STEP 4: Defining the theoretical framework
• ACCORDING TO TIME DIMENSION STEP 5: Formulating hypothesis
1. LONGITUDINAL: One sample; Multiple collection STEP 6: Selecting a research design
points on 4 situations; studying time related; Covers a STEP 7: Intervention/ Research protocol/ Procedure
certain time line; Follow the subject for a period of STEP 8: Identifying population
time STEP 9: Designing sampling plan
2. CROSS SECTIONAL: Two or more STEP 10: Measures to collect variables
samples/Groups/ Cohorts: Single collection points STEP 11: Measures to safeguard subjects
3. RETROSPECTIVE: PRESENT: Presumed Effect STEP 12: Finalizing research plan and plot
(Dependent Variable) & PAST: Presumed Cause
(Independent Variable) SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROMBLEMS
4. PROSPECTIVE: PRESENT: Presumed Cause 1. Significance
(Independent variable) & FUTURE: Presumed Effect 2. Novelty
(Dependent Variable) 3. Feasibility
3.1 External Criteria: Novelty, Subject, Availability,
• ACCORDING TO APPROACH Support, Ethics, Equipment, Applicability

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 2

 NURSING RESEARCH

3.2 Internal Criteria: Motivation, Experience, Time, 2.1 CATEGORICAL: variables take on only
Finance, Hazard and handful of quantifiable variables
4. Ethical Acceptability
5. Urgency of Data LITERATURE REVIEW
6. Applicability of Results - Collecting, selecting and reading books, journals
reports, abstracts, and other reference materials to
RESEARCH PROBLEM: WAY OF STATING provide:
1. INTERROGATIVE FORM: What is the relationship 1. Background information (problem, concepts,
between the age of patients and their rate of recovery etc.)
in the ICU? 2. Theories
2. DECLARATIVE: The impact of age on the rate of 3. Data that confirms the existence and seriousness
recovery of patients in the ICU. of the problem
4. General and specific finding of studies related to
* variables must exist in the problem problem
5. Recommendations for further studies
PROBLEM
1. Main Problem/ Main Question - LITERATURE SOURCES
2. Sub-Problem: 1. PRIMARY SOURCE
• Original author > Researcher
DELIMITING THE STUDY • Directly from the original source
1. SCOPE: focus on the methods, boundaries, span and • More preferred than the original source
methods of the study
2. LIMITATION: Weakness, Shortcoming 2. SECONDARY SOURCE
3. DELIMITATION/ SCOPES: Restriction before data • Taken from reference that cited the original
gathering; Coverage of the study source (books, encyclopedias)
4. LIMITATION: Potential weakness of the study • LEAST preferred: acquired the original
including threats and biases reference as much as possible
RESEARCH STUDY PURPOSE OF THE THEORETICAL OR
- RULE: Brevity & Clarity CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- Clear and concise; implies testability; Variables/ 1. To shoe the relationship of the variables involved in
Phenomenon & Their relationship is reflected the problem
(TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP: Association & Cause 2. To show that the study is a logical extension of
& effect); Target Population common knowledge
3. To serve as a basis for assumptions and hypothesis
VARIABLES
- Qualities, properties, characteristics that CHANGES - THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- Major types: Dependent, independent, extraneous 1. Based on theories (more formal)
2. Requires understanding of the theory
VARIABLES 3. Based on generalization previously tested
Presumed cause
INDEPENDENT measured or manipulated by researcher - CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
DEPENDENT/ Presumed effect or outcome 1. Based on concepts of theories
CRITERION Observed or measured to determine the 2. Requires experiences to put together concepts
OUTCONE effect of independent variable categorized according to their commonality
3. Based on facts that have widespread explanation
EXTRANEOUS/ Affects or confound the interpretation of
CONFONDING/ the findings
INTERVENING/ PARADIGM/ SIMULACRUM
Exists between independent and
COVARIATE HYPOTHESIS
dependent variable
- Formal statement of expected relationship between
two or more variables of a specified population
* if not complete control: quasi experimental - CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Clear & Precise (Include variables or subjects)
- OTHER TYPES OF VARIABLES 2. Testable (statistically)
1. CONTINUOUS: can assume and infinite number 3. Logical (justified by theories/ concepts)
of values between two points 4. Can be accepted or rejected
2. DISCRETE has finite number of values between 2
point

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 3

 NURSING RESEARCH

* Correlational Hypothesis: relationship or association; check 2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL/ NON

if there is a relationship between
* Experimental Hypothesis: there is an effect
*No hypothesis in exploratory and qualitative
CLINICAL TRIALS
- TYPES:
1. NULL: there is no relationship between
2. ALTERNATIVE: there is a relationship
between
3. DIRECTIONAL: shows the exact directionof
relationship
4. NON-DIRECTIONAL: there is a relationship
but not specific
5. SIMPLE: states that one dependent and
independent variable stating a relationship or non
6. COMPLEX: two independent and one
dependent
DESIGN & PLANNING
RESEARCH DESIGN
- QUANTITATIVE:
1. EXPERIMENTAL: TRUE Randomization, Control,
Manipulation (manipulations is the intervention
which differentiates this non experimental)
2. NON EXPERIMENTAL: Analytical,
Methodological or Scale Development, Case Study &
Description
- QUALITATIVE
1. Phenomenological
2. Grounded Theory
3. Ethnography
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
- identify cause and effect relationship
- Develop interventions or improve outcomes
- SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
• More effective in doing experimental design
• We want to make sure that the changes in the
dependent variable was caused by the
independent variable and not because of other
competing reasons (internal validity)
• Combination of pretest post-test and post-test
only design
- PROPERTIES:
1. MANIPULATION: Intervention or Experiment
2. CONTROL: Holding extraneous variables of
the study; through the control/ comparison/
counterfactual group
3. RANDOMIZATION: random
QUANTITATIVE-EXPERIMENTAL
- KINDS:
1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL/ RANDOMIZED
CONTROLLED TRIAL: Focuses ALL properties/
elements of an experimental study; Manipulation
RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL: has two
elements of an experimental study
3. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL
- PHASE I: Checking for safety
• Sample: 10-20 healthy volunteers
• Unexpected side effects might occur
- PHASE II: Checking for efficacy
• Sample: 200
• Most studies fall into phase 2 due to product not
being as effective
- PHASE III: Confirm findings large patient
population
• Sample: 1,000
• Likelihood in detecting rare side effects
increased with number of people involved
- PHASE IV: Testing long term safety in diverse
patient patient
• Sample: Diverse real life patient;
• Tested outside research environment (post
marketing studies)
• Previous untested groups may show adverse
reaction
* RCT is experimental but clinical trial has 4 phases
which are quite different
NON-EXPERIMENTAL
- No treatment is introduced
- TYPES:
1. Analytical
2. Methodological or Scale Development
3. Case Study
4. Descriptive
- DESCRIPTVE STUDIES
1. DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL:
Determines interrelationship of variables
2. DESCRIPTIVE COMPARATIVE:
Determines difference between two or more
entities on a certain characteristic or variable
3. EVALUATION STUDIES: How well a specific
program, project, practice, procedure, or policy
works
4. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (SR) & META-
ANALYSIS: Systematic integration of research
findings (SR); if with statistics - MR
QUALITATIVE
1. PHENOMENOLOGICAL DESIGN
• Describes the experience of a selected population
• 4 BASIC STEPS:

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 4

 NURSING RESEARCH
1. BRACKETING: Withholding in abeyance
pre-conceived nation about the phenomenon
2. INTUITING: Remaining open to the
meanings attributed to the phenomenon
3. ANALYZING: Thematic Analysis (eg
Colaizzi [Going back to validate], Giorgi,
Van Kaam, Raam and Bernanard’s etc.)
4. DESCRIBING: Understanding and defining
the phenomenon
• Most useful when the task is to understand an
experience as those having the experience
understand it
• Used to answer questions of meaning
• “The Lived experiences of Children of Absentee
Parents”
2. GROUNDED THEORY
• Discovers what problems exists in a social
scene and the process person use to handle
them
• Conceptual framework is generated from the
data
• Discovers dominant processes rather that just
describing the phenomenon
• Samples: Data saturation
3. ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES
• Describe cognitive models or patterns or
behaviors of people within a culture
• Seeks understanding another way of life the
native’s perspective, cultural patterns/
experiences
4. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• Solving current problems using past events
• Thomasian Nursing Icons: 7 Decades of Making
a Difference in Nursing (Eugenio, Estepa,
Evangelista et al, 2008)
5. CASE STUDY
• Involves an in-depth description of essential
dimensions and processes of the phenomenon
under study
• “Two Cases of Battered Women”
INTERVETION PROTOCOL
- Only in experimental studies
- NEEDS TO INCLUDE:
1. What the intervention is
2. Who administers it
3. How long is it given?
4. How frequent
5. Alternative methods (counterfactual
conditions, if any)
- Major Challenges: Intervention Fidelity & Control of
Extraneous or confounding variables
DETERMINE THE POPULATION & SAMPLING
- POPULATION: The entire aggregation of cases that
meet a designated set of criteria
- ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: The exact criteria by
which it could be decided whether an individual
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 5
would or would not be classified as a member of the
population in question
- ACCESSIBLE POPULATION: Conform to the
eligibility criteria + accessibility
- TARGET POPULATION: The aggregate of cases
which the researcher would like to make
generalizations
SAMPLING
- SAMPLING: refers to the process of selecting a
portion of the population to represent the entire
population
- SAMPLE: Consist of subset of a unit that represents
a population
- STARTUM/ STRATA
- SAMPLING BIAS: Refers to the systematic
overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some
segments of the population; The greater the
heterogeneity of the population with respect to the
critical attributes, the greater the risk of sampling bias
- ELIGIBILITY/ SELECTION CRITERIA:
Inclusion Criteria & Exclusion Criteria
- SAMPLING PLANS
1. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING: Less
likely to produce accurate and representative
samples; DRAWBACK: No way of estimating
each element’s probability of being included in
the sample
2. PROBABILITY SAMPLING: With
randomization
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING OF SAMPLE
(ELIGIBILITY/ SELECTION CRITERIA)
1. INCLUSION CRITERIA: Required characteristics to
be included in a study
• Ex: 40 years old, diagnosed with primary HTN
2. EXCLUSION CRITERIA: Disqualifying
characteristics of respondents or subjects must not
posses
• Presence of audiovisual disturbance
GUIDELINES IN SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
- Usually: the larger, the more
- CONSIDERATION:
• Design (Quantitative & Qualitative)
• Number of variables
- DESCRIPTIVE AND CORRELATIONAL: 10% of
target population (large sample); 20% of target
population
- EXPERIMENTAL: 15 subjects per group/ arm
- SLOVIN’S FORMULA: Outdated; Does not
consider design, number of variables, and group ratio
- POWERT ANALYSIS: statistician does the
computation; More Preferred
 NURSING RESEARCH

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 1.1.3.1 SEMI STRUCTURED: ex feeling

1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING: Participants have on the accident and ER
EQUAL CHANCES to participation; Less biased 1.1.3.2 UNSTRUCTURED: one general
however inconvenient, Time consuming, expensive questions; ex tell me about your
2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING: There is NO experiences at the time of accident..
EQUAL chances to participate; Convenient, 1.2 QUESTIONNAIRE:
Economical however Biased 1.2.1 TYPES:
1.2.1.1 OPEN-ENDED
PROBABILITY SAMPLING (RANDOMIZED) 1.2.1.2 CLOSED-ENDED
1. SIMPLE RANDOM: Draw lots, fish bowl method,
table of random numbers *Likert Scale; Semantic Differential [these are only a means to
2. STRATIFIED: Divide according to strata and quantify the contents of the questionnaire]
randomized
• Strata: HOMOGENIZED 2. OBSERVATION (Hawthorn Effect: if you know that
• Ex: Year level you are being observed; Halo effect/ Horn Effect: you rate
3. CLUSTER: sampling of groups with successive them in unrelated characteristics; inter inter reliability:
sampling of smaller units corrects these errors)
4. MULTI STAGE SAMPLING 2.1 Assessment of the variable in the study
5. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING: pick the nth 3. BIOPHYISIOLOGIC MEASURES (cannot be cheated)
case in the list 4. AVAILABLE/ EXISTING DATA

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING ERRORS IN DATA MEASUREMENT

1. CONVINIENCE/ ACCIDENTAL: Anyone SELF REPORT OBSERVATION
available or accessible From Subject: From Observer:
2. QUOTA SAMPLING Social desirability; Central tendency;
• The researcher identifies strata of the Extreme Response Bias; assimilation Bias;
population and determines the proportions of Acquiescence Response Halo and horns effects;
the elements needed for various segments of the Set Bias (yay or nay Error of Leniency and
population sayers); Central Severity
• With each stratum, the researcher selects Tendency Bias
subjects by convenience sampling From observer:
• E.g. target sample size = 200; male- 15%, Hawthorne Effect
female- 85%
3. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING QUALITY OF INSTRUMENTS: PSYCHOMETRICS
• Judgment sampling VALIDITY: degree is which are instrument measures
• Subjects are handpicked to be included in the what is it suppose to measure
sample based on the researcher’s knowledge
about the population CRITERIA OF AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUMENT
4. THEORETICAL/THEMATIC SAMPLING 1. QUALITATIVE
• Special type 1.1 TRUSTWORTHINESS: Degree of confidence
• Often used in in-depth qualitative research to qualitative researchers have in their data
ensure the adequate representation of themes 1.2 4 CRITERIA
relating to the phenomenon under study 1.2.1 TRANSFERABILITY: The extent
5. SNOWBALL/ NETWORK/ REFERRAL/ to which qualitative findings can be
CHAIN: Pyramid transferred to other settings or
6. CONSECUTIVE: every sample meeting the criteria groups; Analogous to
is included until desired sample size is advised generalizability
1.2.2 DEPENDABILITY: Analogous to
INSTRUMENTS reliability; Stability of data over
1. SELF-REPORT: Interview & Questionnaire time and over conditions
1.1 INTERVIEW: 1.2.3 CONFIRMABILITY: Objectivity
1.1.1 ADVANTAGE: Comprehensive and or neutrality of the data and
richness in data; broad and varied verbal & interpretations; Member checking
Non-verbal responses; flexibility in probing 1.2.4 AUTHENTICITY: The extent to
1.1.2 DISADVANTAGE: time- consuming and which qualitative researchers fairly
expensive; Needs training on personnel; and faithfully show a range of
issues on validating responses different realities in the analysis
1.1.3 TYPES: and interpretation of data

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 6

 NURSING RESEARCH
RELIABILITY: Characteristics of an instrument or tool
to consistently measure a variable
- STABILITY: Ability of an instrument to
measure a variable over a long period of time
(similarity of results on several occasion); may
be used on both self-report and objective
measure; Measures using test-pretest scores (>
70)
- INTERNAL CONSISTENCY: Ability of a
consistently measure the same variable or trait;
most commonly utilized; krons bach alpha
- EQUIVALENCE: Objectively between and
within observers; used only among observational
tools only; Measured using: interrate (for
between observers >75) & Intrarater (for within
observers; >70)
2. QUANTITATIVE
1.3 VALIDITY: Degree to which an instruments
measures what is suppose to measure
1.3.1 FACE VALIDITY: whether an
instrument appears to be measuring
the appropriate construct
1.3.2 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY:
instrument’s adequacy in
measuring the focal construct
(What does this instrument
measure?)
1.3.3 CONTENT VALIDITY: degree to
which an instrument has an
appropriate sample of items for the
construct being measured;
1.3.3.1 How representative are the
questions in this test
1.3.3.2 Determined by experts
1.3.4 CRITERION - RELATED
VALIDITY: relationship between
instrument and external criterion
1.3.4.1 The key issue is whether
an instrument is a useful
predictor of future other
behaviors, experiences, or
conditions
1.3.5 INTERNAL VALIDITY: the
changes in the dependent variable
is due to an effect of an
independent variable that there are
no other competing reasons
1.3.6 EXTERNAL VALIDITY: the
findings can be generalized in other
samples/settings
RESEARCH ETHICS
1. NUREMBURG CODE
1.1 First internationally accepted effort to set up
formal ethical standards governing human
research subjects
1.2 Requires informed consent for all cases
2. HELSINSKI’S DECLARATION
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 7
2.1 Differentiates 2 major types of research:
2.1.1 That which is essentially therapeutic
2.1.2 That which essentially directed toward
developing knowledge and has no
therapeutic value
3. BELMONT REPORT
3.1 Articulated 3 Primary Ethical Principles
3.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF BENEFICENCE
3.1.1.1 Freedom from harm
3.1.1.2 Freedom from exploitation
3.1.1.2.1 Involvement in research should
not place subjects at a
disadvantage or expose to
situations they have not been
explicitly prepared
3.1.1.2.2 Assures subjects that their
participation will not be used
against them
3.1.1.3 Balancing benefits and risks
(Benefit-Risk Ratio)
3.1.1.3.1 APPROVE: greater benefits
3.1.1.3.2 REJECT: greater risks
3.1.2 PRINCIPLE OF RESPECT FOR
HUMAN DIGNITY
3.1.2.1 Informed consent
3.1.2.2 The right to self-determination
3.1.2.2.1 Right to voluntarily decide
whether or not to participate in
a study
3.1.2.3 The right to full disclosure
3.1.2.3.1 Describe nature of study,
procedure, method of
collection, risks, benefits,
Discomforts it will entail,
3.1.2.4 Right to refuse treatment
3.1.3 PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE
3.1.3.1 Right to privacy
SAFEGUARDS TO PRIVACY
1. CONFIDENTIALITY: Information gathered will
not be publicly reported in a way that identifies the
subject; Information is accessible only to the
researchers
2. ANONYMITY: Even the researcher cannot link the
subject with the information reported; Do not use the
name of the patient- use numbers or codes
3. Right to Fair Treatment
1.1 Non-discriminatory selection of
subjects/participants
1.2 Respect for cultural and other forms of diversity
1.3 Non-prejudicial treatment of individuals who
decline to participate or withdraw from the study
1.4 Honoring all agreements made between the
researcher and subject (adherence to procedures
and payment of stipends)
1.5 Access to research personnel to clarify
information
1.6 Access to appropriate professional assistance in
case of injury/damage
 NURSING RESEARCH

DATA ANALYSIS - ANALYSIS

QUANTITATIVE
- LEVELS OF DATA MAEASURE (NOIR)
1. CATEGORICAL: Nominal [Attributes are
only named weakest] and Ordinal
[Attributes can be ordered]
2. CONTINOUS: Interval [Distance is
meaningful] and Ratio [Absolute Data]
ORDER:
RATIO: absolute zero; equal rank between the unit
INTERVAL: has a value and rank; equal intervals
between each unit; ex temp
ORDINAL: with value and rank
NOMINAL: no value; no rank, numbers are only
assigned; ex sex
STATISTICS
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: Describes date for
presentation purposes; Does not make inferences and
answer hypothesis; Central Tendency (mean, median
[middle number/s then divide by 2], mode [numbers
that repeat]); Dispersion (range, variance, standard
deviation); Location (quartiles, deciles, percentiles);
frequency and Percentage
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: Allows answering
of hypothesis (hypothesis testing); T-test (paired t test
and independent); Anova (F-Test); Chi test;
Pearson’s Correlation
• TEST FOR DIFFERENCE:
1. PARAMETRIC: independent [two different
variables different from each other] and
paired t-test [compare pre and post test];
ANOVA [three variables] and Repeated
Measures-ANOVA []like paired only with
more variables
2. NON PARAMETRIC:
2.1 NOMINAL: McNemar and Chi
Square; Cochrane Q and Chi square
2.2 ORDINAL: Wilcoxon and Mann
Whitney; Friedman and Kruskall-
Wallis
1. Interpretative: explaining meaning
2. BASED ON CONTEXT: meaning is tied to a
specific setting and population. Meaning changes
over time
3. ITERATIVE: the cycle of data collection, data
analysis, and selection of study participants are
repeated
- GUIDANCE PRINCIPLES:
1. REFLEXIVITY: ongoing process of reflecting
on the researcher’s subjective experience
2. ITERATION: a spiraling process; sequential and
repetitive steps in examining
3. INTERSUBJECTIVITY: process of reaching a
shared or objective agreement
PRESENTATION OF DATA
Graphical: Bar, Line, Pie, Scatter Plot (Correlational)
SUMMARY CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATION
1. Summary: highlights important research findings
2. CONCLUSION: Final statement regarding the research
findings; Needs to consider weakness of study
3. RECOMMENDATION: Comes from the results abs used
to address the problem and future researches
*HIGHEST LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE: Meta-Analysis of
different RCTs
α

* Anything higher than the p value ACCEPT THE NULL; if

lower REJECT THE NULL

• TEST FOR CORRELATION:

1. PARAMETRIC: Pearson’s R
2. NON-PARAMETRIC: Chi-Square of
Association; Spearman Rho; Kendall Tau

* PEARSON’S CORRELATION: a relationship must be as

close to either r =(–) 1 or (+) 1; so 1 is a strong relationship;
regardless of the integer must be near 1 to be strong; walang
lalagpas sa one, erroneous yun

QUALITATIVE
- Properties/characteristics used to identify or
describe things and events

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS – COLLEGE OF NURSING | FJCP 2017 |α NOTES 8